Women’s Inclusion in Peace Processes:
Using Behavioral Insight to Enhance Mediation
Practices and Conflict Parties Approach to Gender Equality
Lone Jessen
Senior Gender and Political Advisor, Team Leader, Gender, Peace and Security unit, Policy & Mediation Division
United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs
Natalie F. Hudson Professor of Political Science, University
of Dayton
June 2023
Theviewsexpressedinthispaperarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseofthe UnitedNationsDepartmentofPoliticalandPeacebuildingAffairsandtheUniversityofDayton.
Table of Contents:
Executive Summary
Despite the general acceptance that women’s equal inclusion and participation in internationalpeaceandsecurityislegallyandmorallyjustifiedandcanenhanceoperational effectivenessandoutcomesofpeaceprocesses,menremainoverrepresentedinpositionsof power and as the primary participants inpeace processes around the world. This poses a seriousandongoingchallengetorealizingmoregenderbalancedapproacheswhenworking on sustainable solutions to armed conflict and unrest and requires new thinking and innovativeapproaches.Thisresearchpaperexploresthebroadscopeofbehavioralscience tofind evidence-based insights tochange the behaviors ofparticipants in peace processes first,beforefocusinginonrequiredchangesinattitudesorbeliefs,particularlythosedeeply heldideasaroundgenderrolesinpublicandpoliticallife.
This research paper therefore shifts the focus from enhancing women’s peacemaking capacityandaccesspointstomenandtheirbehaviorinpeaceprocesses,makingthempart of the solution instead of the problem. By applying insights from behavioral science, we intentionallyanddirectlyaimtoaddressthefears,emotions,valuesandstructuralbarriers that exist whentryingto convince male stakeholders,especiallyconflictparties to include womenamongdelegationsandinotherconfigurations,includingaspartofCSOs.Behavioral science points us to small, subtle, and sometimes counterintuitive changes to the way a message or choice is framed in human decision-making, it also points to specific process design,choicearchitecture,andthepowerofnudgingwiththeaimtochangebehaviorsprior to,orinconjunctionwith,changing attitudes.This dual focusonindividualsand decisionmaking processes, as well as on structures and systems allows us to better examine the multifacetedbarriersthatexistforwomen’sinclusion.
This research presents polarity thinking as a suitable approach and tool when managing complex social difference and tension, which goes beyond “solving problems” , and uses a “both-and”ratherthan“either-or”mindset.Polaritymappinghelpsidentifybothcompeting and sharedneeds,interestsandvalues,to formulateactionstepsand toflagearlywarning signs when a vicious cycle is (re)emerging. Polarity thinking and mapping is cyclical, ongoing, and organic and seek adaptive challenges, which go beyond technical problemsolving,acknowledgingtheimportanceoffears,values,andemotionsofthoseinvolvedina conflictinpeacemaking
This research paper concludes by applying the EAST Framework to polarity thinking and behavioral science concepts, which aim to change mindsets in transformative ways. The EASTframeworkoffersshorttermtacticsthatcomplementpolaritythinkingand couldgive mediators some practical guidelines for a meaningful shift in behavior that could lead to moregenderequitableoutcomesandpeacefulresolutionofconflict.
Introduction
1. Starting with the Beijing Platform for Action, the UN has more than twenty years of commitments centering women’s roles in building peace. Central to this global policy frameworkistherecognitionthatincreasingwomen’sparticipationandbringinggendered perspectives to mediationand peace processes is critical to ensuring de jure and de facto equality and to enabling peace processes tobe both more inclusive and sustainable inthe long term. The international community has come to accept both the normative and operational justifications for enhancing women’s participation in peacemaking and peacebuilding.
2. Twoframeworksforwomen’sinclusionhavebeenusedtotrytoconvinceconflictparties ofthe needforwomen’sparticipation.Thefirst restsonwomen’sbasichumanrights,with the normativeand moraljustification– namelythat women,like men, havea basichuman righttobepartofthepoliticaldecision-makingprocessesthataffecttheirlives.Asecondand more recent framework stems fromanoperational and instrumental focus, looking at the societalbenefitsofwomen’sengagementinconflictmediationandpeaceprocesses.Thereis significant quantitative evidence that “women’s empowerment and gender equality are associated with peace and stability in society…in particular, when women influence decisionsaboutwarandpeaceandtaketheleadagainstextremismintheircommunities,it ismorelikelythatcrisiswillberesolvedwithoutrecoursetoviolence.”1
3. However,neitherofthetwoframeworkshavebeensufficientinsubstantiallyincreasing women’sparticipationinpeaceprocesses.Between1992and2019,womenconstituted,on average,13percentofnegotiators,6percentofmediators,and6percentof signatoriesin major peace processes around the world.2 Women’s direct participationboth as delegates andasrepresentativesofcivilsocietyinformalTrack1peaceprocessesremainsamongthe mostpoorlyimplementedgoalsoftheSecurityCouncil’sWomen,PeaceandSecurity(WPS) agenda.3Muchefforthavebeenputintoachievingthesegoalsbyavarietyofactors,including internationalandregionalorganizations,governments,(I)NGOs,andCSOs,includingwomen CSOs, academia, etc. From the UN’s peacemaking entity, the Department of Political and PeacebuildingAffairs(DPPA),effortsinclude:
1 MarieO’Reilly,WhyWomen?InclusiveSecurityandPeacefulSocieties,October2015,InclusiveSecurity Report,WashingtonDC.
2 ThisisaccordingtoglobaldatafromtheCouncilofForeignRelations;https://www.cfr.org/womensparticipation-in-peace-processes/explore-the-data.TheUnitedNationsDepartmentofPoliticaland PeacebuildingAffairsonlycollectdataforpeaceprocessesthatareUN-supportedor[co]-ledbytheUN.
3 ThefoundationalSecurityCouncilresolution1325,(S/RES/1325(2000)),whichwasadoptedbytheUN SecurityCouncilinOctober2000,wasthefirstSecurityCouncilresolutiontolinkwomentotheinternational peaceandsecurityagenda,lookingattheimpactofwaronwomenandtheircontributiontoconflict resolutionandsustainablepeace.Therearenowatotalof10SecurityCouncilresolutionsundertheSecurity Council’sWomen,PeaceandSecurity(WPS)agenda.Allunderlinetheneedforwomen’sactiveandeffective participationinpeacemakingandpeacebuildinginitiatives,whilealsospecificallyaddressingconflict-related sexualviolence(CRSV).CRSVisanissuethatwasfirstaddressedbytheSecurityCouncilin2008with resolution1820,(S/RES/1820(2008))undertheWPSagenda.
● prioritization and commitments both politically and financially for the implementationoftheWPSagendaattheleadershiplevel;
● trainings and guidance developments on, specifically inclusive mediation strategies4;
● placementofpoliticalgenderadvisersinenvoys’offices,includingadedicated Gender, Peace and Security team and a Mediation Support Unit at UN headquarters, as well as a standing capacity of senior mediation advisors, includingdedicatedcapacityongenderandsocialinclusion;5
● theundertakingofcontext-specifichigh-levelstrategymeetingstodesignand supportinclusivepeaceprocesses;
● and,ensuringtheUNisleadingbyexamplewiththeappointmentofwomen Heads and Deputy Heads of UN Special Political Missions, leading the UN’s peacemakingefforts.6
4. Nevertheless,theproblemcontinues:menremainoverrepresentedinpositionsofpower and influence in peace processes globally. Additionally, we are seeing a strong global backlashagainstwomen’srights-includingthreats and cyber-attacks targeting womenhumanrights defenders and women peacebuilders; rising populism and authoritarianism; and increasing threats to democracy and long-standing international norms. In this context, it remains essential to build more effective multilateral supportforinclusivepeaceandsecurity.Aswillbe discussed below, the obstacles to women’s inclusion are complex and deeply embedded in patriarchal attitudes and unequal power structuresthatreinforceexistingeconomic,social, political and military hierarchies. This continued resistanceandmanymissedopportunitiesforwomen’sinclusionandgreatergenderequity demandsanewapproach.
Nevertheless, the problem continues: men remain overrepresented in positions of power and influence in peace processes globally.
4 UNGuidanceforEffectiveMediation,NewYork,UNPeacemakers,2012, https://peacemaker.un.org/resources/guidance-effective-mediation
5 DPPA,StandbyTeamofSeniorMediationAdvisors,UNPeacemakers,2022, https://peacemaker.un.org/mediation-support/stand-by-team
6 Considerableprogressinimprovingtherepresentationofwomeninleadershippositionshasbeenmade overthepastdecade,includingthroughtheUNSecretary-General’sSeniorWomenTalentPipelineInitiative, (https://www.un.org/gender/content/senior-women-talent-pipeline),whichisakeyelementintheUn Secretary-General’sSystem-WideGenderParityStrategy(https://www.un/org/gender/).AsofMarch2022, womenaccountedfor58percentofHeadsandDeputyHeadsofMissionsinDPPA-ledmissions.InSeptember 2022,thenumberwas47percent.However,giventhelimitednumberofpositions,anydepartureand appointmentaffectprogressachieved.WomenrepresentationatleadershiplevelishigherinDPPA’sSpecial PoliticalMissionsthaninDPO-ledPeacekeepingOperations,ofwhichone-thirdaremilitary-ledmissions, (currentlyallmale).In2022,women’soverallrepresentationforbothtypesofmissionswentfrom50per centto43percent(24womencurrentlyserving).GenderparityforallUNSpecialPoliticalandPeacekeeping missionswasachievedforthefirsttimeamongstHeadsandDeputyHeadsofMissionin2021.
5. The UN’s more recent approach to embrace behavioural science, as part of a wider interdisciplinary,methodologicalandpracticaltransformationprocesstoapplyempiricallysound tools to confront global challenges, can provide some alternative explanations and differentstrategiestomovethisagendaforward.Asthispaperwillexplorefurther,changing behavioraldecision-makingprocessesismucheasierthanchangingmindsanddeeplyheld beliefs.Further,changingshorttermbehaviorscouldleadtolongertermattitudinalshifts.
6. Theexistingnarrativesandpolicytoolsreferringtonormativeandoperationalarguments essentially rely on rational thinking and rational behavior which is most often missing in conflict contexts. The pressure and intensity, the emotions, and fear that drives and perpetuatesarmedconflictmakerationalbehaviornearlyimpossible.AccordingtoDr.Mari Fitzduff, Irish policy maker, writer and academic, “Human capacity to think rationally especiallyinconflictismuch,muchshallower”.7 Dr.Fitzduff,suggeststhatweneedaradical change in how we think about war, leadership, and politics, as most political scientists included, fail to appreciate the extent to which instincts and emotions, rather than logic, factor into societal politics and international wars 8 Daniel Kahnemansimilarly notes that most human decision-making is generally based on more intuitive, impulsive and emotionalresponses,whathereferstoas System 1, rather than rational thinking, System2aswediscussingreaterdetailin paragraph44.9
Given the time pressure that often accompanies a peace process, this framework can be helpful in identifying short term tactics that help change behaviors and structures by design, while working in parallel with affecting the longer-term transformative work.
7. Psychologist Jonathan Haidt has introduced a useful analogy for thinking about behavioural change, arguing that wehavetwosides:anemotionalside(an elephant),andananalytical,rationalside (itsrider).Haidt'sanalogyreflectsthattheelephant’sriderisrationalandcanthereforesee a path ahead while underneath him, the elephant provides the power for the journey. However,the elephant is irrational and drivenbyemotionand instinct. Inhis ownwords, “Perched atop the elephant, the rider holds the reins and seems to be the leader. But the rider’scontrolisprecariousbecause the riderissosmallrelative totheelephant.Anytime thesix-tonelephantandtheriderdisagreeaboutwhichdirectiontogo,theriderisgoingto lose.He’scompletelyovermatched.”10
8. Haidt’s analogy illustrates why adopting new behaviours can be so difficult. As the rationalrider,wemightknowwherewewanttogo,butwe needtomotivatetheelephant bytappingintoemotion.Toimprovethechancesoftheelephantstayingoncourse,wealso
7MariFitzduff,OurBrainsatWar:TheNeuroscienceofConflictandPeaceBuilding,2021,OxfordUniversity Press,p.7.
8 Ibid
9 DanielKahneman,Thinking,FastandSlow,2013,Farrar,StrausandGiroux
10JonathanHaidt,TheElephantandtheRider,England,2007https://www.creativehuddle.co.uk/post/theelephant-and-the-rider
It is therefore critical to consider the values and fears of conflict parties as part of exploring ways to shift the behavior of these groups, most often made up entirely by men.
must ask how we can shorten the distance and removeanyobstaclesinourpath.11Applyingthe Easy, Attractive, Social and Timely (EAST) framework later in the paper will allow us to address these challenges more systematically. The framework does not seek to be comprehensive, but rather, is intended to find entrypointstoshiftbehaviorandchangepolicy outcomes. Given the time pressure that often accompaniesapeaceprocess,thisframeworkcanbehelpfulinidentifyingshorttermtactics thathelpchangebehaviorsandstructuresbydesign,whileworkinginparallelwithaffecting thelonger-termtransformativework.
9. Behavioural insights also allow us to question assumptions that all parties in a peace process prioritize the signing of a peace agreement, value peace and security over the currentreality,and/orevensharethesameunderstandingofwhatpeaceandsecurityentail. Forsome,itmightmeanthesigningofaceasefireorrelatedagreementtoendviolenceina quest to secure state-centric security.12 Others will look for broader and more positive notions of peace13 including human security; this entails a more comprehensive and preventive responses, cutting across sectors, to realize a future free from fear, want and indignity.14 Itisthereforecriticaltoconsiderthevaluesandfearsofconflictpartiesaspart of exploring ways to shift the behavior of these groups, most often made up entirely by men.15
10. Building on the normative, operational, and rational arguments that justify women’s inclusion,thisworkadoptsinsightsfrombehavioralscienceinordertodirectlyaddressthe fears, emotions, values and structural barriers that exist when trying to convince male stakeholders, especially conflict parties’ delegations to include women as delegates to the talks and in other configurations, including as part of CSOs and move toward gender equality.16 Behavioral science not only points us to small, subtle, and sometimes counterintuitive changes to the way a message or choice is framed in human decision-
11 Ibid
12 Seealsoparagraph20wherewediscussspoilersandthoseparticipantsinapeaceprocessthatmayhave significantincentivestocontinuetheconflict.
13 TheconceptofpeacewasfirstintroducedintoacademicliteraturebytheNorwegiansociologistand pioneerofpeaceresearchJohanGaltung,whodistinguishedbetweentwotypesofpeace:positivepeaceand negativepeace.
14 UnitedNationsTrustFundforHumanSecurity,WhatisHumanSecurity? https://www.un.org/humansecurity/what-is-human-security/.
15 Ofcourse,womenwageviolencetoo.Women’sparticipationinarmedgroups,fromstate-basedmilitaries tointernationalpeacekeeping,hasincreasedinrecentyears.Further,themajorityofrebelgroupsglobally includefemaleparticipants,withregions,likeLatinAmerica,seeingparticularlyhighratesofwomen’s participationasfighters,andleaders.See,Henshaw,A.L.(2016).Wherewomenrebel:Patternsofwomen's participationinarmedrebelgroups1990–2008. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 18(1),39-60.
16 Whilewerecognizethatnotallconflictpartydelegationsareentirelymaleandnotallwomenare supportiveofgenderequality,wedofindmaleconflictpartiestobeamongthemostsignificantbarriersto women’sparticipation.
Behavioral science not only points us to small, subtle, and sometimes counterintuitive changes to the way a message or choice is framed in human decision-making, but to process design, choice architecture, and the power of nudging which emphasize changing behaviors prior to, or in conjunction with, changing attitudes.
making, but to process design, choice architecture, and the power of nudging which emphasize changing behaviors prior to, or in conjunction with, changing attitudes (for more on nudging see paragraph 64). So how do we address these shortcomings in human thinking/behavior in the context of conflict mediation? One approach to get conflict parties to considerwomen’sparticipationand genderequalityperspectivesduring apeaceprocessispolaritythinking. Polaritythinkingisaninclusive,problem-solvingapproachthatspeaksdirectlytotheneed tolookatthecentralfearsandvaluesofthoseemergingfromarmedconflictandcomingto thepeacetable,andfindingwaystoconnecttoboththeintellectualandthefeelingpartsof the brain, while seeking ways to address both individual needs and those of the wider society, including those of diverse women. As outlined below, we build upon the process designofpolaritythinkingtothendevelopmorespecificguidelinesformediatorsworking withconflictparties.
Scope and Limits of Research
11. Sinceitsinception, the UNhas playedacrucialroleinmediatinginter-andintra-State conflicts,includingbeforetheyescalatetoarmedconflict,aftertheoutbreakofviolence,and during the creation and implementation of peace agreements. This research centers specificallyonformaltrack1peaceprocessesandparallelstructuresdevelopedtomakethe processes more inclusive especially in terms of meaningful participation from diverse groupsofwomen,usinganintersectionalapproach,17 butitcanalsobeappliedtopromote equality for other disadvantaged groups. While the WPSagenda and women’s inclusionis criticaltoallphasesandlevelsofpeacemakingandpeacebuilding,thescopeofthisworkis limitedtopeacenegotiationsandtheUNinvolvementasathird-partymediator.Theaimof the paper and its recommendations is to provide an additional tool to mediators and mediation practitioners everywhere, including in efforts by international or regional organizations, member states and INGOs, academic and religious organizations and CSOs engagedinmediationefforts.Thus,thetargetaudienceismediatorsinsomuchasimproving theirworkandengagementwithconflictparties.
12. Mediationisdefinedasaprocesswherebyathirdpartyassiststwoormoreparties,with theirconsent,toprevent,manageorresolveaconflictbyhelpingthemtodevelopmutually acceptableagreements.The premiseof mediationis thatintheright environment,conflict
17 Anintersectionalapproachidentitiesmultiplefactorsthatdetermineone’spowerandexperiences. Examplesofthesefactorsincludegender,caste,sex,race,ethnicity,class,sexuality,religion,disability,age, nationality,andphysicalappearance.
parties can improve their relationships and move towards cooperation. Mediation is a voluntaryendeavourinwhichtheconsentoftheconflictpartiesiscriticalforaviableprocess and a durable outcome.18 This reality poses serious tensions for any kind of third-party conditionsthatmayseektomandatecertainstandards,includingforexamplegenderquotas.
