Layers of History: Archaeology Story; Local studies: Stories from the lives of people in the past Buildings, sites or ruins in my locality

Mediterranean Sea

Port of Alexandria in Egypt

The Mediterranean Sea lies between the continents of Europe and Africa. Many large rivers flow into this sea, including the Nile and the Tiber. The Mediterranean climate is hot and dry in summer, and mild and wet in winter. The sea here is home to many animal species that prefer warmer waters, including dolphins, sharks, turtles and seahorses. There are thousands of islands in the Mediterranean Sea, including Sicily (Italy), Corsica (France), Crete (Greece), Menorca (Spain), Malta and Cyprus. Alexandria in the Nile Delta in Egypt is the largest city on the Mediterranean. The Ancient Egyptians travelled from Alexandria across the Mediterranean to trade with their neighbours in Greece.

1 What is the mouth of a river? 2 What is the source of the River Rhine? 3 Name three major European cities and the river that each was founded on. 4 What is the longest river in the world and how long is it? 5 What animal species can be found in the Mediterranean Sea? 6 Name and explain three reasons why rivers are important. 7 Why, do you think, is Dublin Port the busiest seaport in Ireland? 1 List five reasons why rivers are important to us. 2 Pair work: Use the map of the world on page 132 to help you find a country located beside each of the world’s five oceans. Use the map of Ireland on page 95 to help you find two rivers, two seas and two lakes in Ireland. 3 Group work: Make a PowerPoint presentation, video or poster about at least five major rivers in the world. Include information for each river, about its source, mouth (the ocean or sea it flows into), major cities and local flora and fauna.

Present your findings to the class.

Around 96% of the Earth’s water is found in oceans. Oceans cover vast areas of the planet and are home to millions of species.

6

Exploring theHighSeas

when the Age of Discovery took place in Europe about the journeys and discoveries of Christopher Columbus about John Harrison, inventor of the marine chronometer.

celestial navigation, chronometer, expedition, horizon, indigenous, latitude, longitude, navigator, prototype, quadrant, timepiece The period in European history from the 15th century to around the 18th century is known as the Age of Discovery. During this time, a number of European rulers sent explorers on expeditions by sea to find new routes to the East (Asia).

In search of trade routes

In the 15th century, there were established trade routes between Europe and Asia. However, in 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul in Turkey). They blocked these trade routes and soon controlled trade there. Europeans wanted to find other routes to countries such as India and China to trade for spices, gold and silk. However, there were large areas of the globe that Europeans had not yet explored. They did not yet have reliable world maps.

Christopher Columbus

3 August 1492

Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) Columbus sets sail on expedition to the East 28 October Columbus lands 1492 in Cuba was an Italian navigator and explorer who believed that he could find a safe 1492 1493 route to Asia. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain agreed to 12 October 1492 Columbus lands 25 December 1492 Santa Maria is wrecked; give him funding for an expedition. in the Bahamas Columbus returns to Spain On 3 August 1492, Columbus set sail from Palos in Spain with three small ships named the Niña, the Pinta and the Santa Maria. There was so little space on board the three ships that most of the 67 crew members had to sleep on deck. However, smaller ships were easier to sail and could travel closer to land. The largest of the three ships was the Santa Maria, measuring about 36 m long. It was the lead ship on the voyage.

Exploration of the Caribbean

On 12 October 1492, Columbus’s journey, starting and ending in Spain after two months at sea, Columbus landed in a place he assumed to be India. It was in fact an island in the Bahamas, located in the Caribbean Sea on the continent of North America. Columbus called the island San Salvador. The area became known as the ‘New World’. Over the following weeks, Columbus and his crew explored several islands in the Caribbean, including Cuba, Hispaniola and Haiti. They met and were welcomed by the indigenous people of the islands. The islanders showed Columbus pieces of gold and told him about gold-mining in their lands. Columbus was determined to find the gold and take it back to Spain. He declared that the islands now belonged to Spain. He treated the islanders very badly and even made them slaves. He and his crew also brought with them illnesses such as influenza and measles, which the islanders had never been exposed to before. Within 100 years, it is estimated that about 90% of the islanders had died of these diseases.

Return to Spain

In December 1492, on its return journey to Spain, the Santa Maria was damaged beyond repair after hitting coral reefs off the coast of Haiti. Columbus sailed home with the Niña and the Pinta. He left many men behind in Haiti because he could not transport them all. When he arrived in Spain, Columbus immediately sent a letter to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, 15th century portraits of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spaintelling them about the lands that he had found and claimed for Spain. The letter also spoke of gold mines and pieces of gold in the rivers in these lands. The king and queen were very excited and had several copies of the letter printed and shared throughout Europe.

Later expeditions

Columbus went on to make three more expeditions – his fourth and final voyage to the ‘New World’ was in 1502. He continued to explore the area around San Salvador in the years that followed, searching for the gold that the islanders had spoken about. He also explored the Central and South American coasts. New types of food were introduced in both Europe and the Americas as a result of these expeditions. Corn crops were widely planted in Europe, using corn kernals brought over from the Americas. Other new crops that were introduced in Europe at this time included spices, tomatoes, potatoes, cacao (used to make chocolate), avocados and pineapples. Columbus also brought foods that were common in Europe to the Americas, including wheat, rice, barley, oats, coffee, sugar cane, citrus fruits, grapes and melons.

South American potatoes and corn

Challenges at sea

Scurvy is a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C. It causes extreme tiredness, weakness, bleeding gums and sores on the body. There was a high risk of sailors getting scurvy on long voyages. Vitamin C is found in fresh fruit and vegetables, and these were not available at sea. Most sailors lived on stew made from salted meat and a dry, hard biscuit called hardtack. The disease is estimated to have killed around 2 million sailors from the 15th century onwards.

Navigation at sea

On his voyages, Columbus used a technique called celestial navigation. This involved working out the ship’s position and direction by observing the stars or constellations at night. Columbus used a compass and a quadrant to compare the angle of certain stars to other stars as well as the horizon. In this way, he was able to work out the latitude of the ship.

