13 The Ancient Greeks Early peoples and ancient societies: Greeks

13

TheAncient Greeks

about the architecture and art of the Ancient Greeks how people lived in Ancient Greece how ideas from Ancient Greece have influenced the world.

amphitheatre, assembly, ceramics, chiton, citadel, city state, comedy, democracy, flax, frieze, fresco, military, myth, patron, philosophy, scroll, staple foods, stylus, tragedy, trident The earliest known civilisation in Greece was a group of people called the Minoans, who migrated from the Middle East and Turkey around 3000 BC. They settled on the island of Crete and constructed many complex buildings. After the Minoans came a group called the Mycenaeans. They were good traders and soldiers, but their civilisation collapsed after many wars. Around 800 BC, Ancient Greek civilisation began to rebuild.

City states

Ancient Greece was not a single country; it was a collection of over 1,000 self-governing city states, which varied greatly in size. Most of them spoke the same language and worshipped the same gods, but wars sometimes broke out between them. Two of the most powerful city states were Athens and Sparta.

Athens Athens was a centre of learning, art, science and philosophy. It was also the birthplace of democracy, a political system that is still in use today. The port of Piraeus in Athens was the most important trading centre in the Mediterranean, making many Athenians very wealthy. They used their wealth to construct grand buildings featuring valuable materials such as marble and gold.

Minoan Palace of Knossos in Crete ©The Educational Company of Ireland Typical street scene in Ancient Athens

Sparta Life in Sparta was very different from Athens. Sparta was a military state that valued the strength of its army above all else. From the age of seven, Spartan boys were sent to military school to train to become warriors. Girls trained at gymnastics, javelin and discus throwing, to make them physically strong, but they did not fight in wars. Sparta and Athens fought against each other many times, but they joined forces and succesfully fought off a Persian invasion during the Greco-Persian Wars of 499–449 BC.

Architecture

The Acropolis was the citadel of Athens. In the ancient world, a citadel was the main fortress in a city. This was where the people fled to if the city came under attack. The Acropolis was built on the top of a rocky hill. Over time, many temples were built within its walls. The most sacred of these was the Erechtheion. This marked the spot where the Ancient Greeks believed that the goddess Athena had fought and defeated the god Poseidon to win control of the city. Poseidon was worshipped in Athens, but Athena was its patron goddess. The Parthenon was built in her honour. This magnificent temple was built with 22,000 tonnes of white marble, and included 75 columns and decorative carvings called friezes. A 12-metre tall, solid-gold statue of Athena stood at it centre.

Art

Beginning around 510 BC, during what is now known as the Classical period of Ancient Greece, many stunning works of art were produced. Remarkable statues of gods and important leaders were sculpted from limestone, marble, bronze, gold, iron and ivory. Potters invented a new way of decorating ceramics with black and orange images that depicted scenes from Greek myths. Paintings known as frescoes were painted directly onto walls.

Spartan warriors Acropolis Erechtheion Parthenon ©The Educational Company of Ireland Statue of Athena Greek vase Fresco

Example of life in Athens, Ancient Greece

A house was built around a central courtyard with a well for water and an altar to worship the gods. The

The gods were believed to bedrooms and other living spaces control the lives of humans. were off the courtyard.

The 12 most important gods were the Olympians, who lived Children were considered to be adults at the age of 13. A woman had to look after the home and care for children, while a man could work as a soldier, farmer, sailor, fisherman, teacher or craftsman. on Mount Olympus, the tallest mountain in Greece. Every family had a number of gods who were special to them. They made offerings to these gods at their local temple. Poseidon was the god of the sea, and he caused earthquakes by striking the ground with his trident. Zeus, the king of the gods, was the god of the sky and lightning. His symbol was a lightning bolt. His wife, Hera, was the queen of the gods. She was also the goddess of family and marriage. Newgrange was built in Ireland around 3200 BC, making it older than the Ancient Greek civilisation!©The Educational Company of Ireland Men could also work for the government.

Hercules was the god of strength and heroes.

Boys started school at the age of seven. They learned maths, reading and writing. They used a metal stylus to write on a folding tablet made of wooden or clay frames filled with wax. The flattened end of the stylus was used for erasing. When boys were older, they also learned debating.

