KEY CONCEPTS AND IMPORTANT TERMS

*indicates a key concept

anti-Semitism*

Hatred of the Jewish people. Traditionally this hatred had been based on religious or economic factors. For Hitler and the Nazis it was part of their racial policy and was central to their ideology: the Jews were subhumans who were the enemy of the master race. Originally Nazi policy was to exclude Jewish people from German life and to encourage emigration. Attacks on Jews and their property became commonplace (e.g. Kristallnacht) and they were made second-class citizens by the Nuremburg Laws. During the war this anti-Semitism led to the murderous policy known as the Final Solution, or the Holocaust, where an estimated six million Jews throughout Europe were killed.

Bolshevik Party

From the Russian word meaning majority. They were socialists who believed in using revolution to achieve political change. They were later called the Communist Party. The name came from a split in the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1903. The majority, led by Lenin, favoured revolutionary tactics, while the minority (Mensheviks) favoured peaceful methods to achieve power.

bourgeoisie

Marxist term for the middle class (e.g. factory owners), who were seen as exploiting the working class.

capitalism

Economic system where goods and services are supplied by private businesspeople in order to make a profit. The system is efficient but it can lead to great inequality in wealth. In post-World War I Europe, many regarded capitalism as a failure, especially after the Wall Street Crash, and turned to fascism or communism instead.

Cheka

The name comes from the shortened form of its full title, The All-Russian Emergency Commission for Combating Counter Revolution and Sabotage. This was a police force set up by Lenin to deal with opponents of the regime. It had widespread powers and routinely used torture. It also carried out mass executions of suspected enemies of the people. The organisation went through a number of name changes during Soviet Russia, including the NKVD.

collectivisation*

Policy of abolishing private farms and replacing them with state-controlled collective farms. A key part of Stalin’s policy of Socialism in One Country, it was designed to increase food production from fewer farmers. It would establish Communist control in the countryside, where support for the party was weak. It would also result in a population transfer to the cities, creating a larger working class who were more likely to support the Communists. A further aim was to export the expected surpluses of grain to pay for the machinery needed for industrialisation. It was fiercely resisted by the peasants, leading to mass deportations and the use of famine as state policy. Historians believe that up to 10 million people died in the process of collectivisation.

commissar

The name given to a minister in the Communist government.

communism*

A political philosophy founded by the German economist Karl Marx. He saw history as a series of class struggles between different groups in society based on the economic conditions of the period. He argued that because of the Industrial Revolution, the last struggle would be between the working class (the proletariat) and the factory owners (the bourgeoisie) who exploited them. This struggle would result in a revolution and the victory of the working class. This would see the introduction of a classless and equal society, where factories would be owned by workers.

Improved conditions in the late 19th century in terms of spreading democracy and better rights for workers led to a split in his followers about methods. Moderates, who became known as socialists, argued that this change could be achieved through peaceful means, while other argued that they should work for revolution and were known as communists. Lenin’s Bolshevik Party was an example of the latter.

After the Russian revolution, most socialist parties in Europe split into communists and socialists, e.g. Germany, Italy. The fear of communism was strong in most European countries, especially after the brutality of the regime of Lenin and Stalin.

Conservative Party

A British party that strongly supported the empire and favoured little role for the government in the economy. Strongly backed by wealthier people, nonetheless it was prepared to engage in moderate reform. It dominated governments of the 1920s and 1930s.

Constituent Assembly

A parliament elected to introduce a new constitution, usually after a war or revolution that has seen a major change in the type of government. There was a Constituent Assembly in Russia in December 1917 that Lenin closed at gunpoint. In 1919 one met in Germany at the town of Weimar after the abdication of the kaiser and the declaration of a republic.

counter-revolutionary

Label used to describe anyone who held different political views to the Communists. It was a dangerous accusation if levelled at a person, as it could get them shot.

democracy*

A political system where governments seek re-election on a regular basis. This form of government was under threat in the 1920s and 1930s. Many people saw it as too weak to tackle their countries’ economic problems or deal with the threat of communism, e.g. Germany.

Der Führer

Hitler’s title, which means ‘the leader’ or ‘guide’.

dictatorship*

A state where power rests with one person or dictator. In the 1920s and 1930s there was a growth of this form of government throughout Europe, e.g. Germany and Italy. It was characterised by an absence of democracy, a one party state and the use of terror and propaganda.