Quadrant (left) and compass (right)

On 20 May 1506, Columbus died in Spain, aged 54. He is remembered for bringing news of the existence of the Americas to Europe. However, archaeologists have discovered that the Vikings travelled to North America almost 500 years before him!

John Harrison

John Harrison (1693–1776) was an English carpenter and self-taught clockmaker. His inventions revolutionised sailing in the 18th century. Navigators needed points of longitude as well as points of latitude to find their exact position. It was much more difficult to work out longitude than latitude. In the early 18th century, there were several disasters at sea in which many lives were lost. These could have been prevented by better navigation instruments. In 1725, the British government announced a competition for someone to invent a marine chronometer that could be used to calculate longitude with very little error. The prize was £20,000 (worth about £4 million today)!

Portrait of John Harrison by Thomas King, c.1767

Lines of latitude (horizontal) and longitude (vertical)

Marine chronometer

A marine chronometer was a timepiece that was always set to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), the time zone of the UK and Ireland. Navigators used a chronometer to compare GMT time to the local time (based on the position of the sun in the sky) in order to figure out their longitude. However, in those days, it was difficult to create a timepiece that did not lose or gain minutes due to the changes in temperature and the boat’s movement at sea. Harrison completed his first prototype in 1735. In 1736, his prototype was tested on a voyage to Lisbon, Portugal. It lost time on the outward journey, but performed well on the return journey. The captain of the ship praised the design because it was much more accurate than the ship’s instrument. Harrison designed three more prototypes. This included a much smaller pocket chronometer in 1759.

John Harrison’s legacy

In 1762, Harrison’s fourth prototype was tested on a voyage to Jamaica and only lost five seconds. This prototype became his most famous invention. Harrison eventually won the government’s prize of £20,000, but he did not receive the full payment until 1773. In 1769, Englishman Captain James Cook landed in New Zealand. He went on to explore Australia and Antarctica. The success of his expeditions was partly down to his use of Harrison’s chronometer. Harrison died in March 1776 at the age of 83. During his life, he revolutionised navigation by helping sailors to work out exactly where they were positioned and plot a safe route to their destination.

Captain James Cook

Marine chronometers have largely been replaced by electronic GPS navigation systems on boats, but they can still be found in some watches today

In 2015, a pendulum clock designed by John Harrison in the 18th century won a Guinness World Record for being the most accurate of its type ever invented. It was trialled over a 100-day period and found to be accurate to within a second.

1 What was the Age of Discovery? 2 When did Christopher Columbus set out on his voyage to Asia? 3 What were the names of the three ships that were used in Columbus’s expedition? 4 Why was there a high risk that sailors would get scurvy on long voyages? 5 What was a chronometer used to work out? 6 Why, do you think, did Harrison make a number of prototypes for his chronometer? 7 How has the work of early explorers like Columbus affected our lives today, do you think?

1 Write a letter from Christopher Columbus to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, explaining what you found on your expedition in 1492. 2 Pair work: On your worksheet, map out Columbus’s first journey from Spain to the Bahamas. 3 Group work: Design a poster or a comic strip about Christopher Columbus, featuring his patrons, ships and navigation equipment, and the people he met on his expeditions. You could also research and include information about his early life.

7

What Lies Beneath

about a number of species of marine animals about aquatic plants and their importance to the ocean about the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia.

algae, antennae, aquatic, baleen plates, blowhole, blubber, crustacean, gills, invertebrate, kelp, krill, mollusc, plankton, polyps, secrete, vertebrate Over 1 million species of animals and plants have been found in the ocean. Scientists estimate that there might be as many as 9 million more. The ocean is full of mystery, but let’s find out what lies beneath the surface!

Fish

There is only one global ocean, but it is divided into five bodies of water as follows: Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean and Southern Ocean.

Fish are vertebrates, meaning that they have a backbone. They can only live in water. They have scales, fins and gills, which allow them to ‘breathe’ by collecting oxygen in the water. There are around 30,000 species of fish in the ocean, including sharks. More than 1,000 species of shark have been identified. A baby shark is called a pup. Almost all sharks are carnivores.

Whale shark The whale shark is the largest fish on Earth. On average, it measures about 12 m in length and weighs about 14 tonnes (a polar bear weighs about 1 tonne). It feeds on krill, tiny fish and plankton, which it filters from the water as it swims with its mouth wide open. It lives in tropical regions. It is an endangered species because it is hunted by humans Whale shark for its meat. Whale sharks are very gentle and Krill usually measure sometimes let swimmers hitch a ride on their fins! between 1–6 cm in length Great white shark The great white shark lives in warm coastal waters in almost all parts of the globe. Its name comes from its white underbelly. It is a ferocious predator with many rows of teeth. It also has a powerful sense of smell that helps it to locate prey such as seals, sea lions, fish and whales. It can also leap above the surface of the water to snatch Great white shark leaping out of the water, South Africa seabirds! It swims at speeds of up to 56 km/h.

Mammals are vertebrates. They are warm-blooded, they have hair or fur and they breathe air. Nearly all female mammals give birth to live babies (not eggs) and feed them on milk. Marine mammals rely on the ocean for survival. They include whales, sea lions, dolphins, seals and manatees. Whale There are around 40 different species of whale. Some, such as the beluga whale, have teeth. Whales have a thick layer of blubber under their skin to keep them warm in cold water. They come to the surface of the water and breathe through a blowhole at the top of their head. A baby whale is called a calf. The blue whale can be found in every ocean except the Arctic Ocean. It is the largest mammal on Earth, measuring up to 24 m in length and weighing up to 190 tonnes. It eats almost 4 tonnes of krill per day. It filters krill from the water using a system of bristles in its mouth called baleen plates. Sea lion A sea lion can grow up to 2.5 m in length and weigh over 500 kg. It hunts underwater for fish, squid and octopuses, and can swim at speeds of up to 40 km/h. It also likes to walk around on land on its four flippers. Large groups, or colonies, of sea lions are often seen lounging on beaches or rocks, basking in the sun. They can be found in every ocean except Sea lions on Vancouver Island, Canada the North Atlantic Ocean. They have an excellent sense of hearing and can see very well in the dark. A baby sea lion is called a pup. People often get confused between sea lions and seals. One difference is that sea lions have small flaps for outer ears, but seals do not.