13. Inclusivity refers to the extent and manner in which the views and needs of conflict partiesandotherstakeholdersarerepresentedandintegratedintotheprocessandoutcome of a mediation effort. An inclusive process is more likely to identify and address the root causes of conflict and ensure that the needs of the affected sectors of the population are addressed.19 Inclusivity also increases the legitimacy and national ownershipof the peace agreementanditsimplementation.Inaddition,itreducesthelikelihoodofexcludedactors undermining the process. An inclusive process does not imply that all stakeholders participatedirectlyintheformalnegotiations,butfacilitatesinteractionbetweentheconflict parties and other stakeholders and creates mechanisms to include all perspectives in the process.20
14. NationalDialogueprocesses,althoughnotmediationassuch,isanothermechanismthat usesdialogueasatooltomanagecomplexchangeprocessesthatplacesemphasisonpolitical solutions with more robust national ownership, including a broader range of national stakeholders and addressing a broader range of issues compared to elite agreements, offeringthepromiseofatransitionawayfromelitedeal-makingtowardsmoreinclusiveand participatorypolitics.21
15. UN mediators work within the framework of the UN Charter, relevant Security Councilresolutions,inthiscaseofparticularrelevanceistheWPSagenda,aswellasGeneral AssemblyresolutionsandtheOrganization’srulesandregulations.Mediatorsalsoconduct theirwork withinthe frameworkconstitutedby therulesof internationallawthat govern the given situation, most prominently global and regional conventions, international humanitarianlaw,humanrightsandrefugeelawsandinternationalcriminallaw,including, where applicable, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. A UN mediator shouldconveytheirmandatesandthelegalparametersapplicabletotheirworktoconflict parties.22
18 UNGuidanceforEffectiveMediation,NewYork,UNPeacemakers,2012, https://peacemaker.un.org/resources/guidance-effective-mediation
19 Differentfromprocess,outcomeinclusivityreferstothedistributiveoutcomesfromapeaceprocessandis assessedbythedegreeofrepresentativenessofwomeninthestateinstitutionsandthedistributionofrights andentitlementsforwomen.Seeforexample,VéroniqueDouduet,StinaLundström,andDavidRampf,“PostWarPoliticalSettlements:FromParticipatoryTransitionProcessestoInclusiveState-Buildingand Governance”(Berlin:BerghofFoundation,2016),9–10,www.berghoffoundation.org/fileadmin/redaktion/Publications/Papers/IPS_Synthesis_Report_web.pdf.
20 Ibid
21 NationalDialogueHandbookAGuideforPractitioners,BerghofFoundation,2017 http://www.berghof-foundation.org/publications/national-dialogue-handbook
22 Ibid
16. Given UN Charter obligations to support peace and prevent conflict, coupled with the need to receive conflict parties’ consent to a process, the UN as such cannot condition support for peace processes on women’s participation. At the same time, the UN is endeavoringtomakeallpossibleeffortstopromotewomen’sdirectparticipationinformal peace talks. Inthis regard,it is important to underline that womenare nota homogenous group and that a diversity of women from various backgrounds and professions (youth, geographic,rural, urban, religious, ethnic, disabled,LGBTQI,etc.)are needed toreflect the needsofthebroaderstakeholdergroups.Asthemenandwomenwhoarepartofanyformal negotiationdelegation,arelikelypartofthepoliticalelite,theUNandanymediatorneedto pursuemulti-trackapproachesthatengagewomenanddiversewomencivilsociety groups, including women rights constituencies and women peacebuilders to ensure multiple and diverseperspectivesandexperiences.
17. Notably, participation can take a number of important forms and all need to be consideredoptionswhenworkingtowards broaderinclusivityand diversity. Thisincludes first and foremost direct representation of women as part of formal delegations. Direct participationcanalsobebolsteredintheformofindependentgroupsorgroupsoftechnical experts,suchasgenderexpertsaswasrecentlydoneinthecaseofSudan.TheUNmissionin Sudan, UNITAMS pursued a multi-pronged strategy for a gender responsive process –including encouraging a 40 per cent target of women in party delegations, while simultaneously consulting and convening diverse women’s rights advocates, and offering gender expertise. This approach contributed to the formation of a teamof gender expert observers in the peace talks in 2021. This year, 2022 UNITAMS facilitated broad consultationswithwomen’sgroupsfromacrossthecountrywhichresultedintheformation of a Women’s Rights Group to participate directly in the next phase of political talks as a negotiation delegation on equal footing as all other stakeholders and to bring women’s perspectivestoallpriorityitemsunderdiscussion.23
18. Other inclusivity mechanisms include official and unofficial consultations, which facilitate access to the conflict parties in the peace process, such as standing advisory groups24,inclusivecommissionsbothpre-andpost-agreement,high-levelproblem-solving workshops(Track1.5),-aparticularformofparticipation,whichwewilldiscussingreater detail later, - broader public or national dialogue initiatives as well as public decision-
23 UNSecretary-General’sreportstotheSecurityCouncil,S/2022/400of17May2022,andS/2022/667of2 September2022.
24 TheUNhasbeeninstrumentalinestablishingseveralinclusivitymechanismssuchastheWomen’sAdvisory Board and the Civil Society Support Room for the Syrian process; the Yemini Women’s Technical Advisory Group,forSudanaWomen’sRightsGroupandfor IraqtheWomen’sAdvisoryGroup. Somewomenleaders, believethatmorecanbedonebytheUNandtheinternational,includingdonorcommunitytopushforaformal women’squotainthenegotiatingteamsandworrythatanyinclusionmechanismsetsaprecedentforwomen’s issuesbeingrelegatedtoanadvisorystatus.However,giventheneedforconflictpartiesconsent,pushingthe parties further on this matter could be used as an excuse to halt anypeace talks, including in situations of humanitarianemergencies. In thiscontext,itisimportanttoreiterate thatthe UNconsistentlyadvocatesfor womenandcivilsocietyparticipationatalllevelsincludingwomeninconflictpartynegotiationteams.Itisalso worthnotingthatthemenandwomenwhoarepartofanyformalnegotiationdelegation,arelikelypartofthe politicalelite,hencetheneedtosimultaneouslypursuemulti-trackapproachesthatengagewomenanddiverse civilsocietyorganizationstoensuremultipleandinclusiveperspectivesandexperiences.
makingintheformofreferendums.25 These pointsofengagementallowforabroaderand morecomprehensiveunderstandingofparticipationindecision-makingandentrypointsfor womentohaveinfluenceandaccesstopower.Mediationprocesses,becomemorecomplex when the consultation base expands, and multiple forums are used to engage actors at different levels. This may entail difficulties in engaging interest groups that might not be easily defined or may lack clear leadership. Engaging with such groups with no organized constituencies,putsapremiumonstakeholdermapping,whichshouldbepartofagendersensitiveconflictanalysis,planning,andmanagementoftheprocess.26
19. Using the EAST framework, we return to the need of doing a stakeholder mapping of women’s groups and any networksororganizationsofwomensupporting peace efforts at different levels. Having these contacts for ongoing consultations with the mediators and team, and readily available at the outset of a mediation process, might also increase the chancesofgettingtheconflictpartiestoengagewiththesegroupsbyensuringsuchprocess designchoicesaremoreeasilyaccessible.
We recognize the unique nature of each armed conflict and that every peace process demands a contextspecific, culturally informed approach toward resolution, with the awareness that this very point might also be used by conflict parties, as an excuse for their ‘exceptionalism’ as to why women’s participation and gender equality principles should not apply in their specific context.
20. The research and approach of this project is based on the assumption (and aspiration) that reachinganagreementthatwillbringsustainable peace and security is an overarching goal for all involved. Wealsorecognizethattheseconceptsof peace and security are gendered and contextspecificatvariouslevels.Further,peaceprocesses caninvolvedealingwithspoilers,including those who benefit from a war economy, and hence are not necessarily interested in ending a conflict or any effort toward peace. To get to the true motivation,aspirations,theneedsandfearsofthe actors, irrespective of possible rhetoric to the contrary, mediators need to build relationships and trust to get a closer understanding of each delegation and broader stakeholder and their motivations.
21. This research reflects a practitioner-academic collaboration and relies upon a mixed methodapproach.Fromlate2021to2022, theauthorshaveconductedover35interviews with behavioral science experts, gender advocates and scholars, mediators and mediation experts, and other practitioners in the field. Research explores and synthesizes scholarly findings regarding the impact of women’s inclusion in decision-making, including from a perspectiveofwherebehavioralscienceperspectivescanbeapplied.Lastly,theresearchhas
25 MarieO’Reilly,AndreaÓSúilleabháin,andThaniaPaffenholz,“ReimaginingPeacemaking: Women’sRolesinPeaceProcesses,”NewYork:InternationalPeaceInstitute,June2015. https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/IPI-E-pub-Reimagining-Peacemaking.pdf.
26 UnitedNationsDepartmentofPoliticalAffairs,GuidanceonGenderandInclusiveMediationStrategies, 2017,https://peacemaker.un.org/wps/guidance-material
benefitted from a number of working sessions with focus groups of key scholars and practitionersinthefield,includingtheGenevaCenterforSecurityPolicy(GCSP),theDurham LawSchool27 andtheHarvardKennedySchool28 whohavebeenparticularlysupportivein sharing knowledge from behavioral science in other fields to international peace and security.Still,we,asauthors,takefullresponsibilityfortheperspectivesofthisworkandthe viewsheredonotrepresenttheopinionsoftheUnitedNationsDepartmentofPoliticaland PeacebuildingAffairsortheUniversityofDayton
22. Inourefforttodeveloprecommendationsformediators,werecognizetheuniquenature ofeacharmedconflict and thatevery peace process demandsa context-specific,culturally informedapproachtowardresolution,withtheawarenessthatthisverypointmightalsobe used by conflict parties, as an excuse for their ‘exceptionalism’ as to why women’s participationandgenderequalityprinciplesshouldnotapply intheirspecificcontext.Still, wearetrying toderivesome goodpractices using behavioralscience and the strategiesof polaritythinkingtoenrichthe workofmediatorsand expandthe skillsetofthoseengaged inthiscriticalwork.
Barriers and Resistance to Women’s Participation
23. Traditionally, peace processes have focused on bringing the warring parties, who are rarely women, to the negotiating table. This most often means those who hold power in formalorinformalsettings,suchasgovernmentofficialsorintheformofoppositionleaders. Qualificationsforparticipantsbeginwiththosewhohaveparticipatedintheviolence–most often,thosewhohavetakenuparms.Barriersandresistancetowomen’sparticipationare complexandoftentiedtothetensionssurroundingtheendgoalsofpeacemaking:isapeace process primarily a forum for ending the violence, or should its focus be on building sustainable peace? While progress toward both is needed,29 deciding on the scope and sequencing within the process is one of the key considerations for those involved in the processandmayalsobeapointofcontestation.
24. Accordingtoresearchby Esra Çuhadar,resistance towomen’sparticipationcantakea varietyofforms.Thisincludesimplicitbiasand‘automatic’responsesbasedonstereotypes, explicit or direct resistance that uses hostile or competitive tactics, and even coercive resistanceandthethreatoftheuseofviolence. Whileresistanceiscontextdependent,itcan comefromarangeofactors,suchasthemilitary,tribalandreligiousleaders,politicalparties, andevenbureaucratsfrominternationalorganizations.Motivationsbehindsuchresistance
27 FleurHeyworth,GenderandInclusiveSecurityattheGenevaCentreforSecurityPolicyandCatherine Turner,DurhamLawSchoolintroducedustopolaritythinkingandhavebeeninstrumentalinsupportingthe integrationofthisapproachtothisresearch.Althoughpolaritythinkingisnotbehaviouralsciencepersay,it providesastrategictoolthatenablesmediatorstoapplylessonslearnedfrombehaviouralinsight.
28 Furtherdetailsarelistedintheacknowledgement.
29 MarieO’Reilly,AndreaÓSúilleabháin,andThaniaPaffenholz,“ReimaginingPeacemaking:Women’sRoles inPeaceProcesses,”NewYork:InternationalPeaceInstitute,June2015,https://www.ipinst.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/06/IPI-E-pub-Reimagining-Peacemaking.pdf
varyfromcompetitionoverresources,culturalnormsandthreatstoidentity,perceptionsof irrelevanceaswellasintra-womencompetition.30
25. Atitscorethisresistanceisaboutpower,powerrelations(andviolence)beforethewar, and how power dynamics shift after armed conflict. Peace processes are undoubtedly perceivedasapowerstruggle,andthoseparticipatingarenotofteninterestedindilutingor sharingtheirpoweratthecriticalmomentofnegotiation.However,theripenessofaconflict, whichhasbeendefinedasthemoment‘conflictpartiesmotivationtosettletheconflictisat itshighest”,combinedwiththeconceptofa‘mutuallyhurtingstalemate’,arguablyprovide the necessary incentives for parties to move their struggle from the battlefield to the negotiation table, once realizing the conflict cannot be won solely by violent means.31 Understandingtheseshiftingpowerdynamicsiscentraltoanystrategiesthataimtoincrease women’smeaningfulparticipationinpeaceprocesses.
26. Still,researchandadvocacyonwomen’sparticipationoftenfocusesonwhatwomenand thosesupportingwomencandotoimproveaccessandimpact.Thisrangesfromaddressing their material needs, such as security needs, family obligations, chaperones, and meeting hours to creating training opportunities that build skill, develop knowledge, and enhance capacityinordertohavetheirvoicesheard.Allareimportantaspectsofensuringinclusive mediationstrategies, as described inDPPA’s Guidance on Gender and Inclusive Mediation Strategies.32 Forthoseadvocatingforgendermainstreamingthroughoutthepeaceprocess, the emphasis is often on empowering and buildingthecapacityofwomentoparticipate in public, political processes. While this investment in women’s agency is critical, the emphasisimplieserroneouslythatwomenare the problem and that overcoming barriers is the responsibility of the women themselves. Moredirectly,itassumesthatwomenare not in the negotiation process because of their own limitations or capacity issues. What is needed is a genuine understanding of the social, economic and political structures that ensurewomen’sexclusionfromthesedecision-makingspaces.
The purpose of this research is to shift the focus from what women can do to what men, specifically mediators and the conflict parties that they work with can do.
27. Further, an underlying conflict analysis, which is by nature part of any mediation context,althoughnotnecessarilylabelledandgeneratedassuch,must beunderpinnedbya
30 EsraÇuhadar.UnderstandingResistancetoInclusivePeaceProcesses.USIPPress2020,availableat https://www.usip.org/publications/2020/03/understandingresistance-inclusive-peace-processes
31 I.WilliamZartmanandMaureenR.Berman. The Practical Negotiator. NewHavenandLondon:Yale UniversityPress,1982.Seealso:IWilliamZartman.TheTimingofPeaceInitiatives:HurtingStalematesand RipeMoments.TheGlobalReviewofEthnopoliticsVol.1,no.1,September2001,8-18
32 UNDPPAGuidanceonGenderandInclusiveMediationStrategies,NewYork,UNPeacemakers,2017, https://peacemaker.un.org/resources/mediation-guidance
thorough gender-sensitive analysis of the specific context at hand.33 This includes taking seriously men and boy’s experiences of masculinity in armed conflict, including what it meanstobea manandtohavecontextualapprovalfromother men,pressuresthatcanbe stronger inconflictareaswhere mentake uparms, and howthoseroles might shift inthe processofconflictresolution.Thismeansgoingbeyondidentifyingthedifferentimpactsof conflict onmen, women, girls and boys, to also analyzing the gendered drivers of conflict, includingtheroleofmasculinitiesandfemininitiesinthecauseofconflict,inhowviolence occurs,andinvariousimpactsandprioritiesandneedsofdifferentgroups,womenandmen andLGBTQI+.34
28. Thepurposeofthisresearchistoshiftthefocusfromwhatwomencandotowhatmen, specificallymediatorsandtheconflictpartiesthattheyworkwithcando.Thismeansbeing aware of how men would experience women’s participation in a peace process. In some instances, interlocutors have described how women’s involvement helped change the dynamics in the room at various points in negotiation processes35 This also includes understanding the power dynamics internal to conflict parties, not just between them. Tensions,andpowergrabs,ofcourse,occurevenwithouttheadditionofwomen.AsMareike Schomerus’ research on the Juba talks that took place between the Government ofUgandaand the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) from 2006-2008, so convincingly demonstrates,“currentapproachestopeacemakingtendtounderestimatethedynamicsof the process and these entrench existing conflict-prone structures – including internal structures – and complexities involving outside actors receive too little attention, which ofteninadvertentlycontributestothecontinuationofviolentconflict.36
29. Inthisway, mediators mustbeable tounderstand masculinity across variouscultural contexts and the way in which masculinity shapes and is shaped by internal political dynamics governed by ideological differences, family feuds, wealth issues, etc. Researcher and practitioner,MichaelKaufmanarguesthat menandboysmayresistchange,especially inperiodsoftransitionfromwartopeace,becausetheirentireidentitiesandlifeexperiences
33 Conflictanalysisisasystematicstudyofthestructures,stakeholdersanddynamicsofconflicttoprovidea betterunderstandingofcauses,triggersandforcespromotingviolentconflictorsustainingpeace.Itidentifies criticalactorsandprioritiestoinformconflictresolutionstrategyandmediationprocessdesign.Agendersensitiveconflictanalysisgoesbeyonddocumentingpracticesofdiscrimination,exclusionandthegendered impactsofconflict.Itassessesunderlyinggenderdynamics–politicalandeconomicpowerdynamics betweenmenandwomenwithinasociety–andtheirlinkstopeaceandsecurity.Italsohelpsidentify opportunitiesandcapacitiesforpeacemaking. https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/11.%20DPPA%20Framework%20for%20Gender %20Political-Conflict%20Analysis-2019.pdf
34 SaferworldReport.2014.Masculinities,Conflict,andPeacebuilding:Perspectivesonmenthrougha genderedLens,https://www.saferworld.org.uk/resources/publications/862-masculinities-conflict-andPeacebuilding-perspectives-on-men-through-a-gender-lens.
35‘WetheWomen,Whyconflictmediationisnotjustajobformen’byAntoniaPotter,October2005,Centre forHumanitarianDialogue,https://www.hdcentre.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/WethewomenOctober2005.pdf.
36 MareikeSchomerus,TheLord’sResistanceArmy:ViolenceandPeacemakinginAfrica,2021,Cambridge UniversityPress,p.11.
haveledthemintoastruggletoholdontosomeformofpowerandcontrol,inwhichlossof powerwouldmeanlossofmanhood,lossofidentityandevenlossoflivelihoods.Hesuggests that programmes might appeal to the very notions they aim to challenge, for example proposing to men that, “You have the power to end violence against women in your community.”
37 This approach emphasizes outreach to men, especially men from various backgroundsandwithdifferingrolesinsociety,ashavingpotentialintermsofwhatmencan doratherthanseeingmen’sengagementastheproblem,ineffect‘callingtheminratherthan out’.Thisisakintosocialpsychologicalresearchonallyshipthatdemonstratesthepositive effectofmenwhoactasallies.
