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Calvin 500 years after >>>
Calvin Auditorium, Geneva
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Contents
John Calvin: an overview Calvin’s Significance for Protestantism 5 Focus: Times of Change 7 Calvin’s Theology – Grace and Mystery 9 Focus: The Four Essential Doctrines of the Reformation 11 Focus: Predestination 13 Calvin’s Ethics Focus: Calvin and Geneva
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Calvin and the Church – «Mother of the Faithful» 19 Focus: Dispute over the Lord’s Supper 21 Calvin – a Theocrat? Focus: The Case of Michael Servetus
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Calvin – Father of Modernity? Focus: Calvin and Capitalism Focus: Calvin and Democracy
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Calvin’s Legacy – Calvinists, Huguenots, Puritans 33 Timelines
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St Peter’s Cathedral, Geneva
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Calvin’s Significance for Protestantism John Calvin of France was one of the most influential theologians of the Reformation Era and of the Early Modern Era as a whole. As a second-generation Reformer, he built his work upon the tenets of Martin Luther, attempting to implement and further disseminate Reformed thought. Whereas Martin Luther’s Reformation attracted adherents chiefly in German areas, and Zwingli’s Reformation was active in Zurich, Berne, and Basel, Calvin exported his movement to France, Holland, England, Scotland, Poland, Hungary, and Italy, for a total of 100 000 Reformed Christians by the time of Calvin’s death. And as the English Puritans set sail for the New World, Calvin indirectly influenced the future United States as well (u Calvin’s Legacy, p. 33). A Humanist and Reformer Calvin was educated, at first, in jurisprudence, but was widely read and extraordinarily well-versed in the Bible. He came into contact with Martin Luther’s ideas as a student and was greatly inspired by the Humanist movement. Like most Humanists, Calvin was a student of rhetoric and was a master of eloquent speech. He was able to make use of all these abilities to convince the people of Geneva of the ideas of the Reformation and to mold Geneva into a shining example of a truly renewed society (u Focus: Calvin and Geneva, p. 17). Bringing the Reformation into Focus Calvin’s main body of writing, entitled The Institutes of the Christian Religion (Institutio Christianae Religionis) was the first piece to provide a comprehensive explanation of the Protestant faith. Calvin revised and expanded the Institutes several times, which was later translated into numerous languages. Calvin himself published a French edition in addition to the original Latin, as it was always his main aim to spread the Reformation to France, his home country. The French version also contributed significantly to the development of the French language through its clarity and simplicity of style.
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Laurent de Normandie (env. 1510–1569)
The Systematic Spread of Reform Doctrine Geneva developed into an important center of Protestantism, particularly as the result of a stream of religious refugees from France and other countries (u Focus: Calvin and Geneva, p. 17). Calvin also contributed to the spread of Reformed Protestantism by founding the Geneva Academy, a theological school. Calvin remained in contact with important Reformers and scholars from across Europe, and the entrepreneur Laurent de Normandie, a friend of Calvin, disseminated his sermons and writings throughout France via a network of itinerant traders. A New Branch of Protestantism Calvin’s agreement with the Zurich Reformer Heinrich Bullinger on a common view of the Lord’s Supper (u Focus: Dispute over the Lord’s Supper, p. 21), provided both a basis for a unified Swiss school of Protestantism and for the Reformed branch of Protestantism.