Blue whale

Crustaceans

Crustaceans are invertebrates, meaning that they do not have a backbone. They have jointed limbs and a segmented body covered by a hard shell. They also have gills, plus two pairs of antennae for sensing movement nearby. There are around 45,000 known species of crustacean in the ocean and they are found all over the globe. They include barnacles, krill, prawns, crabs and lobsters. Lobsters live on the seabed and feed on fish and seaweed. They have five pairs of legs. The front pair include a long pair of claws.

Lobster, UK

Jellyfish are aquatic invertebrates (but not crustaceans) and have no brain, heart, bones or eyes. They use their stinging tentacles to stun or paralyse prey before gobbling it up. In China jellyfish are eaten as a delicacy!

Molluscs are invertebrates. They are the most diverse group of animals on Earth, with nearly 100,000 known species. They are found in every ocean. They include sea snails, sea slugs, clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, cockles, squid and octopuses. All molluscs have a soft body (sometimes protected by a shell), some have a head and some also have tentacles. An octopus has eight tentacles. An octopus can live from six Octopus on the sea bed, Indonesia months to six years, depending on the species. Octopuses prefer to live on the seabed, rising only to find food. They mostly feed on crabs and lobsters.

Aquatic plants

Scientists estimate that up to 80% of the Earth’s oxygen is produced by aquatic plants in the ocean. Aquatic plants also provide food and habitats for marine animals. These plants include seagrass and seaweed, or algae. There are up to 1 million different species of algae. They can be red, green or brown in colour. Kelp is a green-brown algae that grows up to 45 cm per day. Kelp forest, California, USA Kelp forests are among the most biodiverse habitats in the ocean. It is not only animals that eat algae; it is also eaten by many people around the world because it is tasty and full of nutrients. In Ireland, a red algae known as Irish moss is used as an ingredient in foods such as soup to thicken it.

Great Barrier Reef, Australia

The Great Barrier Reef off the north-east coast of Australia is one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World. It is made up of 2,900 coral reefs and 900 islands, stretching a distance of 2,300 km. It was named as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981 because of its unique features and outstanding beauty. Coral reefs provide a habitat for about 25% of all marine animal species. The Great Barrier Reef is home to sharks, turtles, sponges, oysters, giant clams, crabs, sea urchins, sea stars, and many species of fish, including clownfish and butterfly fish.

Coral is made up of tiny invertebrate Colourful polyps covering a coral reef animals called polyps. They might look like plants, but they are not classed as such because they do not make their own food. They eat tiny algae that live on their bodies and tiny animals found in plankton. They have small tentacles that they use to capture these animals. Polyps come in many shapes and sizes, but they all have have a soft inner body. They secrete calcium and other minerals that build up into a hard outer casing to protect the inner body. When polyps die, these hard casings form a foundation for new polyps to live on. This is how coral reefs have formed over millions of years. There are about 600 different species of coral in the Great Barrier Reef. Climate change and water pollution pose Coral bleaching threats to coral reefs. An increase in the water’s temperature can cause the algae that live on the polyps’ bodies to escape, reducing their food supply. When this happens, the coral loses its colour and turns white. This is called coral bleaching. Water pollution can prevent polyps from secreting the calcium and minerals needed to build their protective casing.

1 Describe the common features of fish. 2 What is the difference between a vertebrate and an invertebrate? 3 How can you tell the difference between a seal and a sea lion? 4 Describe the features of a lobster. 5 What group of animals does an octopus belong to? 6 Why are coral reefs important, in your opinion? 7 What do think might happen to a polyp without its protective casing?

1 Make a list of any species that you heard of for the first time during the lesson.

Do an online search for these species to see what they look like. 2 Pair work: Research krill to find out how they have adapted to their environment and how they are important to marine food chains. 3 Group work: Choose three marine animals and make a fact file for each on your worksheet. Include a drawing of each of the animals.

8

Work at Sea

all about the fishing industry in Ireland how the fishing industry can affect the environment to compare the lives of a fisherman in Ireland and a fisherman in Thailand.

bay, exporter, harbour, importer, migrant worker, moor, pier, quota, seine, skipper, stocks, trawling The island of Ireland’s coastline is 7,524 km in length. As a result, Ireland has an important seafood industry, worth about €1.25 billion a year. It employs around 15,000 people. Centres of the fishing industry are usually located in a bay, an area of the coastine that curves inwards. The water in a bay is shallower and warmer than further out in the ocean. This is ideal for catching shellfish such as oysters and mussels. Fishing boats usually also require a harbour, which is a place on the coast where boats can moor safely. They are protected from rough waves by a structure such as a pier.

Fishing boats moored in Howth Harbour

Some common commercial fishing methods

Trawling This involves lowering a large net to the seabed and holding it down with a heavy weight. The trawler drags the net along the seabed, collecting fish and other species. Trawling can destroy marine habitats, so it is not considered to be environmentally friendly. Trawler Seine fishing This is more environmentally friendly than trawling because it does not touch the seabed. A seine net is lowered from the back of a boat and encircles a school of fish.

Supports for the fishing industry in Ireland

The term ‘fishing industry’ means any activity related to catching, processing, transporting and selling seafood products. Bord Iascaigh Mhara (BIM) is an agency that helps Ireland’s fishing industry by providing advice and funding. The European Maritime and Fisheries Fund also helps the fishing industry in Ireland and throughout the EU to become more environmentally friendly. It provided funds for a cleanup of the water in Galway Bay to protect the shellfish stocks there.

