5 Modern Ireland Eras of change and conflict: Modern Ireland

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ModernIreland

about developments in technology in Ireland in the last century how changes to the education system have shaped Irish society how Ireland’s economy has affected emigration and immigration.

broadcast, carbon emissions, controversial, diverse, economic growth, electrification, emigration, ethnicity, immigration, infrastructure, multinational, national grid, recession Have your grandparents or parents ever talked about how different life was when they were young? Ireland has changed so much since the 20th century that if you could travel back in time, you would hardly recognise it! Let’s have a look at some of the key developments that have occurred.

Electrification

Electricity was first generated in Ireland in 1880 to power Dublin’s street lamps. In 1927, the Irish government set up the Electricity Supply Board (ESB) to manage all of the country’s power stations. Two years later, a hydroelectric power station was built on the River Shannon at Ardnacrusha, Co. Limerick. In 1946, the Rural Electrification Scheme was rolled out. By 1965, 80% of homes in rural Ireland were connected to the national grid. Towards the end of the 1960s, an increasing number of Irish homes began using electrical appliances.

The Rural Electrification Scheme was supposed to begin in 1939, but was delayed because of World War II (1939-1945).

1980−1993 Recession, mass emigration

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1950s

Recession, mass emigration

1961

RTÉ begins television broadcasts

1973

Ireland joins the EU

1946 2008−2015 Rural Electrification Recession, mass

Scheme emigration 1994−2007 Celtic Tiger, mass immigration, introduction of internet and mobile phones

Grafton Street, Dublin 1947 ©The Educational Company of Ireland A demonstration of using an electric cooker in an ESB showhouse, 1955

Emigration

Ireland has a long history of emigration, particularly during the Great Famine (1845–1851), when around 1 million people emigrated in search of a better life. In the 1950s, Ireland went through a tough recession. Farming was the main source of employment in rural Ireland, but as the number of small farms decreased, and developments in machinery made farming more efficient, there were fewer jobs available in farming. Emigration became the norm, with almost 500,000 young people emigrating to find work during the 1950s. In the 1980s, Ireland went through another recession, with a large wave of emigration because jobs were scarce. From 2008 to 2015, Ireland went through yet another recession that saw unemployment increase. This led to another wave of emigration to countries such as the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the USA.

RTÉ national television service

In 1958, there were around 22,000 TV sets in Ireland, but the only programmes people could watch were broadcast by the BBC. In 1961, RTÉ began regular TV broadcasts, beginning with a televised address by President Éamon de Valera. Ireland’s first late-night talk show, the Late Late Show, began airing in 1962. Its host, Gay Byrne, discussed many issues that were relevant to Irish society. The Late Late Toy Show was planned as a one-off event in 1975, but was so popular that it became an annual tradition.

Free secondary-school education

In 1966, Minister for Education Donogh O’Malley publicly announced that all education up to Intermediate Certificate (similar to the Junior Cycle) was going to be free. Free buses would also be provided to transport children in rural areas to school. Prior to this, many parents had not been able to afford to send their children to secondary school, and roughly one-third of children had only attended primary school. O’Malley’s announcement was controversial because he had not consulted with other members of government! However, the plan came into effect in September 1967. By continuing in education, many young people ended up with better job opportunities.

Young women arriving by boat from Dublin to Liverpool, on their way to London to train as nurses, 1958 Gay Byrne presenting the Late LateToy Show, 1976 ©The Educational Company of Ireland Secondary schoolchildren, Dublin, 1971

Joining the EU

The European Union (EU) is a union of European member countries. It was set up in 1957 as the European Economic Community (EEC). Its aim was for its members to work together for shared economic goals and to maintain peace through cooperation. The EEC developed into the EU in 1993. Today, if you hold a passport from an EU country, you are permitted to live and work in any EU country. Countries in the EU agree to follow similar laws and share resources. Some countries use the same currency (euro). The EU also sets environmental goals for members to reduce their carbon emissions. Ireland joined the EEC in 1973 in order to trade freely with other member countries. Ireland has benefited from EU funding to develop infrastructure such as roads and railways, and received grants to support agriculture.

Changing role of women in Ireland

Until World War II, many people believed that it was a woman’s duty to marry, look after the home and care for children while her husband went out to work. During the war, women in the UK and other countries were asked to do the jobs of the men who were away fighting for their country. Many women wanted to continue working outside of the home after the war ended. The 1950s and 1960s saw an increasing number of girls in Ireland attending secondary school and then getting jobs in factories, shops and offices. After joining the EEC in 1973, Ireland was forced to get rid of a law that had banned married women from working in banks or the civil service. These were seen as ‘important’ jobs. This helped to promote the idea of equality between men and women.

New technology and the Celtic Tiger

From the 1980s onwards, Ireland gradually built up a reputation for being a good place for multinational companies to do business. Today, the European headquarters of technology companies such as Apple, Google, Microsoft and Facebook are in Ireland. Multinational companies benefit from Ireland’s educated workforce, links with other EU countries and lower tax rates for companies.

Spain France Denmark Germany Sweden Finland

Estonia Latvia Lithuania Poland Czech Republic

Slovakia Austria Hungary Slovenia Croatia

Ireland

Nether -lands Belgium Luxembourg Romania Bulgaria Greece CyprusMalta Italy Portugal EU members in 2022 ©The Educational Company of Ireland Reception of the European headquarters of Google in Dublin

During the 1990s, Ireland went through very dramatic changes. Developments in computer and communications technologies grew at a fast pace. The internet arrived here in 1991. Even though it was far slower than Wi-Fi is today, this was a historic moment. The use of mobile phones also became widespread in Ireland during the 1990s. These early forms of technology paved the way for the smart devices and high-speed internet we rely on today for communication, remote learning and working, online shopping and entertainment. The Celtic Tiger was a period of rapid economic growth in Ireland from 1994 to 2007. As more and more companies began to operate here, Ireland became an attractive option for immigrants from EU countries such as Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. In 2007, it was estimated that 10% of residents in Ireland were foreign-born. These additional members of the workforce helped to support Ireland’s economic growth during the Celtic Tiger. Immigration has also led to Ireland becoming a more diverse society, with a variety of cultures and ethnicities. 1 What was the Rural Electrification Scheme and when did it begin? 2 What major event happened in Ireland in 1961? 3 What plan came into effect in September 1967? 4 Name one reason for emigration from Ireland and one reason for immigration to Ireland. 5 Name three ways in which Ireland has benefited from joining the EU. 6 Do you think women’s lives have changed much since the 1950s? Explain your answer. 7 In your opinion, which key development discussed in the chapter was the most important? Explain why. 1 Describe five ways in which Ireland has changed since the 1950s. 2 Think, pair, share: List three advantages and three disadvantages of technology such as computers, the internet, smartphones and tablets. 3 Group work: Debate the motion: ‘Life was better for children in the 1950s than it is today.’ Each group should prepare an argument for or against the motion. Hold a class debate with your teacher as the chair.