38 Asdiscussedinpara31,thisapproachiskeytoavoiding a defensive posture and the brainshutting downany possibility for learning and reflection, whichisthepsychologicalresponseforanypersonwhofeelsunderattack.39
30. Such anapproach requires engaging menemotionally as well as rationally. Some men will be more open to this sort of engagement. For others, men’s resistance to women’s participation varies, from those who have beenconditioned to disdain women and whose philosophies have the exclusion of women and girls as a deliberate center piece of their ideology, to those who see womenas irrelevant and unnecessary in matters of peace and security,tothosewhoviewwomenindecision-makingasinappropriateandunqualified.
31. The NGO, the National Democratic Institute (NDI), has found that one of the greatest barriers women in politics face, are ideas about gender, and the social expectations and personalattitudesandbehaviorstowhichtheseideasgiverise.Inmanysocieties,power–especially,politicalpower–isstillassociatedwithmenandmasculinityandthesepatriarchal
This approach emphasizes outreach to men, especially men from various backgrounds and with differing roles in society, as having potential in terms of what men can do rather than seeing men’s engagement as the problem, in effect ‘calling them in rather than out’
37 MichaelKaufman.2003.TheAIMFramework:AddressingandInvolvingMenandBoysToPromoteGender EqualityandEndGenderDiscriminationandViolence.UNICEF,p.11, https://www.michaelkaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/kaufman-the-aim-framework.pdf.
38Hildebrand,L.K.,Jusuf,C.C.,&Monteith,M.J.(2020).Allyconfrontationsasidentity‐safetycuesfor marginalizedindividuals.EuropeanJournalofSocialPsychology,50(6),1318-1333.;Drury,B.J.,& Kaiser,C.R.(2014).Alliesagainstsexism:Theroleofmeninconfrontingsexism.JournalofSocialIssues, 70(4),637-652.;Cihangir,S.,Barreto,M.,&Ellemers,N.(2014).Menasalliesagainstsexism:The positiveeffectsofa suggestionofsexismbymale(vs.female)sources.SageOpen,4(2).;Moser,C.E.,&Branscombe,N.R. 2022).Malealliesatwork:Gender-equalitysupportivemenreducenegativeunderrepresentationeffects amongwomen.SocialPsychologicalandPersonalityScience,13(2),372–381.
39 Pascoe,L.,&Wells,L.(2022).CallinginMen:Areviewofliteratureandthecaseforcallingmen“in”to preventviolenceandadvanceequity.Calgary,AB.TheUniversityofCalgary,Shift:TheProjecttoEnd DomesticViolence.
gendernormscontinuetomarginalizewomenfrompoliticallife.40 Theysimilarlynotethat many democracyand governance programmes toincrease women’s political participation and leadership have focused onbuilding the individual capacity of women, responding to theirrightsand stated needs and demands.41 While these morewidespreadapproachesto addressgenderinequalityleavestheburdenofovercomingstructuralandotherbarriersto the women themselves, it also erroneously assumes that women are not capable without furthercapacitybuilding.
32. Toaddressthesechallenges,NDIengagesmalepoliticalleadersastransformativeagents ofchangeforgenderequality42.Itfocusesonmen,politicalpowerandgendernormsinorder to restructure political organizations for gender equality as part of organizational developmentandpoliticalstrategy.43Suchexercisesmightbeframedaseffortstolearnmore about the overall aspirations or values of one’s opponent. In a series of short linked interactiveexercises,facilitatorscreateaspacewheremen,aspoliticalleaders,canexchange theirideasaboutcertaingender. Malepoliticalleadersaregiventheopportunitytoreflect within a group of male peers to personalize issues of gender; to understand their own disproportionate powerand privilege,and the impactthis has ontheir lives,theirfamilies and their communities. This approach personalizes the experience and helps break down barriers and taboos. The participating political leaders can be further encouraged and supportedinprofessionalizingtheirnewunderstandingbyapplyingittohowgendernorms impactbroaderpoliticalcontextsandpoliticalorganizations.Thethirdstageoftheapproach supports mentoleveragethis increased understandingof gender normsto strategizehow toachieveorganizationalchange and broader gender equality efforts.44 Asa first step, the workshopmodelcouldbeexploredinthecontextofapeaceprocess. Itis possiblethatthe firstpartoftheworkshopmightbetheonlyrealisticcomponent tobetakenforwardgiven themanyconstraintsandchallenges,time-wiseandother.
33. NDI’s modelrequires that any male staff involved, including male mediatorsand other male support staff, themselves participate in a first workshop to fully understand and experiencetheprocessofreflectionsongenderrolesandimpact. Such“leadingbyexample” wouldsignaltop-levelengagement,andhelpcreatepsychologicalpermissionstructuresfor
40 NationalDemocraticInstituteisanon-profit,non-partisanNGOthatworksinpartnershipin60countries aroundtheworld-tostrengthenandsafeguarddemocraticinstitutions,processes,normsandvalues, https://www.ndi.org/.
41 Ibid.
42NationalDemocraticInstitute,Men,PowerandPolitics:ProgramGuidance,NationalDemocraticInstitute, 2020, https://www.ndi.org/sites/default/files/Men%2C%20Power%20and%20Politics%20Program%20Guidance %2011_20_2020%206.pdf.
43 https://www.ndi.org/men-power-and-politics
44 Ibid. Also,asanexample,duringworkshopsconductedinBukinaFaso,44outof57malepartymembers and9outof11CSOleaderscommittedthemselvestowardschampioningpositivemasculinity.Onemani.a. noted(translatedfromFrench)that;“Ihavespent52yearsinside‘thebox’,andIwishIcanliveanother52 yearsoutsideofit”.ConversationswithSandraPepera,Director,Gender,WomenandDemocracy,NDI,Fall 2022.
men to do something different, to help avoid the assumption that men who take a more positivepositiononinclusionarenotseenasbetrayingthein-groupofmaleelites.
34. Undertakingsuchexercise(s)withtheinvolvementofrepresentativesofconflictparties couldhavesignificantbenefitsforinclusioneffortandlaytheconstructivegroundworkfor opening up understanding and acceptance by male delegates of women’s inclusion, and therebypavingthewayformoresuccessfuleffortsinundertakingbroaderpolaritymapping exercises,ascoveredinmoredetailsinpara69,toarriveataroadmapofagendaitemsfor aneventualsustainablepeaceagreement.Bothexercises,includingarecommendation (see para 97) to goforwalks, - if referring to traditional terminology in mediation, - constitute confidence building measures (CBMs). Such are used at different stages to build relationships and trust between the conflict parties and between the mediator and the parties,aswellasconfidenceinthemediationprocessitself.45 Whilemuchthoughtisneeded toplanthedetailsandsequencingofthisprocess,onekeyrecommendationbyNDIistohave male facilitators conduct such exercises for all-male groups and to ensurea safe space for mento speak more openly, without judgements. Studies in neurobiology suggest that the evokingfeelingsinanindividualsuchasshameandembarrassmentmayactivateprocesses inthe brainthat may be counterproductive topeace efforts.46 Studies inthe area ofsocial psychologysuggestthatwhenanindividualfeelsshameorembarrassmenttheymay react inwaysthatwouldbecounterproductivetothenegotiatingefforts,suchasbywithdrawing fromtheconversation.47 Spaces where menfeel anaffinityto the facilitatormaycreate an environment more conducive to learning. Such a workshopwould likely be the first time theyaregivenanopportunitytoreflectontheseissues,andaswewillbediscussingbelow, thisisakeyopportunityforchange,usingexistingsocialstructuresintransformativeways. Forlackofabettername,wewillrefertothiskindofworkshopas‘Self-reflectionsinPeace Leadership’
Societal Benefits of Women’s Inclusion
35. The two logics most readily used to justify women’s inclusion in the peace process include the logic of sameness and one of difference. The former focuses onwomen being human just like men with the right to participate equally, the normative and moral justification, as referred to earlier. And the latter emphasizing women’s unique attributes and value-added to the peace process in so much as they bring different experiences and perspectives,orasnoted,anoperationalandinstrumentalfocus.Regardlessofwhichlogic
45 UNGuidanceforEffectiveMediation,NewYork,UNPeacemakers,2012,p.9, https://peacemaker.un.org/resources/mediation-guidance.
46 Michl,Petra,ThomasMeindl,FranziskaMeister,ChristineBorn,RolfEngel,MaximilianReiserandKristina Hennig-Fast.“Neurobiologicalunderpinningsofshameandguilt:apilotfMRIstudy,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 9.2:150-157,2014.Availableat https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3907920/#nss114-B19
47 Haidt,J.(2003).Themoralemotions.inR.J.Davidson,K.R.Scherer,&H.H.Golsmiith(Eds.),Handbookof affectivesciences. Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress(pp.852-870).See, https://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~jhaidt/articles/alternate_versions/haidt.2003.the-moral-emotions.pub025-ashtml.html.
onefindsconvincing,importantquestionsremainabouthowwomen’sinclusionmayimpact varioussocialoutcomes. Using behavioralscience,thissectionwill drawuponsomeofthe mostrelevantfindingsthatmeasuretheimpactofwomen’sparticipationindecision-making and their impact intheareas ofpublic goods,corruption, state security,and lasting peace. Whilethisisnotacomprehensiveliteraturereview,itdoeshighlightresearchmostakinto women’sparticipationinmediation,politicsanddecision-makingspaces.
36. Many scholars have examined the 1993 constitutional amendment in India that mandated one-third of political positions for village leaders in a district be reserved for women.Italsorequiredthatthesevillagesbepickedrandomlyforeachelectioncycle,which allowed researchers the opportunity to compare the measure of this natural experiment betweenvillageswithandwithoutmandatedelectedwomenleaders.Researchfocusingon theeffectsofwomen’sleadershiphasshownthe significant and lasting impact it had on their villages. For example, research conducted by Deininger and Singh found that women’s leadership improved the health of children within the village. Specifically, villages with reserved seats for women were positively correlated to higher survival rates, higher breastfeeding rates, and higher immunizationrates.48 Additional research has shown that women’s leadership improved public goods within villages; for instance, since 2003, the amountofnewconstructioninvillageswithfirst-timewomenleaderswashigheracrossall publicgoodscomparedtovillagesledbymen.Further,thepublicgoodsthatwomenleaders providedwerefoundtobeofgreaterqualityandatalowerprice.49
Research revealed significant evidence that women leaders may be linked to a decrease in corruption.
37. Using this same natural experiment, other research revealed significant evidence that womenleadersmaybelinkedtoadecreaseincorruption.InIndianvillageswithareserved positionforwomenleaders,a“Pradhan”,membersofthecommunitywerelesslikelytopay bribes for obtaining public good, such as drinking water connections or to obtain Below PovertyLine rationcards.50 Supporting thisresearch oncorruption, a largecross-national studyofover100countiesexaminedtheimpactofwomen’sparticipationingovernmentand foundwomen’spresencetohaveasignificantandnegativeeffectoncorruption.Thegreater theamountofwomen’srepresentationingovernment,thelowerthelevelofcorruption.51
48 KlansDeininger,SongqingJin,HariK.NagarajanandSudarK.Singh.“PoliticalReservationandFemale LaborForceParticipationinRuralIndia,”PolicyResearchWorkingPaper9350WorldBankDevelopment Group,August2020.
49 LoriBeaman,RaghabendraChattopadhyay,EstherDuflo,RohiniPande,PetiaTopalova.“PowerfulWomen:Does ExposureReduceBias?”TheQuarterlyJournalofEconomics,Nov.,2009,Vol.124,No.4(Nov.,2009), pp.1497-1540.
50 KlansDeininger,SongqingJin,HariK.NagarajanandSudarK.Singh.“PoliticalReservationandFemale LaborForceParticipationinRuralIndia,”PolicyResearchWorkingPaper9350WorldBankDevelopment Group,August2020.
51 DavidDollar,RaymondFisman,RobertaGatti:“Arewomenreally thefairersex?Corruptionandwomenin government.”JournalofEconomicBehavior&Organization,Vol.46(2001)423–429.
38. In addition to corruption, research also shows that a highly significant link exists betweenstate securityand women’s security.Fora leaderor individuals invested intheir state’s security and peace, ignoring or oppressing women may become a detrimental roadblock. Significantly, research conducted by Valerie M. Hudson et. al. found that how women are treated is a greater indicator of a state’s peacefulness than wealth or level of democracy.52Specifically,thegreaterthesizeofthegendergapwithinastate,themorelikely astateistobeinvolvedinintrastateandinterstateconflict.Thisbodyofscholarshipfurther revealsthatastate’shealth,levelofcorruption,andeconomicgrowth arealsoreflectiveof howwomenaretreatedwithinthestate.53
39. Whileitisimportantnottoessentializewomenasmorepeacefulandfurtherreinforce dichotomous gender identities, some suggest that women are better able to work across partylinesduetotheperceptionthattheyarelessthreateningthanmalecounterparts.54 In thisway,womeninvolvedinpeace negotiations can act as brokers during the process and can connect actors across social, economic, and political systems. These informal relationships receive high-level, significant results.55 In their research,Krause,Krause,andBranforsdescribed how women signatories can act as brokers, connecting womencivil society networks at the local level to formal track 1 negotiations. While actingasbrokers,womenconnectgapsthatexist in social structures and aid the movement of information and goods. By connecting a diverse group of actors, women can create a strong, wide-reaching advocacy network during the negotiation process that remains durable and active during the post-conflict implementation period.56
While it is important not to essentialize women as more peaceful and further reinforce dichotomous gender identities, some suggest that women are better able to work across party lines due to the perception that they are less threatening than male counterparts.
40. Someresearchsuggeststhatpeacenegotiationswherewomenhadstronginfluence,an agreement was reached every time.57 Another study finds that provisions in peace
52 ValerieM.Hudson,BonnieBallif-Spanvill,MaryCaprioli,ChadF.Emmett. Sex and World Peace.ColumbiaUniversity Press.2012
53 Ibid.
54 Hunt,Swanee,andCristinaPosa,“WomenWagingPeace”.ForeignPolicy124,2001,p.124,38-47.
55 JanaKrause,WernerKrause,andPiiaBränfors,“Women’sParticipationinPeaceNegotiationsand DurabilityofPeace”,2022.
56 Krause,J.,Krause,W.,andBranfors,P.,“Women’sParticipationinPeaceNegotiationsandDurabilityof Peace”,2018,InternationalInteractions,p.44:6,985-1016.
57 ThaniaPaffenholz,“ResultsonWomenandgenderfromthe‘BroadParticipation’and‘CivilSocietyand Peacebuilding’Projects”,March2015,BriefingPaper.CentreonConflict,DevelopmentandPeacebuilding. Geneva:TheGraduateInstituteofInternationalandDevelopmentStudies, http://graduateinstitute.ch/files/live/sites/iheid/files/sites/ccdp/sh ared/Docs/Publications/briefingpaperbroader%20participation.pdf.
agreements thatwomenparticipatedinwere alsoimplemented at higherratesthanpeace agreementsthatexcludedwomen.Further,theyfoundthatwomen’sparticipationresulted in different types of agreements (including more elaborate and comprehensive power sharing).58 Not only can women aid parties in arriving at a peace agreement, but their inclusionisalsopositivelycorrelatedwith greaterdurabilityofpeace.Virtuallyallexisting studies show that women are less supportive of going to war than are men, even when controlling for factors like political beliefs, wealth, education, and age.59 Other research suggeststhatwhenpeaceagreementsincludewomen,asnegotiators,mediators,witnesses, orsignatories,thelastingimpactoftheagreementisenhancedovertime; scholarsfindthe agreementis 35 percent morelikelytobesuccessful afterfifteenyears.60 This meansthat women’sinclusionmustbemeasuredovermultipleiterationsastransformationsingender rolesandidentitiesaregradual. While women’s inclusion is certainlynotapanaceaandcan createotherchallenges, thesefindingsonthesocietalbenefitsofwomen’sinclusion,canbe helpful arguments and incentives forthe mediatorto refer toin the dialogue withconflict parties.
Way Forward: Insights from Behavioral Science
41. While behavioralscience is not a new approachfor scholars inthe fieldof psychology, sociology, political science, economics and beyond, it has gained notable status within international organizations and their member states. For example, the OECD reports that over 200 institutions around the world apply behavioral insights to public policy, and a recent World Bank report highlights ten countries as innovators or early adopters of behavioralscienceinpolicymaking.61 TheUNisalsoaleaderinthisspace.
42. Inshort,behavioralinsightsisanapproachtopolicymakingthatcombinesinsightsfrom psychology,cognitivescience,andsocialsciencewithempirically-testedresultstodiscover how humans actually make choices.62 Behavioral insight draws from various behavior sciencedisciplinesandappliesthosescholarlyfindingstoaddressingrealworld problems. Whilethefieldofbehavioralscienceisvastandcomplex,forthepurposeofthisresearch,we will focus on two broad and interconnected areas in the literature most relevant to the challengeofwomen’sinclusionandgenderequalityinpeaceprocesses.First,wewillfocus
58 Krauseet.al.Ibid,Itisworthnotingherethatimplementationdependsonmanyvariables,suchas sufficiencyoffunds,absenceofnationaldialogue,theresurgenceofviolenceandsoon.
59 DeborahJordanBrooksandBenjaminA.Valentino,2011,“AWarofOne’sOwn:UnderstandingtheGender GapinSupportforWar,”PublicOpinionQuarterly,p.75(2):270-286.
60 O’Reilly,Marie,AndreaÓSúilleabháin,andThaniaPaffenholz.2015.ReimaginingPeacemaking:Women’s RolesinPeaceProcesses.NewYork:InternationalPeaceInstitute,https://www.ipinst.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/06/IPI-E-pub-Reimagining-Peacemaking.pdf.
61 ZeinaAfif,WilliamWadeIslan,OscarCalvo-Gonzalez,AbigailGoodnowDalton,BehavioralScienceAround theWorld,WorldBankGroup,December2018, https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documentsreports/documentdetail/710771543609067500/behavioral-science-around-the-world-profiles-of-10countries
62 JamesDrummond,OECD,BehavioralInsights,https://www.oecd.org/gov/regulatory-policy/behaviouralinsights.htm
onstudies that emphasize elements of individual humanbehavior connected to cognition, personality,emotions,andfears.Then,wewilllookattheresearchcenteredonstructures, systems, and processes that shape individual or group choice and behavior. While these distinctionsaresomewhatartificialandtheseareasofresearchare deeplyinterconnected, thedifferentpointsofemphasisdohelpusinthinkingaboutdifferententrypointsforpolicy design and practical ways to use this science in terms of guidelines or good practices in mediation.