Galway Bay

A fisherman from Ireland

My name is John and I am the skipper of a fishing boat in Dunmore East, Co. Waterford. Dunmore East Harbour has a long history of fishing, and a village has built up around it. My family has a tradition of working in the fishing industry here. My father, uncle and grandfather were all fishermen, and my mother set up our family-run fishmongers in the village. On my boat, we use a seine net to catch fish. The Dunmore East Harbour, Co. Waterford net is lowered from the back of the boat. When it is full of fish, we hoist it up and release the haul below deck. We separate the fish into large plastic barrels and pack them in ice to keep them fresh. (We have an ice machine on board!) We usually catch cod, monkfish, haddock, lemon sole, whiting, hake, plaice, brill and turbot, as well as shellfish. When we land in Dunmore East Harbour, the barrels are transported to our fishmongers so that our customers can buy the catch of the day. I love my job, but it can be very tough at times when the hauls are low. The main challenge is that the EU sets a quota on certain species of fish every December. This is to prevent overfishing of stocks. Once the country has reached its quota for those species, fishermen must throw them back into the water if they catch them. Seine net fishing

Other jobs in the fishing industry

The fishing industry creates more jobs than you might imagine! Many people work in seafood-processing factories for companies such as Donegal Catch. GK Nets in Howth, Co. Dublin is a company that makes and repairs fishing nets. Fishmongers are shops that primarily sell fresh fish that has been caught locally. Fishmongers in the English Market, Cork Seafood restaurants would not exist without seafood! Fish-and-chip shops are the home of one of Ireland’s most beloved treats: cod and chips! Lorry drivers, dock workers and container-ship crews are all involved in exporting seafood overseas.

Ireland’s seafood exports

Many fishermen in Ireland sell part or all of their haul to companies that export Irish seafood overseas in large container ships. Irish seafood exports are worth around €605 million each year. Here are the most important markets for Ireland’s seafood: 1 Europe: Europe is the largest importer of Ireland’s seafood, especially the countries of France, Spain, Italy, the UK and Poland. The biggest imports are salmon, mackerel, crabs and Dublin Bay prawns.

Irish oysters are also very popular in France. 2 Asia: China, South Korea and Japan import mackerel, herring and whiting from Ireland. 3 Africa: Nigeria and Egypt are the two biggest importers of Irish seafood in Africa.

Fishing in Thailand

Containers on a container ship

Thailand has a large fishing industry and is one of the world’s largest exporters of seafood. Around 650,000 people work in Thailand’s fishing industry. Many of these people are migrant workers from countries such as Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. They tend to have poor working conditions and get paid low wages. The Ethical Trading Initiative was set up to tackle the poor working conditions of migrant workers around the world.

A fisherman from Thailand

My name is Leo and I am a fisherman in Thailand. I am the captain of a small trawler and I work with a crew of four fishermen. We sail far out to sea from the city port of Laem Chabang, and often work overnight or go for a few days at a time.

After a few hours of sailing, we drop our nets into the deep water. We leave them for three hours while we try to rest and stay out of the sun. It gets very hot in the summer and we are exposed on the boat, but there is not much space for us below deck.

Laem Chabang is a big port for shipping as well as for smaller fishing boats

After we hoist the nets up, we empty the haul onto the deck and sort the different kinds of fish into large baskets. Anything that is not wanted is thrown back into the ocean. We store the fish in buckets of water to keep them fresh. Then we drop our nets again and repeat the process! When we return to the harbour, we sort the haul into smaller baskets to be taken to a large seafood market in the city. I love fishing, but it is a tough job. Sometimes we go out for days, but end up with very little to show for it. Overfishing by large trawlers is a growing problem. I hear stories about how the crews on the large trawlers are treated. They are expected to work long hours without breaks to eat or sleep, but they get paid very little.

Market in Bangkok, Thailand

1 How many people are employed in the fishing industry in Ireland? 2 What does ‘BIM’ stand for? 3 What does the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund do? 4 Why does the EU set fishing quotas every December? 5 How many people are employed in the fishing industry in Thailand? 6 Can you name one or two other jobs in the fishing industry that were not named in the chapter? 7 Why, do you think, is seafood exported in container ships rather than by air?

1 Locate your nearest port or harbour and find out five facts about it. 2 Think, pair, share: Draw a chart showing three similarities and three differences between John’s work and Leo’s work. 3 Group work: Make a PowerPoint presentation, video or poster about the fishing industry in Ireland. Include images and information about jobs, fishing boats and the species of fish and shellfish that are caught. Present your findings to the class.

The Bronze Age in Sumer

Archaeologists believe the Bronze Age began in the Sumer civilisation in Mesopotamia (now Iraq) around 4500 BC. Sumer was the world’s earliest known civilisation. It is thought that Sumerian metalworkers discovered how to produce bronze. The Sumerians also knew a lot about mathematics, architecture and astronomy. It is thought that they invented the wheel and developed the first system of writing. It took a long time for the information and skills needed to make bronze to slowly spread throughout the world. This meant that the Bronze Age occured at different times around the world. In Ireland, the Bronze Age began around 2500 BC – some 2,000 years after it had begun in Sumer!

Mediterranean Sea Red Sea Caspian Sea

ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA

Persian Gulf

TIGRISRIVER EUPHRATESRIVER SUMER

How the world changed during the Bronze Age

The introduction of bronze, the invention of things such as the wheel, and a general increase in trade brought about many changes in people’s lives. Increasing numbers of metalworkers and miners were needed to meet the demand for bronze tools and weapons. In order to trade rather than to feed just their families, farmers needed to produce more food. They began to clear forests to create more farmland, dividing fields with stone walls, which can still be seen today. Archaeologists believe the plough was introduced to Ireland during the Bronze Age. This allowed farmers to sow crops on a much larger scale than previously. Potters were needed to make clay pots for farmers to store grains and other produce. The invention of the wheel meant that food and goods could be transported over longer distances in carts. Improvements in navigation meant that traders could travel overseas trading food, jewellery, weapons and tools. The demand for weavers grew, as cloth sails were needed for boats, and fewer people had the time to make their own cloth.

The Bronze Age in Ireland

The knowledge of how to make bronze was brought to Ireland by travellers from Europe. Ireland had its own copper mines, but tin had to be imported from Britain. This made bronze objects expensive. Stone tools remained in use for a long time. The Bronze Age lasted in Ireland for about 2,000 years. Historians divide this period into three stages: Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age.