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Girls were not allowed to attend school. They were taught how to look after the home and weave woollen cloth or linen, made from the fibres of the flax plant. Both men and women wore a chiton, a tunic made from two lengths of cloth. A belt was worn at the waist. Staple foods included bread made from wheat, porridge made from barley, fish, beans, fruit, vegetables, olives and olive oil. Many people kept a goat for milk to make cheese. Meat was usually eaten only at religious ceremonies.

The word ‘alphabet’ comes from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet: alpha and beta. The Greeks based their alphabet on that of an ancient people from the Middle East called the Phoenicians. English speakers use the Roman alphabet, which copied the letters ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘E’ and ‘O’ from the Greek alphabet. We also use other Greek letters as symbols in science and maths, for example: Δ (delta) is used to represent a change in quantity.

Hades was the god of the underworld, the place where souls went after death. Ares was the god of war, and Athena was the goddess of both war and wisdom. π (pi) is a number that we use to find the area and circumference of a circle. θ (theta) is used to represent angles. Σ (sigma) represents the sum of a series of numbers. Can you think of anywhere else that you have seen the Greek alphabet used today? ©The Educational Company of Ireland

Olympic Games

Javelin throwing

In 776 BC, the first Olympic Games were held in honour of Zeus in the city of Olympia. This city was named after Mount Olympus, where

Zeus was said to live. The contests included wrestling, javelin throwing, jumping and chariot racing. The games were held every four years until AD 393. The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens in 1896. Democracy Up until the year 507 BC, all of the city states were ruled by kings. In 507 BC, Athenian political leader Cleisthenes introduced a system of government called democracy, meaning ‘rule by the people’. He set up an assembly of citizens (men only) that met 40 times a year to vote on how Athens should be run. However, the population had to vote on any new laws before they could be passed. All male citizens over the age of 20 could vote, but women, slaves and foreigners could not. This was an example of a direct democracy, in which every man had an equal vote. In Ireland, we have a representative democracy, and unlike in Ancient Greece, all citizens have a vote. Citizens here vote to elect representatives, who then vote on new laws. Philosophy An Athenian named Socrates (470–399 BC) was a philosopher. The word ‘philosophy’ comes from Greek, meaning ‘love of wisdom’. Socrates taught his students to question everything about the world, and explore their ideas through discussion and debate. Today, this is called the Socratic method. Socrates’ ideas were written down after his death by his student Plato, who went on to found a school of philosophy called the Academy, in Athens in 387 BC. One of Plato’s students was Aristotle, who was tutor to the young Alexander the Great. Alexander became King of Macedonia, a Greek city state, and In 490 BC, a messenger ran from Marathon to Athens (a distance of 40 km), bringing news of an important Greek victory over the Persians. In 1896, the marathon race was included in the Olympic Games in honour of this messenger. The length of the race was 40 km. Today the standard length of a marathon race is 42 km. Assembly of Athens ©The Educational Company of Ireland

Greece’s greatest military commander. He conquered many lands in Asia, spreading Aristotle’s ideas as he did so. Socrates

Almost every city state had an amphitheatre, which was an open-air theatre that seated up to 15,000 spectators in semi-circular rows of stone seating dug into the hillside. The rows were tiered, so every spectator could see the actors on stage. Only men were allowed to work as actors. They wore masks and costumes to play different characters. Greek plays were either comedies or tragedies. Libraries The Ancient Greeks built libraries as places to collect and preserve knowledge. One of the most famous of these was built in the Egyptian city of Alexandria in 283 BC, when Egypt was part of the empire of Greece. The Library of Alexandria is thought to have contained up to 400,000 scrolls. All ships arriving at the Port of Alexandria had to declare if there were works of science or philosophy on board. If there were, they were copied onto scrolls and stored in the library. Tragically, the library was burned down in 48 BC by the Roman army after Rome had conquered Greece. 1 How did life in Athens and Sparta differ? 2 Describe the Parthenon. 3 How was life different for boys and girls in Ancient Greece? 4 Why was the marathon race originally 40 km long? 5 How were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle connected? 6 Which do you think is fairer: direct democracy or representative democracy? Give reasons for your answer. 7 Do you agree that the destruction of the Library of Alexandria was a tragic event? What difference might it have made if the library had not been destroyed? 1 Name five sports in the modern Olympic Games. Research how many Olympic medals Ireland has won and for what sports. 2 Think, pair, share: Research two Greek city states other than Athens and write six facts about each. 3 Group work: What evidence can you find of the influence of the Ancient Greeks in the modern world? (Hints: architecture, entertainment, education, food.) Do research online and brainstorm your ideas. Design a poster titled ‘Six Ways the Amphitheatre, Athens Library of Alexandria ©The Educational Company of Ireland Ancient Greeks Have Influenced the World’. Use text and pictures in your poster.