Today’s widespread use of mobile communication technology began in Ireland in the 1990s ©The Educational Company of Ireland

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6

WindFarms

about the need for sustainable energy sources how wind speed and direction are measured how wind power is used to generate electricity. anemometer, Beaufort scale, blanket bog, finite, gale-force, kinetic energy, non-renewable, prevailing wind, renewable, substation, sustainable, wind farm, wind turbine In rural areas of Ireland, we often see wind turbines standing in fields and on hills. Wind power has been used in Ireland for a number of years, but have you ever wondered how it works? Let’s find out how electricity is generated from wind power. Sustainable energy We use a number of energy sources to power our lives. Some energy sources are renewable, including wind power, hydroelectricity and solar power. Others are non-renewable, including coal, natural gas and oil. An energy source is considered to be sustainable if it meets the needs of the present without ignoring the needs of future generations. Non-renewable energy sources are not considered to be sustainable because the Earth has a finite supply of these materials, meaning that they will run out some day. Ireland has invested billions of euro in developing sustainable energy. Wind power is a major area of investment. Wind Ireland gets many windy days throughout the year. Our prevailing wind blows in from the Atlantic Ocean in a south-westerly direction. When we talk about the wind’s strength, we are really talking about its speed. Wind speed is measured on a scale called the Beaufort scale. A gale-force wind is a strong wind that reaches speeds of 68–88 km/h, and measures 8 or 9 on the Beaufort scale. Tools for measuring the wind include an anemometer, which measures speed, and a wind vane, which measures direction. The best place to measure the wind is a flat, open space without trees, buildings Solar panels capture solar power, a renewable source of energy Oil rigs drill for oil, a non-renewable source of energy Anemometer©The Educational Company of Ireland or mountains. Obstacles like these reduce the speed of the wind.

Wind power

The movement of the wind produces kinetic energy. When the wind meets an object, it transfers some of its kinetic energy to the object, causing the object to move. A wind turbine harnesses the wind’s kinetic energy and uses it to generate electricity. In Ireland, a wind turbine can power between 350 and 2,200 homes per year, depending on the weather. Let’s look at how Wind transfers its kinetic energy a wind turbine works. to the flag, causing it to flap Blades

Wind Shaft Power cables Tower

Wind farms in Ireland

A wind farm is an area of land with a group of wind turbines. There are more than 300 wind farms in the Republic of Ireland and just under 400 on the entire island of Ireland. This number is increasing as the government continues to invest in wind power. Bord na Móna (a company partly owned by the Irish government, which uses Ireland’s peatlands to produce energy) part-owns five wind farms.

Gear box Generator

The tower is about 100 metres tall.

The difference between a windmill and a wind turbine is that a windmill produces mechanical energy from wind power, whereas a wind turbine generates electricity from wind power.

On a windy day, the blades make a complete rotation every three or four seconds. The rotation of the blades causes the shaft to turn, which drives the generator. There are three blades, each measuring around 35 metres long. The generator is the part of the wind turbine that generates electricity. The electrical cable conducts the electricity to a substation. From there, the electricity gets fed into the national grid, which powers our homes, schools, businesses and streetlights. ©The Educational Company of Ireland

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Bellacorick Wind Farm

Ireland’s first wind farm was opened at Bellacorick, Co. Mayo in 1992. Bellacorick is exposed to strong, steady winds for most of the year. There are very few buildings in the area. This makes it a perfect location for a wind farm. Today, it has 21 wind turbines and is said to be the most productive wind farm in Ireland due to its open landscape. Bellacorick used to be the site of a turf-burning ESB power station. It had supplied electricity to the west of Ireland since the 1960s. The turf for the power station was harvested by Bórd Na Mona from a blanket bog in the area. The power station was closed in 2004 and demolished in 2007. Advantages of wind power ● Wind power is a clean source of energy. Wind turbines do not release carbon emissions into the atmosphere. ● Wind power is renewable, so it will never run out. ● Wind power is cost-effective. No fuel is required to run a wind turbine, and it can be maintained at a low cost. ● Wind farms can be built on land that is not suitable for farming or building. Disadvantages of wind power ● Manufacturing and transporting wind turbines produces a lot of carbon emissions. ● Wind turbines are expensive to build and usually last for only 25 years. ● Wind turbines can only work on windy days, so they cannot be relied upon for a consistent power supply. ● A wind farm can have a negative impact on the ecosystem by destroying natural habitats. The blades of wind turbines have killed many birds. ● Wind turbines create noise pollution. Their blades make noise as they rotate. ● Some people think wind turbines can take Engineers working on a wind turbine Bellacorick Wind Farm ©The Educational Company of Ireland Wind turbine blades in a factory workshop away from the natural beauty of the landscape.

Wind turbine

Equipment: 2-litre plastic milk carton, long wooden skewer, drinking straw (bendy part cut off ), sharp pencil, length of string, sticky tape, thick card, coloured paper or card, drawing pin, hairdryer Design: On your worksheet, sketch a design for your wind turbine. Label it with the materials you are using. Before drawing your design, read all of the steps on your worksheet and look at the diagrams. Make: ● The plastic milk carton will be the tower. ● The thick card, wooden skewer, straw and drawing pin will be used to make the shaft. ● The coloured paper or card will be used to make the blades. ● The string will be used to show whether electricity can be generated. If the turbine can be used to wind up the string, then it means the generator is working. ● The hairdryer is used to create wind. Evaluate: ● Complete the worksheet. Does the wind turn the blades on your wind turbine? Does the string wind up? What improvements could you make? 1 What is wind power? 2 What scale is used to measure wind speed? 3 What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable energy sources? Give an example of each. 4 Explain how a wind turbine works. 5 When and where was the first wind farm built in Ireland? 6 Should Ireland build more wind farms, in your opinion? Why or why not? 7 Why is sustainable energy important to Ireland’s future, do you think? 1 List the ways in which your school could become more environmentally friendly. 2 Pair work: Research and then list other renewable energy sources that are used in Ireland. 3 Group work: There are plans to build a new wind farm close to your locality. Decide if you will campaign in favour of the plan or against it. Design a poster and a slogan for your campaign. Include information about the advantages or the disadvantages of wind power, backed up with researched facts. Present your©The Educational Company of Ireland campaign to the class and try to convince them of your arguments.

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FromAgricultureto IT

about different types of farming in Ireland about indigenous companies and multinational companies about the IT industry in Ireland.

Agri-Food, annual, Big Tech, butterfat, computer programmer, corporation tax, genetically modified, herbicide, indigenous company, insecticide, livestock, pesticide, software, software developer, silage, suckled, tillage, weaned, yield Traditionally, Ireland had an agricultural economy. This is still true today, with more than 165,000 people working in the Agri-Food industry here. However, Ireland also has a broad range of other industries nowadays, including information technology (IT), which currently employs more than 80,000 people.

Dairy farming

Dairy farming and beef farming make up two-thirds of agriculture in Ireland. Dairy farming is farming that focuses on milk production. There are over 18,000 dairy farms in Ireland and typically around 1.3 million dairy cows. The Friesian cow is the preferred breed because it produces a high yield of milk with a high butterfat content. Butterfat is used to make cream, butter and cheese. The cows are fed on grass, with meal (cereal-based feed) and silage added to their diet in the winter months. They are typically milked twice a day for around ten months of the year, using a large milking machine that collects and cools the milk in a tank. Each cow produces up to 25 litres of milk per day. The farmer gets paid by the litre, but the price depends on the amount of protein and butterfat in the milk.