Early Bronze Age in Ireland (c.2500 BC–c.1500 BC)

Thatched houses were built with a wooden frame and walls were made of wattle and daub. Wattle and daub was a material made of interwoven sticks and twigs covered with mud. Food was cooked outdoors in a fulachtfiadh. This was constructed by digging a pit in the ground, lining it with stones or wood and filling it with water. Stones that had been heated on a fire were dropped into the water to make it boil. Meat and vegetables Reconstructed fulacht fiadh were cooked in the boiling water. At this time, the dead were usually laid to rest in a wedge tomb or a stone grave called a cist. Sometimes clay pots containing food and drinks were placed alongside the body. Large earthen circles called henges were constructed for worshipping and offering sacrifices to the gods. These were later replaced with stone circles.

Reconstructed Bronze Age house at Craggaunowen, Co. Clare

Drombeg Stone Circle, Co. Cork

Middle Bronze Age in Ireland (c.1500 BC–c.900 BC)

Some people began to build settlements called crannógs, in which the houses were built on stilts in the middle of a lake. There was only one entrance to a crannóg, making it harder for enemies to attack. Farmers grazed animals and grew crops in nearby fields. Metalworking techniques continued to improve, resulting in better tools. Irish metalworkers became known for making Reconstruction of a crannóg at Craggaunowen, Co. Clare fine works in gold.

A wedge tomb was usually built around three-quarters of the way up a steep hill or mountain. It had an open entrance facing the sunset, and three walls and a roof built of large stone slabs.

Late Bronze Age in Ireland (c.900 BC–c.500 BC)

Ireland’s climate became colder and wetter around this time. Growing crops became more difficult, so people began to depend more on milk and meat as sources of food. Communities moved from hilly areas down into valleys where the weather conditions were a little better. At this time, they began to cremate the remains of important people such as chiefs and heroes – possibly because of new religious beliefs about the afterlife. After cremation, a person’s ashes were placed in a clay pot called an urn and buried in a grave.

Evidence of the Bronze Age in Ireland

It was common for Bronze Age people to bury valuable objects such as tools and jewellery if they were about to come under attack. Many such artefacts have been found well preserved in bogs, including a hoard of axes, knives, horns, swords, buckets and razors that was found at Dowris, Co. Offaly. Dún Aonghasa on the island of Inis Mór off the coast of Co. Galway is a Bronze Age fort that was built around 1500 BC. Archaeologists excavating at Dún Aonghasa in the 1990s found many artefacts dating back to the Late Bronze Age, including tools, rings, beads and pottery.

Dowris Hoard

Dún Aonghasa, Co. Galway

1 Describe how Bronze Age metalworkers made a bronze tool. 2 Where do archaeologists believe bronze was first produced? 3 What changes to farming happened during the Bronze Age? 4 Why were bronze objects expensive in Ireland? 5 How did the change in climate during the Late Bronze Age in Ireland affect people’s lives? 6 Which new invention during the Bronze Age do you think was the most important? Explain why. 7 In what ways was pottery important during the Bronze Age?

1 Think about the oldest object that you have ever seen or held in your hand.

What was it? What was used for? Is it still in use today or has something else been invented to do that job? 2 Pair work: Design and draw a tool for a young person in the Bronze Age.

Before you start, decide what the tool will be used for. 3 Group work: Research, design and make a model of a Bronze Age house using a selection of art materials such as cardboard, clay and Lego bricks.

10

TheForceof Friction

about the force of friction and how it is created where friction occurs in everyday life about air resistance, water resistance and streamlining.

air resistance, drag, exert, friction, grip, lubricant, streamlined, water resistance A force is a push or pull acting upon an object, which causes a change in an object’s shape, speed or direction. When you try to push or pull a heavy box across a floor, you are using force. However, there is another force acting against you: friction. The force of friction makes it harder for you to push or pull the box across the floor.

What is friction?

Pushing force

Friction force

Friction is a force that is exerted by a surface as an object moves across it. It is created because the two surfaces are pressed closely together. Friction works in the opposite direction to a moving object and slows it down. For example, if you slide a book across the surface of a desk, the desk exerts a friction force in the opposite direction to which the book is moving. Pushing force The amount of friction that is created depends on the texture of the two surfaces and how firmly they are pressed together. For example, it is a lot easier to slide a light book across a smooth desk than a heavy box across a rough carpet. If this Friction sounds complicated, do not worry; you already force know more about friction than you might think!

Friction is everywhere!

Friction affects us every day. It is created beneath the soles of our shoes when we walk on the ground. This prevents us from slipping and sliding. Without it, we might go head over heels! Imagine if you had to run fast through an airport to catch a flight. You would need plenty of friction between the floor and the soles of your shoes. The best shoes for running have flexible, rough soles with a good grip.

Every child knows that in order to come down a slide fast, you need to raise your feet a little. Otherwise the friction between your shoes and the surface of the slide would slow you down. However, it would be no problem if you were only wearing socks. Why do you think this is so?

Friction can be reduced

Sometimes we want to reduce the amount of friction between surfaces. For example, on a dry ski slope, a type of lubricant called ski wax is applied to the base of skis. This reduces the amount of friction between the surface of the skis and the surface of the slope, allowing people to ski faster.

Have you ever rubbed your hands together on a cold day to warm them up? This works because friction generates heat. Try rubbing your hands together slowly. Do they warm up? Now try rubbing them together fast. Are they warmer? More friction means more heat!

Remember Friction works in the opposite direction to a moving object and slows it down!

Air resistance

Air resistance is a type of friction that acts upon objects as they travel through the air. When we walk or run, our body meets a very small amount of air resistance, which we are not aware of. However, the faster we move, the more air resistance we meet and the more noticeable it becomes. Skiers feel air resistance when skiing downhill. Sometimes children can feel it on a fast-moving swing or roundabout. Have you ever felt air resistance when cycling your bicycle fast? If so, did you notice that you needed to apply more force to the pedals to keep cycling fast? Why do you think this was so?