Heinrich Bullinger (1504–1575)
Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) Guillaume Farel (1489-1565) in conversation with John Calvin © LIFE
Martin Luther (1483–1546)
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Times of Change
Calvin’s Significance for Protestantism
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The Reformation represented the culmination of over 200 years of efforts toward reform in Christianity. The Reformation would have been unthinkable without the invention of the printing press and was strongly influenced by the Humanists, who were both mobile and enjoyed broad networks, with the ability to cross cultural boundaries to exchange views in the universal language of Latin. 200 Years of Reform Efforts As early as the 12th century, the Waldensians began to postulate the exclusive authority of the Bible and reject the worship of Mary, the saints, and relics, as well as the sale of indulgences and the belief in purgatory. In the 14th century, the Wycliffians expanded on this, who opposed celibacy and monasticism, while supporting a strict adherence to scripture and the translation of the Bible into the languages spoken by the people. The clerical orders also undertook a wide range of reform efforts, as many saw the ideals of their orders’ founders slowly being forgotten. The monastic way of life had suffered as the result of plagues and the Papal schism, and the orders had become less stringent in their practices. This development led, as a response, to the rise of the Observationist movement from within the Franciscan Order, which would completely renew the life of the order, with monks and nuns again upholding the original order rules. Soon, an increasing number of other orders began to join this movement as well. Martin Luther lived in one such monastery himself. It was never the intention of these reformers to separate from the Roman Catholic Church; they only sought to work toward its improvement. The Reformation was, however, not able to gain currency in the Roman Catholic Church, thus leading in the end to the founding of new churches. Humanism and Reformation Humanists also saw a need for the world to improve its ways, and envisioned a return to the classical culture of Europe as the answer to the problems of their time. They developed elaborate literary and historical methods as a means of rediscovering these roots, in order, for example, to 7
retrace the original form of Roman Law, pointing to its changes and developments. The Reformers also followed with a search for the true, unadulterated roots with regard to the Bible, translating the Bible with the courage to interpret it anew. Well Connected Innovators The Reformers, strongly influenced by the Humanist movement, were quite familiar with one another within a strong network that spanned all of Europe. Guillaume Farel (1498–1565), for example, who was responsible for persuading Calvin to remain in Geneva (u Focus: Calvin and Geneva, p. 17), was, together with the theologian and all-round scholar Jacques Lefèvre d’Etaples, a member of France’s École de Meaux. Lefèvre d’Etaples published a French translation of the New Testament and was very close to Luther with regard to the doctrine of justification. In Florence, where he lived for many years, he came to know important Italian Humanists. Not all would-be reformers were, however, willing to go quite as far. When the conservative University of Paris took up strong opposition to Luther, the group split up, with Farel and Lefèvre d’Etaples departing for Strasbourg, and Farel then continuing on to Geneva, and capping his career as the Reformer of Neuchâtel.
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Calvin’s Theology – Grace and Mystery God is glorious. For Calvin, God’s glory shone through in his creation, in people, and in nature. It was a work of art that we should honor with amazement and reverence. As he wrote in the Institutes (I,5,1), «wherever you turn your eyes, there is no portion of the world, however minute, that does not exhibit at least some sparks of beauty.» Grace, Justification, and Sanctification God is unconditional love. Communion with Christ gives rise to a double gift for humankind: the grace of justification and the grace of sanctification. People are received in all of their sinful nature (justified) and cannot achieve salvation through their own works. Each individual becomes more and more like Christ himself – and is thus sanctified – through faith, acting in accordance with the path of Jesus Christ as set forth in the Bible, and with the help of the Holy Spirit (u Calvin’s Ethics, p. 15). For by grace you have been saved through faith, and this is not your own doing; it is the gift of Godnot the result of works, so that no one may boast. For we are what he has made us, created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand to be our way of life (Paul in the Epistle to the Ephesians 2:8-10) Consolation in Uncertain Times The Reformation signaled the end of centuries-old religious assurances for people, who often also even lost their homes as many were forced to flee in the course of struggles between the new confessions. Calvin was both a theologian and a pastor, and sought to help the people to find new strength in their faith. Calvin saw the people as being safe in God’s hands; everything derived from divine providence, and nothing – not even the bad – happened in the absence of God’s will (u Focus: Predestination, p. 13).
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Central Significance of the Holy Spirit As Jesus Christ sits to the right of God, he mediates between God and the people in the guise of the Holy Spirit. For Calvin, the Holy Spirit played a central role in the understanding of God’s word in the Bible. Calvin believed that one could debate and bring forth evidence for the credibility of scripture as much as one wished – in the end, however, one would simply have to believe. And only the Holy Spirit could bring about this faith: «For as God alone can properly bear witness to his own words, so these words will not obtain full credit in the hearts of men, until they are sealed by the inward testimony of the Spirit» (Institutes I,7,4) Calvin and the Bible For Calvin, the Bible was the «key to open the Kingdom of God» and a «divine school». In contrast with Luther, Calvin saw both parts of the Bible as being equally inspired by the Holy Spirit, thus according greater significance to the Old Testament than did the other Reformers. Calvin interpreted the Bible using the most modern methods of his time. He repudiated the theological speculation that was widespread at the time, and held fast to the view that it was an error to search for a deeper, spiritual meaning behind the texts of the Bible. While he sought to maintain the coherence of the word and text, he did interpret the texts within the historical context of their development (u Calvin’s Legacy, p. 33).