14

GreeceToday

about the geography and climate of Greece about Greece’s culture and places of historical interest about agriculture, food and industry in Greece.

container ship, hospitality, monastery, sanctuary, textiles, volcanic eruption, whitewashed Greece gets its name from the Latin word ‘Graecia’, which was the Roman name for Greece. The Greeks refer to their country as Hellas, and its official name is the Hellenic Republic. ALBANIA NORTH MACEDONIA Corfu Athens Santorini Rhodes Crete

BULGARIA TURKEY

AEGEAN SEA IONIAN SEA

SEA OF CRETE MEDITERRANEAN SEA BLACK SEA

SEA OF MARMARA

Lake Trichonida Delphi

Haliacmon

River Mount Olympus GREECE

Mount Parnassus

Greece borders four countries. Greece has the longest coastline in Europe, and around 6,000 islands. Delphi, on the lower slopes of Mount Parnassus, was a religious sanctuary in Ancient Greece. The island of Santorini was formed by a volcanic Roughy 80% of Greece is mountainous. At 2,917 metres, Mount Olympus is the tallest mountain in Greece. Athens is the oldest The gigantic rocks of the Meteora rock formation in central Greece reach heights of over 600 metres. In the 11th century, six monasteries were built on top of them. ©The Educational Company of Ireland capital city in Europe. eruption. It is famous for its whitewashed buildings.

FAC T F I L E

Greece

Capital: Athens Continent: Europe Population: around 11 million Official language: Greek Currency: euro Climate: mostly Mediterranean – mild, wet winter; warm, dry summer

Culture

Around 80% of Greece’s population lives in towns and cities. Athens, the capital city, has a population of over 3 million. Family life is very important to the Greeks. Some young people continue living with their parents even after they get married. The main religion here is the Greek Orthodox Church, which is a branch of Christianity. The Greeks enjoy folk music and dancing. In the Sirtaki dance, the dancers stand in a line or a circle with their arms around their neighbours’ shoulders, alternating between slow and fast steps. The dance only dates back to the 1960s, but it combines moves from traditional folk dances.

School

Greek children spend six years at primary school, followed by six years at secondary school. In primary school, lessons start at 8 a.m. and end at 1 p.m.

The children learn at least one foreign language, usually English, German or

French. Some children stay for the afternoon until 4 p.m. During this time, they can do their homework and they can choose activities such as music, art, drama,

IT or physical education. Size: 131,957 km2 Longest river: Haliacmon River Largest lake: Lake Trichonida Tallest mountain: Mount Olympus

Flag:

Sirtaki ©The Educational Company of Ireland

The climate of Greece is mostly Mediterranean, with mild, wet winters and warm, dry summers. Areas in the north-west of the country are wetter because they are exposed to south-westerly winds that bring a lot of moisture. The Alpine climate is found in the mountain ranges of central and western Greece, where there is heavy snowfall in winter.

Agriculture and food

Olives have been grown in Greece for more than 6,000 years, and the Greeks consume more olive oil than any other people in the world. Greece joined the EU in 1981, and is now the EU’s third largest olive oil producer, after Italy and Spain. Greece exported 215,000 tonnes of olive oil in 2020. Greece is also one of the EU’s biggest producers of pistachios, almonds and rice. Other crops grown here include pomegranates, grapes, melons, tomatoes, peaches, figs, cherries and oranges. Thanks to its long coastline, Greece has a large fishing industry. The Greeks eat a lot of seafood, including sardines, mussels, squid and lobster.

Popular Greek specialities The stovepipe hat sometimes worn by chefs is said to have originated with Greek chefs who worked at monasteries during medieval times.