Enabling Act

Law passed by the Reichstag in March 1933. It gave Hitler the power to rule by decree for four years, meaning he did not have to get the approval of the Reichstag for the laws he wanted to pass. It was the legal basis of the Nazi dictatorship and marked the end of democracy in Germany. It was renewed in 1937 and again in 1941.

enemies of the people

Term used by the Soviet government to describe anyone who was thought to oppose communist policies. The term was usually applied to sections of society such as wealthier farmers (kulaks), former nobility, supporters of the tsar, businessmen, priests, or anybody who was seen as a political opponent. Guilt or innocence did not matter, just whether or not you were a member of one of these suspected groups.

exports

Goods and services sold to other countries. They are an important source of revenue for a country.

fascism*

A political system strongly opposed to socialism and communism. Its characteristics include a dictatorship, no democracy, terror, propaganda and very strong nationalism. It started in Italy under Benito Mussolini and was introduced into Germany by Adolf Hitler. The German version was also strongly racist.

free trade

A policy where no taxes are placed on imported goods. This was the traditional policy of the British. Opposite policy to protectionism.

Führer principle

The name for the cult of personality around Hitler. This was promoted extensively by propaganda in the Third Reich and was seen clearly at the Nuremberg Rallies.

general strike

A situation when trade unions join together to stage a nationwide strike, as happened in Britain in1926.

Gestapo

A term that comes from its title, the Geheime Staatspolizei (Secret State Police). It was a secret police force established by Hermann Göring in 1933. It passed over to the control of the SS in 1934. A much-feared though quite small organisation, it operated first in Nazi Germany and then throughout occupied Europe to tackle enemies of the Nazis. Its job was to deal with treason, spying and sabotage. It had the power to detain people without trial and routinely resorted to torture to get information.

Gleichschaltung

The Nazi policy of bringing all areas of German society under the control of the party. Implemented from 1933 onwards, it saw all non-Nazi political parties and trade unions banned. There was to be only one party – the Nazi Party – and one Nazi-controlled trade union.

Gold Standard

Traditional policy where money issued by a country, such as Britain, was backed by gold. This policy was seen to be sensible as it kept prices low and made a country’s currency strong. However, it was bad for a country’s exports and could lead to unemployment.

Great Depression*

A period of economic problems characterised by falling industrial production and a decrease in world trade. It led to high unemployment and serious social problems, especially in Germany. The event that triggered this downturn was the Wall Street Crash of October 1929. It was made worse by a banking crisis in 1931. The effects of the Great Depression led to the rise of the Nazis in Germany. It also led to widespread unemployment in Britain, especially in the north, contributing to the Jarrow march.

Gulag

The name for the prison camp system in the USSR. It consisted of a vast collection of camps found in every part of Russia. The camps established by Lenin were greatly expanded by Stalin and were used to provide slave labour to speed up the process of industrialisation. Conditions in these camps were cruel and they were often located in some of the most inhospitable regions on Earth, such as the Kolyma region in Siberia. Historians estimate that between 1928 and 1953, 18 million people passed through the Gulag system – millions perished.

Herrenvolk*

The master race, often called the Aryan race by the Nazis. Racism was central to the ideology of the Nazis. They claimed that the German people were part of the master race of Nordic peoples. They believed that there was a constant struggle with inferior races and subhumans, who were the enemies of the master race. The Jews were identified as the main enemies of the master race. This racial theory is drawn from the theory of evolution about animals.

Hitler Youth

An organisation for boys from the age of 14 until 18. Its female counterpart was the League of German Maidens. These organisations promoted Nazi ideals and the cult of personality around Hitler. They were very important in creating a new generation of Nazi supporters. Membership of both organisations was compulsory for all German youth by 1936.

Holocaust*

The systematic destruction of the Jewish race. The Nazis decided in 1942 on the Final Solution to the Jewish Question. This was a secret programme that involved rounding up Jews in ghettos and then transferring them to extermination camps such as Auschwitz or Treblinka. Here the able-bodied were literally worked to death while the young, sick and disabled were killed. For example, almost the entire Jewish population of Poland – some three million people – was killed in the Holocaust. This near destruction of an entire race is referred to as genocide. The SS was the organisation that had responsibility for carrying out this policy.

imports

Goods or services bought from other countries.

industrialisation

Process of transforming Russia from an agricultural country to a modern industrial power. Central to Stalin’s policy of Socialism in One Country was a process of greatly increasing the USSR’S industrial output. This aimed to turn the USSR into a socialist country with the creation of a large working class. It would also make Russia a much more powerful country that would be better able to resist its enemies and allow it to export the revolution to other countries. This involved the implementation of Five-Year Plans that set targets for increased production of coal, iron, electricity, etc. It saw the creation of new towns such as Magnitogorsk in the Ural Mountains.

inflation*

A situation when the average level of prices are rising, usually measured over a year. Governments feel it is very important to keep inflation under control. Inflation can be caused by a number of factors, including the printing of too much money, rising wages, low interest rates or increases in the cost of raw materials. Usually the main impact on ordinary people is when prices are rising faster than wages. This can lead to workers being able to buy fewer goods for their wages. In this situation strikes can occur as workers look for higher wages. In extreme cases, hyperinflation occurs, when prices are rising out of control. This form of inflation can lead to catastrophic effects on an economy, as happened in Germany in 1923.