Friesian cows Dairy products Milking machine A heifer is a cow that has not yet given birth to a calf. After she gives birth, she is called a cow. She begins producing milk to feed her calf as soon as it is born.©The Educational Company of Ireland

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Beef farming

Beef farming is the rearing of cattle for the meat industry. There are almost 80,000 beef farms and typically around 900,000 beef cattle in Ireland. Larger breeds of cattle such as Aberdeen Angus and Limousin are preferred for beef farming. Most calves are born in the spring. They are suckled by their mother for three months, before being weaned onto grass, with meal and silage added to their diet during the winter months. They are reared this way until the age of two, and then sold to a meat company in Ireland or exported abroad.

Working in beef farming

Hi, my name is John and I am a beef farmer from Co. Waterford. My family has a long tradition of farming, and the farm was passed down to me by my dad. My wife Eve works as a primary school teacher, and I also have a full-time job as a town planner in Waterford City. During the winter months, my cattle are kept indoors in sheds, and fed silage and meal twice a day. For the rest of the year, they are grass-fed outdoors. I tend to the cattle before I go to work in the morning, and again when I get home in the evening. I love farming, especially when I am working outdoors surrounded by nature. But I cannot make a living from farming. It is expensive to feed cattle during the winter, and to pay the vet’s bills when they need medical treatment. The EU gives me a special payment each year called the Single Farm Payment. This helps me to keep going, but at the moment I am just about breaking even. I am considering changing from beef farming to dairy farming. I would need a lot of money to change over, so I need to weigh it up first and see if it would be worth my while.

Aberdeen Angus cattle Limousin cattle ©The Educational Company of Ireland

Single Farm Payment

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was set up by the EU in 1969 to support farmers. Under the CAP, farmers are given the Single Farm Payment each year to ensure that they make enough money to continue in farming. Many beef farmers in Ireland would not be able to continue without this payment. The size of the payment used to be based on the size of the farmer’s herd (the number of cattle they owned). Since 2013, it has been based on how much land the farmer has. This has resulted in a reduced payment for most farmers.

Tillage farming

Tillage farming is the growing of annual crops, including cereal crops such as wheat, barley, corn and oats. Over 300,000 hectares of Irish farmland are used for tillage farming, and the crop yields are usually amongst the highest in the EU. Many tillage farms are found in the flatlands of counties such as Wexford and Carlow. A tillage farmer usually plants two crops per year. For example, spring barley is sown around February and harvested around September, while winter barley is sown around November and harvested around August. Tillage farming requires a big investment in expensive machines, such as a combine harvester, which is used to harvest the grain.

Organic farming

Organic farming is a system that uses methods that are beneficial to both our health and the environment. Organic farmers use natural fertilisers such as compost and manure to improve the soil. They never use industrial fertilisers, insecticides or herbicides, which contain chemicals that are harmful to wildlife and waterways. Organically-reared livestock are fed on a diet free from chemicals. They are not routinely given veterinary medicines such as antibiotics or vaccinations, and are not genetically modified.

Combine harvester Do you fancy becoming a farmer some day? The Green Cert Programme run by Teagasc is a course that teaches students to become ‘trained farmers’. Young people who complete the course can apply for government grants to help©The Educational Company of Ireland

them set up a farm.

Indigenous companies and multinational companies

An indigenous company is a company that operates in its home country. A multinational company is a company that operates in foreign countries as well as in its home country. During the Celtic Tiger (1994–2007), many multinationals opened offices in Ireland, creating hundreds of thousands of new jobs. They were attracted to Ireland because it is a member of the EU, and has a skilled, English-speaking workforce and low corporation tax. A company has to pay corporation tax to the government of the country where it operates. Many indigenous and multinational companies in Ireland provide IT services. All kinds of industries rely on IT to operate, including AgriFood, manufacturing, media and the medical industry. Computers need software to operate, such as programmes or applications (apps). A person who designs computer programmes and apps for a living is known as a computer programmer or software developer.

Working in IT

Hi, my name is Sofia and I work as a software developer at a Big Tech company in Dublin. I share a rented apartment in Grand Canal Dock, which is within walking distance of my office in the city centre. My office is the company’s European headquarters. Each floor of the building is openplan, so we can easily walk around the office to check in with each other about different projects. There are fridges with free drinks throughout the building. We also get breakfast, lunch and dinner for free every day.

Eason’s bookshop is an indigenous company. Facebook is a multinational company with offices in Dublin. ©The Educational Company of Ireland

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I enjoy my work and find it very satisfying to write a programme and then see it come to life. The company is flexible about our working hours, and we are allowed to work from home two days a week. In the office, a health inspector regularly examines everyone’s workspace to make sure that it is set up for correct posture. We often have to sit at our computers for hours on end.

I sometimes wish that I had a more active job and did not have to stare at a screen all day. But the company tries to create a good working environment for the staff. We are well paid, and we get benefits such as free health insurance and gym membership. We are encouraged to develop our skills, and rewarded with bonuses at the end of the year. However, Dublin is such an expensive place to live that I cannot afford to rent an apartment on my own. I like my flatmates, but I would love to have a place of my own some day. 1 What does John like about farming? 2 What is the Single Farm Payment? 3 Name three different types of farming. 4 What does Jessica like about her job? 5 What is the difference between an indigenous company and a multinational company? 6 Do you think the EU should offer more support to farmers who are struggling to make a living? Why or why not? 7 Which industry, do you think, will be larger in Ireland in 50 years’ time: Agri-Food or IT? Explain your answer. 1 List all of the industries mentioned in the lesson. 2 Think, pair, share: In your opinion, what are three advantages and three disadvantages of John’s job and Jessica’s job? 3 Group work: Design a campaign to encourage multinationals to set up in Ireland,©The Educational Company of Ireland using posters or a multimedia presentation. Share your campaign with the class.

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NorthernIreland

why Northern Ireland was created about the causes and key events of the Troubles how peace was achieved in Northern Ireland after 30 years of conflict.

barricade, ceasefire, internment, loyalists, marginalised, nationalists, H I S T O RY paramilitary, policy, rates, republic, republicans, retaliate, segregation, territory, treaty, unionists Northern Ireland (NI) is a UK territory on the island of Ireland. It is made up of six counties: Antrim, Armagh, Derry, Down, Fermanagh and Tyrone. It has its own local government, which decides on issues such as education, health, justice and housing. In 2019, NI had a population of just under 1.9 million.