43. Important to both areas is taking the time and commitment that is required for rethinking gender roles in any society seriously. Changing attitudes is often a long-term endeavor,especiallywhenitcomestodeeplyembeddedculturaltraditionsandperceptions regardinggenderroles.Giventherelativelyshort time-frameformanyactivemediationprocesses, which already can be challenging time-wise for building the needed relationships and trust between the mediator and the conflict parties, andbetweenthepartiesthemselves,attemptsto change behavior before or instead of attitudes may be more effective. According to the behavioral insights expert Iris Bohnet, changing behavioral decision-making processes is much easier than changing minds and deeply held beliefs.Further,changingshorttermbehaviourscouldleadtolongertermattitudinalshifts.
Insights from Social and Neuro Psychology
Bias, prejudice and stereotypes are critical to understanding how the brain works and the decisionmaking process, particularly in terms of getting agreement on the inclusion of women.
44. We begin this section with Kahneman’s approach to analyzing how the human brain works.Histwo-systemsapproachstemsfromthetwointerdependentmodesofthinkingin the human brain, which often create a gap between intention and action. System 1, the intuitive, effortless, unconscious, fast and emotional response dominates the majority of human behaviours and choices, which generate autopilot-like reactions. The reflective system,System2,isdefinedasconsciousandslow,effortful,rational,andlogical;reactions using this part of the brain are more self-aware, rule-following, and controlled. All people usebothmodesofthinking,tovaryingdegrees,inallsituations,notjustinstressfulconflict situations.
45. Researchersestimatethatasmuchas80-90percentofourthoughtprocesses,choices, andbehavioursoccurautomaticallyinourunconscious63 brain.64 Ourunconsciousthinking uses mental shortcuts, such as associations (perceived connections between elements or input) and biases (errors in processing and interpreting information or stimuli) to make judgements, to process, to make sense, to make choices, and to act. These mental mechanismsandshortcutsenableourfunctioningtooccurwithoutusingalotofenergyon
63 Thismightalsobereferredtoasthe'preconscious',nottoconfuseitwiththepsychoanalyticunconscious. FeedbackfromProfessorBrunaSeu,emailcorrespondence17November2022.
64InclusionNudges,https://inclusion-nudges.org
interpretationsandcomplexevaluations.Whenfacedwithsituationsrequiringmentaleffort due to ambiguity, complexity, and time pressure, such as parties in a mediation process, peoplerelyevenmoreheavilyonmentalshortcuts.Whiletheunconsciousbrainevolvedto ensureoursurvivalandkeeppeoplesafe,italsoholdspeoplebackfrombeingobjectiveand inclusive.65
46. Bias,prejudice andstereotypesare criticalto understanding howthe brainworks and thedecision-makingprocess,particularlyintermsofgettingagreementontheinclusionof women. Unconscious bias affects everyone to varying degrees. Gender stereotypes and patriarchal gender norms generally rate men morecompetent thanwomenaffording men morepowerandprivilegeinmost,ifnotallsocieties,particularlyinthecontextofsecurity andgovernance.
47. Anillustrative example of how unconscious bias, otherwise known in the literature as implicitbias,isworkinginfavorofmen,isthe(mis)perceptionthattallpeoplearethebest leaders.Researchfromaroundtheworldhasshownthatheightinfluencesdecisionsabout theirleaders moreheavily than merit.Tall leaders arethe normative patternglobally,and local cultures do not mitigate this effect. The unconscious mind has an instinctive and intuitivereactionbasedonassociationsbetween‘tall’and‘leader’andcertaintraits,suchas ‘strong’,‘presence’,‘powerful’and ‘capable’.Oncethatbeliefisactivated,therational mind searches for the evidence to prove it and ignores evidence to the contrary.66 It is possible thattheeffortstowardsovercomingcognitivedissonance,discussedmorebelow,alsoplays aroleinthis.Here,peoplebecomeblindtothefactsandmeritsthatotherpeople(whoare nottall)couldbebetterleaders,andhenceleadingtoflawedjudgementsandconclusions
48. Anotherexampleofunconsciousbiasworkinginfavorofmenistheimpactofvoicepitch. One study done by the AmericanPsychology Association showed that high pitched voices were associated with femininity and lower pitch voices were associated with masculinity. Theformerisperceivedaslesscompetentthanthelatter.Severalotherstudieshaveshown thatlistenersmaybemorelikelytoperceivethesamespeechasmoreconfident,competent, orpersuasivewhenitisspokenbyamanratherthanawoman. 67 Theimpactofvoicepitch mightalsobeaffectedbythespecificlanguageandculturalcontexts.
49. Whenlookingatwomeninformalpoliticaldecision-makingpositions,unconsciousbias isoneamongstmanybarriers. In2021,womencontinuedtoaccountforonlyonequarterof national legislators worldwide and 36 percentoflocal governmentrepresentatives,while theyarealsounderrepresentedinleadershippositionsthroughoutthe publicsector.68 For
65 Ibid.
66 LisaKepinski&TinnaC.Nielsen,PowerInclusionNudges,https://inclusion-nudges.org/wpcontent/uploads/2022/08/Inclusion-Nudges-Free-Quick-Guide.pdf
67 Krahé,B.,Uhlmann,A.,&Herzberg,M.(2021).Thevoicegivesitaway:Maleandfemalepitchasacuefor genderstereotyping. Social Psychology, 52(2),101–113.https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000441Sloos M,McKeownD.BiasinAuditoryPerception;Iperception.2015Oct13;6(5):2041669515607153.doi: 10.1177/2041669515607153.PMID:27648220;PMCID:PMC5016825.
68 ReportoftheUNSecretary-General,3August2021, A/76/266,https://documents-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N21/196/91/PDF/N2119691.pdf?OpenElement
the compositionof government delegations to peace talks, holding an official government positionorcommandpositioninthefightingforcesisoftenconsideredaprerequisite,hence thelownumberofwomeningovernmenthasaspill-overeffectonthelownumberofwomen inpeacetalks.Whiletherearecertainlymanyfactorsthatcontributetowomen’sexclusion in formal governance structures, both conscious and unconscious bias are central for understanding men and women’s attitudes and behaviors towards women’s role in peace processesandthevalueofgenderequalityinthepursuitofsecurity.
50. Cognitive dissonance is another relevant behavioral insight. Cognitive dissonance, an importantconceptinsocialpsychology69,referstotheuncomfortabletensionthatcanexist betweentwosimultaneousandconflictingideasorfeelings oftenasapersonrealizesthat s/hehasengagedinabehaviorinconsistentwiththetypeofpersons/hewouldliketobe,or beseenpubliclytobe.Inthisway,oldbeliefscantrumpnewinformationandcombinedwith humans’ desire for continuity, resistance to change is strong.70 Given these psychological sources of resistance, we suggest shifting the focus to changing certain behaviors and structuresthatdeterminebehaviorratherthandeeply-rootedcultural beliefs.Thus,forthe purposesofthisresearch,ifweareabletoalterbehaviorsaroundgendernorms,attitudes mightfollow.Thehopehereisthatoncegreateraccessforwomen’sparticipationhasbeen established and men realize, what is likely a positive impact, that their attitude will start changingtoo.
51. For example, the 1993 law in India, referred to in paragraph 36, reserved leadership positions forwomeninrandomly selectedvillagecouncils. Extensive surveysshowed that bythesecondelectioncycle,voters’opinionsabouttheirwomenleaderswereaspositiveas thatofvillageswithmaleleadersinareaswhohadneverhadreservedpositions.Voterswere also more likely to elect womenfor unreserved seats incouncils that have been reserved twice before for a woman leader.71 This demonstrated the importance of ‘seeing is
“Language which leaves males feeling blamed for things they haven’t done, or for things they were taught to do, or guilty for the sins of other men, simply will alienate most boys and men…[and even] promote backlash.”
69 LoriBeaman,EstherDuflo,RohiniPandeandPetiaTopalova,FemaleLeadershipRaisesAspirationsand EducationalAttainmentforGirls:APolicyExperimentinIndia,Science NewSeries,Vol.335,No.6068(3February2012),pp.582-586.
70 Aclassicexample:awomanstudentthinkssheisnotverysmart,butshegetstopmarksinanexam,which createscognitivedissonance.Sheresolvesthisbyattributingthehighmarkstoamistakeortopurelyluck. Additionally,asmentionedearlier,humansseekcontinuity-withtheaccompanyingtendencytoresistnew contradictoryinformation.Inclinicalwork,thisisoneofthemainsourcesofresistancetochange -new informationgeneratesanxietybecauseitisunfamiliar.FeedbackbyProfessorSeu,emailcorrespondence17 November2022.
71Ibid
believing’.72 intermsoftheappropriatenessofandcapacityforwomentosucceedinthese public,politicalroles.
52. Further,theresearchdemonstratedthatwherewomenleaderswerepresent,adolescent girls'careeraspirationsandeducationalattainmentincreased,suggestingthelawcreateda rolemodeleffect.73 Thepresenceofwomenleadersimpactedwhat girls believedpossible; again,seeingisbelieving.Resultsfromthe same law,inadifferentstudy,alsofoundthatexposure to at least one woman leader could erase statistical discrimination by male villages. Notably,thiseffectpersistedevenafterawoman leaderhadleftoffice.74 Theseresultsalsoshowa positive effect on parents, particularly fathers, and the views of their daughters and women’s role in society. In this case, a structural legal requirementforelections-aquotalawimposed on Indian village councils - forced behavior change and eventually led to a change in men’s beliefsandattitudes.
Such male-only spaces, needed for deeper reflections on the role of masculinities in men’s lives, possibly for the very first time, are not unlike women-only spaces which are also critical in the peace process.
53. Changes in attitudes and behavior is also directly affected by language, framing and messaging.Whilebehavioralscienceisextensiveinthisspace,mostrelevanttothisresearch are the findings that point to messages that position men as possible agents of change towardsgenderequalityandmessagesthatframegenderequalityasanissueforbothmen and women.75 Thisapproachattempts “to bring menin”by making themleaders,oreven “genderchampions”,inaddressing gender inequality,ratherthanshaming themas partof theproblem.“Languagewhichleavesmalesfeelingblamedforthingstheyhaven’tdone,or forthingstheyweretaughttodo,orguiltyforthesinsofothermen,simplywillalienatemost boysandmen…[andeven]promotebacklash.”76 Duringsucheffortsmenshouldbeworking withwomen, notworkingonbehalfofwomen.Thiscanhelpinshiftingthemfroma more defensivetoanopenpostureandevenallowthemtoseethewaysmasculinitydoesnotwork forthem.77
72 IrisBohnetWhatWorks,GenderEqualitybyDesign,p.217. Asimilarsentimentwasexpressedbythe InterimDirectoroftheSmithsonianAmericanWomen’sHistoryMuseum,LisaSasaki,whonotedthat ‘Womencanbeanddoanything–that’siftheycanseeit,theycanbeit”. https://womenshistory.si.edu/news/2021/08/bringing-smithsonian-american-womens-history-museumlife#
73 Beamanet.al,Ibid.
74 LoriBeaman,RaghabendraChattopadhyay,EstherDuflo,RohiniPandeandPetiaTopalova “PowerfulWomen:DoesExposureReduceBias?”,TheQuarterlyJournalofEconomics,Vol.124,No.4 (Nov.,2009),pp.1497-1540.
75 Subašić,E.,Hardacre,S.,Elton,B.,Branscombe,N.R.,Ryan,M.K.,&Reynolds,K.J.“WeforShe”: Mobilisingmenandwomentoactinsolidarityforgenderequality,2018,GroupProcesses&Intergroup Relations,21(5),707-724,https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218763272
76 OpcitKaufman2003,11.
77 TheMenEngageAlliancehasdoneworkinthisspherebringingmentogethertocollectivelydismantle structuralbarrierstowomen’srightsandgenderequality.
54. Researchsuggeststhattheidentityofthemessengermatters.Subašićet.alfindsthatfor amaleaudience,the mobilizingeffectofsolidaritymessageshave the greatesteffectwhen espoused by maleleaders.Thiseffect is particularlyrobustfor malerecipients, whenmen arespeakingtoothermen.78 InthecaseoftheYeminicrisisof2011,theinclusiveapproach oftheUNmale mediatorfacedsomechallenges. Someofthemorefundamentalistpolitical partiesormovementsqueriedtheparticipationofwomen,boththeseniorwomenadvisers on the mediator’s team, as well as his approach for an inclusive national dialogue. These groups subsequently acceptedinpractice the normof inclusionas a requirementfor their ownparticipation.Thefactthatthemediator,JamalBenomar,wasanArabic-speakingman fromtheregion,allowedhimtogainpersonaltrust,whilerallyingnationalactors,aswellas theInternationalcommunity-includingbyinvokingtheUN’snormativeframework.79
55. Anumberofotherstudiesalsofindevidencethatwhenconfrontingbias,mentendtobe morereceptive tomessagesregarding genderequalitywhenthe messageis deliveredbya manversusawoman.80Asdiscussedearlier(seepara.33-34),suchmale-onlyspaces,needed
78 Subašić,E.,Hardacre,S.,Elton,B.,Branscombe,N.R.,Ryan,M.K.,&Reynolds,K.J.“WeforShe”: Mobilisingmenandwomentoactinsolidarityforgenderequality,2018,GroupProcesses&Intergroup Relations,21(5),707-724,https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218763272
79 Amongtheprinciplesintroducedbythemediatorwas“inclusion”ofpoliticalforcesandmovementswho wereevidentactors(somecarryingarmsandincontrolofterritory)notleastthosewhoplayedanactiveand indisputableroleonthestreetsandinthesquaresaspartoftheYemeni“revolution”.Notablyamongthese werewomenwhoseinclusioninthetransitionprocesswasbolsteredbyastandardofaminimum30percent participationofwomeninpoliticalprocesses.Similarly,theimportantroleofyouthandSouthernersresulted inanagreedformulaof“20-30-50”asthepercentagesforrepresentation,respectively,ofyouth,womenand SouthernersintheeventualComprehensiveNationalDialogueConference(NDC)andotherbodiesof dialogueandgovernance.ThisformulawassetoutinthereportoftheNDC’sTechnicalPreparatory Committee,whichwereadoptedbydecreeinDecember2012,establishingclearrulesthatbecameapointof reference.Theprincipleofwomen’sparticipationwasspecificallyarticulatedandsecuredinthe ImplementationMechanismAgreement,whichwasthentranslatedfromanaspirationalobjectiveinto concreteactionthroughcloseattention,repetitionofmessagesandcontinuedadvocacy,andreflectedinthe rulesofprocedurefortheNDC.Thisinclusiveapproachhadthreemaindimensions:(i)womenwouldbe representedintheNDC(acorner-stoneofthepoliticaltransition)astheirown“constituency”–independent oftheestablishedpoliticalpartiesormovements;(ii)theminimumstandardof30percentwomen’s representationwouldalsoapplyforeachofthe“other”constituencies;and(iii)women’sparticipationata minimumof30percentwouldberequiredinallbodiesandatalllevels,totheextentpossible,asalogical deductionorimplicationfromtheprovisionsfortheNDC.Themediatorwasconsistentandpersistentinhis recallingthevalueofandadvocatingfortheeffectiveimplementationofthisstandardofinclusioninthe politicalsphere.Itisalsotobenotedthatthesuccessfulintroductionofthisnormanditsvisiblepracticein theprocess,inoneoftheworld’spoorestcountriesandlocatedontheArabianPeninsula,drewattentionin thesub-regionandfarbeyond,butwhichcametoanendwiththeoutbreakofhostilitiesin2014.According totheBerghofFoundation,theNDC,however,‘stillmarksawatershedmomentforYemenisocietyasithad createdahugeandratherinclusivedialogueplatformwhere565delegatesofthevariousYemenipartiesand componentsmetanddiscussedoveracontinuousprocessof10months’. file:///C:/Users/DPPA%20User/OneDrive%20-%20United%20Nations/Documents/lone/Mobility/P5%20Mobility/Final%20documents/BF-NationalDialogue-Handbook.pdf
80 Czopp,A.M.,Monteith,M.J.,&Mark,A.Y.2006,Standingupforachange:Reducingbiasthrough interpersonalconfrontation.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,90(5),784.;Gulker,J.E.,Mark,A.Y., &Monteith,M.J.,2013,Confrontingprejudice:Thewho,what,andwhyofconfrontationeffectiveness, SocialInfluence,8(4),280-293.http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2012.736879
fordeeperreflectionsontheroleof masculinitiesinmen’slives,possiblyfortheveryfirst time,arenotunlikewomen-onlyspaceswhicharealsocriticalinthepeaceprocess.Thecall formale-onlyspacesisnotmeanttoreplacemixedgenderdialogueswhicharealsokey.81
56. MalcolmGladwellinhisbook The Tipping Point speakstothesuccessfuladoptionofnew ideas, which in part depends on the credibility of the messenger. Also important to the tipping point is having a network to help share the idea, coupled with the idea being worthwhile in the first place. Gladwell refers to this last point as the ‘stickiness factor’, namelyistheideamemorableenoughtomakepeopletakeaction 82 Thisresearchsuggests the importance of finding male advocates for inclusive practices. Such advocates and networkcaninter alia consistof respectedcivil society, business and/orreligiousleaders, fromthesameculturalbackground,assistedbye.g.maleambassadorsfrommemberstates supportiveofinclusionandthe WPSagenda Inotherwords, thestickiness factorcanbe a matterof‘packing’themeritsofwomen’sparticipationinmessagesandexamplesofgreatest relevancetotheculturalcontextandtheinterestsofthoseinvolved(betheymenorwomen). Similar to choice architecture, (referring to the order of how things are selected and presented,seepara.64),itisusefulinthatitencouragesintentionaldecision-makingabout presenting the most relevant and relatable contexts and messages that will lead to the desiredoutcomes. Suchanapproachoffindingmalemessengersfromthesameregion will requiremorepreparatorywork,butismorelikelytoyieldusefulresults
57. Relatedly, the tipping point for reaching a critical mass of women in decision-making forums,asagenerallyacceptedinternationalstandard,isaminimumof30to35percent.83 Whilesomescholarsdebatetheefficacyofthisnumberasthetippingpoint,thisconceptis still widely used.84 For the present context, it is worth underlining that what might be
81 InthecaseofSyria,SecurityCouncilresolution2254(2015),callingfor“inclusiveandSyrian-ledpolitical process”ledtheUNSpecialEnvoyforSyriatoadoptaninnovativestrategytofacilitatetheinclusionofawide rangeofSyrianactorsinthemediationprocess.Thetwomainpillarsofthisstrategyweretheestablishment oftheWomen’sAdvisoryBoard(WAB)andtheCivilSocietySupportRoom(CSSR);andtheappointmentofa GenderAdviserandaSeniorPoliticalAffairsOfficertoguideandsupporttheseinclusionefforts.Thewomen andcivilsocietyplatformsserveasmechanismstostrengthenthemediationprocessbyenablingthe mediatortohaveaccesstoabroadanddiverserangeofSyrianperspectivesinthepeaceprocessaswellasa meansofleveragingtheroleofcivilsocietyinthepeaceprocess.Theinclusionmechanismsprovidean alternativechannelbasedonabottom-upapproachthatcanalsoprovidemomentumandkeepdiscussions goingatdifferentlevelswhenformalnegotiationsbecomestalled.Theestablishmentofthetwomechanisms attheUNheadquartersinGeneva,andtoallowoverlapwiththeofficialnegotiations,enabledthemediation teamtofacilitateformalandinformalexchangesbetweenparticipantsinthevariousplatformsandtracks.It alsoprovidesthemediatorandmediationteamwithabetterunderstandingofdynamicsontheground;a waytotestideasanddiscusstopicsthatmaybetoosensitiveintheofficialnegotiations;aswellastobuilda networkofrelationshipswithkeynationalandinternationalstakeholders.