Calvin’s own handwriting (22 December 1559), Calvin Museum in Noyon
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The Four Essential Doctrines of the Reformation
Calvin’s Theology – Grace and Mystery
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The Reformation sought to free people from the doctrinal control of the Roman church hierarchy. The faithful were no longer to attempt to achieve justification and reconciliation with God and the renewal of their lives by attending mass, purchasing indulgences, and carrying out good works. While the great Reformers did not all agree on matters of theology, worship practice, Christian ethics, and political views, they all agreed that the faithful could achieve salvation through the four «solas». 1. solus Christus – Christ alone Only Christ serves to save people in sin through his works of salvation; other mediators (priests, saints) are thus not necessary. 2. sola gratia – by grace alone God receives people unconditionally (justifies) by grace alone. 3. sola fide – by faith alone We are received only by God, in whom we place our faith, through our complete dedication to him Good works and preconditions are not necessary but are instead satisfied through faith. 4. sola scriptura – by scripture alone The Holy Scripture is the sole measure for the proclamation, doctrine, and practice of the church. Only scripture and neither church tradition nor human intellect can be viewed as having validity. The church must continually hold itself up critically to the light of the Bible; as a reformed church it is ever in need of reform (ecclesia semper reformanda) through renewed readings of the Bible.
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The Garden of Delights, Hieronymus Bosch (14531516) (section)
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Predestination
Calvin’s Theology – Grace and Mystery
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God decides ahead of time who is to receive salvation through Christ and who is to be lost. This doctrine of «double predestination» is one of the best known – and most controversial – of Calvin’s contributions, and one of the reasons why many do not speak well of the Reformer. An old doctrine The doctrine of predestination does not derive from Calvin but hearkens back to Augustine (d. 430) who in turn drew upon Paul’s Epistle to the Romans. Augustine had sought a response to the question of why the eyes of some were opened up to the Christian faith, while those of others were not. Both Luther and Zwingli also grappled with the question of predestination. The Lutherans, however, rejected the doctrine of double predestination in the 1577 Formula of Concord, and Zwingli upheld only a diluted version of the doctrine. Election and Economic Success The doctrine of election poses a fundamental problem: How is one to be sure to number among the elected – and not among the damned? In response to this question, Calvin’s successors began asserting that one could recognize the elected by dint of their economic success (u Calvin’s Legacy, p. 33). This, however, also led to contempt for the poor, who were seemingly poor because they were damned by God, who had thus willed their poverty. Support for Refugees of Faith Such disdain for the poor clearly did not correspond with the spirit of the Bible, and Calvin indeed interpreted the doctrine of predestination much more positively. Calvin saw election not as being reflected in success but in faith, as mirrored in Christ and in non-earthly riches. He sought to provide assurance to refugees of faith with the doctrine of predestination with his consolation: «Perseverance! Nothing can happen to you that God did not wish as men cannot comprehend God’s plan. Even suffering, death, and human weakness in view of torture and persecution all have hidden meaning.» The doctrine of predesti13
nation can, however, also be viewed as the expression of amazement and gratitude for the gift of faith: ÂŤI may belong, and that is in no way a reflection of my own merit but the will of God!Âť
International Museum of the Reformation, Geneva
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Calvin’s Ethics The image of Calvin as a haggard opponent of earthly pleasures has considerably currency. Calvin was indeed not completely uninvolved in the development of this reputation, as he did lead a vehement moral campaign against sin and debauchery in Geneva. Moderate Asceticism In the Institutes, however, Calvin speaks of the use of material things, that «ivory and gold, and riches, are the good creatures of God» and granted by God for human use. It was indeed nowhere «forbidden to laugh, or to be full [...] or to be delighted with music, or to drink wine.» Calvin was of the view that one can enjoy such things, if only in moderation. People were thus to «suppress immoderate desire, immoderate profusion, vanity, and arrogance, that they may use the gifts of God purely with a pure conscience» (Institutes III,19,9) Assured Salvation and Freedom The entire Reformation was characterized by an underlying paradox. Protestant theology sought to relieve people of their fears and convey a sense of assured salvation. The people were not required to attain their own salvation over and over through their own actions and indulgences. If, however, the people are saved (or damned) anyway, they no longer have a reason to work any harder. If everything lies in God’s hands, people can only become fatalistic. This was, of course, not in fact Calvin’s idea, for whom a moral life according to God's commandments was not a matter of force but the natural consequence of love and trust in a merciful God. This was not a question of whether one should no longer do anything, but one of the motivations involved: People were to do good deeds not driven by fear, but voluntarily as acts of love. Law and Virtue One can summarize Calvin’s entire ethical system as one based on gratitude. Since God justified people and granted them a new life, they should worship him and uphold his biblical commandments. They were to act with complete responsibility as though everything depended on them, 15
even as they knew that everything in fact lay in God’s hands. They were not to be saved through their deeds but just like trees, the quality of the fruit reflected the nature of the tree. Responsibility and Justice God’s promise of salvation thus leads to human responsibility. People are, however, not only responsible for themselves but also for a just social and political life. No other Reformer delved, in his sermons, with similar determination into political and economic affairs. Calvin always referred to the life of Jesus Christ, who was, alongside the law, the standard of just action. This was true when Calvin spoke out for the proper use of the gifts of creation or for interest rates that the poor could afford; and was equally true when he fought for the equality of all before the law and for limitations on despotic rule.