1921 1968 1972 1994

Anglo-Irish Treaty Start of the Bloody Sunday Peace process is signed Troubles begins

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1922 1969 1985 1998

Northern Ireland Battle of the Anglo-Irish Good Friday is created Bogside Agreement is Agreement is signed signed, end of the Troubles

How Northern Ireland was created

Ireland was ruled by Britain from 1169 to 1922. The 26 counties that now form the Republic of Ireland gained independence from Britain in 1922, following the War of Independence (1919–1921). To end the conflict between Ireland and Britain, both sides signed an agreement called the Anglo-Irish Treaty. Representatives of the Irish Republic agreed Signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in London, 1921 to let the six counties of NI remain under British rule so that the other 26 counties could eventually become a republic. Unionist politicians, who were mainly Protestant, wanted to remain in the UK. They reluctanty accepted the treaty. Nationalist politicians, who were mainly Catholic, FERMANAGH ARMAGH wanted a united Ireland, free from British rule. They were very angry about the treaty.

DOWN TYRONE Percentage of Protestants, 1922 DERRY ANTRIM 61%−90% 41%−60% ©The Educational Company of Ireland

Strand: Politics, conflict and society Strand unit: Northern Ireland

Key skills: Time and chronology, cause and effect, using evidence, synthesis and communication, empathy

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Unionists quickly gained control over politics in NI. Catholics gradually lost their voice in government and had many of their rights taken away from them. One of the first things the unionist government did in 1922 was to pass a law called the Special Powers Act. This gave them the power to arrest anyone suspected of planning violent acts against the government, ban anti-government meetings and confiscate property. In 1934, Northern Irish Prime Minister Sir James Craig described his government as a Protestant parliament for the Protestant people. He used his connections within the British government to promote unionist policies. This led to a breakdown in relations between Catholics and Protestants, as Catholics were increasingly marginalised.

Segregation

Unionist ministers in the government encouraged Protestant employers not to hire Catholics. Under the law, only people who paid rates to the government could vote in local elections. Many Catholics were unemployed and poor, so they could not vote. As a result, local councils were mostly made up of unionists, even in areas where most of the residents were Catholics. Many council decisions favoured Protestants over Catholics. Housing was particularly affected, as single Protestants were given priority on housing lists over Catholic families. The Protestant and Catholic communities began to divide. The division began in housing estates and spread to schools, businesses, roads and even parks. This segregation increased the tension between the two sides. Increasing numbers of working-class Protestants began to identify as loyalists, and working-class Catholics to identify as republicans.

Civil rights

In April 1967, the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) was set up in Belfast to campaign for the rights of Catholics. It was inspired by the civil rights movement in the USA, which was led by Dr Martin Luther King Jr to campaign for the rights of black people. The NICRA campaigned for equality in housing and employment, and for fair elections.

Northern Irish Prime Minister, Sir James Craig Walls and fences were built to separate Catholic and Protestant areas ©The Educational Company of Ireland

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The NICRA planned a housing march in Derry on 5 October 1968. A unionist group called the Apprentice Boys of Derry decided to hold a parade on the same day. To avoid conflict, the government banned all marches. The NICRA decided to go ahead with their march, but the police, known as the RUC (Royal Ulster Constabulary), used force to stop the march. This event is recognised as the start of a 30-year period of conflict in NI known as the Troubles. During the Troubles, more than 3,600 people would die from acts of violence.

Battle of the Bogside

On 12 August 1969, the loyalist Apprentice Boys of Derry group organised a march in Derry. As they passed a Catholic area of the city known as the Bogside, riots broke out. The nationalists set up barricades to stop them entering the Bogside. Fighting broke out between the RUC and the nationalists. Republican leaders such as Bernadette Devlin encouraged the residents of the Bogside to stand their ground. The Battle of the Bogside continued for three days. British army troops were sent to NI to take control of the situation. They put up barricades and barbedwire fencing between Protestant and Catholic areas.

Increasing violence

The Irish Republican Army (IRA) was a republican paramilitary organisation whose aim was to end British rule in NI. In 1969, some of its members formed the Provisional IRA in the belief that the British would only leave NI if they were forced out through violence. In February 1971, they claimed responsibility for the murder of a British soldier. In response, the RUC raided the homes of Catholics. They arrested people without charge, beat them and imprisoned them without trial. This policy was known as internment. It led to increased support for the Provisional IRA among republicans. Paramilitary groups on the loyalist side, such as the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), retaliated and the violence increased.

Members of the RUC at the NICRA housing March in Derry, 1968 Bernadette Devlin at the Battle of the Bogside The policy of internment meant the RUC and army could search and arrest people without charge.©The Educational Company of Ireland

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1972 – the bloodiest year of the Troubles

On Sunday 30 January 1972, the NICRA gathered in the Bogside to protest against internment, even though the protest had been banned by the government. British troops opened fire on the protesters, killing 14 and wounding 15. This day became known as Bloody Sunday. It was one of the darkest days in NI’s history. On Friday 21 July, the Provisional IRA planted a bomb in Belfast that killed nine people and injured 130. This day became known as Bloody Friday.

Power sharing

In 1973, the Sunningdale Agreement was signed in NI to create a power-sharing government between nationalists and unionists, with a degree of cooperation with the Irish government. Loyalists were strongly opposed to this. Violence erupted among paramilitary groups, and the government of NI collapsed in 1974. In 1985, the Anglo-Irish agreement was signed by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Taoiseach Garret Fitzgerald. This gave the Irish government a say in NI’s affairs.

The peace process

In 1993, British Prime Minister John Major and Taoiseach Albert Reynolds signed the Downing Street Declaration. This said that NI would only be transferred from the UK to the Republic of Ireland if the majority of its population were in favour of this. In 1994, the paramilitary groups agreed to a ceasefire so that peace talks could take place. However, the British government refused to hold peace talks unless the Provisional IRA surrendered their weapons. In 1996, the ceasefire briefly ended when the Provisional IRA planted a bomb in Canary Wharf in London. Finally, in 1997, the Provisional IRA surrendered their weapons and the peace talks began. The following year, 1998, British Prime Minister Tony Blair and Taoiseach Bertie Ahern led the signing of the Good Friday Agreement, which stated that unionists and nationalists would work together in a power-sharing government in NI. This was a historic moment. Violence occasionally broke out after the agreement was signed, but not to the same extent as during the Troubles.

An army barricade in the Bogside on Bloody Sunday, 1972 Margaret Thatcher and Garret Fitzgerald signing the Anglo-Irish agreement, 1985 ©The Educational Company of Ireland Bertie Ahern (left) and Tony Blair (right) after the signing of the Good Friday Agreement, 1998

Northern Ireland Assembly

In 1998, under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement, the first elections took place at the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont. The assembly has 90 members and can pass laws in many areas of life in NI. Areas such as foreign policy are still decided upon by the British government. The Northern Ireland Assembly is led by a first minister and a deputy first minister, both of whom have equal authority. One must be a unionist and the other must be a nationalist. The assembly is based on a principle of power sharing that ensures that unionists and nationalists are equally represented. New laws can be passed only if they are supported by a majority of both unionist and nationalist politicians. 1 What did Ireland agree to by signing the Anglo-Irish Treaty? 2 What is the difference between a unionist and a nationalist? 3 What was the Battle of the Bogside? 4 What happened on 30 January 1972? 5 What does the term ‘power sharing’ mean? 6 Why, do you think, would the British government not begin peace talks unless the Provisional IRA surrendered their weapons? 7 Do you think we should have a united Ireland? Why or why not? 1 Write out the meaning of each of these initialisms: NI, UK, RUC, IRA, UVF, NICRA.