Olive trees Stuffed vine leaves:the leaves from grapevines are stuffed with rice, pine nuts and herbs, rolled, and soaked in olive oil Greek salad: this delicious dish includes olives and feta, which is a Greek cheese traditionally made from sheep’s milk Moussaka:this baked dish contains layers of sliced aubergine and minced lamb, with a creamy sauce©The Educational Company of Ireland Tzatziki: this cool dip is made with Greek yogurt, cucumber, mint leaves, olive oil, spices and garlic

Industry

Shipping is a very important industry in Greece. Its location between Europe and Asia makes it ideal for trade. Greece has many busy ports, with almost 5,000 container ships that transport goods around the globe. Greece is also a major producer of cotton. It processes raw materials for textiles, and exports them to other countries. Tourism is very important to Greece’s economy, because one-third of its population works in the tourism industry. Greece receives tourists from all over the world, but the majority come from Europe. In 2019, more than 31 million tourists travelled to Greece, compared with 11 million who travelled to Ireland the same year. Greece is very attractive to visitors because of its sunny climate, stunning ancient ruins, beautiful beaches and great hospitality. Many visitors also come here to go island-hopping by boat. 1 What do the Greek people call their country? 2 Name the countries that border Greece. 3 Describe the climate of Greece. 4 Describe the Sirtaki dance. 5 Name four things that attract tourists to Greece. 6 Compare the agriculture of Greece to that of Ireland. How do you think this affects the diet of people in the two countries? Explain your answer. 7 What role does Greece’s landscape and location play in its economy? 1 List ten facts you have learned about Greece. 2 Think, pair, share: Research one of the large Greek islands. What is its population and major industry? What do the islanders do for entertainment?

What is the nearest island to it? 3 Group work: Explore similarities and differences between Ireland and Greece under the following headings: natural landmarks, sites of historical interest, famous leaders, famous sportspeople.

Beach in Crete ©The Educational Company of Ireland

15

Building Bridges

about how bridges are designed and built to investigate the effects of sunlight and liquids on materials factors to consider when building a bridge.

abutment, alloy, arch, beam, cable, carbon, deck, inlet, load, piers, reinforced, rust, sediment, span, structural damage, suspension, timber, truss, versatile, weathered A substance that is used to make something is called a material. Materials are chosen based on their properties, which include strength, texture, flexibility or rigidity, transparency or opaqueness, and waterproofness. For example, glass is used in a window because it is transparent, rigid and waterproof. It allows light in while keeping the rain and wind out.

Materials used in bridges

The earliest bridges were built using stone, logs or timber. Many old stone bridges are still in use today, but many wooden ones have rotted away or become too weak to be safe. To build a bridge, an engineer must choose the most suitable materials. These include stone, concrete, iron and steel. Such materials are hard-wearing and can withstand most types of weather conditions. They are strong enough to support the weight of pedestrians and vehicles crossing the bridge. Concrete and metal are versatile materials because they can be poured or cast to fit any shape required for building. Steel, which is an alloy (mixture) of iron and carbon, is widely used in construction. It is stronger than iron, and unlike iron, it does not rust.

Stone bridge built in 1763 in Inistioge, Co. Kilkenny Wooden bridge built in 1907, between Clontarf and Bull Island, Dublin ©The Educational Company of Ireland

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Bridge design

The design of a bridge is as important as the materials used to build it. The design allows the bridge to hold itself up and support the traffic that travels across it.

Beam bridge This is the simplest type of bridge, and was the most common type of deck bridge built in the past. The deck of the bridge consists of wooden planks or stone slabs. These are supported at either side by two beams. The beams rest on supports called piers. deck Arch bridge The main feature of this bridge is the curved stone arch underneath it. When a load (weight) is applied to the deck of the bridge (above the arch), the pressure is transferred to the abutments at either side of the arch. Truss bridge A truss is a framework that supports a structure. The truss of this bridge is made up of triangular sections made of steel or iron. These help The Arkadiko Bridge in Greece is thought to be one of the oldest bridges in the world. It to support the deck of the bridge by distributing the was built around 1300 BC. load evenly throughout the bridge. Like a beam bridge, a truss bridge is also Can you tell what type of bridge it is? supported by piers. Of all the types of bridges, the truss bridge supports the most weight compared with the weight of its own materials.