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Calvin and Geneva
Calvin’s Ethics
Circular watch with eight lobes, beginning of the seventeenth century, movement signed Martin Duboule, Geneva. Dial in silver, on a plate of gilded brass, decorated with fine foliage in which two children, a bird and a mask are hidden; created in the style of ornamental painters such as Antoine Jacquard. At the centre of the dial is a view of St Peter’s Cathedral in Geneva. Source: MIH, La Chaux-deFonds.
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In 1536, John Calvin arrived in Geneva at a decisive point in time: The people of Geneva had adopted the Reformation but a year earlier and had driven away the bishop after years of struggle, a development that had become possible through a helpful alliance with the Swiss Confederation. Geneva thus became an autonomous city-republic. Geneva – Strasbourg - Geneva When the Protestant preacher Guillaume Farel heard that the author of the Institutes was living in Geneva, he did all that could to encourage him to stay. Geneva indeed required a reorganization of both its worldly power and its spiritual life. Calvin remained, but a conflict soon ensued with regard to the roles of worldly and church power. After Calvin had been driven out of Geneva to spend three years in Strasbourg, the Geneva Council begged him to return. There had been a shift of power within the city government and nobody else would be able to respond to a pamphlet written by Bishop Sadolet urging Geneva to return to the Roman Catholic Church. Until his death in 1564, Calvin did all he could to mold Geneva into a model society of God-fearing, upright people, which, as a shining example, could contribute to the spread of the Reformed faith. Through sermons, strict church discipline, and new laws, Calvin reformed Geneva’s church institutions and the behavior of its people. Asylum for Refugees In 1555, a group of Genevans rose up in rebellion, fighting against the strict moral order and the large number of outsiders in the city – with refugees of faith at times making up half of the cities. The rebels lost their fight and four of them were executed. The refugees would not, however, only serve to create disorder. Wealthy Italian merchants and skilled French artisans were also among their numbers, and built up the textile, printing, and clockmaking industries that would buoy the wealth of the city for generations to come. In fewer than three centuries, Geneva rose from being an insignificant provincial town to an economically booming center of the fastest growing religious movement in Europe. 17
Ruined Nation or the Perfect School of Christ? At the end of his life, it would almost seem, however, as if Calvin had begun to despair of the Genevans. Even on his deathbed, Calvin described the people of Geneva as a «ruined and unhappy nation.» And yet, he had achieved many things there: The number of illegitimate and premarital births fell to the lowest level ever recorded in Europe. Pious visitors were impressed by the behavior of the city’s people. John Knox, the Reformer of Scotland, called this new Geneva the «most perfect school of Christ since the days of the apostles.» He added that: «In other places I confess Christ to be truly preached; but manners and religion to be so seriously reformed, I have not yet seen in any other place besides.»
Calvin bids farewell to the Mayor of Geneva, Joseph Hornung, around 1831 © Historical Museum of the Reformation, Geneva
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Calvin and the Church – «Mother of the Faithful» How did Calvin, the jurist, view the church? On the one hand, he saw it as no more and no less than a device that God used to lead people to Christ through the proclamation of the Gospel and the sacraments. On the other hand, Calvin was also able to show a soft spot for the institution when, for example, referring to the church as the mother of the faithful. Visible Substance of the Church For Calvin, it was plain to see that, while God was the foundation of the church, it would have to be molded by human hands. This invisible substance of the church should thus become visible in the life of the church; and Calvin was therefore moved to invest a great amount of energy into its organization. Over the years, the fourth book of Calvin’s Institutes would grow considerably, which was entitled «On the external means or helps by which God invites us to fellowship with Christ, and keeps us in it.» Four Services Calvin saw Christ as the head of the church, led by representatives in four different areas of service: pastors (pasteurs), teachers (docteurs), deacons (diacres), and presbyters (anciens). It was a particularly modern trait of Calvin that he did not simply subordinate the church to the office of the pastor, as the numerous tasks at hand required a broad range of services. Calvin also made a place for people with no theological education by supporting the office of the presbyters, which played an important role in the spiritual guidance of the church. The presbyters were, alongside the pastors, responsible for church discipline, and for the admonition of church members whose moral conduct was the cause of public disapprobation. This would later give way to church councils and committees (u Focus: Calvin and Democracy, p. 31). Engaging all the Senses in Worship Calvin saw the center of church life to be the gathering of those who affirm Christ in their worship. 19
For Calvin, this was the place where the church and its members are built up. «For we must first of all be incorporated into Christ, that we may be united to each other.» (CO 49,464 on 1 Cor 10:16) Worshippers not only heard the words of the sermon but also sang the psalms and dwelled in the presence of Christ when receiving the bread and the wine. Calvin also saw music as playing a great role in worship – which does not exactly fit in with his image as an opponent of all things sensual. Calvin viewed music as a divine gift that provided people with repose and pleasure, moved their hearts, and set them ablaze in praise of God. The Genevan Psalter, which features all 150 psalms set to music, is one of the most important cultural treasures that Calvin gave to the world.