Skydivers use the force of air resistance to slow down their fall. An open parachute greatly increases air resistance.

Water resistance is a type of friction that acts upon objects as they travel through water. The faster we swim, the more water resistance we meet. This is known as drag. Professional swimmers are always looking for ways to reduce drag because it slows them down in a race.

You will have felt water resistance if you have ever tried waving your hand quickly back and forth under the water in a swimming pool or a bath.

A dolphin’s long, pointed body is perfectly streamlined and allows it to swim at speeds of up to 30 km/h.

Streamlining

We can reduce air resistance or water resistance by making our body more streamlined. When cycling, if we crouch down over the handlebars, the air can flow around our body more easily. This creates less friction and allows us to cycle faster. The shape of a bicycle helmet is also specially designed to reduce air resistance. Professional swimmers make their body more streamlined by tucking their shoulders close to their ears, and keeping their arms, hands, legs and feet perfectly straight. They wear a swim cap because it creates less friction with the water than hair does. Similarly, the streamlined shape of a boat creates minimal friction with the water as it sails. Boats can also be built with a low-friction material such as smooth metal.

Kicking ball investigation

Equipment: three different-sized balls (e.g. beach ball, football and tennis ball), pens, trundle wheel, strong sticky tape to mark start and finish lines

Action:

● Before you begin, make a prediction on your worksheet about whose ball will travel farthest, and how far each ball will travel on each ground surface. ● Observe two students kicking three different-sized balls along the ground from a starting point to a finishing point 20 m away. ● Repeat this on three different surfaces: concrete, grass and the floor of the school hall. ● Record your findings on your worksheet.

Let ’s designandmake

In groups, we are going to design and make a holder for a ping-pong ball that will allow it to move across a zip line in five seconds.

Zip line

Equipment: ping-pong ball, cereal box, four small paper cups, four straws, scissors, single-hole punch, 120 cm un-waxed dental floss, sticky tape, four flat steel washers (2.5 cm diameter or bigger), four wooden skewers, stopwatch Problem: What can you use as a holder for the ball? How will it stay on the zip line as it moves? What material would allow the holder to slide fast enough? Plan: How can you apply your learning about friction to solve the problem? Think about which materials should be used to make the fastest run. Design: Draw a simple diagram to show how your plan will work. The holder needs to stay on the zip line as it moves. Think about how you can use friction to help it stay on. Use your worksheet to help you. Make: Make a zip line by running a length of dental floss between the backs of two chairs or between two stack of books. One end of the zip line must be about 60 cm higher than the other. Using the materials provided, follow your design to make a holder for the ping-pong ball. Test: Test your ping-pong holder and see if it works. Evaluate: Did your design work out? Can you explain why it did or did not work? Is there anything you would change or improve?

11

Using Earth’s Resources

about our dependence on minerals and fossil fuels how our use of natural resources affects the environment some ways in which we can practise sustainability.

borehole, deforestation, fracking, geologist, industrialisation, mineral deposit, quarrying, reserves, sapling, soil erosion, sustainability

Before industrialisation began in the 18th century, human activity caused little harm to the environment. Since then, new technologies have allowed us to use natural resources in ways that have greatly improved our lives. However, our use of natural resources has negative impacts on the environment.

Minerals, mineral deposits and ores

Minerals are a very valuable natural resource. They are found on the Earth’s surface and deep underground. All of the rocks, sand and soil on Earth are made up of minerals. Maybe you have heard of diamonds, gypsum, lithium, zinc or aluminium; these are all examples of minerals. Without minerals, we would not have computers, mobile phones, household appliances, bicycles, jewellery, medicine, toothpaste, cosmetics and countless other items that we use in daily life. Mineral deposits are large concentrations of minerals in rocks. They can occur anywhere on Earth, including beneath the ocean. An ore is a mineral deposit from which metal can be extracted. Some of the most common ores are iron, gold, silver and copper. Ores tend to occur Copper ore very deep underground.

Diamonds are very hard, so they are used in industrial tools such as drills and saws

Mining

Mineral deposits are extracted from the ground by mining. First, geologists look for mineral deposits in an area by testing the surface rock and soil. Next, they drill a borehole to explore the deeper layers of the rock. If a mineral deposit is discovered, a mining operation is set up. There are two types of mining: surface mining and underground mining.

A mineral is a solid, inorganic (does not come from a plant or an animal) substance. Every rock is a mixture of two or more minerals. For example, the main minerals that make up granite are quartz and feldspar.

Granite

Quarrying is a common method of surface mining. At a quarry, vegetation and soil are removed from the rock. Buried mineral deposits are exposed by blasting the rock with explosives and cutting into it using large machines. Underground mining involves digging tunnels and mine shafts deep under the ground to reach buried mineral deposits. Ore and waste rock are brought to the surface through the tunnels and shafts.

Limestone quarry

Mining in Ireland

Mining in Ireland dates back to the Bronze Age, around 2500 BC, when there were copper mines in counties Kerry and Cork. During the 18th and 19th centuries, every county in Ireland had at least one metal mine. The metals, including copper, lead-silver and iron, were shipped to Britain, where they were important materials for industry. A number of place names in Ireland tell of mining operations in the past, including the Copper Coast in Co. Waterford, the Gold Mines River in Co. Wicklow and the village of Silvermines in Co. Tipperary. Since the 1960s, Irish mines have been major producers of baryte (used to make TVs and computers), lead and zinc.

Underground gold mine

Old copper mine in Allihies, Co. Cork

Copper is used in a range of items, including cars, saucepans, electrical wiring and coins. It is also used to help treat diseases such as cancer, arthritis and heart conditions.

Downsides to mining

Although minerals bring many benefits to our lives, mining has a negative impact on the environment. It can lead to deforestation, soil erosion and loss of habitats. Mining can also be a dangerous job. In 2010, 33 miners in Chile were trapped underground for two months, after a shaft of the copper mine in which they were working collapsed. They were only able to communicate with the outside world through a borehole dug by rescuers. Thankfully, all of the miners were rescued alive.