Kremlin

A Russian word for a fortress. The Kremlin in Moscow became the headquarters of the Soviet government in 1918. The word was also used to represent the government of the USSR.

Kulak

A term that means tight-fisted. It was used to describe the wealthier peasants in the USSR. To Communists they were enemies of the people, as they saw them as exploiting the poorer peasants. They suffered brutal treatment under Lenin, while under Stalin there were mass deportations and executions. The term was extended to include any peasant, rich or poor, who opposed Stalin’s policies. It is impossible to accurately estimate the numbers who perished, but it could be around two million.

Labour Party

A moderate British socialist party in favour of a fairer society, greater government spending and government control of major industries, such as coal mining. It first formed a government in 1924, but many equated socialism with communism in Russia and the government lasted less than a year. The leadership was worried by accusations of extremism, so it pursued a very cautious approach, even when it returned to government in 1929. The leadership did not support the Jarrow march, as it was afraid of communist links to other protest marches at the same time.

Lebensraum*

Hitler’s aim of acquiring living space or land for Germans in Eastern Europe, e.g. Poland and the Ukraine. The Nazis argued that the German nation was overpopulated and did not have enough space to feed itself and needed this land. It related to Nazi racial theories, which saw it as a law of nature that the master race (the Aryans) would take land from inferior races such as the Poles. This policy was a major factor in the invasion of both Poland in 1939 and the USSR in 1941.

Liberal Party

Until 1918, one of the ‘big two’ in British politics. It favoured moderate social reform and free trade. It split in 1916 when David Lloyd George replaced his Liberal colleague, Herbert Asquith as Prime Minister. It went into decline after World War I as it lost votes to the Labour Party.

New Economic Policy ( NEP)

Revision of communist economic policies allowing limited capitalism after the failure of War Communism. Lenin introduced it to preserve his government after the failed sailors’ revolt at Kronstadt. Policy worked in raising industrial production but was unpopular among many communists. It was abandoned when Stalin introduced his policy of Socialism in One Country.

Night of the Long Knives

A purge against the SA (Brownshirts) and other enemies of the Nazi regime. The Brownshirts and their leader, Ernst Röhm, had made powerful enemies within the Nazi Party and the army. They were also unpopular and widely seen as thugs. Hitler was persuaded that the leadership of the Brownshirts was plotting against him. He decided to act and most of the leadership was arrested and shot. The Nazis took the opportunity to kill other political enemies, such as the former chancellor, Kurt von Schleicher.

NKVD

People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs was the organisation in charge of state security. It was the successor of the Cheka and was responsible for rooting out enemies of the people. It comprised the police, secret police, border police and the fire brigade. It also ran the Gulag and was responsible for controlling foreign communist parties and Soviet agents abroad. It used brutal interrogation methods and carried out mass executions of countless numbers of Soviet citizens.

Old Bolsheviks

Members of the Communist Party who had joined before 1917. They were the main targets of the purges and the show trials. Stalin distrusted their loyalty to him, as many had opposed him at some stage within the party. The vast majority were shot on Stalin’s orders. They included figures such as Trotsky, Bukharin, Radek, Zinoviev and Kamenev.

Permanent Revolution

Trotsky’s policy of continuing to encourage worldwide revolution to preserve the revolution in Russia. This policy was rejected at the Party Congress of 1925, signalling the defeat of Trotsky in the power struggle to succeed Lenin.

personality cult*

A propaganda mechanism that idealised and promoted loyalty and obedience to the leader of the country, especially in a dictatorship. For example, in the USSR propaganda portrayed Lenin as the father of his people and Stalin as a superman guiding the USSR to the promised land of communism. In Nazi Germany, the Führer principle promoted a personality cult around Hitler. Often leaders were called by names such as Führer (Hitler) or Vozhd (Stalin) to emphasise the cult of personality.

proletariat

Marxist or communist term for the working class. Communists like Lenin claimed to represent the working class.

protectionism*

The introduction of taxes (tariffs) on imports to make them more expensive. It is hoped that this will encourage domestic industry by reducing competition from imported goods. As a result of the Great Depression, the British government introduced protectionism on imports from outside the empire in 1932. This policy was called Imperial Preference.

protective custody

Under the Reichstag Fire Decree of February 1933, the concept of protective custody was introduced. This allowed the police to imprison suspects – political opponents of the Nazis – without trial, usually in a concentration camp. This policy was a basic denial of a person’s human rights.