Lausanne University choir © P. Blotti
Ten Oceans for the Unity of the Church Church unity was of great importance to Calvin, as he expressed when he said that he would cross ten oceans if that is what it took to ensure the unity of the church. He was therefore in fact willing to tolerate a variety of viewpoints. With regard to the dispute over the real presence of Christ in the Lord’s Supper (u Focus: Dispute over the Lord’s Supper, p. 21), he wrote to Bullinger: «Though I am deeply convinced of a communion with Christ in the sacrament that is more profound than your words can express, we should not therefore wish to cease sharing in the same Christ and being one in him. Perhaps we will at some point be able to join in a more complete agreement» (CO 14,314). 20
The Dispute over the Lord’s Supper
Calvin and the Church – «Mother of the Faithful»
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The dispute over the Lord’s Supper was the most significant point of contention among Reformers. Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli of Zurich had differing views of the Lord’s Supper, a difference that could not be bridged at the Marburg Colloquy of 1529. Calvin was concerned by this divide and hoped – in vain – to be able to use his interpretation to bring about a reconciliation of the two sides. While Calvin was in fact able to come to an agreement («Consensus Tigurinus») in 1549 with Heinrich Bullinger, a Zwingli successor, this in turn led to a second dispute over the Lord’s Supper with the Lutherans in 1552. A new form of Protestant church independent of Lutheranism began to take shape in the Reformed church. How is Christ Present in our Midst? The dispute was carried out with great passion since it touched on a cornerstone of the faith: How can one conceive of the divinity and humanity of Christ? Martin Luther remained closer to the Roman Catholic view in his interpretation of the Lord’s Supper. He saw a real presence of Christ in the bread and wine, with communicants thus actually incorporating Jesus Christ into themselves. For Huldrych Zwingli, by contrast, Jesus Christ did not take on a physical presence in the Lord’s Supper because his human nature sat instead to the right of the Father. In Zwingli’s opinion, the Lord’s Supper was thus only a memorial of the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. The Zurich Consensus The Consensus Tigurinus was a compromise. Even Calvin was originally convinced that Jesus Christ was not physically present but only present through the Holy Spirit in the Lord’s Supper. The compromise, however, provided that the Lord’s Supper was not simply a memorial meal but that the Holy Spirit brought the communicants into communion with Christ. This would therefore maintain a portion of the spiritual mystery of the act of communion.
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Institutio Chrisitanae religionis nunc uere demum suo titulo respondens, Strasbourg: Vuendelinus Rihelius, March 1545
Reformers’ Wall, Geneva
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Calvin – a Theocrat? What was Calvin’s role in the Genevan Republic? Was he in fact the religious tyrant that some have described him to be? A Separation of Powers The Protestant churches of the Reformation era followed either one of two models of relations with the state: Either they were so closely tied to the state that the prince (or the city authorities as in Berne and Zurich) were, for all practical purposes, the heads of the church – or they demonstratively refrained from any connection with the state. Calvin’s position, however, fell between these two extremes: While he was greatly concerned with the independence of the church in its own internal affairs, he did view the state as the protector of the church. The state could thus support the Reformed church in the fulfillment of its mission by protecting the church and fighting heretics (u Focus: The Case of Michael Servetus, p. 25). That was the theory – but how did Calvin in fact act in Geneva? After the suppression of the 1555 revolt (u Focus: Calvin and Geneva, p. 17) Calvin no longer needed to fear any further resistance from within the city. And yet, he did not fashion himself into a bishop or wield worldly power, but was never any more than the chairman of the pastors’ council. Geneva was thus never a theocracy, and while the city offices consulted with pastors with regard to matters of importance, they were meticulous in maintaining their own sphere of authority.