Oil and natural gas

Oil and natural gas are very important natural resources. They are found deep below the Earth’s surface and extracted for use by drilling. Oil is used as fuel in power stations, central-heating systems, cars, aeroplanes and other vehicles. It is also used to make plastic, clothing and toiletries. It is estimated that over 90 million barrels of oil are used around the world each day. Oil companies are always exploring different areas of the globe in an effort to find new reserves of oil. Natural gas is used as fuel in centralheating systems and cookers. Fracking is a method of extracting natural gas by drilling a well down into the rock and then injecting a mixture of water, sand and chemicals into the well at high pressure. This causes a kind of mini-earthquake, in which the rock deep underground cracks and releases pockets of natural gas into the well.

Oil wells Well Water, sand and chemicals injected into well

FRACKING

Gas flows Aquifer out Cracks in rock

Downsides to oil and natural gas

Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources. This means that they cannot be replaced by natural means at a quick enough pace to keep up with use. Burning fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas causes carbon dioxide and other gases to be released into the atmosphere. This adds to the greenhouse effect, which contributes to climate change. The process of fracking causes both air pollution and water pollution. There is also a concern that fracking could make the ground unstable and lead to more serious earthquakes.

Fracking well

Wood

Wood is a renewable natural resource that comes from trees. It is used to make furniture, toys, paper, musical instruments and sporting equipment, and to build boats. From trees, we get the wood to build a home and the wood to heat it! Burning wood is a more environmentally friendly alternative to burning fossil fuels. The trees most commonly grown in Ireland for burning as fuel are alder, poplar and ash, which are typically grown for 15–25 years before harvest. Trees are easy to grow: all they need is fertile soil, water and sunlight.

However, it is very important that forests are sustainably managed. Sustainability is the practice of not overusing the Earth’s resources, so that the planet can support future generations. In a sustainably managed forest, whenever trees are cut down, new saplings are planted. Waterways, ecosystems and wildlife are protected, and there is a limit to the number of trees that can be cut down.

Borneo

Borneo in South East Asia is the third-largest island in the world. It has a large tropical rainforest, which is a habitat for orangutans, leopards, elephants and many other animal species. Roughly half of the world’s tropical wood comes from the rainforest of Borneo.

Orangutans

1973 forest 1973 non-forest Forest cover in Borneo in 1973 and in 2020

2020 forest 2020 non-forest

km 0 125 250 425 500 km 0 125 250 425 500

The island is also rich in minerals, and has tin, copper, gold, silver and diamond mines. Unfortunately, deforestation and mining have led to the destruction of vast areas of the rainforest. In the 1970s, over 70% of the island was covered in rainforest. That number has since dropped to less than 50%. Borneo’s orangutans are now on the Worldwide Wildlife Fund’s critically endangered list of animals because their habitat is being destroyed.

Practising sustainability

We can help to shape our future world more responsibly by living sustainably. In order to reduce our consumption of natural resources, we can follow the three ‘R’s. Reduce By reducing our use of plastic, we can reduce our consumption of oil and help to prevent plastic waste and pollution. Reuse Donating or passing on second-hand toys or clothing is a great way to cut down on the waste of natural resources. Recycle Many materials, such as hard plastic, tin cans and paper, can be recycled, helping to cut down on the use of natural resources.

Renewable sources of energy

Another sustainable approach to using the Earth’s natural resources is to increase our use of renewable sources of energy.

Solar power Wind power

Solar energy is the light and heat given off by the sun. It can be collected by solar panels and used to heat buildings and produce electricity.

Geothermal energy A wind turbine has blades that spin when the wind blows, causing a shaft inside the wind turbine to turn. This provides power to generate electricity.

Hydroelectricity

Geothermal energy is heat that comes from deep underground. Hot water that is piped from below the ground can be used to drive turbines that generate electricity. Hydroelectricity is produced using the movement of water. A hydroelectric power station is built on a fast-flowing river. The water flows through turbines, causing them to spin. This provides power to generate electricity.

1 What is a mineral? 2 Name four products that minerals are used to make. 3 Name three minerals that have been mined in Ireland since the 1960s. 4 What are the downsides to mining? 5 What does ‘sustainability’ mean? 6 How does mining for different resources affect the land, air and wildlife on Earth? 7 In your opinion, is there any way we could help to reduce the demand for natural resources?

1 Write a list of ten ways in which you use natural resources in your daily life. 2 Pair work: Design a simple survey for another class, asking them about their use of natural resources such as wood, oil, gas, coal and metals. After you have finished the survey, discuss what went well and what changes you would make if you were to carry out another survey with another class. 3 Group work: Design a poster or PowerPoint presentation with suggestions for living sustainably. Brainstorm ideas and do research online. Share your findings with the class.

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12

TheHistory of Energy andPower

about sources of energy that people used long ago how coal and steam power made the Industrial Revolution possible about the sequence of developments in energy and power that have shaped our world.

Energy is defined as the power to do work. Early on in our history, people had only simple tools and machinery to work with. Food was their main source of energy because they had to rely on muscle power to do physical work. With the discovery of alternative forms of energy, work became much easier, faster and safer.

biomass, domesticated, emissions, generator, hypocaust, internal-combustion engine, mass-produced, nuclear power, nuclear reactor, pneumatic

Energy comes in different forms

Energy exists in different forms, including light and heat. Without the sun’s energy, there would be no plants on Earth, and therefore no life of any kind. Around 1 million years ago, early humans learned how to start fires. Fire gave them an alternative source of light and heat at night-time and in winter, and a means of cooking food. It is likely that they used sticks and animal fat as fuel.