Provisional Government

Government formed after abdication of the tsar in March 1917. It was provisional (temporary) in that it was un-elected. It was to run the country until elections were held, but it was overthrown in the October Revolution that brought Lenin to power.

Purges

Removing opponents, real or imagined, of Stalin’s policies from the Communist Party. It was part of the Great Terror that began after the assassination of Sergei Kirov in 1934. Suspects were arrested by the NKVD, then interrogated and later shot or sent to the Gulag. The most prominent victims were the Old Bolsheviks who had been members of the party before 1934.

Reichskirche*

The unified Protestant church set up in Germany in 1933. The Nazis merged the 28 regional Protestant churches in Germany into one single church. This was to bring the Protestant Church more tightly under Nazi control. A German Christian movement that combined Christianity and Nazism was encouraged in the church, but it lacked support.

SA ( Sturmabteilung; Storm Detachment)

Known as the Brownshirts, they were established in 1920. They were Hitler’s uniformed followers who protected Nazi Party meetings and fought with political opponents during his rise to power. Its leadership was killed by Hitler in 1934 in an event known as the Night of the Long Knives. After this event, the organisation had little political influence in Nazi Germany.

show trials

Propaganda trials held during the Great Terror of those accused of plotting against Stalin. Many of the accused were members of the party prior to 1917 and were known as Old Bolsheviks. The aim of the trials was to remove any potential enemies of Stalin from the party and to blame the failures of Stalin’s policies on the actions of the accused. The defendants willingly confessed their crimes and most were shot.

Socialism in One Country

Stalin’s policy of establishing socialism in the Soviet Union to ensure the success of the revolution. The aims were to create a socialist state with a large working class and to make the USSR strong enough to defeat its capitalist enemies. It involved rapid industrialisation and collectivisation using Five-Year Plans.

Soviet

Soldiers’ and workers’ councils that ran the cities of Russia in 1917. Originally formed during the unsuccessful revolution of 1905, they were revived after the tsar was overthrown. They held the real power in the cities, and control of the Petrograd Soviet by the Bolsheviks made the October Revolution possible.

SS ( Schutzstaffel; Protection Squadron)

This infamous organisation was established as part of the SA in 1925. It was originally an elite bodyguard for Hitler. After the Nazis came to power, its role expanded greatly. It controlled the police, the secret police (Gestapo) and the concentration camps. During World War II its armed wing, the Waffen SS, fought alongside the regular German army. The SS was responsible for carrying out the Holocaust and other war crimes.

Third Reich

The third Empire – the name the Nazis gave to their state. The First Reich was in the Middle Ages and the second was the German kingdom unified in 1870. The Nazis used this term to claim that they were part of a long tradition of German history.

totalitarian regime*

This is a one-party state characterised by an absence of democracy, a secret police and the widespread use of terror and propaganda. The government had total control over the everyday lives of its citizens. This term is used to describe the USSR under both Lenin and Stalin and Germany under Hitler. Both communist and fascist regimes were totalitarian states.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

A peace treaty signed between Germany and Russia in March 1918. It resulted in large losses of territory for Russia and was deeply unpopular even among Lenin’s own supporters. However, Lenin believed the treaty was necessary in order to establish the new communist government.

USSR

Russia was renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. Sometimes it was called the Soviet Union, though many contemporaries still referred to it as Russia. ‘The Soviets’ was a term commonly used, which referred to the government or the people, similar to ‘the Germans’.

Volk

A word that means the German people – a very important term for the Nazis. The Volk for the Nazis were those who were ethnically German and shared the same culture, traditions and history. The Volk included Germans living in other countries in Europe.

Volksempfänger

The Peoples’ Radio – cheap radio sets built to spread the Nazi message. Goebbels believed that the Nazis needed to control the medium, or way, through which Nazi propaganda was spread. These radio sets ensured that most Germans owned a radio by 1939. Most Germans could then listen to Nazi propaganda. It was difficult, though not impossible, to pick up foreign radio stations on the sets.

Volksgemeinschaft

Nazi ideology that wanted to break down class barriers between Germans and promote a common pride in being members of the German race. Under this policy, all Germans were members of the Volk (the German People) and were therefore equal. A popular policy that gained a lot of support for the regime.

War Communism

An economic policy that involved the introduction of communism during the Civil War in Russia. It involved state control over all factories and shops and forced requisition of grain from the peasants. Mass terror was used to enforce the policy. It was deeply unpopular and a complete economic failure, resulting in a terrible famine and hyperinflation. It was replaced by the New Economic Policy in 1921.

* indicates a key concept