82 MalcomGladwell,TheTippingPoint,2002,BackBayBooks
83 Kanter,R.M.(1977a)‘SomeEffectsofProportionsonGroupLife’,AmericanJournalofSociology,82(5), 965–90.Dahlerup,D.(1988)‘FromaSmalltoaLargeMinority:WomeninScandinavianPolitics’, ScandinavianPoliticalStudies,11(4),275–97
84 TheConventionoftheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(CEDAW) recommendation(no.23)notesthat“researchdemonstratesthatifwomen’sparticipationreaches30to35 percent(generallytermeda‘criticalmass’)thereisarealimpactonthepoliticalstyleandcontentof decisions.”
considered‘adequate’,intermsofwomen’sparticipation,is notuptotheindividualenvoy orconflictpartiesbutrathercomesfrominternationalhumanrightsstandardsandscientific evidenceregardingwhatis needed asa minimumtoensureimpact. Intermsofwomenin leadershippositions,researchfromIndiaontheirmandatedreservedleadershippositions forwomen,alsoshowedthatwomenleadershavesubstantiallychangedthefaceofpolitics, withthelikelihoodofawomanspeakinginavillagemeetinggoingupby25percent.85 This finding adds further weight to the need for more women mediators, to ensure that the mediationteamnotonlyleadbyexample,butthatwomenparticipantsseeawomaninakey position,whichmightmakethemfeelmoreconfidentinspeakingup,regardlessofwhether theminimumof30to35percentwomenparticipantshasbeenmet.
58. Returningto questionsrelatedto the centrality ofsocial normsand theidentityof the messenger,researchbyJosephHenrichprovidesaframeworkforexaminingthedifference thatsocialnormsplayinvariousglobalcontexts.Coiningtheterm,WEIRDpeople,Henrich describestheWestern,Educated,Industrialized,Rich,andDemocraticpeoplewhooftenlead global organizations and mediation efforts in conflict countries that are often kin-based societies, where everyone is connected and social norms are enforced by society.86 While this is certainly an oversimplification of both ‘weird’ societies and conflict contexts, it is important for raising questions about social norms and what people value in rebuilding “peace”afterwar.
59. AccordingtoHenrich,WEIRDpeopleprioritizeindividualism,thinkanalytically,believe infreewill,takepersonalresponsibility,feelguiltwhentheymisbehave,andthinknepotism istobe vigorouslydiscouraged,if notoutlawed.The non-WEIRDpopulation,which makes up the majority of the world’s population and where the great majority of conflicts are located, identify more strongly with family, tribe, clan and ethnic group, think more “holistically,”take responsibilityfor what their groupdoes (i.e. publiclypunish those who besmirch the group’s honor), feel shame not guilt when they misbehave, and think nepotismisa naturalduty.87Thesedifferences inculturalnormsandbehavioursalso need to be taken into account, as what might motivate one set of actors versus another. These variousvalue-systemscannotbetakenforgrantedandmustbecontextualizedinacolonial understanding of the roots of armed conflict. The WEIRD framework highlights the challengesofmediatorsfromhistoricallycolonizingstatesworkinginthecolonizedpartsof theworld.Researchby ProfessorIreneBruna Seu notesthecriticisms ofthedominanceof
https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/1_Global/INT_CEDAW_GEC_4736_E.p df andDahlerup2006,SarahChildsandMonaLenaKrook.“CriticalMassTheoryandWomen’sPolitical Representation.”PoliticalStudies:2008VOL56,725–736.
85 IrisBohnet,WhatWorks,GenderEqualitybyDesign,p.206/
86 JosephHenrich,TheWEIRDestPeopleintheWorld.Farrar,StrausandGiroux(September8,2020).The bookexploreshowculture,institutions,andpsychologyshapeoneanother,andexplainswhatthismeansfor bothourmostpersonalsenseofwhoweareasindividualsandalsothelarge-scalesocial,political,and economicforcesthatdrivehumanhistory.
87DanielDennett,WhyAreWeintheWestSoWeird?ATheory,NewYorkTimes,2020
Westernrationalistframework embedded inmediationpractices and global institutions.88 Hence,assumptions bythe mediatorofwhatmightbeattractiveorconstituteanincentive orafairdeal,mightbeperceivedotherwisebyaconflictparty.
60. The centrality of social norms in guiding individualbehaviourisalsofoundinthenewly released Action Guide on Islam and Negotiation by Georgetown Institute for Women,Peace,andSecurity.TheGuidepoints out that “the majority of secular Western approaches to peacebuilding and negotiation focus on individual interests, positions, desires,and needs,and tendtoemphasizethe centrality of rational decision-making processes based on cost-benefit analysis. Islam,ontheotherhand,asksMuslimstotake into account the interests of the community and to invoke Islamic values, principles, and rituals as they search for a just and fair resolutiontoconflictinaccordancewithdivine guidance”.89 “Religious valuesand beliefs may significantlyimpactnegotiationprocesses,key issues,andoutcomes,especiallyincontexts in whichreligiousteachingsplaya significantroleinthesocial, political, andculturallifeofa communityanditscustoms”.90
These realities again speak to the importance of approaching peace processes not from a rational choice perspective focused on changing attitudes and beliefs, but rather one that simultaneously engages with specific cultural and religious traditions and values, including gender norms and identities of all those involved while also navigating the inclusion of global human rights standards.
61. SocialnormsalsoprovedpowerfulinProfessorElizabethLevyPaluck’sresearchwhich involved a yearlong field experiment in Rwanda testing the impact of a radio soap opera featuring messages about reducing intergroup prejudice, violence, and trauma in two fictional Rwandancommunities. “Compared with a control groupwho listened toa health radio soapopera, listeners' perceptions of social norms and their behaviors changed with respecttointermarriage,opendissent,trust,empathy,cooperation,andtraumahealing.”91 These realities again speak to the importance of approaching peace processes not from a rationalchoiceperspectivefocusedmerelyonchangingattitudesandbeliefs,butratherone that simultaneously engages with specific cultural and religious traditions and values, including gender norms and identities of all those involved while also navigating the
88 Seu,I.B.StatesofMindinConflict:Enhancingapsychologicalunderstandingofpeacemediation,2022, https://crehr.bbk.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/SOMIC-Final-Report-v2-FINAL-web.pdf.Forareport summary,seehttps://crehr.bbk.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Executive-Summary-WEB.pdf.
89 S.AyseKadayifci-Orellana,HodaAl-Haddad,YoumnaAl-Madani,IslamandNegotiationActionGuidefor MuslimWomen,GeorgetownInstituteforWomen,Peace,andSecurity,https://giwps.georgetown.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2022/09/GIWPS-Tool-Kit_Review4.pdf
90 Ibid.
91 Paluck,E.L.2009.Reducingintergroupprejudiceandconflictusingthemedia:Afieldexperimentin Rwanda.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,96(3),574–587.
inclusion of global human rights standards. This approach is essential and needs to be includedattheearlydesignstageofthemediationprocess.
Design Processes and Incentive Structures
62. When looking at structures, systems and processes, most work in this field has been doneintheeconomicandbusinesssphere,byacademicinstitutionsandgovernments,ina range of contexts from looking at ways to increase the percentage of girls during standardizedtestingforcollegerecruitmentstogettingabiggerpercentageofwomeninto placessuchassymphonyorchestrastocompanyboardpositions.
63. In terms of international organizations, work has been carried out by development actors,butnot muchwithinthepeaceandsecurityfield,and nonespecificallyaimedatthe contextofpeaceprocesses.92 Still,wecandrawlessons fromtheseother sectorsofsociety andconsidertheirimpactinconflictcontexts.
64. In an environment where conflict parties must consent in order to move the process forward,andtohaveagreementforaprocessinthefirstplace,thenotionof‘nudging’iskey. Nudging, as popularized by the behavioral economists Thaler and Sunstein in 2008, proposes adaptive designs of the decision environment (choice architecture) as ways toinfluencethe behavior anddecision-makingof groups or individuals. Nudging contrasts with other ways to achieve compliance, such aseducation,legislation,orenforcement. A well-knownexample byThalerand Sunsteintoexplainnudgingandchoicearchitecture is howaparticulararrangementsoffoodoptions ina(school)cafeteriacangreatlyinfluence what peopleeat.Choicesare madewhat todisplayfirst,e.g.desserts orthe salad bar, and whatitemsaredisplayedateyeheight,frenchfriesorcarrotsticks?Anotherchoicecouldbe todisplayitemsatrandom,butinallcasesachoiceismade,eitherconsciouslyornot.This cannudgepeopletomakehealthyorunhealthydecisions,aspeopleoftendonotdowhatis best for themselves, their families, or as relevant for this research, their communities or countries.Thisspeakstotheearlierpointthatthenatureofconflictsettingsonlyexacerbates thelackofrationaldecision-making.
65. This approach raises important questions about how the design of a peace process –fromthe importanceof playing close attentionto the meetings outside the actual plenary, and the significance the mediator can signal, inthis respect, to the importance of meeting with women individually and in groups, to the way parties are invited and encouragedtodesignatetheirdelegation to the specific process design of the actual mediation process. This includes practical, yet often symbolically significant aspects of how invitations to
“No one is standing at the top of the table or sitting at the top of the table pontificating about a problem that they have never suffered.”
92 See,forexampletheWorldBank’sAfricaGenderInnovationLabat https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/africa-gender-innovation-lab#6
peacetalks areformulatedtothe set-upofanyroomforthenegotiations, –andhowthese could be better suited to encourage behaviors that lead to more inclusive and equitable participationandoutcomes.Oneconsiderationworthnotingintermsofhowthenegotiation space is designed, would be to exhibit greater cultural sensitivity. In most traditional mediationsettings,partiesareseatedaroundabigtable.InthecaseofIran-Iraqnegotiations withJanEliassonasmediator,atriangulartablewasusedsothatthetwoparties wouldnot faceeachother,butcouldtalkthroughtheUN,thethirdparty.93Othersraisequestionsabout the useof tables at all. InProfessor Seu’s research with mediators, some remarkedonthe “absurdityoftableandchairarrangementsinformalsettingsforcultureswherechairsare notused,orwhenconflictisdealtwithbysittingaroundatree”.94 Sittinginacirclewhere everyone cansee one another might be a much more conducive set upand might be a lot closertotheactualculturalcontext.95
66. Sitting in a circle will also help avoid leaving women at the end of a long table. As a mediatorwhotookpartinProfessorSeu’sresearchnoted: “nooneisstandingatthetopof thetableorsittingatthetopofthetablepontificatingaboutaproblemthattheyhavenever suffered,”or“thefurtheryousitawayfromthemiddle,wherethechiefmediatoris,theless poweryougot”.Otherslinkedthedisconnect–betweenworldviewsandtheimpactofformal settings on the parties – to short-lived agreements and the need for people to ‘own the solutions’ortheywould‘neverimplement them’.96 Inthecaseofthe peaceprocessforthe GoodFridayAgreement,thedelegationwereseatedalphabeticallyaroundthetable,bythe nameofthepartydelegation,hencemixed,whichhelpeddisruptthesymbolismofopposing groupssittingatoppositesidesofatable.Whenthetalkswereover,thebigpartieswanted toreverttoanon-alphabeticalseatingarrangement,whichindicatedtoMonicaMcWilliams, who played a key role in the forging of the Good Friday Agreement to end violence in NorthernIreland,theirdesiretoreturntothestatusquo.Italsosignifiedtheywerenotready foratransitionfromtheoldwaysofdoingthings.97
67. MonicaMcWilliamssimilarlysharedhowsittingaroundafireoreatingamealtogether is when parties often find the humanity in the ‘other’.98 She noted ‘how much more interactive the discussions became when they were seated together around a table in a relaxed atmosphere of a retreat setting”. While these dinners happened only later inthe
93 JanEliasson,InterviewApril11,2000,NewYork,NYYale-UNOralHistoryProject.Availableat https://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/bitstream/handle/123456789/2885/Eliasson%20(2).pdf?sequence=1.
94 Seu,I.B.StatesofMindinConflict:Enhancingapsychologicalunderstandingofpeacemediation,2022, https://crehr.bbk.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/SOMIC-Final-Report-v2-FINAL-web.pdf,p.64.
95 AccordingtoUNStandbyTeamMember,RichardSmith,“theshapeofacircleandthepowerofsittingina circlealsoresonateswithmanyindigenousculturesinLatinAmericaandAfrica.”(feedback,9November 2022).
96 Seu,I.B.StatesofMindinConflict:Enhancingapsychologicalunderstandingofpeacemediation,2022,p. 64,https://crehr.bbk.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/SOMIC-Final-Report-v2-FINAL-web.pdf
97 Thesignificanceofthiswasillustratedwithoneparty-theDUPchangingitsnametoUDUP-soitcould avoidhavingtositnexttopeoplewhowerenotonthesamesideasthem. FeedbackfromMonica McWilliams,31October2022.
98 MonicaMcWilliams,StandUpandSpeakOut,2021,BlackstaffPresspp.168and200.
peace process, and mostly outside the country, she notes the need for more such ‘social gathering’andnotjustthepoliticalplenariesorsub-committeeswhereeverythingis much moreformal 99
68. Default options100 and disclosure are other behavioral insights that can similarly be helpfultools.Anexampleofhowpublicpolicyinthehealthsectorcanbenefitfromdefault options shows that the most important influence on the decision as to whether or not someone volunteers to be an organ donor, seems to be the default rule. The designof the processis intentionalinmakingthe desiredoutcome alsotheeasiestchoice.Whenit isan opt-inschemeandpeopleneedtoactivelyconsent(evenifonlybytickingabox),therateis much lower than it is with presumed consent in an opt-out scheme.101 Disclosure on the otherhandprovidesexamplesofhowothersaredoingtoinfluenceactorstowanttobelong or to do as well as or other relevant groups, such as neighbors or colleagues. In the international area, this can refer to other regions or countries who have done better on women’sparticipationfromwomeninelectionstopastorpresentpeaceprocesses. Sharing suchinformationcanalsohelpestablishanorm,aspeopleareconditionallycooperativeand more likely to contribute when others do so as well, although research refers to more mundane daily tasks performed by large parts of a populationalsoreferredto as ‘herding behavior’.Thosestudies,however,suggestthepossibilityofturningdescriptivenorms–in thosecaseswhatmanypeoplearealreadydoing–intoprescriptivenorms-bysimplytelling peopleaboutit.102Transferringthistoamediationsetting,theadvicewouldbetonotlament the lack of women in peace processes, but instead highlighting inspirational inclusivity undertakings and other good efforts being done on WPS, where women and women civil society groups have participated and a gender lens has beenapplied in deliberations and agreements.
Process Design: Polarity Thinking
69. Polarity thinking is an approach and a tool, and way of thinking that allows one to approach complex challenges in perhaps a more productive, transformative, creative, and ongoingwaysthatshiftmindsetsformoresustainableoutcomesthataremoreholisticand organic. Polarity thinking focuses on tensions or dilemmas to be managed rather than problems to be solved, approaching human relationships and systems with a ‘both-and’ mindset rather than an ‘either-or’. This could be thought of in terms of distinguishing betweentechnicalproblemsandadaptivechallengeswhere‘either/or’solutionsthinkingis usefulinresolvingtheformer,whilethelatterinvolvesdilemmaswith noknownsolutions
99 MonicaMcWilliamsfeedback,31October2022.
100 Defaultoptionsare‘pre-setcoursesofactionthattakeeffectifnothingisspecifiedbythedecisionmaker’, Thaler&Sunstein,2008.
101 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14494035.2018.1511188 referringtoBovens,L.(2009). Theethicsofnudge.InT.Grüne-Yanoff&S.O.Hansson(Eds.), Preference Change,Chapter10,207–219. Netherlands,Dordrecht:Springer.Whiletheuseofbehavioralinsightsmayraisesomeethicaldilemmas,we donotbelievethatinthecontextofstrategiesfocusedonenhancinggloballyacceptedhumanrights standardsonwomen’srightsandgenderequalitythatsuchethicalconcernsarewarranted.
102 BohnetWhatWorks,GenderEqualitybyDesign,p.245
involving underlying dynamics that are not necessarily solvable. One can “recognize adaptive challenges when there is chronic, reoccurring crisis, tension, conflict, failure etc. Thesechronicsituationsarenottechnicalproblemsto‘fix’.” 103 Butratherrealitiesoflifeto benavigated.
70. Anillustrativeexampletocomparetechnicalproblemsandadaptivechallengesmightbe heart surgery that redirects clogged arteries. “Surgery is a technical fix to a technical problem.Surgerywillstabilizeapatient.However,afterthesurgery,thepatientisfacedwith changingher/hisdietandlifestyle,forever,ifs/heistoavoidheartdisease.Thesurgeryisa technical solution to a technical problem. Either extend your life by doing it or don’t. The resultant diet and lifestyle challenge is an adaptive challenge that never goes away. An adaptive challenge ischaracterized bythe people involved beingboth partof the problem (poorlifestyle/diet)andbeingessentialtoasustainedoutcome.Ifthepatientdoesnotadapt, s/hewillrelapse”.104Forthepurposeofthispaper,embracingwomenandwomen'srightsmightbeakintoalifestylechallengeformanymeninsituationsofviolentconflict.