An early use of wind power was to use sails to power boats. There is evidence of the Ancient Egyptians using sailboats in 5000 BC, and the Sumerians using them in Mesopotamia in 4000 BC. Around 1700 BC, an irrigation system powered by windmills was designed in Mesopotamia. Steam power was the most important discovery of the Industrial Revolution (AD 1760–1840). Steam engines were used to power large machines in factories and trains. Advances made during the Industrial Revolution made it possible for energy technology to develop at a much faster rate than before.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution took place from around 1760 to 1840. Goods such as textiles began to be mass-produced in factories, using machines powered by steam engines. This meant that, for the first time, a factory owner could produce large quantities of goods for sale. Coal was the main source of energy for the steam engines, and so it was a vitally important material in the Industrial Revolution. Coal was also used in iron smelting – the process of heating the iron ore to melting point so that the liquid iron could be cast into objects (including parts for steam engines) as needed. Large coal mines opened in Britain during the late 18th century.

Cotton mill in Lancashire, England, c.1905

Timeline of energy and power

1760–1840 Industrial Revolution

1750 1760 1770 1780

1776

Scottish inventor and engineer James Watt introduces his steam engine design

Steam engines had already been in existence since 1698, mainly being used to pump water out of mines. Watt made very important changes to the design, increasing the steam engine’s power and making it cheaper to run. The improvements he made to the steam engine are said to have driven the Industrial Revolution.

1790 1800

1792

Scottish engineer William Murdoch invents gas lighting

Murdoch equipped his home with pipes that delivered gas to lamps. British cities began to use gas streetlights in 1807.

1810 1820

1821

English physicist Michael Faraday invents the first electric motor In the 1830s, Faraday went on to discover a way to convert mechanical energy into electricity on a large scale, creating the first electric generator.

Replica of James Watt’s steam engine

Horses were first domesticated in Russia around 4000 BC. They were used for hunting and in battle. Later, horses were used for pulling chariots and carts. Before the invention of the steam engine, the only way to travel fast over land was by horse.

Around 500 BC, the Ancient Chinese began piping natural gas from the ground using pipes made from bamboo. The natural gas was a fuel for fires that were used to separate salt from seawater.

Thomas Edison’s first working electric light bulb

1830 1840 1850

Fox River Dam, at the site of the world’s first hydroelectric power plant

Electric motor taxi in London, c. 1897

1860 1878

American inventor Thomas Edison invents the first working electric light bulb

1870 1890

The Edison Electric Light Station is built in London

This was the world’s first coal-fired electric power station. It supplied electricity to buildings in London.

1897

Electric cars begin to be used as taxis in Britain and the USA Electric cars were popular until the mass production of cheaper and more reliable petrol cars began in 1913.

1881

World’s first hydroelectric power station begins operating in Wisconsin, USA

1880 1890 1900

In 1887, John Dunlop, a Scottish vet living in Belfast, invented the first pneumatic (inflatable) tyres after his son complained that his bottom was sore from riding his bicycle to school over cobbled streets! Cycling became very popular in the 1890s as a result of Dunlop’s tyres. He also developed tyres for cars.

1880

First electric street light in Ireland is installed on Prince’s Street in Dublin 1885

German engineer Karl Benz builds the first motor car This was the first car to be powered by an internalcombustion engine, which is a type of engine that generates power by burning petrol or diesel.

Karl Benz’s first motor car

1900

Ardnacrusha hydroelectric power station

1927

Electricity Supply Board (ESB) is set up in Ireland Electricity was introduced into Irish homes with the opening of the Ardnacrusha hydroelectric power station on the River Shannon in 1929.

1910 1920

1913

Ford Model T car is mass-produced in the USA

American industrialist Henry Ford began massproducing the Model T car. Up to 10,000 cars left the factory each day. This meant they could be sold for a cheaper price and ordinary people could afford to buy them. This created big changes to society. Owning a car allowed people to move to more affordable housing in the suburbs and drive to work in the city. In the following decade, the demand for cars increased.

1930

Part of the Obninsk nuclear power station, Russia

1940

1939

German chemist Otto Hahn discovers how to create nuclear power

Ford Model T from 1923 Chemist Otto Hahn and his colleague, physicist Lise Meitner

Around 200 BC, the Ancient Romans began using a heating system called a hypocaust to heat the floors and walls in their public baths. The floors and walls were specially built to circulate hot air coming from a furnace in the basement of the building.

1954

World’s first nuclear power station begins operating in Obninsk, Russia In a nuclear power station, heat is used to generate steam that drives a turbine connected to a generator that produces electricity. The heat is produced in a nuclear reactor. Nuclear power is cheap to produce, but there are serious safety concerns associated with it.

1960 1974

Solar Energy Research, Development and Demonstration Act, USA

Although solar panels were first built in 1884, they were not widespread until much later. In 1974, the US government launched a programme to research and develop solar power as a renewable source of power.

1992

Ireland’s first wind farm opens in Bellacorrick, Co. Mayo with 21 wind turbines 2000

Focus on renewable sources of energy Since the year 2000, governments have been investing in ways to protect the environment by developing renewable sources of energy. Alternative sources of energy include solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, biomass and hydroelectic power.

1970 1980 1990 2000

1972

UN Earth Summit The United Nations (UN) held its first environmental conference in Stockholm, Sweden to highlight the impact of burning fossil fuels on the environment.

UN flag

1997

UN Climate Change Conference The UN held a conference on climate change in Kyoto, Japan, where an agreement called the Kyoto Protocol was drawn up. Countries that signed the protocol agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions.

1 When did the Industrial Revolution begin? 2 How did the invention of the steam engine benefit factory owners? 3 What role did coal play in the Industrial Revolution? 4 Where was the world’s first coal-fired electric power station built? 5 What changes did the mass production of cars bring to society? 6 How do you think the introduction of electricity into homes changed peoples’ lives? 7 In what ways are suburbs different to city centres?

1 Name three sources of energy that you use in your daily life, such as oil, gas or electricity. Did your parents use these sources of energy when they were children? 2 Pair work: Research a person in history who discovered how to put a new form of energy to use, for example Michael Faraday, who invented the electric motor, or

Thomas Savery, who invented the steam engine. Create a fact file on him or her. 3 Group work: Research factories that employed children during the Industrial

Revolution. What were the conditions in the factories like? How many hours did the children have to work? Make a PowerPoint or Prezi presentation to share your findings with another class.