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Michael Servetus, 1551-1553
John Calvin, re-creation 2008
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The Case of Michael Servetus
Calvin – a Theocrat?
FO CUS
The Genevan Reformation would, however, also have its victims, including the Spaniard Michael Servetus, who was burned at the stake in 1553. How exactly did this come to pass? The doctor, geographer, and theologian Michael Servetus (born 1511) challenged the Trinitarian doctrine in several anonymous publications. From his point of view, Jesus Christ was not the eternal son of God, but the word that flows from God. He tried in vain to convince Calvin and other Reformers of this viewpoint. When he was arrested in France in 1553, he escaped and fled to Geneva, where he was arrested as well. He requested that he could appear in a Genevan court, and the worldly court collected advisory reports from Calvin as well as from Zurich and Berne. They all unanimously supported the death penalty and Servetus was indeed executed that same year. One must accept the fact that Calvin played a major role in Servetus’ death. The information revealing Servetus as the author of his writings came from Geneva, and Servetus’ letters to Calvin were presented as evidence in court. And it was Calvin who had Servetus arrested in Geneva in the first place. To be fair, one must, however, view the case within the context of its time. The legal situation was clear – the death penalty was indeed reserved for the denial of the Trinity. Servetus could have been executed in virtually any city in Europe. Geneva already had a bad reputation throughout the continent as a safe harbor for the most dangerous heretics, something that troubled the city government. And Calvin was himself under so much political pressure that he feared that he would also have to leave town. He saw the Reformation as being under a fundamental attack and did everything he could to prevent its demise.
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Eagle nebula
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Calvin – Father of Modernity?
A Critical Worldliness Many 16th-century people – including Martin Luther – were convinced that the world was soon coming to an end. Calvin, however, did not. Alongside an ethical approach that stressed human responsibility, a critical worldliness became a salient characteristic of Reformed Christians. The Calvinist work ethic also played a major role in making possible the dynamic participation of Calvinists in the economic, social, and political spheres of their time. It also explains why the Calvinists, even as a minority, were to play a disproportionately large role in the formation of the Western culture of the Early Modern Era. Capitalism and Democracy Calvin wrote quite extensively on both theological and worldly topics. And although one can derive starkly contradictory positions from Calvin’s writings (u Calvin’s Legacy, p. 33), he provided important impetus both for the creation of the new capitalistic economy (u Focus: Calvin and Capitalism, p. 29) and for the democratic movement that would follow later (u Focus: Calvin and Democracy, p. 31).
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Calvin’s chair in Geneva Cathedral
1529 Zwingli and Luther at the Marburg colloquy
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Calvin and Capitalism
Calvin – Father of Modernity?
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How significant was Calvin’s contribution to the development of Capitalism? For a long time, it was commonly thought that his contribution was in fact quite large. This was particularly the result of Max Weber’s essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905/1920). Weber saw the Calvinist mentality as having been particularly advantageous for the development of the capitalist economy. He explained that the Calvinists placed particular value on their work since they hoped to find evidence for their divine election in their economic success (u Focus: Predestination, p. 13). They did not spend their profits on luxury goods but reinvested them in their industries and maintained an expressly simple lifestyle. Chastity, poverty, and obedience – Weber posited that the Calvinists transposed ascetic monastic ideals upon their worldly lives, and referred to this as «innerworldly asceticism». Puritans, Banks, and Interest Several strong arguments, however, make a case against Calvin being a sort of father of Capitalism. For one thing, he himself expressly excluded the idea that one could ascertain one’s level of salvation from the amount of one’s wealth (Commentary on 1 Thess 2:9). Weber was not in fact referring to Calvin himself but to 17th-century Puritan sources (u Calvin’s Legacy, p. 33). Certain regions have, moreover, seen the development of a flourishing Capitalist economy, which were not, however, at all influenced by Reformed churches. The origins of the modern banking system, so necessary for the capitalist system, do not, for instance, lie in Calvinism but in northern Italy, a Roman Catholic region. Calvin did, however, maintain a pragmatic stance with regard to the charging of interest. During Calvin’s time, Geneva’s artisan trades (printing, goldsmithing) and commerce were becoming increasingly capital-intensive. Merchants and artisans were, as a result, beginning to loan money to each other for interest. The medieval church rejected interest as unchristian and even Luther condemned the practice. Calvin was in fact one of the first theologians to permit moneylending for interest within a carefully considered framework. 29
He, however, in no way supported the profit-oriented lending of money, and maintained that the poor should be lent money without interest. Actual banks would not be able to develop in Geneva until the pastors there stopped their efforts toward regulating the financial market in the 17th century. A Social Orientation While the Reformed Protestant work ethic meshed well with the Capitalist economic system, it also had, from the very beginning, the potential for a critical approach to Capitalism. Calvinist social teachings always focused on the welfare of the society at large and not the selfish fortunes of individuals. It was a love of one’s neighbor, and not a thirst for profits, that drove the Reformed view of work and professional life and the use of money and property.