71. Inthisway,polaritiesareunderstoodasparadoxes,oppositestrengths,chronictensions, contradictions, dualities, or dichotomies – all of which can characterize peace processes, mediationpractices,genderroles,women’srightsadvocacyandstrugglesforpoliticalpower and participation. And although there may be clear technical tactics to stabilize violent tensions, establish a ceasefire, or draft a peace agreement, history shows that peace is sustainedwhenpeopleadapttonewwaysofleadingandrelating,governingandcoexisting… “recognisingthattransformationisinfactintensionwithcontinuity,andweneedtodoboth forenduringsuccess.”105 Thiswayofthinking embracesthatwhichisbothinterdependent and contradictory. In other words, “transforming stability created in a technical ceasefire intosustained,positivepeaceisanadaptivechallengefilledwithmanyunknownsandmany interdependentpolarities…Polaritiesareinherentlyadaptivechallengesinthatonecannot
“Transforming stability created in a technical ceasefire into sustained, positive peace is an adaptive challenge filled with many unknowns and many interdependent polarities…Polarities are inherently adaptive challenges in that one cannot focus on one pole of the pair as a “solution” to the neglect of the other pole and expect sustained ‘equilibrium’ to result.”
103 RobertGordon,LeadingUNPeaceOperationsComplimentingaLeader-CenteredApproach,International ForumfortheChallengesofPeaceOperations,2017,p.10https://dam.gcsp.ch/files/doc/leading-un-peaceoperations
104 Ibid.
105 FleurHeyworth,DiversityandInclusion:ApplyingAncientWisdomtoShiftMindsetsforMoreSustainable Outcomes,GCSP,2019,https://www.gcsp.ch/global-insights/diversity-and-inclusion-applying-ancientwisdom-shift-mindsets-more-sustainable
focus on one pole of the pair as a “solution” to the neglect of the other pole and expect sustained‘equilibrium’toresult.”106
72. An example of a polarity dynamic in the peace-building space is that of the need to recognize both local and national interests. Focus onnational interests (tothe negationof localinterests),andthesystembecomescentralizedandmoreauthoritarian.Fractionalized entirely into local interests (to the negation of common interests), and an ever-present imbalance ofcriticalresources,forexample,willoftenleadtoconflict. Engaging bothlocal and national/commoninterest is essential to durable peace.107 This tensionis mirrored at theregional andinternational levels,not least with regard totheinternational framework onwomen’srightsandgenderequality–allofwhichmustbeaddressedtodifferentdegrees andinvaryingways.Theyrepresentaninterdependentpolarity.
73. This approach to addressing conflict and complex tensions is similar to the social psychology theory of Adam Kahane, particularly his theory on stretch collaboration. This theoryrejectstraditionalnotionsofcollaboration–thosethatemphasizecontrol,harmony, certainty and compliance.Rather,the theoryembraces the messyrealities of discord, trial anderrorandco-creationwhereengagingdifferenceanddisagreeingaretwoopposingbut necessary forces of the same process. He claims, “The bar for making progress in difficult challenges is not therefore as high as most people think: we do not need to agree on the solutionorevenwhattheproblemis”. 108 Thiswayofthinking,mediatingandleadingpeace processes hastremendouspotentialtochangebehaviorstowardgreaterinclusionwithout necessarilyconvincingallstakeholdersfirstthatinclusivityisimportantorvaluable.
74. AlsosimilartopolaritythinkingisrecentresearchbyProfessorIrene Bruna Seubased oninterviewingmediatorsfromaroundtheworld.Shefoundthatmostparticipantsviewed shiftingconflictparties’ mindsetofhowtheyperceivetheiropponents asa keyoutcomeof peacemediation.109
75. Shiftingmindsetisalonganddelicateprocess,butonewherethegoalistoenableparties tomovefromaframeofwartooneofpeace,afundamentalpsychologicalshiftinmindset that the mediator needs to foster. Polarity thinking provides anopportunity to widenthe focus of mindsets for mediators and conflict parties even during the urgent time of the negotiation process. The potential positive impacts for polarity thinking, however, extend beyond this limited timeframe and have long-term transformative possibilities for those involved.
106 RobertGordon,LeadingUNPeaceOperationsComplimentingaLeader-CenteredApproach,International ForumfortheChallengesofPeaceOperations,2017,p.12https://dam.gcsp.ch/files/doc/leading-un-peaceoperations
107 Ibid
108 AdamKahane, Collaborating with the Enemy: How to work with people you don’t agree with or like or trust. 2017.
109 Seu,I.B.StatesofMindinConflict:Enhancingapsychologicalunderstandingofpeacemediation,2022, https://crehr.bbk.ac.uk/SOMIC-final-report
76. This shift involves important and unavoidable psychological processes, including the expression of anger and emotions and allowing the parties to articulate the pains and suffering that they have caused each other. Some of this deep sharing, also akin to ‘storytelling’mightbedoneone-on-onewiththemediatoratfirstandisanimportantaspect oftheconflictpartieshavingtheirstoriesheardandvalidated,whilealsoengagingatamore personalandrelationallevelwiththosewhorepresentopposingvaluesandexperiences.
77. From a psychologist’s perspective, Professor Seu points out the need for mediationto engage with emotions and that storytelling is notonlya means to feel heard but also a key tool in processingtrauma.Shenotesthatconflictparties will not be able to engage with finding solution beforetheyhavefinishedwiththestorytellingof theirgrievancesandthat the keyoutcomeofthe processisnottogetthepartiestoagreebuttoget them to listen to one another and understand what is being said, - the long and necessary processofrehumanizingtheenemy-eveniftheydonotagree.Thisspeakstothepossibility of hearing and engaging with a completely different narrative of what has happened.110 MareikeSchomerus,whowasanunofficialobserveroftheJubatalks,referredtoearlier,and who hadunusualaccesstoconductaseriesofexclusiveinterviewswiththeLordResistance ArmyinnorthernUgandaduringtheirpeaceprocessfrom 2005-2008,similarlyfoundthat theinterpersonaldynamicsaroundthetalkswereasimportantastheformal andtechnical aspectsofthenegotiationsindeterminingifpeacecouldbefound. Shefoundthatthesigning ofapeaceagreementasthemeasureofsuccessismisplaced,astheprocessitself,wherethe internaldynamicsofloyaltiesandotherchallengesarebeingsorted,isasimportantasany agreement itself. She points to the “finerpoliticalcontext suchas the internal dynamicsof negotiators, the memories and narratives of the war and previous attempts to end it, and cruciallythechangingperspectivesofindividualswithinthegroupofnegotiatorsastheygo throughtheprocessofnegotiation”.111Inaddition,thetechniqueofinvolvingconflictparties injointcollaborativeactivitiesisrecognizedingrouppsychologyascreatingasharedgroup identity which, however temporary,is the first steptowards seeing theotherasa partner ratherthananenemy.
The potential positive impacts for polarity thinking, however, extend beyond this limited timeframe and have long-term transformative possibilities for those involved.
78. These psychological perspectives speak to the usefulness of polarity thinking, namely that conflict parties can be assisted to see and understand different perspectives simultaneouslytocreatewin-winsituations,whileengaginginpolaritymapping,asfurther explained and illustrated below. Polarity thinking and polarity mapping are equally importantinexpandingtheissuesontheagendaofthenegotiation,assimplyaddingwomen toa“power-ladenprocessdoesnotofferatransformativeshifttothedeeplymilitarized,and thushighlygenderedorderaccordingtowhich mostformalpeaceprocessnegotiationsare
110 Ibidp.17
111 MareikeSchomerus,TheLord’sResistanceArmy:ViolenceandPeacemakinginAfrica,2021,Cambridge UniversityPress,p.13.
structured” . 112 In this way, while polarity thinking leads to a more inclusive process and whilethatdoesnotautomaticallymeantheinclusionofwomen,itcanbeacriticalentrypoint forwomen’sparticipationfromallsides
79. ProfessorSeufoundtwokeyarchetypesofpracticesemergedfromthedataandresearch she conducted with mediation practitioners from across the world: (1) practitioners, ‘the realist, big power’campas elite, Track 1 mediationand (2) the ‘hippy-dippy’ camp,which she broadly understood as “peacebuilding and transformative practices”, although mediators often engage in a fluid and dynamic variety of practices that bridge these differences.Broadlyspeaking,thepower-basedapproachappliespsychologyinstrumentally andispredominantinTrack1mediationwhereparticipantsaretheofficialrepresentatives ofthe parties,while transformational practice apply psychologyrelationallyand are more predominant in Track 2 and 3. In summary, the data suggest that Track 1 is not sufficiently equippedwithpsychologicalskillsand agility,but itisalsoexcessivelyinformedbyabasicconviction that transformation can be realized primarily or exclusivelythroughpowerbrokering.Tracks2and 3lackstatusandquestionthatthepowercentered approach is a useful part of peace processes,thus disavowing the instrumental and power-based aspectsintheirownpractices.Inthissense,tracks undermine each other, rather than build on the complementaritybetweenthem.
The interpersonal dynamics around the talks were as important as the formal and technical aspects of the negotiations in determining if peace could be found.
80. Professor Seu notes the lack of connectivity between different stages and aspects of mediation and peace building as problematic for a variety of reasons. She underlines the need to engage with differences in assumptions, practices and theories of changes, while uncoupling them from their deterministically attributed tracks, to understand where and howconnectivitybetweentracks happensorfails.Itisinidentifyingcomplementarityand opportunity for cross-fertilization happens. Professor Seu recommends a more fluid and balanced distribution of skills across tracks, particularly in terms of injecting relational aspectsintoTrack1practices,andTrack1needingtoreflectontheperceivedrigidityofits protocols and how it may foreclose opportunities for relational progress in mediation leading to sustainable peace that many lament.113 It is possible that a polarity mapping looking atthevalues anddownsidesofTrack 1mediationandTrack 2 and 3would reveal manyofthe samevaluesandfears thatbecomeapparentinthebelowexerciseofpossible aspectsofthepolarityinvolvingholdingpowerandsharingpower,oftenakeygrievancein manyconflictsituations.
112 AlexandraK.McAuliff,PeaceNegotiationsasSitesofGenderedPower Hierarchies, International Negotiation, [Received4January2022;accepted14July]2022
113 Seu,I.B.StatesofMindinConflict:Enhancingapsychologicalunderstandingofpeacemediation,2022,p. 74,,https://crehr.bbk.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/SOMIC-Final-Report-v2-FINAL-web.pdf
81. Ifweapplythesefindingstopolaritythinking,itisanexampleofmediatorsandconflict parties focusing more onone pole to the detriment of the other. The box text on polarity thinkingandmappingbelow,willfurtherexplainwhythisistobeavoided.Thesebiasescan haverealconsequences,notleastduringthenegotiationofpeaceagreements,wherecritical decisionsaremadethatshapefuturepower-sharingordevelopmentframeworksforsociety. During more comprehensive peace negotiation, as opposed to peace agreements more limited in scope, (such as a ceasefire), track 1 negotiation might set aside as non-urgent agenda items and gendered issues of great importance to women. Suchissues caninclude aspects of constitutional reform, covering issues with long-lasting effects for girls’ and women’seducationalandemploymentaccess,votingandinheritancerights,whicharethen not afforded the involvement of women and gender experts, nor the seriousness or time required.Whilepolaritythinkingandmappingdoesnotensuregenderequalityoutcomes,it isahelpfultoolandcanbeutilizedwhere such discussionsare notperceivedas helpfulor welcomed by the conflict parties. Inthose situations, it canbe employed akin to ‘a Trojan Horse’formovinginthatdirection,asitopensupthespaceforawiderdialoguethatrequires abroadergroupofstakeholders,by design,toreflectthebroaderperspectivesof different societalgroups,andhenceamorecomprehensiveagendaforthesubsequentpeacetalks.114 Theintentionis to not only broadenthe agenda and stakeholders inthe polarity mapping process,buttoalsobroadentherangeofparticipantsintheactualpeacetalks.
Polarity Mapping for Mediators
What is a polarity?
Violentconflictischaracterizedbydivision.Thepositionsadoptedbypartiesoftenappeartobein direct contradiction and at times as unresolvable paradoxes, such as the holding and sharing of power. Inthesecircumstances,solutionscanpresentthemselvesas‘either/or’dilemmastobesolved –as‘tradeoffs’thatmustbemadetoendviolence.Polaritythinkingisamindsetthatallowsustosee thatsome‘either/or’choicesmayneedtobemadeintheshortterm.However,inordertoresolve conflictsustainably,wesimultaneouslyneedtoembraceandaddresstheunderlyingparadoxesthat arisefromcompetingneeds,interestsandvalues.
Rather than seeing the positions of the parties as ‘right or wrong’, polarity thinking allows us to examine the wisdom in the paradox. In some situations, this may be a question of sequencing, however,thekeyistorecognizethatifthereisanoverfocusononepoletotheneglectoftheother situationwillinevitablydeteriorateintoviolentconflictagain. Polaritymappingallowsustoidentify thecompetingneeds,interestsandvalues,aswellasthosethatareshared,andtodeviseactionsteps toworkwithboth,andflagearlywarningsignsthatthataviciouscycleis(re-)emerging.
If a mediator is to do more than simply broker short-term compromises they must find ways to reframetheconflictandencouragepartiestoseekwin-winsolutionsthatwillsustainpeacefulcoexistenceovertime.Formediatorstomovepartiesbeyondtheirpositionsandavoidgettingstuckin solvingshort-termproblemsalonetheymustacknowledgetheinterdependentrelationshipbetween each of the parties and the issues which resulted in the conflict in the first place. For example,
114 Withoutbroaderstakeholderengagement,theelitemaleconflictpartynegotiatorsmayendupnegotiating apowersharingagreementbetweenthem.
brokeringaceasefirebothsilencesthegunswhileitcanalsobeusedasanopportunitytohighlight the shared interest they havein stability. Sharedinterests can includebeing able to address the humanitarian needs of their constituencies,engage intradeand other formsof relations between them.
Polarity ThinkingPrincipalsandPolarity Mapsaretoolsdevelopedby BarryJohnsonin1975that enable us to make polarities more understandable, actionable and leverageable. Most of us are educatedwithaproblem-solvingmindset,whichencouragesustomovefromonestate/positionto a better one. Inmany situations this servesus well, andwecanreach solutions. However, some tensions that exist in life are not ‘solvable’, particularly whenit comes to power, change, and the needs of individuals and groups. Polarity thinking is therefore a powerful tool which allows mediators to reframe a situation, and to work with complexity and competing needs and values, whicharisefromtheirinterdependence. Italsoallowsthemtorecognizeandworkwiththeparties’ perceptionsandemotions,includinghopesandfears,andforthemediatorthemselvestorecognize thelimitationsoftheir ownperspectives. Thisisparticularly powerfulwhenitcomestowomen’s roleinmediation,wherewomenareoftenchallengingpowerstructuresanddrivingchange.
How do Polarities work?
Therearemultiplepotentialpolaritiesatplayinanygivensituation. Identifyingwhattheyareisa critical first step in mediator preparedness. It can be done as part of conflict analysis and conversationswiththepartiestounderstandtheirneeds,values,hopesandfears. Therearesome commonpolaritiestolookoutfor. Polaritiesarisewhereverthereisapartandawhole:itisnoteasy tomeettheneedsof anindividualandagroup,or acommunity andanationstateequitably over time.Polaritiesalso arisewhenever thereischangeor transition, whichis alwaysin tension with continuityandstability.
Eachpoleofapolarityhasabenefitor‘upside’andlimitsor‘downsides’. Bothmustbeacknowledged tobesuccessfulovertime.Considerinhalingandexhaling. Weneedtoinhaletogetoxygen,butifwe inhalefortoolong,wegetabuild-upofcarbondioxide. Wethenneedtoexhaletoremovecarbon dioxide,butifweexhalefortoolong,wesufferfromalackofoxygen.
● Polaritiesareinterdependentsoyoucannotchooseonepoleofthepairasa‘solution’tothe neglectoftheotherpole.Ifyouoverfocusononetotheneglectofanotherortreateitherpole as a technical ‘problem to solve’ without considering the other pole which you need to respondandadaptto,youwillremaintrappedinchronicconflictor‘viciouscycles’. Consider justice and reconciliation. We need to have fairness between people and laws to protect individualsandcommunities,tocreateaccountabilityandresponsibility,andUNmediators cannot endorse peace agreements that provide amnesties for genocide, crimes against humanity,warcrimesorgrossviolationsofhumanrights,includingsexualandgender-based violenceinconflict. However,ifweonlyfocusonjusticetotheneglectofreconciliationinthe longerterm,cyclesofhatredandviolencecanpassthroughgenerationsandwecanbecome punitive of others, intolerant, and tend towards cruelty rather than compassion and understanding.
● Theshorterthecycletimeofthepolarity,suchasbreathing,themoreobviousitisthatone is in a polarity; the longer the polarity cycle time like justice and reconciliation, the more likelythepolaritywillbeseenasaproblemtosolveorasatechnicalfix.
● The natural tensions within the polarities can be leveraged to become a positive self-reenforcingloop,or‘virtuouscycle’. Ifwetakestepstopracticeourbreathingandexerciseto increaseourcapacitytoinhaleandexhale,wecanincreaseourhealthandwellbeing. Ifwe developstructuresandculturesthatvalueandrewardbothjusticeandreconciliation,wecan developsafe,cohesiveandcompassionatesocieties.
The example of Women’s Inclusion in Peace Mediation:
Increased inclusion and representation of women in peace mediation is an issue which prompts disagreement. Proponents arguethatwomen’sinclusionisnecessary on thebasis ofequality, and that it improves the sustainability of resulting outcomes. Opponents point to the alleged incompatibility of women’s inclusion with cultural and religious norms, as well as the risks of includingtoobroadofastakeholdergroupandspectrumofissuesonthenegotiatingagenda,making theprocesstoocomplexforresolution.Discussionofthisissuehasbecomepolarizedasaresult. However, when framed in the context of achieving a shared goal such as sustainable peace, the polaritiestoolcanbeusedtoidentifyinmoredetailwhatthebenefitsofeachare,whatfearsmaybe drivingresistance,and,crucially,whatspecificactionscanbetakentoleveragetheupsidesofboth poles. Thishelpstounderstandthereasonsfor resistanceandtobreakdownbarrierstoeffective communication.
Step one: Identify the goal and the risks
Risk:
Goal: Inclusion of women (with the aim of more sustainable outcome)
Loss of consent and identities because of incompatibility with local norms
Making the agenda too broad
Creating backlash against women
Step 2: Identify the relevant ‘poles’ that are at play
Behindthegoalsandtherisksareadeepersetofoutcomesthataresought.Forexample,inclusionis a form of sharing power which increases diversity and promotes human rights. This can appear challengingtothosewhofearthatsuchdiversitywillmaketheagendatoobroad,orcreateinstability inthesystem. Eachofthepolesrepresentsaparticularoutcomethatissought.