Suspension bridge The deck of a suspension bridge is supported by strong steel cables, which are held up by tall concrete, stone or steel towers. The number of towers depends on the length of the bridge. When a load is applied to the deck, the cables take the pressure. The cables extend past each side of the bridge, and are anchored firmly into the ground. Suspension bridges can span long distances, but they are very expensive to build. deck Cable-stayed bridge The deck of a cable-stayed bridge is supported by strong steel cables, which are attached to concrete or steel towers. When a load is applied to the deck, the cables transfer all of the pressure to the towers. Cable-stayed bridges are deck usually chosen to span long distances.

tower tower cables

abutment arch

beam pier deck truss pier cables ©The Educational Company of Ireland

Weathering of bridges

Bridges get weathered over time by exposure to the wind, the rain and flowing water. Sometimes this can result in structural damage. For example, in old stone bridges, the stones sometimes need to be replaced or reinforced. Sunlight can damage the paint on a bridge. This does not cause structural damage, but it can look unsightly. Engineers take these elements into consideration when choosing materials for building bridges.

Investigating the effects of sunlight and liquid on materials

Equipment: coloured card, sticky tape, six glasses, water, soft drink, milk, lemon juice, cooking oil, saltwater, six iron nails

Action:

● Use sticky tape to attach the coloured card to a window, and leave it there for a week or two. ● Observe and record what happens to the side of the card facing out the window. ● Fill each glass with one of the liquids. Make sure that all the glasses have the same amount of liquid. ● Place a nail in each glass. ● Observe and record what happens to each nail over the coming days.

Challenges for engineers

The Rio-Antirrio Bridge in Greece is one of the longest cable-stayed bridges in the world. It connects the towns of Rio and Antirrio across the Gulf of Corinth, which is an inlet of the sea. The engineers who designed this bridge had two big challenges: the seabed is made up of loose sediment, and earthquakes are common in Greece. To overcome these challenges, they used large steel pipes to stabilise the towers in the seabed, and built the towers and deck from reinforced concrete, which can withstand shaking. They also designed the structure to allow for a certain amount of movement in order to prevent it from collapsing during an earthquake.

Painting and maintenance work being carried out on the Forth Rail Bridge in Scotland ©The Educational Company of Ireland Rio-Antirrio Bridge, Greece

Paper bridge

Equipment: books or blocks for the riverbanks, sheets of A4 paper, ruler, coins

Action:

● Design and build a paper bridge over a river. The river should be 14 cm wide. Use sheets of A4 paper (lengthways) to build the bridge. ● Test your bridge’s strength using coins. If it cannot hold the coins, what changes could you make? ● Explain your completed design to the class. 1 List some properties of materials. 2 Why would an engineer choose stone, concrete, iron and steel as suitable materials for building a bridge? 3 Describe a truss bridge. 4 How does the weather damage bridges? 5 Why is steel a better material than iron for building bridges? 6 Why, do you think, was stone used to build bridges in the past? 7 Why are modern bridges built with concrete, in your opinion? 1 Choose an item in your classroom and write a list of the materials it is made from. Say why you think each of these materials was used. 2 Think, pair, share: Research three other examples of bridges. For each bridge, identify what type it is, what materials were used to build it and what purpose it was built for. 3 Group work: Investigate a bridge in your locality or county. What materials were used to build it? Is it recent or old? Is it used for pedestrians, vehicles or both? The Danyang-Kunshan Grand Bridge in China is the longest bridge in the world. It measures over 160 km and is part of a high-speed railway that links the cities of Beijing and Shanghai. Can you tell what type of bridge it is? Danyang-Kunshan Grand Bridge, China ©The Educational Company of Ireland Is it pleasing to the eye? Fill in the worksheet and draw a sketch of the bridge.

16

Materials andChange

how substances can be changed by mixing or dissolving about reversible and irreversible changes about substances that do not mix.

dissolve, filtering, immiscible, insoluble, irreversible, reversible, saturation point, sieving, soluble, solute, solution, solvent Do you remember what matter is? Matter is what we call everything on Earth that occupies space and has weight. The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. A material or substance is a type of matter from which something can be made.

Mixtures and reversible change

When we combine different materials, they form a mixture. In some mixtures, the materials might be physically changed, but they are not chemically changed. Physical changes are considered reversible because the materials can be returned to their original form. For example, muesli is a mixture of oats, nuts and dried fruit. You could separate the ingredients in muesli by sieving it. Other reversible mixtures can be separated using techniques such as filtering or evaporation. Filtering is used to separate tiny, insoluble solid particles from a liquid. Evaporation is used to separate a solution, which is a type of mixture in which a solid has been dissolved in a liquid.