Calvindrier 2009 Š Zep
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Calvin and Democracy
Calvin – Father of Modernity?
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Now, as it is evident that the law of God which we call moral, is nothing else than [...] that conscience which God has engraven on the minds of men [...]. Hence it alone ought to be the aim, the rule, and the end of all laws. (Institutes IV,20,16) Calvin was not exactly a champion of democracy. But Calvin’s ideas would pave the long road to the democratic way of life, one which he did not travel himself, but which others would follow after him. Right of Resistance What does obedience before God mean for church members who were also to be subjects of a worldly authority? As a church leader in Geneva, Calvin was directly confronted with this question. He came to hold the view that political matters had to be subordinated to divine laws, although one indeed needed to submit oneself to the worldly authorities – even if they were to become cruel and greedy. All that one could do was to call upon the Lord for help, in whose hand lay the hearts of kings. At the same time, Calvin had no doubt that people needed to obey God more than any human authorities. He therefore allowed for a right to resistance to those whose obedience would conflict with God’s commandments. He did not, in this way, call any human authority fully into question, but put them merely into perspective. This would indicate that the future idea of a constitutional state of equal laws for all was already beginning to shimmer through in Calvin’s mind. It was only another small step to the view that we are all equal before the law. Separation of Powers Calvin also was concerned with the correct usage of power in the organization of the church. He was deliberate in the construction of a church leadership with a wide range of services and councils, ensuring no individual would be able to obtain a concentration of power. Since he viewed all people as sinful by nature, he found it necessary that they monitor, criticize, and improve one another. His church order thus reflected a system of governance with checks and balances. 31
Conscience and freedom of belief For Calvin, one’s conscience was the inner judge of each human being. Calvin’s view of the conscience was, however, not like today’s view based on individual standards, but instead on the moral laws of God. Calvin also demanded freedom of belief for those who upheld the «true religion», i.e. Reformed Protestantism. To Calvin’s great anger and dismay, Sébastien Castellion, his former co-pastor demanded freedom of belief for everyone (especially in connection with the (u Focus: The Case of Michael Servetus, p. 25). For Calvin, Castellion’s position would open the floodgates for all manner of errant teachings as this would protect those who – from his point of view – had «false» beliefs. His emphasis on the conscience and the freedom of belief for Reformed Christians nevertheless constituted a critical stance toward human ordinances, allowing for the possible derivation of a right to resist, and in the end supporting ideas of tolerance.
The Garden of Delights, Hieronymus Bosch (14531516) (section)
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Calvin’s Legacy – Calvinists, Huguenots, Puritans «On the one hand, Calvin was the humanist who criticized the rigid and lifeless dogma of his time, who counseled flexibility and tolerance, and who argued for an openness to mystery. On the other hand, he was a man fearful of a chaotic age that lacked an organizing structure, a conservative who struggled vigorously to impose order on a disordered world.» Christopher Elwood Calvinist Orthodoxy After Calvin’s death, Calvinism narrowed more and more into a closed theological system of thought. It is questionable whether Calvin would have agreed with these developments. He always tried to reach people’s hearts, while his successors increasingly resorted to a strictly logical scholastic argumentation, which Calvin had turned his back on. The cornerstone of Orthodox Calvinism was laid at the 1618 synod in Dordrecht, Holland, with the doctrine of predestination taking a central position, and the view that people are free to cooperate with God’s grace was increasingly forgotten. Liberal and Fundamentalist Theology Calvin’s legacy is contradictory. On the one hand, Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834), the «father of modern theology», viewed himself to be a Calvin successor. On the other hand, fundamentalist theological movements have also invoked Calvin, emphasizing the importance of biblical commandments, just as Calvin did himself. They, however, see the Holy Scripture as being without error, and therefore to be emulated in a literal manner. Huguenots «Huguenots» the derisive term given to French Calvinists, possibly derived from the French word aignos («confederate»), thus referring to Geneva. It could, however, also refer to the Genevan freedom fighter Besançon Hugues, or is possibly a reflection of the Dutch term Huis Genooten («house comrades») for Flemish Protestants who came together secretly to study the Bible together. 1562 saw the 33
beginning of the French Wars of Religion with their sad climax in on the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Huguenots in Paris and throughout France, and ending with the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which guarantees the Huguenots the right to religious freedom. The edict was, however, rescinded in 1685, and it would take nearly another century until Louis XVI would issue his edict of toleration that would reintroduce religious liberty. The Puritans The Puritans were English Calvinists for whom the Anglican Church was too Roman Catholic and not sufficiently reformed. The Puritans became a strong political power in England for periods of time, but could not remain in power for very long. Many Puritans left for the New World in the early 17th century, chiefly settling in New England. Once there, the Puritans split over time into various denominations (Presbyterians, Congregationalists etc.). The Puritans made up roughly a third of the settlers in the new country, but maintained a strong influence on the development of politics, universities, and the national self-image of the United States. A sense of being a chosen nation to be an example for the world, a sober pragmatism, and a widespread Christian religiosity with a mission to serve the society at large all reflect Puritan-Calvinist roots.