These outcomes are, in turn, underpinned by habits, hopes, values, doubts and fears about the unknown,andsingularnarrativeswhichleadtoanoverfocusononepoletotheneglectofanother. For example,thosewhofavorholdingpowerwhoresistcallsfor greaterinclusionmayfearlossof privilege,status,controlandinfluence,andathreattothestatusquo.Thosewhofavorsharingpower throughaninclusiveprocessorprovisionsinapeaceagreement-maybeexperiencingexclusionand marginalization, and fear that their needsor those of diverse groupsmay not be met. Often, this entailsfundamentalreformthatcancreateuncertaintyanddisagreementarounddesiredoutcomes. Thesecompetingapproachescanleadtopolarizationandconflict.Withtherisingtensionbetween internationalnormsandlocaltraditions,understandingthevaluesandpolaritiesatplayisevermore criticalformediatorstobeeffective.Polarity thinkingandmappingisthereforeapowerfultoolto helpmediatorstofacilitatedialogue.Ratherthanseeingthechallengeasapowerstruggle,itcanbe reframedas: howdowe enableeffective decision-making, stability,traditions and customs whilst buildingrepresentativeandaccountableinstitutionsthatmeetthediverseneedsofthepopulation?
Thereareupsidesanddownsidestobothoftheseapproaches.Whenseenobjectively,itiseasy to seethevalueinbothpolesandhowovertimethereisaneedtopayattentiontobothtobuildtrust, andpositive,sustainablepeace.ThePolaritymapshowsthepotentialupsidesanddownsidesofeach approach,alongwithactionstepstohelpnavigatethepolarity.
Step 3: Map the Polarity
Withinmediator preparedness andconflictanalysis,it should becomeclear which tensions are at play,andwhatthegreaterpurposeis. Mediatorsandconflictpartiescouldstartwitheitherthepoles orthesharedgreaterpurposeanddeepestfear–whichevermakesmostsense,butbothneedtobe establishedbeforemappingthequadrants. Then,onestartstoidentifythevaluesandfearsatplay bylookingatwhatthepositivesanddownsidesareandthemappingprocesshelpstoelicithowthe valuesandfearsrelatetooneanother.Themappingalsoallowsmediatorstobemoreanalyticaland objective as they develop the quadrants and see how they relate to one another. Critical in this process,isthepolaritycycle,orthemovementthroughthe“figure-eight”arrow.Itmattershowfast orslowpartiesmovethroughthiscycle,andwhetherornottheygetstuckattendingtoonlyonepole. Continualmovementisessentialtomaintaininganunderstandingofbothpolesandworkingtoward sustainablepeace.
SOURCE:©AdaptedfromworkbyFleurHeyworth&CatherineTurner,GenevaCentreforSecurity Policy&DurhamUniversity,2022.
82. Polaritythinkingandpolarity mapping meetsmanyofthegoalsidentifiedby Professor Seu,namelyensuringcomplementarityandbetterbalancingbetweentheprioritiesofwhat shelabels‘elitemediation’and‘transformationalpractices’forlackofabetterword.
83. Polarity mapping is a tool for dialogue that, as indicated, can help people to see and understand different perspectives as well as the limitations of their own. The process requirestimeandthoughtfulpreparationtoassisttheconflictpartiesinsetting theagenda forthe mediationprocesswithagreedpriorityareasin aconstructive andforwardleaning way. Such an approach can help ensure it gets the inputs and ownership of the conflict partiesandallrelevantstakeholders.Thismightrequireinitialsessionstothinkthroughthe issues with each conflict party separately before engaging in a joint mapping exercise for each of the overarching identified areas, where different stakeholders can share their experiences,values andfearswiththeopposing side(s).Thisis anarea whereexpertisein psychology, including group psychology, is needed to help manage the transition to somethingunknown,whilestillholdingontowhatisknown.
84. Polaritiesatthesocietallevelarelikelytoincludesomeofthefollowingareas:115
● HoldPowerANDSharePower
115 GCSPAnnualReport,GCSP,2021,https://www.gcsp.ch/global-insights/gcsp-annual-report-2021.
● StateSecurityANDHumanSecurity
● UniqueCulturalandEthnicIdentitiesANDCommonHumanRights/Needs
● JusticeANDBroaderReconciliationEfforts
● NationalInterestsANDGlobal/Regional/LocalInterests
● InformationSharingANDInformationSecurity
This is an area where expertise in psychology, including group psychology, is needed to help manage the transition to something unknown, while still holding on to what is known.
Guidelines for Mediators: The EAST Framework
85. The systematic integration between behavioral insight and policy-making, at least at official national levels,beganwith the establishment of the Behavioral Insight Team(BIT) within the UK government in 2010. This team of ex-civil servants, policy specialists and academics from disciplines including behavioural economics, social psychology, neuroscience and anthropology developed a simple policy framework based on four principles meant to identify the most relevant behavioural insights that can be applied to policychallenges.116 Whilemanyoftheseinsightscanbecombined,theframeworkdoesnot seek to be comprehensive. Rather, it is intended to find entry points to shift behavior and change policy outcomes. In this context, we are seeking to address not only relational elements of inclusion, but also how inclusion will inform the substantive issues on the agenda Giventhetimepressurethatoftenaccompaniesapeaceprocess,thisframeworkcan be helpful in identifying short term tactics that help change behaviors and structures by design, while workinginparallelwith affecting thelonger-termtransformativework.This workismeaningfulandcanevenbecomesustainablewhenitbeginstochipawayatdeeplyrootedculturalbeliefs.
86. BelowweapplytheEASTFrameworkanditsfourprinciples–easy,attractive,socialand timely-topeace processes.Weoutlinethebasiccommitments driving theframeworkand offer some concrete examples that we hope will generate creative ideation and further thinking on the development and implementation of this framework for mediators and conflict parties. The EAST framework offers short term tactics that complement polarity thinking and its focus on changing mindsets in transformative ways. Further, polarity mapping is acomponentthatcandrawuponand enhancetheguidelinesbelow. Tobegin, polaritythinkingasanapproachencouragesthecreativethinkingandopencommunication necessary for adapting the framework to unique conflict contexts. We see these two approachesasparallelstrategiesworkingtogetherandintersectinginvaluableways.
116 OwainService,MichaelHallsworth,DavidHalpern,FelicityAlgate,RoryGallagher,SamNguyen,Simon Ruda,MichaelSanders,TheBehaviouralInsightsTeam,2010, https://www.bi.team/wpcontent/uploads/2015/07/BIT-Publication-EAST_FA_WEB.pdf
87. Thisprinciplestartswiththequestion:howcanwedesignpeaceprocesses forconflict partiessothattheoutcomeofinclusivityandmeaningfulparticipationfromdiversegroups of society can become an easier option? This means simplifying messages, reducing any hassleorobstacleassociatedwiththiseffort,andevenmakingthisoptionthedefaultoption. This begins with a focus on mediationstrategies and the skills of mediators. Whereas the role of the mediator is influenced by the nature of the relationship with the parties, mediators often have significant room to make procedural proposals and to manage the process.117 Mediatorscanalsoclarifythatthegoalofnegotiationistogettotherootcauses, allowingthemediatortoaddressbroaderordeeperissuesthatcontributedtotheconflictin thefirstplace.Thisisthepointatwhichpolaritythinkingcanbeintroducedtoreframethe negotiationprocessas partofa peaceprocessthatwillbeanongoing dialogueratherthan simplytheendofviolentwarfare.
88. Forexample,inadditiontothemediatorpubliclyadvocatingfortheinclusionofwomen, therebyalsoprovidingspaceforwomenleadersandcivilsocietyorganizationstoadvocate inparallel,themediator’sinvitationtotheformalpeacetalkscouldsimplyoutlinetheneed fordiversityofdelegatesofbothmenandwomenfromvariousgeographic,ethnic,religious and age groups, and other representations. The invitation may be designed so that only female names or only male names might be added, making the default option a certain percentageofmenandwomen.
89. Messagingmightalsobesimplifiedtoframeparticipationrequestintermsofspecifying nomorethan2/3ofanygender,ornotingamaximumofanygenderby30,40oreven50 percenttomovethefocustotheneedforcreatingmoreofa‘balance’tothebenefitofsociety atlarge,i.e.notaquestionofexcludingmen.Thisagainspeakstotheimportanceoflanguage. Researchhasfoundthatframingcontroversialoptionswithnounsasopposedtoverbs,can significantlylowerparticipants’resistancetocertainactions.
90. This illustrates the subtle differences the mediator needs to keepin mind for framing choices or presenting options, including utilizing the concept of choice architecture, when seekingtocreateamoreconduciveatmosphereduringanegotiation.Inthisspecificcontext, thiscouldalsomeansubtlechangesreferringto‘theinclusionofwomen’,asopposedtousing theverbspecifyingtheconflictparties‘include’women.118
117 https://peacemaker.un.org/resources/guidance-effective-mediation
118Psycholinguisticresearchontheroleoflanguageingeneratingemotionstoexploreanovel,extremelysubtle means of intervention. Phrasing conflict-relevant policies in noun form (vs. verb form) has been shown to reduce anger and impact policy support correspondingly. In the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, severalexperimentsweredonetogaugereactionstopresentationsofstatementsusingthenounvstheverb form,e.g.“IsupportthedivisionofJerusalem”,vs.“IsupportdividingJerusalem”.Participantswereasked to indicate the extenttowhich theywould feel anger towardsthe state ofIsrael ifthe concessionsin question wereactuallygranted.Presentingthestatementsinnounformshowedastatisticallysignificantdifferencein reducing feelings of anger. The same results were evident with other related noun-structured statements, again showingnotablymoresupportforconcessionsalongwithlessenthusiasmforretaliatorypolicies,and
91. Payingcloseattentiontothemeetingsoutsidetheactualplenary,includingmakingtime tosystematically meet withwomenindividuallyand/oras a group(s) and the significance thiscansignalastotheirimportance
● Advocate for the mediation process’ codes of conduct or agreed guiding principles, to commit conflict parties to abide by human rights, including the inclusion of women’s participation.
● Advocate for women’s inclusion publicly, including principles and targets on inclusion andgenderbalanceinpositivetermsandrefer to other relevant frameworks on WPS or processes, where other conflict parties have includedwomen’sparticipation.
Presenting the statements in noun form showed a statistically significant difference in reducing feelings of anger.
● Advocate for including women in conflict parties’negotiationteams.Ifneeded,‘reserved seats’or‘use-it-orloseit’seatsforwomenasa standard good practice, rather than using the term quotas which can be controversial 119 Mediators should note that women are also combatants in some conflict contexts, althoughtheyoftenlackleadershippositions.
● Advocateconsistentlyforwomenandcivilsocietyparticipationatalllevels,suchasthe inclusion of independent delegations, consisting of women CSOs, including women’s rightsexpertsandothers.
● Considerestablishinginclusionmechanisms,suchaswomenandcivilsocietyplatforms, toserveasmechanismstostrengthenthemediationprocesstoenableaccesstoabroad anddiverserangeofperspectives,aswellasameansofleveragingtheroleofcivilsociety, including women with relevant experiences and expertise, in the peace process. Such stakeholdergroupswouldberelevantactorsforpolaritymappingexercises.
● Ensure that an inclusion strategy for women’s participation, - as well as that of other marginalizedgroups-areanintegralpartoftheoverallpoliticalworkandprocessdesign aspectsofthemediationstrategy.
● Drawupaninvitationthatoutlinestheneed fordiversityofdelegates ofbothmenand women(e.g.geographic,ethnicandreligiousrepresentation,youthetc).
hence impactingpolicysupportcorrespondingly. See, for example, OrlyIdan, Eran Halpperin, Boaz Hameiri, Michal Reifen Tagar, ARose byAnyOther Name?ASubtle LinguisticCue ImpactsAngerand Corresponding PolicySupportinIntractableConflict,PsychologicalScience,SAGEJournals,2018 https://journals.sagepub.com/action/doSearch?content=articlesChapters&countTerms=true&target=default &field1=AllField&text1=Psycholinguistic+research+on+the+role+of+language+&field2=AllField&text2=&pub lication%5B%5D=pssa&Ppub=&Ppub=&AfterYear=&BeforeYear=&earlycite=on&access=
119 TheCommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomen(CEDAW)isclear:measuresforde factoequalityofwomenarenotdiscrimination.“Temporaryspecialmeasuresarespecificallypermitted underanti-discriminationlegislationorotherconstitutionalguaranteesofequality”inordertoclose“thegap betweenthedejureanddefacto’inequality.INT_CEDAW_GEC_3733_E.pdf(ohchr.org)withGeneral Recommendation23andGeneralRecommendation25onTemporarySpecialMeasures(TSMs).
● Promote an invitation that includes an empty list for delegates names to be filled in, indicatingMrs/Ms,upfront,followedbyMr.(tohelpalleviatenotionthatmenwillneed tostepasidetomakeroomforwomen).120
● Considerproceduralshiftsduringpeacetalksthatensurewomen’saccesstospeakingon moreequalparwithmaledelegates.
● Paycloseattentiontolanguage,e.g.includingthepossibleuseofnounsinsteadofverbs forissuesthatmightbedeemedcontroversial,suchaswomen’sparticipation.
● Include staff on the mediation team with expertise in psychology, including group psychology.
Attractive
Rewards and material incentives are clearly attractive and influential, but this principle also pushes one to consider what else might be appealing.
92. Incentives have always been a part of negotiation and mediation because we know from past experience, as well as from behavioral insights, that attractive offerings can impact human behavior. Such incentives for men on delegations who hold power can vary.Itoftenstartsbypointingoutthatgreaterdiversityandinclusionreflectedinpolicies anddecisionsmadecaninthelonger-termleadtogreaterlegitimacy,ownershipandbuy-in fromthe people theylead. Enhancedcredibilitycanalsocomefromnational,regionaland international stakeholders, – including what this could entail for future re-election prospects.
93. Othereffortscanbetoworkwithdonorstodevelopgender-targeted funding.Thiscan include immediate needs as well as additional funding in the implementation and peacebuilding phase for meeting or surpassing targets for women’s participation in the peaceprocess,andasbeneficiariesandimplementersofapeaceagreement.
94. Rewardsandmaterialincentivesareclearlyattractiveandinfluential,butthisprinciple also pushes one to consider what else might be appealing. What else gets attention? How mightimages,personalizationandcolors(includingthecolorofthewallsin theroomused fornegotiationsandits possibleimpactsonthedelegations)beusedtoshiftbehavior?For example,scholarIrisBohnetencouragesustolookatthephotosofpeopleonthewallswhere we work. What would it mean to use images of people from diverse populations within a society, including women leaders, women farmers, etc. in the halls and rooms of a peace process?
● Remindconflictpartiesofthepotentialbenefitsofgreaterdiversityandinclusion,such as greater legitimacy, ownershipand buy-in fromsurrounding communities, including enhancedcredibilityfromvariousactorsandstakeholders,locally,nationally,regionally andinternationally.Considerthemessengerofthisinformationaswellaspotentialrole
120 WhilethedesignationofMrs/MsandMrpresentsimportantchallengesformoreinclusive,non-binary genderapproaches,webelievethiswouldonlyaddanadditionalbarriertowomen’sparticipationatthis time.
models.121 Offeroutreachtopotentialdonorgovernment(s),whomightbeopentooffer funding for immediate needs as well as additional funding in the implementation and peacebuildingphaseformeetingorsurpassingtargetsforwomen’sparticipationinthe peaceprocess,andasbeneficiariesandimplementersofapeaceagreement.
● More immediate funding could be used to provide exercises in self-reflection in peace leadership, followed by polarity mapping [see below] in a retreat setting, providing delegatesasafeandaccommodatingspaceawaytoencourageparticipation.
● Highlight examples of good and inspirational inclusivity undertakings for women in otherpeaceprocesses.Thiscouldbeintegratedintoaretreatsetting.
● Personalizeinvitationtodelegates–Personalizationofoutreachhasbeenfoundtohave greater effect. Each invitation issued to negotiations or to other aspects of the peace process should be addressed to each individual and position men as agents of change towardsgenderequalitywith messagesthatframegenderequalityas anissueforboth menandwomen.
● Consider the design of hallways and meeting rooms including the possibility of also displayingpicturesofinspirationalwomenleadersfromallwalksoflife. Elevategender diverse heroes. This could also include photos of men, some of whom are fulfilling different roles in society (such as caregiving, men/soldiers with their children for example)challenginggeneralstereotypesofmenasonlyleadersorsoldiersorrebels.
● Use art, music, and meals to encourage basic human connection in the space and to humanizetheexperience.
● Employ self-reflection in peace leadership exercises to engage men-only in personal reflectionsaboutgenderissues. Invitationstoworkshopstoemphasizethattheaimisto learn about their social aspirations and values (not gender head on per say).122 Invite conflict parties and broader stakeholder groups, including various women’s groups to Polarity mapping workshops to identify polarities for the agenda setting and to help guidethe partiestowin-winsolutions,seepara. 78*and highlighted textonpp. 38-42. Consider separate sessions for each side to reach agreed priorities before coming togetherinjointsessionsforfurtherdiscussionstoprovidetheconflictpartieswiththe benefits of dialogue such exercises provide. In this regard, specify that such mapping exercisesdonotcommitthemtospecificlanguageorconcessionsbutratherdialogueto enhance understanding and exchange of information. Such a mapping exercise can provide an entry point for womenand civil society organizations to engage with male conflict parties as well as a “softer landing” for male conflict parties to begin to work alongsidewomen,evenasinterests,values,andfearsmaybeatoppositepoles.
121 Forexample,inconversationswithconflictpartiesfromIslamicbackgrounds,mediatorsmightciteawellknownwifeoftheProphetwhowasknownforprogressivebeliefsonwomen’srights.
122 Seepage9,forresourcesavailablebyorganizationslikeNDI.Otheravailablepartnerscanalsoprovide adviceofpossibleNGOstoworkwithsuchastheLivingPeaceInstitute, http://web.livingpeaceinstitute.org/; andtheMenEngageAlliance,https://menengage.org/etc. Todiscussoptionsforfacilitationofsaidsessions foranyUN-ledorsupportedpeaceprocess,inquiriescanbedirectedtotheGender,PeaceandSecurityUnitin theUN’sPolicyandMediationDivisionintheDepartmentofPoliticalandPeacebuildingAffairsat:dppa-gpsunhq@un.org
● Secure the needed psychological expertise to guide these processes and the mediation processtoensureattentiontotheemotionalaspectsofdealingwiththevaluesandfears oftheconflictpartiesandbroaderstakeholdergroups.