For an extra challenge, what does ROI stand for? 2 Pair work: Design a picture timeline of five significant events in the history of NI. 3 Group work: Design a poster, presentation or animation about the history of

NI. Choose key events to highlight, and use as many of the following terms as you can: unionists, nationalists, segregation, loyalists, republicans, internment, paramilitaries, civil rights, peace process. Share your work with the class and explain why you chose these key events.

Stormont NI is famous for its wall murals. It is estimated that almost 2,000 have been painted since the 1970s. ©The Educational Company of Ireland

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TheAir WeBreathe

about the gases that make up air how we breathe and how our body uses oxygen about dangers to the lungs.

alveoli, asthma, bronchi, bronchus, bronchioles, capillaries, cartilage, cellular respiration, diaphragm, epiglottis, exhale, inflammation, inhale, larynx, mucus, protein, respiratory system, ribcage, trachea Air is a mixture of gases, including oxygen and carbon dioxide, which are essential for life to exist on Earth. The body’s amazing design allows it to take oxygen from the air and use it to convert food into energy! Thanks to our respiratory system, this happens every time we breathe, without us even noticing.

The gases that make up the air in the atmosphere

Nitrogen makes up 78% of air. Plants use nitrogen to make protein. They cannot absorb it from the air, but they soak it up from the soil through their roots. Nitrogen in the soil is produced by soil bacteria. Other gases make up 0.96% of air. These are: water vapour, argon, helium, hydrogen, ozone and neon.

Oxygen makes up 21% of air. Humans and animals need oxygen to breathe. Our cells use oxygen to convert the energy in food into energy that can be used by the body. This process is called cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide makes up 0.04% of air. Plants need carbon dioxide to carry out photosynthesis. Without carbon dioxide, there would be no life on Earth.©The Educational Company of Ireland

The respiratory system

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Air is inhaled through the nose and mouth. The nose is lined with tiny hairs that trap dust and other particles in the air. The respiratory system is also lined with mucus, a sticky substance that traps any particles that make it past the nose. If you ever cough up mucus, it is because your body is protecting itself. The epiglottis closes the windpipe when we swallow to prevent anything other than air from entering the lungs.

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The air travels down the windpipe, or trachea. The trachea is made up of soft tissue and rings of strong, flexible cartilage.

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The trachea splits into two tubes: the right bronchus and the left bronchus. The air travels through the two bronchi (plural) into the lungs.

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The lungs are the second largest 7 organ in the body Each bronchus after the skin. branches off They share the into smaller chest cavity with tubes called the heart. These 9 bronchioles. vital organs are protected by a set of bones called the ribcage. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that is produced by the cells in the body during cellular respiration. Carbon 8 At the ends of the bronchioles are tiny sacs called alveoli. These are wrapped in tiny blood dioxide passes from the cells vessels called capillaries.  into the bloodstream  Oxygen passes from the alveoli into the capillaries  into  into the capillaries  into the lungs  and then gets the bloodstream  then into all exhaled in the breath. of the cells in the body for use during cellular respiration.

The air passes the larynx, or voice box. The larynx is what produces sound when we speak. The diaphragm is a large, dome-shaped muscle. When you breathe in, the diaphragm contracts (tightens) and flattens. This helps the ribcage to expand so that the lungs can fill with air. When you breathe out, the diaphragm relaxes and curves back up. This causes the ribcage to shrink, helping to push the air out of the lungs. Breathing in 2 ©The Educational Company of Ireland Breathing out

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9TheAir WeBreathe

Let ’sLet ’s investigateinvestigate

Lung capacity is the amount of air that the lungs can hold. It is an important measure of health.

Exploring lung capacity

Equipment: large basin, 4-litre or 5-litre plastic bottle with lid, water, Dangers to the lungs Smoking Tobacco contains many poisonous chemicals that do harm to the body. Smoking cigarettes damages the trachea and can limit lung capacity. It is also a cause of a fatal disease called lung cancer. Air pollution When fossil fuels such as coal and oil are burned, the air we breathe can become polluted by toxic substances. Pollution can lead to irritation of the airways and shortness of breath. Breathing in unclean air every day for years can damage the lungs in a similar way to smoking. Illness Some people are born with or develop asthma or allergies that affect the respiratory system. Asthma causes inflammation of the airways, which makes it harder to breathe. People with asthma use inhalers to relax the muscles in the airways and help them to breathe normally. Allergies often cause minor symptoms, long flexible tube, permanent marker, measuring jug Action: ● Using the measuring jug, pour 500 ml of water into the bottle. Mark 500 ml on the side of the bottle, using the marker. Continue doing this until the bottle is full and you have marked a scale of 500 ml, 1,000 ml, 1,500 ml, and so on, on the side of the bottle. ● Put the lid on the bottle. ● Fill the basin with water. ● Place the bottle of water upside down in the basin of water and remove the lid. ● Put one end of the plastic tube into the bottle (try not to let any air in). ● Take a big breath and then blow into the tube until you run out of breath. ● Check how much water you were able to blow out of the bottle. ©The Educational Company of Ireland but can also cause dangerous swelling of the airways.

Ways to reduce air pollution

● Renewable energy sources such as wind power and solar power do not cause air pollution. We can reduce air pollution by reducing the amount of fossil fuels that we use and using renewable energy sources wherever possible. ● Using public transport, walking or cycling helps to cut down on air pollution caused by cars. ● Industrial fertilisers and pesticides used in agriculture contain chemicals that can lead to air pollution. In organic farming, natural fertilisers such as manure and compost are used instead. This means that organic foods are a better choice for the planet. Dust mask Equipment: scissors, a bandana or a piece of tightly-woven cotton fabric measuring around 40 cm2, two hair ties (or elastic bands) Action: ● Lay the fabric out flat. ● Fold the top and bottom down to meet in the middle. ● Fold in half again so that you have four layers of fabric. ● Use the hair ties to make ear loops. Slip a hair tie over each end of the fabric and position them where you want the sides of the mask to be. ● Fold the ends of the fabric in to meet in the middle. One end can be tucked into the other. ● Now your dust mask is ready to wear! (The folded side is worn next to your face.) Evaluate: ● Did the mask turn out as expected? What could you do to improve it? Let ’s designandmake When you breathe, carbon dioxide is not the only gas you exhale. You also exhale water vapour. In resting mode, humans exhale up to 17.5 ml of water vapour per hour. When you exercise, that figure©The Educational Company of Ireland

increases, making you feel thirsty. It is a good idea to keep a bottle of water handy when you are playing sports.