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Portico of St Peter’s Cathedral, Geneva
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Reformation Timeline / Calvin: A Short Timeline 1176
Founding of the Waldensian movement (Peter Waldo cares for the poor)
1330-1384
John Wyclif – English reformer
1347-1384
Black Death: Plague epidemic in Europe
1368
Observationist movement (Franciscan Order)
1378-1417
Great Schism (competing popes in Rome and Avignon)
1509
Birth of Calvin in Noyon, Picardie
1517
Luther’s 95 Theses in Wittenberg – Reformation begins
1520
The Edict of Worms condemns Luther’s teachings
1525
Peasants’ War; Baptist movement is founded; Dispute between Erasmus of Rotterdam and Martin Luther over the freedom of the will
1528
Study of law in Orléans
1529
Marburg Colloquy – Luther and Zwingli cannot come to an agreement on the Lord’s Supper
1530
Augsburg Confession
1531
Death of Huldrych Zwingli in the Second Kappel War
1533
Departure of Calvin from the Roman Catholic Church
1534
Affair of the Placards in France – persecution of Protestants; first wave of refugees
1534
Founding of the Anglican Church (English church breaks ties with Rome)
1535
Flight from France; refuge in Basle and Ferrara
1536
Wittenberg Concord (Lutheran); First Helvetic Confession of Zwingli
1536
The Institutes of the Christian Religion (Institutio Christianae Religionis), first edition
1536
First tenure as a pastor in Geneva
1538
Expulsion from Geneva following a dispute with the city council over the powers of the church and state 36
1538
Pastor of the French refugee congregation in Strasbourg
1540
Marriage to Idelette de Bure
1541
Second period as a pastor in Geneva begins
1541
Ordonnances ecclésiastiques (church order)
1545-1563 Council of Trent 1546
Death of Martin Luther
1546/47
Schmalkaldic War – Defeat of the Protestant princes
1547
Counter-Reformation begins
1548
Renewed persecution of Protestants in France; second wave of refugees
1549
Consensus Tigurinus
1549
Death of Idelette de Bure
1555
Peace of Augsburg to exclusion of Reformed churches. Princes to choose the religion of their territory (Cuius regio eius religio)
1559
First secret national synod of French Protestants «Confession de Foy» (Confessio Gallicana)
1559
Founding of the Académie, final edition of the Institutes
1562-1598 Huguenot Wars in France 1564
Death of Calvin after years of illness in Geneva. In accordance with his wishes, he is buried without great ceremony in an unmarked grave in order to avoid a memorial cult
1566
Second Helvetic Confession of Zwingli of Heinrich Bullinger
1572
St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Huguenots in Paris and other French cities
1598
Edict of Nantes – Religious freedom for Huguenots (rescinded in 1685)
1618-1619
Synod of Dordrecht
Pre-reformation period Period of the Council of Trent Period of the Huguenot Wars
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© Schweizerischer Evangelischer Kirchenbund SEK-FEPS, 2009 www.calvin09.org Responsible editor: Simon Weber Text «John Calvin in brief»: Monica Jeggli Photo credits: MIH, La Chaux-de-Fonds. P. Bohrer. Fotolia. L. Donner. MIR, Geneva. P. Blotti. LIFE. Zep. Design: adequa.ch
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John Calvin, Reformers’ Wall, Parc des Bastions, Geneva