Social
95. Humanbehaviorisdrivenbysocialinteractionandsocializationpracticesmatter.From behavioral science, we know the importance of having the strategically right, in this case preferably male messenger(s) advocate and seekto demonstrate thevalue andbenefitsof inclusivity, to encourage the conflict parties to be more open minded or possibly even welcomingofwomen’sparticipation.
96. Reputationmatters too and peace processescanfosternetworks that enablecollective action,providemutualsupportandencouragecertainbehaviorstospreadpeer-to-peer.In this way, it is important how individuals experience the peace process both within their internal networks and the parties who are part of the process. There are power struggles occurring within and across delegations participating in the peace negotiations and demanding women’s inclusion might only exacerbate this.Thus,wemustencouragemediatorstoconsiderhowtheprocessisbeingexperienced frommultipleperspectives.
The social aspect of the experience is critical in a number of ways. The more structured the process the better.
97. The mediator canencourage conflict parties to take a walk at the outset or later onat varioustimesduringtheprocess,withsomeonefromanopposingsidetheydonotknow,or whotheydonotknowatapersonallevel.Instructthemtofindsomeonewhotheyimagine thinksverydifferentlyfromthem,someonewhotheywouldnotnormallyconceiveofgoing onawalkwith.Invitethepairstogoforawalkandhaveadiscussion.Themediator,tohelp breaktheice,cangiveparticipantsa guidingquestiontodiscussorleavetheconversation open.Aguidingquestiontoavoidupfrontconfrontationontheissuesthathaveledthemto theconflictinthefirstplace,couldbesomethingbothpartieshaveincommon;e.g.discussing the kind of parent or relative they would like to be; what they would like to see for their daughtersorsisters,whataretheirdreams,etc. Werecognizethatthiscanbeamajorleap in vulnerability and openness and may need to be done incrementally: start with the mediatoraskingeachpersontogoaroundtheroomandsharesomethingaboutthemselves; graduatetospeakingone-on-onetothepersonseatednexttoyouintheformalnegotiation settingfortwominutesatthestartofday’sagenda;etc.It’simportantnottounderestimate thepoweroftheemotional(deepanimosity,trauma,vengefulnessetc.)thatmightprevent theseindividualsfromengagingatahumanlevelwithoneanother.
98. AdamKahanehasfoundthatevena20-minutewalkinpairscanmakeabigdifferenceto the productivity andcollaborativecapacityofa diversegroup.123 Accordingto himand his
123 PairedWalk,ReosPartners,2014https://reospartners.com/publications/paired-walk/
colleagues,weoftenunderestimatethepowerofwalkingandtalking.Mostmeetingsareheld sitting in the same chair, which can contribute to remaining rigid in one’s positions and feelingstuck. Bywalkingtogether,the partiescanseek inspiration, perhaps ‘connectwith nature, allow for synchronicities, generate energy and focus and deepen their collective reflections.’124 Afterwards the mediator can ask participants to share in plenary any reflections from their walk, or it may just be something that stays with the participants. Mediatorsmust,ofcourse,beverywaryofhowsocialnormswilllimitandotherwiseshape whenandhowwomen(aswell as menoflowerstatus/rank) canengageinsuchactivities andwhetherornottheyarecomfortableandsecureenoughtodisagree,oriftheywilleven speakatallifmenareintheroom.
99. Thus, the social aspect of the experience is critical in a number of ways. The more structuredtheprocessthebetter.Recentresearchongenderinorganizationalnegotiations findsthemoreambiguitythatcanbeeliminatedthebettersothatparticipantsarelesslikely to fall back on gender stereotypes and cultural contexts.125 In other words, the mediator needs toensurethat the identitiesandexperience ofthose participating areclear.i.e. that the women present, perhaps in an independent delegation, are there based on their experience and expertise, beyond their womanhood. Women must be introduced by their professions (doctor, teacher, business leader) or their experiences (as community leaders from indigenous, religious, rural or other marginalized perspectives) apart from their gender.This further humanizes, personalizes, and simplyleaves less roomfor guess work andpre-conceivedbias.
● Setupthenegotiationprocessso participantstake awalk, ormultiple walksatvarious times inthe mediation processbetweendifferent membersof delegations tohelp ease feelings of rigidity in body and mind and to help re-humanize and start building relationships.Takecaretonotewhatsuchwalksmightmeanformale-femaleinteraction incertainculturalcontexts.Thismayrequireaccompanimentforsomewomen.126
● Consider the value of more ‘social gathering’, e.g. around meals, not only during the formalpoliticalplenariesorsub-committees,asdiscussedinpara.67
124 Ibid
125 HannahRileyBowles,BobbiThomason,InmaculadaMacias-Alonso.“WhenGenderMattersIn OrganizationalNegotiations.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 9: 2022,199-223.https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-055523.
126 Accompaniment,orMahramintheArabiclanguagereferstoamalerelativeincludingthehusbandormen whomwomencannotmarry,includingsons,nephews,anduncles. Conflictcontextscanhaveimplicationsfor women’s participation due to security and mobility restrictions. Risks for women travelling alone, include harassment, abduction, and rape. In some conservative societies, women travelling alone might also have reputationalconsequences.ReligionisanothervariablefortheenforcementofMahrams,inadditiontoculture andtraditions.InLibyain2013-2014,theofficialreligiousinstitutionpronouncingreligiousedictsincluding on the application of Islamic rules in modern day life issued several fatwas re-confirming the obligation of women tobe accompanied byMahramswhen travelling. See:http://ifta.ly/web/index.php/2012-09-04-0955-16/2012-09-29-14-57-15/2012-10-07-10-04-42/2289-2014-11-12-12-27-46 and http://ifta.ly/web/index.php/2012-09-04-09-55-54/1344-2013-05-07-07-51-54
● Promoteconversationsthatprioritizehighqualitylisteningandexchangesthatarenonjudgmental.127 Polaritythinking/mappingasanexerciseisaspacethatencouragessuch communicationskillsandmediatorscanplayakeyroleinmodeling/teachingsuchskills.
● Seek the support of advocates and networks, for peer-to peer support - e.g. respected civilsociety,businessand/orreligiousleaders, possibly assisted by maleAmbassadors frommemberstatessupportiveofinclusionandtheWPSagenda,toengagewithconflict parties also on broader issues but with the intention of also addressing women’s participationandissuesofgenderequality.
● Askconflictpartiestomakecommitments togenderequality,bothintermsofwomen’s participationandinthecontentofanypeaceagreementreached.
● Callmenin–ratherthanout-andappealtothemasagentsofchangeforgenderequality toavoidputtingmenindefensivepostures.
● Framethepromotionofgenderequalityastheresponsibilityandofrelevanceforboth womenandmen.
● Donotlamentthelackofwomeninpeaceprocessesbuthighlightinsteadgoodexamples andallthegoodpracticesandworkbeingdoneonWPS,toinspireconflictpartiestowant to do as well and for them to want to be ‘partoftheclub’
● Remind conflict parties that the WPS Agenda, was an initiative of Namibia and Bangladesh and a global constituency of women civil society groups and women peacebuilders, to help overcome a perceptionthattheWPSAgendaismerely a Western agenda the UN is trying to imposeonconflictparties.
Call men in – rather than out and appeal to them as agents of change for gender equality to avoid putting men in defensive postures.
● Ensure bios or introductions of delegates to the peace process highlight relevant qualifications in order to eliminate as much ambiguity as possible as to why certain individualsareparticipatingintheprocess.
● Introduce women’s groups and networks or organizations of women, including those supportingpeaceeffortsatvariouslevelsandencourageconflictpartiestoengageearly on in the process. Offer to set up and facilitate meetings for easier access before and duringnegotiations.
127ThisstrategydrawsfromKallaandBroockman(2020)whofindinfieldexperimentsthatastrategy involvingindividualattemptstopersuadeanotherpersonbyprovidingtoorelicitingfromthemnarratives aboutrelevantpersonalexperienceswhilenon-judgmentallylisteningtotheviewstheyexpressdoes,infact, reduceexclusionaryattitudes.Mediumsofsharingastorywithoutbeingjudgedcanbeinpersonor through othermediums(video,phone).
Timely
Focusing on behavioral changes rather than changing long held beliefs about gender role is a more promising approach, although the aim is to lay the groundwork for both as parallel strategies.
100. Thetimingoftheactualmediationinitiative depends on a variety of factors that will help determine when the parties are motivated to genuinely engage off the battlefield, as also discussedinpara.25 Acuteculturalawareness ofmediatorsisessentialtohavingleveragewith conflictpartiesandknowingwhentimingwould allow for entry points to make proposals and changestobehavior,design,etc.
101. Mediators must have realistic expectations in terms of the time frame for the peace negotiations and what is possible whenit comes to shifting how conflict parties approach women’s inclusion. This is why focusing on behavioral changes rather thanchanging long heldbeliefsaboutgenderrolesisamorepromisingapproach,althoughtheaimistolaythe groundworkforbothasparallelstrategies.
102. Partoftheseeffortsare the timely preparationsofshortall-male workshop(s),ledby malefacilitatorstoprovideasafespaceforconflictpartiesforpersonalreflectionstodiscuss theiraspirationswiththegoalthatconversationswillleadtoreflectionsontheirrolesand privilegesasmen.Suchdedicatedtimeatanearlystagewillalsohelppreparethestagefor broader stakeholder discussions on the agenda items that will be part of the mediation processthroughapolaritymapping.128
● Prepare the ground early for inclusion efforts. Commission a gender-sensitive conflict analysis with stakeholder mapping and plans for the overall management of the inclusivityaspectsofthemediationprocess.Thesegoodpractices,albeittimeconsuming anddemanding,areessentialtodeterminingthebesttimingforpushingandleveraging inclusioninamediationprocess.
● Identify and reach out to especially male advocates from a variety of backgrounds, including deployed male ambassadors,as identifiedinthe abovestakeholder mapping, who are supportive of inclusion efforts on ways to engage with the conflict parties in supportofwomen’sparticipationandgenderequalitymeasures.Whenintroducingnew initiatives, like polarity mapping workshops and exercises in self-reflection in peace leadership,timingis importantfor ensuring conflict parties will be the mostreceptive. To the extent possible, ideal times might be following meals and breaks, to ensure the conflictpartiesarenothungryorunnecessarilytiredanddistracted.129
128 TodiscussoptionsforfacilitationofsaidsessionsforanyUN-ledorsupportedpeaceprocess,inquiriescan bedirectedtotheGender,PeaceandSecurityUnitintheUN’sPolicyandMediationDivisioninthe DepartmentofPoliticalandPeacebuildingAffairsat:dppa-gps-unhq@un.org
128 ResearchersatBenGurionUniversityandColumbiaUniversityexaminedmorethan1,000decisionsby eightIsraelijudgeswhoruledonconvicts’parolerequests.Judgesgranted65percentofrequeststheyheard atthebeginningoftheday’ssessionandalmostnoneattheend.Rightafterasnackbreak,approvalsjumped backto65percent JonathanLevav,associateprofessorofbusinessatColumbiaUniversity,notedthatthe
● Polaritythinking/practicescanbeemployedatallstagesofamediationprocess.
Prepare the ground early for inclusion efforts. Commission a gendersensitive conflict analysis with stakeholder mapping and plans for the overall management of the inclusivity aspects of the mediation process.
Conclusions
103. We end this research by highlighting three major takeaways that we hope readers, mediators,practitionersandactivistswilluseandcontextualizetoeachuniqueconflictand negotiationprocess.
104. Why Does Behavioral Insight Matter for Women’s Inclusion? Theinclusionofdiverse perspectives, especiallyfromwomenina society is legally sound, democraticallyjustified, and operationally more effective in finding solutions to societal problems, such as oppression, inequality, and violence, which might have been the cause of conflict. The rational, normative and operational arguments that justify and showcase the increased effectiveness of women’s inclusion in peace processes are all readily available. Yet international efforts towards convincing male stakeholders and conflict parties to include diverse womendelegatesas partof formal peaceprocesses aswellas women at alllevels, utilizingthesearguments,havebeenlargelyunsuccessful.
105. As the behavioral science research highlighted in this study demonstrates, the resistance and disregard for these rational arguments regarding women’s inclusion, given overallstructuralbarriersandindividualthoughtprocesses,isnotsurprising.Insightsfrom behavioralscience,includingaspectssuchaschoicearchitecture,pointtotheneedtochange design aspects in peace processes focusing onbehaviors, practices and mindsets, with the aimof also affecting attitudinal shifts inthe short, as well aslonger term. Focusing onthe intersection of emotions and behaviors still requires significant resources, material and otherwise. Mediators and facilitators must have the expertise needed, including social psychology experts, trainers or training in polarity mapping, along with the necessary culturalandcontextualknowledgeforeachuniqueconflictsetting.
106. How Does Polarity Thinking Help Enrich Mediation and Negotiation? Women’s inclusion in itself, however, is not necessarily sufficient to ensure that the fundamental priorities and needs relating to diverse groups of women, - as well as those of other
judgescouldjustbegrumpyfromhunger,buttheyprobablyalsosufferfrommentalfatigue.Previousstudies haveshownthatrepeateddecisionsmakepeopletired,andtheystartlookingforsimpleanswers.For instance,aftermakingaslewofchoices,carbuyerswillstartacceptingthestandardoptionsratherthan continuingtocustomize.Assessionsdragon,judgesmayfinditeasiertodenyrequestsandletthingsstand astheyare.https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/lunchtime-leniency/September1,2011
marginalizedgroups-areaddressed,andwhichmighthavebeencontributingfactorstothe conflictbreakingoutinthefirstplace.Thisresearchdemonstratestheusefulnessofpolarity thinking andpolarity mappingas atooltohelpmediatorsnavigatethe complexities,while makingavailable a much moreorganicandholisticwayto understand thedifferentvalues and fears of those emerging from armed conflict. At the same time, it merges different mediationapproachesthatillustratetheusefulnessofbroaderstakeholderparticipation.It alsodemonstrateswhybroaderperspectivesarekeyforreachingagreementsthatcommit tonavigatingandbalancingtheongoingtensionsandpriorities–whichistrueofanysociety, -while inthiscontext, remainingcommitted tononviolence inthe process. Hence,for any mediation to undertake these efforts, expertise and psychological insights are needed to carefully navigate the emotional landscape of conflict contexts. Polarity thinking takes seriously the many components of one’s identity and how various identity markers shape whatonehasatstakeinamediation–whatonestandstolose,whereloyaltieslie,howpower and influence shift, etc. This approach relieves certain immediate demands for technical problem-solvingandallowsmediationsandconflictpartiestoengageinaddressingongoing tensionsasadaptivechallenges.
107. Inthis way, mediators can frame thepeacenegotiationasthestartofan on-going longer-term process where some important decisions will continuetobe madeandstakeholders will continue to work and adapt to some of the issues. While ending violence is a prerequisite, polarity thinking demonstrates,wemustwork for both short and long-term goals in dynamic equilibrium. Thus, we recognize theongoing tensions inany humansocietywhereconflictingprioritieswillalwaysbepresent.
This research demonstrates the usefulness of polarity thinking and
polarity
mapping as a tool to help mediators navigate the complexities, while making available a much more organic and holistic way to understand the different values and fears of those emerging from armed conflict.
108. How Can You Make the EAST Framework Work for You? As outlined in the recommendations using the East Framework, we have built upon the process design of polarity thinking to develop more specific guidelines for mediators working with conflict partiesandbroaderstakeholders.TheEASTFrameworkallowsustothinkmorepractically abouthowtooperationalizeideasfrombehavioralscienceformediatorsaswellasconflict parties.This framework presents concrete strategies for focusing on changing behaviors, whetherbyreworkingdesigntoenablecertainpracticesoverothers,orbycreatingspaceto better understand individual identities, emotions, and mindsets that may be barriers or entry points for finding common ground. These suggestions serve as behavioral interventions,thatcanbegradual,iterativeandsequenced,toincreasetheoddsofwomen’s engagement and inclusion. This framework canbe helpful inidentifying some short-term, contextspecifictacticsthathelpchangebehaviorsandstructuresbydesign,whileworking inparallelwiththelonger-termtransformativeworkofpolaritythinking.
Acknowledgements
Lone Jessen would like to extend sincere thanks to the UN Under-Secretary-General for DPPA,Ms.RosemaryA.DiCarlo,andmythenDirector,TeresaWhitfield,andDeputyDirector, AsifR.KhanofthePolicyandMediationDivisioninDPPA forprovidingmetheopportunity topursuethissabbaticalproject,andtomycolleaguesintheGender,PeaceandSecurityUnit, whocoveredworkduringmyabsence.
NatalieHudsonwould liketo thank theUniversityofDaytonforsupporting her sabbatical research,particularlytheCollegeofArtsandSciences,Dr.DaniellePoe,andDr GrantNeeley forprovidingthetime,resources,andencouragementneededtomakethisworkpossible.
Together,wearegratefultoClaireKellyforherthoughtfulanddiligentresearchassistance duringthelatterpartofthisresearch Wearegratefultofaculty,fellowsandstudentsfrom theWomenandPublicPolicyProgramandtheCenterforPublicLeadershipattheHarvard KennedySchoolwhoparticipatedinaroundtabletodiscussourresearchinSeptember2002. Weappreciatethehostsofthisroundtable,HannahRileyBowles,MonicaGiannone,andOns BesAbdelkarimfortheirsupportandfeedback,andwethankEileenF.Babbit,KatheringB. Coffman,RangitadeSilvadeAlwis,ElizabethGood,DaraKayCohen,andZoeMarksfortheir interests,commentsandfeedback.
Lastly,theauthorsappreciateinsightful anddetailedfeedbackatvariousstagesfromFleur Heyworth,GenevaCentreforSecurityPolicy;CatherineTurner,DurhamUniversity;Bruna Seu,CentreforResearchingandEmbeddingHumanRights,Birkbeck,UniversityofLondon; Hannah Riley Bowles, Harvard Kennedy School; Monica McWilliams, Ulster University; current and former UN Standby Team Mediation Advisers, respectively, Richard Melville SmithandElisabethScheper;UNDPPAMediationSupportUnit(MSU)TeamLeaderandMSU staff, respectively, Sean Kane and Pauliina Torma; Ayşe Betül Çelik, Sabanci University; AlexandraMcAuliff,TheFletcherSchool,TuftsUniversity;KeriBrownKirschman,University ofDayton;AnneMarieGoetz,NewYorkUniversity;JoodWaselAlharthi,ExecutiveOfficeof the UN Secretary-General, and Josh Martin, Independent Innovation Consultant, and the more than 35 resource people who made themselves available for interviews during our research.