10 Aerodynamics

that the atmosphere has weight, and takes up space to investigate atmospheric pressure and how it changes about the four rules of aerodynamics, which allow an aeroplane to fly. Everything on Earth that occupies space and has weight is called matter. There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Air is an example of a gas. Another name for air is the atmosphere. Although we cannot feel it, the atmosphere has weight. It also has mass, meaning that it takes up space. The weight of the atmosphere exerts pressure (presses down) on everything on Earth. This is called atmospheric pressure. Temperature changes and atmospheric pressure Changes in temperature cause the atmospheric pressure to change because warm air is less dense than cold air. Atmospheric pressure is measured with a barometer. A meteorologist uses readings of atmospheric pressure to aerodynamics, aeronautical, airflow, atmospheric pressure, barometer, density, drag, friction, gravity, lift, mass, matter, meteorologist, molecule, propeller, states of matter, streamlined, thrust, weight Atmospheric pressure Exploring how air takes up space Equipment: two 2-litre plastic bottles, two balloons, nail Action: ● Use the nail to poke a small hole in the base of one of the bottles. ● Place a balloon inside the mouth of each bottle and seal the bottle by stretching the neck of the balloon over the top. ● Try to blow up each balloon. ● What happens? Write down your observations. ©The Educational Company of Ireland write the weather forecast.

Warm air When the temperature of the air increases, the molecules in the air start to move faster. They push out in all directions, causing the air to expand. This reduces the density of the air, creating low atmospheric pressure.

Molecules in warm air Cold air When the temperature of the air decreases, the molecules in the air move slowly and stay more tightly packed together. This increases the density of the air, creating high atmospheric pressure. Aerodynamics Have you ever wondered why an aeroplane can fly? The rules of aerodynamics hold the answers. Aerodynamics is the study of how air moves, particularly how it flows around a moving object. The four rules of aerodynamics are: weight, drag, lift and thrust. Weight Everything on Earth has weight because of the force of gravity, which pulls everything towards the centre of the Earth. Weight is the amount of gravity multiplied by the mass of an object (the amount of space it takes up). Weight is a downwards force that an aeroplane has to Exploring how temperature affects atmospheric pressure Equipment: tealight candle, glass, plate, small cup of water, food colouring, lighter or matches Action: ● Make a prediction before you begin. ● Add a few drops of food colouring to the water. ● Pour the coloured water onto the plate. ● Place the tealight in the centre of the plate. ● Light the tealight. (Teacher help required.) ● Turn the glass upside down and place it over the tealight. ● Record your observations. Lift Thrust Drag Weight Molecules in cold air ©The Educational Company of Ireland overcome in order to fly. To do this, it needs lift.

Lift This is the force that allows an aeroplane to get off the ground. In order to fly, an aeroplane must have greater lift than weight. Every part of the aeroplane helps to generate lift, but most of the lift is generated by the wings. These are specially shaped to make the air flow faster over the top, and slower underneath. When the air moves faster, its pressure decreases. Therefore, the pressure of the air flowing over the top of the wings is lower than the pressure of the air flowing underneath the wings. This difference in pressure creates the lift that gets the aeroplane off the ground and allows it to stay in the air. Drag Friction is a force that slows down a moving object. Drag, or air resistance, is a type of friction that acts upon an object as it moves through the air. Aeronautical engineers design aeroplanes in a streamlined (long and pointed) shape, and manufacture them with smooth materials to minimise drag.

Thrust This is the opposite of drag. It is the force that pushes an object forwards through the air. To keep moving forwards, the object needs to have more thrust than drag. A bird’s wings produce the thrust it needs to fly. A small aeroplane uses a propeller for thrust, while a large aeroplane uses jet engines.

Air moves faster over the top of curved wings. A helicopter gets lift from its blades, which are designed to create the same difference in airflow as an aeroplane’s wings create. A hot-air balloon gets lift because the hot air inside the balloon has a lower pressure than the cooler, denser air surrounding the balloon. Why do our ears pop in an aeroplane? As the aeroplane climbs higher in the atmosphere, the pressure of the air in the aeroplane cabin becomes lower than the pressure of the air inside our ears. Our ears try to match the pressure in the cabin, and sometimes pop. When the aeroplane descends, our The F-15 fighter jet is one of the world’s fastest aircraft. It has a very streamlined design. Jet engine©The Educational Company of Ireland

ears have to readjust, and pop again.

Paper aeroplanes

Equipment: two sheets of A4 paper, scissors, hula hoop, string, stopwatch, measuring tape

Action:

● In pairs, construct the two paper aeroplanes using the designs on your worksheet. ● Be aware of others around you when carrying out the tests below. The nose of a paper aeroplane can be quite sharp. ● In a long room or corridor, throw each aeroplane and measure the distance it flies, using a measuring tape. Do this ten times with each aeroplane and calculate the average distance for each. ● Throw each aeroplane again and use a stopwatch to time how long it stays in the air. (Stop the timer when the aeroplane hits the floor.) Do this ten times with each aeroplane and calculate the average time for each. ● Attach a long piece of string to the hula hoop and hang it from a basketball hoop, tree branch or door frame. Stand about 4–6 metres way from the hula hoop and aim the aeroplane through it. Do this 20 times with each aeroplane and record how many times each aeroplane makes it through the hula hoop. ● Record your observations on your worksheet. Glider A glider is a light aircraft that is designed to fly without an engine. Now that you have explored the rules of aerodynamics, use materials in the classroom to design and make a glider that can fly a distance of 3 metres in a straight line. Remember, you need to think about weight, lift and drag. The glider should be light, but sturdy enough to hold its shape. Think carefully about Let ’s designandmake ©The Educational Company of Ireland which materials you will choose.

11

AtmosphereandClimate

how weather and climate are influenced by distance from the equator and the height of the land above sea level how ocean currents regulate temperatures around the globe how the wind is generated by air currents. air mass, convection current, elevation, evaporation, front, humid, latitude, precipitation, tropics Climate describes the weather patterns in a region over a long period of time – typically 30 years or longer, whereas weather describes the conditions on a specific day or few days. The factors that influence climate and weather include latitude, elevation, convection currents, wind and atmospheric pressure.

Latitude

The latitude of a region is its distance north or south of the equator. The equator is an invisible line around the Earth, halfway between the North and South Poles. It is the closest point on Earth to the sun, so it experiences high temperatures all year round. The regions known as the tropics are located between the lines of latitude called the Tropic EQUATOR of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The air here is very humid, due to high rates of evaporation. High humidity brings frequent rainfall, which helps to reduce the temperature a little. There are only two seasons in the tropics: wet and dry. The wet season lasts for most of the year, supporting ecosystems that are very rich in flora and fauna. Tropical rainforests grow in the tropics. These include the Amazon Rainforest in South America, the Congo Rainforest in Central Africa and the rainforests of Southeast Asia.

Elevation

The elevation of an area refers to its height above sea level. The higher an area is above sea level, the cooler it is. As a general rule, temperature decreases by 1°C for every 100-metre rise in elevation.

NORTH AMERICA SOUTH AMERICA EUROPE ASIA

AFRICA Amazon Rainforest AUSTRALIA

ANTARCTICA

Congo Rainforest = Rainforest

South-east Asian rainforests Tropic of Capricorn Tropic of Cancer ©The Educational Company of Ireland La Paz, the capital of Bolivia in South America, is 3,640 m above sea level.