Mixtures and irreversible change

Sometimes when we mix materials, an irreversible change takes place. The materials cannot be returned to their original form because a chemical change has taken place and a new substance has been created. An irreversible change can sometimes occur when a mixture is heated. For example, to bake a cake, we begin by mixing the ingredients together to form batter. After we have cooked the batter in a hot oven, we end up with a new material called cake. Cake cannot be changed back into batter because an irreversible change has taken place.

Sieving Filtering evaporation solution heat ©The Educational Company of Ireland

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Solutions and saturation point

Salt water is an example of a solution. It is made up of salt, which we call the solute, and water, which we call the solvent. Another thing that we can say about salt is that it is a solid substance with the property of being soluble. When a soluble substance dissolves in liquid, it is no longer visible. Think for a moment about the difference between salt and sand. Sand is an example of an insoluble material, meaning that it does not dissolve in liquid. Sugar is another example of a soluble solid substance. When we add sugar to tea, the sugar dissolves in the liquid. However, if we were to continue adding lots of sugar to the same cup of tea, eventually the sugar would no longer dissolve. We would see a heap of sugar sitting at the bottom of the cup. This happens when the solution reaches its saturation point. The saturation point of a solution is the point at which no more of the solid substance can be dissolved without adding more liquid. Salt dissolves in water; it is soluble. Sand is insoluble. Investigating soluble and insoluble solid substances Equipment: eight glasses, room-temperature water, spoons, sand, chalk, flour, rice, coffee granules, sugar, salt, gravy granules Action: ● Pour water into each glass. ● Predict whether each of the substances is soluble or insoluble. ● Add a teaspoon of each substance to a glass of water and stir. ● Observe and record the results.©The Educational Company of Ireland

Investigating how salt crystals form

Equipment: two plastic or heat-proof glass containers, wool, plate, paper clips, food colouring, salt, tablespoon, boiling water (to be handled only by the teacher)

Action:

● Position the two containers either side of the plate. The plate is there to catch any crystals that might fall. ● Your teacher will pour boiling water into the two containers so that they are two-thirds filled. ● Add a couple of drops of food colouring to each container. ● Keep stirring a tablespoon of salt at a time into each container of water until the solution reaches its saturation point and the salt stops dissolving. ● Cut a length of wool long enough to hang inside both containers, but short enough so that the ends will not touch the bottom of the containers.

Tie a paperclip to each end of the wool. ● Lower one end of the wool into each container, allowing the wool to sag slightly between the two containers. ● Observe over the coming days and record the results.

Applying force to substances Equipment: flour, playdough, eggs, milk, cereal, uncooked pasta, bread, wooden or plastic cutlery or kitchen utensils Action: ● Try cutting, mixing, crushing, stirring, pulling and whisking each substance in turn. ● Can physical force cause a change to each substance? Is the change reversible or irreversible?©The Educational Company of Ireland

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How force changes cream to butter

Equipment: 60 ml whipping cream, transparent plastic container with lid, crackers

Action:

● Pour the cream into the container and immediately close the lid tightly. Liquids that do not mix Have you ever noticed that oil and water do not mix? The scientific way to say this is that oil and water are immiscible. All matter is made up of small particles called molecules. Oil and water are immiscible because oil molecules are attracted only to other oil molecules, and water molecules are attracted only to other water molecules. Oil is less dense than water because its molecules are less tightly packed together than the molecules in water. This is why oil floats on top of water. ● Shake the cream for a few minutes. Do you observe any changes? Is it getting thicker? ● Continue shaking the container until a small ball of butter forms. ● Separate the butter from the liquid that is left over. The liquid is buttermilk, which can be used in baking. The butter can be spread on the crackers and eaten! Investigating liquids that do not mix Equipment: transparent water bottle, water, blue food colouring, oil, whole pecan nut Action: ● Fill one-fifth of the bottle with water. ● Add two or three drops of food colouring to the water. ● Pour in the oil, leaving a small space at the top of the bottle to add the pecan nut. ● Predict what will happen when you place the pecan nut in the bottle. ● Add the pecan nut. ● Fill the bottle to the top with oil and put the lid on it. Lay the bottle on its side and swish the contents from side to side. What do you observe? [Insert SESE-6-1611] ©The Educational Company of Ireland