Elevation affects the atmospheric pressure in an area. The atmospheric pressure in an area of high elevation is lower than the atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is because there is less air pressing down on the area of high elevation.

Convection currents

Convection currents transfer heat from one place to another by the continuous movement of air or water. They affect the weather all over the globe.

Ocean currents An ocean current is a continuous movement of water in the ocean from one place to another. Ocean currents carry warm water from the tropics towards the North and South Poles, and cold water from the North and South Poles towards the tropics. They help to regulate temperatures around the globe. The Gulf Stream is the ocean current that most affects Ireland’s climate. This current carries warm water from the Gulf of Mexico into the Atlantic Ocean. The current continues flowing in a north-easterly direction, and is then renamed as the North Atlantic Drift. Ireland lies at

EQUATOR the same latitude as parts of Canada, but thanks to the North Atlantic Drift, it has a much milder climate than Canada has.

Co. Kerry and the North Atlantic Drift

The weather in Co. Kerry in the south-west of Ireland is most clearly affected by the North Atlantic Drift. The average winter temperature in Kerry is 7°C, compared with 2°C in other areas of the country. Frost and snow are rare in Kerry, and due to the mild winters, the plants here have a yearround growing season. Kerry is home to about one-quarter of all rare Irish plants. There is a wider variation in habitats here, which allows for a greater number of plant species to grow. Large numbers of lichens, mosses and wildflowers grow in the oak woodlands of Killarney.

ARCTIC OCEAN

NORTH AMERICA GULF STREAM SOUTHERN OCEAN

NorthAtlantic Drift ATLANTIC

OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN

SOUTH AMERICA INDIAN OCEAN

EUROPE ASIA

AFRICA AUSTRALIA

ANTARCTICA WARM CURRENTS COLD CURRENTS

If you were to stand on top of Carrauntoohil in Co. Kerry, which is 1,006 metres above sea level, the atmospheric pressure would be lower than if you were standing in the town of Kenmare, which is only 10 metres above sea level Ocean currents flow clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere. This difference is caused by the spinning of the Earth. ©The Educational Company of Ireland

During the day, the land absorbs more heat from the sun than the ocean does. Therefore, the air over the land is warmer than the air over the ocean. The warmer air expands, causing the pressure to drop. This low-pressure air rises, and so the cooler, denser air over the ocean moves in to take its place.

At night-time, the process is reversed. The land cools rapidly, whereas there is almost no change in the temperature of the ocean. The air over the ocean is now warmer than the air over the land. The warmer air expands, causing the pressure to drop. This low-pressure air rises in the atmosphere, and so the cooler, denser air over the land moves in to take its place.

Warmer air expands and rises

Air cools and descends Cooler air moves in over the land

Wind

Air convection currents caused by differences in air pressure are the driving force behind the wind. The sun warms the land and water at the equator more than the rest of the globe. Warm air at the equator rises into the atmosphere and moves towards the North and South Poles. This is a low-pressure system. At the same time, cooler, denser air from the North and South Poles moves towards the equator. This is a high-pressure system. Winds generally blow from a highpressure system to a low-pressure system. The area between the two systems is called a front. A front can be warm or cold. Wind is generated as the atmosphere tries to balance the difference in pressure between two fronts. The greater the difference in pressure, the stronger the wind that will be generated.

Warm front In a warm front, a warm air mass rises above a cool air mass. This can cause a sudden change in wind direction. It also causes clouds to form, leading to precipitation (rain, sleet, snow or hail). Cold front In a cold front, a cool air mass pushes into a warm air mass. This can produce dramatic changes in the weather. The wind can become gusty, with a sudden drop in temperature and heavy rainfall.

Warmer air expands and rises Air cools and descends Cooler air moves out over the ocean ©The Educational Company of Ireland

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Prevailing winds

A prevailing wind is the usual wind in an area. It blows consistently from one direction and is named after this direction. In Ireland, the prevailing wind blows from the south-west and is known as the south-westerly wind. It brings warm, moist air in winter, helping to keep our climate mild. However, the moisture in the air also leads to a lot of cloud and frequent rainfall. Sometimes, Ireland gets wind from the north, which carries Arctic weather (cold winds, snow and frost). Occasionally, it gets wind from the east (Russia), which brings warm, dry weather in summer or cold, dry weather in winter.

Atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure can be measured using a barometer. When a low-pressure weather system moves into an area, it usually brings cloud, rain and wind. A high-pressure system usually brings fair, calm weather. On a weather map, the symbol for a low-pressure weather system is a capital ‘L’, and the symbol for a high-pressure system is a capital ‘H’. 1 Why is the air in the tropics very humid? 2 What effect does elevation have on temperature? 3 Name two types of convection currents. 4 What do convection currents do? 5 What kind of weather does a cold front bring? 6 From what you have learned, explain why there are different types of climates around the globe. 7 If the North Atlantic Drift were to drop in temperature, what difference do you think this might make to Ireland’s climate?

The south-westerly wind in Ireland often causes stormy condition on the West coast 1 Use the world map on page 94 or your atlas to make a list of countries situated in the tropics. 2 Think, pair, share: Research and draw the symbols that are used for the following on weather maps: wind, rain, flood, thunderstorm, snow/ice, fog, sunny weather, sunny spells, overcast weather. 3 Group work: Research the weather-warning system that is used in Ireland. Design a poster explaining the system and the actions that people are advised to Met Éireann weather map showing atmospheric pressure ©The Educational Company of Ireland take in response to each warning.

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Taking to theSkies

about the history of aviation how hot-air balloons and airships use knowledge of air movement to fly about the first successful flight in an engine-powered aeroplane about Amelia Earhart and her contributions to flying. airship, aviation, circumnavigate, flammable, hydrogen, jet airliner, navigation, propane, propel, pioneer, rudder, unstable, warfare, wreckage Air travel today is very common and has changed the way we are able to visit other countries. Budget airlines such as Ryanair have made travelling by aeroplane much more affordable. Today’s aviation technology is a result of centuries of development. The four rules of aerodynamics (weight, lift, drag and thrust) were discovered in 1799 by English inventor George Cayley. He built a model aeroplane to show how these rules worked, and correctly predicted that aeroplanes would not be able to stay up in the air unless they could generate lift and thrust. Modern aircraft design is based on Cayley’s ideas. He is seen as the father of aviation.

Before aviation

Before people had the option to travel by air, they could only travel overseas by boat. The earliest record of a sailboat comes from an image on an Ancient Egyptian vase dating from around 3500 BC. The first sailors were not familiar with the rules of aerodyamics, but they understood lift! The sails of a sailboat can be compared with the wings of an aeroplane in that both generate the lift required to move the vehicle forwards. The sailboat is pushed along the water by the force of the wind. The stronger (faster) the wind is blowing, the greater the force that is exerted on the sails and the faster the sailboat can move.

George Cayley George Cayley designed the first successful glider to carry a person in the air ©The Educational Company of Ireland

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The hot-air balloon was the first aircraft to successfully carry passengers. In Paris in 1783, two French brothers named Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier became the first aviators to achieve this. The Montgolfier brothers lit a small, controlled fire inside their balloon to generate lift. A modern hot-air balloon uses a propane-gas burner for the same purpose. The hot air inside the balloon generates lift because it has a lower pressure than the cooler, denser air surrounding the balloon. However, there is no way for a hot-air balloon to generate thrust, so it is simply pushed along by the wind. Two weeks after the Montgolfier brothers’ successful launch, Jacques Charles and NicolasLouis Robert took the first ever flight in a hydrogen balloon. The balloon was filled with hydrogen gas, which is lighter than air, so it was able to stay up in the air for longer than a hot-air balloon. In 1785, Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries flew a hydrogen balloon from England to France, crossing the English Channel. Hydrogen balloons soon became a popular way for adventurers to get around! However, there were risks involved. Hydrogen balloons could easily explode and catch fire because hydrogen is an unstable, flammable gas.

Sophie Blanchard, wife of Jean-Pierre Blanchard, was also a professional balloonist. She is believed to have been the first female professional aviator in history. She was known for being timid and nervous on the ground, but fearless in the air! She became famous throughout Europe for conducting experiments with parachutes and launching fireworks from her hydrogen balloon. She made many long-distance trips and even crossed the Alps in her balloon. Sadly, she died in 1819 after her balloon caught fire from fireworks.

Hot-air balloon Hydrogen balloon ©The Educational Company of Ireland

Airships

An airship was a hydrogen-filled balloon with an engine to generate thrust and a rudder for navigation. The first airship was built and flown by Brazilian aviator Alberto Santos-Dumont in 1898. In the early 20th century, airships became popular among wealthy passengers crossing the Atlantic Ocean. During World War I (1914–1918), airships were also used in warfare to drop bombs on the enemy. After the war ended, airships continued to be a popular means of travel. That all ended in 1937, when a German passenger airship named the Hindenburg exploded as it was attempting to land in the USA. More than half of the passengers survived, but the accident put people off The Hindenburg disaster the idea of travelling by airship.

The Wright brothers

Brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright grew up in Ohio in the USA. As boys, they loved to invent things and became interested in flight when they were given a toy helicopter that used rubber bands to help it fly. They started building their own model helicopters and kites, and then moved onto gliders. They spent years experimenting and improving the design of the wings and controls for their gliders. They also studied the way in which birds use their wings during flight. Orville and Wilbur Wright In 1903, the Wright brothers built an aeroplane called the Wright Flyer, which had wooden propellers and an engine. The Wright Flyer’s first flight took place on 17 December 1903 at Kitty Hawk in North Carolina. It flew for 12 seconds. This was the first time an aircraft had succeeded in staying up in the air without the use of hot air or hydrogen gas. The lift was generated by the curved design of the aeroplane’s wings, and the thrust was generated by its propeller. Following their success at Kitty Hawk, the Wright brothers continued to improve their designs. They made The first flight of the Wright Flyer, 1903 great contributions to the era of modern aviation.

Zeppelin airship in 1919 ©The Educational Company of Ireland

A few big developments

The Wright brothers’ success led to a lot of interest in aviation. Just 11 years after the first flight at Kitty Hawk, aeroplanes were used in warfare during World War I and to transport passengers and cargo. In June 1919, John Alcock and Arthur Brown successfully completed the first flight across the Atlantic Ocean. They departed from Newfoundland, Canada and landed in Clifden, Co. Galway. The flight took 72 hours. In May 1927, Charles Lindbergh flew solo across the Atlantic Ocean from New York to Paris. This was very significant because Lindbergh had flown a distance of 3,218 km, opening up the possibility of long-distance flight. During the 1920s and 1930s, engineers developed aeroplanes that could fly even farther.

Women in aviation

In the early 20th century, it was difficult for a woman to become a pilot because it was considered to be a ‘man’s job’. However, attitudes towards men and women’s roles were slowly changing. Earlier in 1920, women had gained the right to vote in the USA for the first time in history.

Amelia Earhart

Amelia Earhart was born in Kansas in the USA in 1897. Her father was a lawyer who worked for the railroad. Because of his job, the Earhart family got to travel around the country. In 1904, at the age of seven, Amelia visited the World’s Fair in St Louis, Missouri. She and her younger sister were so impressed by the roller coaster at the fair that they went home and built their own mini roller coaster on the roof of their shed. Even though they crashlanded on the ground after taking off in their roller coaster, Amelia later said that she had loved the feeling of flying through the air! Around 1918, Amelia went to a flying show in Toronto, Canada, where she got to see pilots performing stunts in their aeroplanes. She became fascinated with aeroplanes. Amelia could not decide on a career that she really wanted, but she tried out different kinds of work, such as nursing wounded soldiers during World War I and studying medicine.

John Alcock and Arthur Brown Amelia Earhart Charles Lindbergh with his aeroplane, The Spirit of St Louis, in which he flew across the Atlantic Ocean ©The Educational Company of Ireland

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On 28 December 1920, Amelia attended an air show and got to fly in a small aeroplane. She loved the experience so much that she decided there and then that she was going to become a pilot.

On 3 January 1921, Amelia took her first flying lesson. For the rest of that year, she worked at all kinds of jobs to save up enough money to pay for her lessons, which cost $1,000 in total. She became a skilled pilot and set many records over the next few years, making her a celebrity. In 1928, she became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean. On this occasion, she was a passenger, but four years later, in 1932, she became the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean. She completed the journey in under 15 hours, setting a record for speed. Amelia leads the way In 1933, she wrote a book about her solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean titled The Fun of It. She toured the USA, promoting her book, giving lectures and encouraging women to try new areas of work. Her next big ambition was to fly east all the way around the world. On 21 May 1937, she and her co-pilot, Fred Noonan, departed from Oakland, California on their mission to circumnavigate the globe. They flew more than 35,000 km before losing radio contact with the US Coast Guard. The aeroplane seemed to disappear into thin air. It was thought to have crashed into the Pacific Ocean. Despite a huge search-and-rescue mission conducted by the US Coast Guard and Navy, the wreckage was never found. After World War II broke out in 1939, women were asked to do the jobs of the men who were away fighting. Many women trained as mechanics, flight controllers and pilots. Amelia would have ©The Educational Company of Ireland Female mechanic working on an aeroplane, USA, 1942 been proud of them.

By the time World War II broke out in 1939, a lot of cities had an airport, and there were many trained pilots. Helicopters were used to fly to locations where aeroplanes could not land. They were valued for their ability to take off and land vertically, and hover in the air. The war brought many developments in flying, such as the first jet engine. Improvements were made in the design of aeroplanes to make them safer and faster. Such progress would not have been possible without the dedication and efforts of the early pioneers of aviation. It is thanks to them that we live in a world where flight is possible! 1 Who is seen as the father of aviation? 2 In what way can a sailboat be compared to an aeroplane? 3 What is one downside to hot-air balloons? 4 What is one downside to airships? 5 How might the study of birds have helped the Wright brothers? 6 If the Hindenburg disaster had never happened, in what ways do you think transport might be different today? For example, do you think we would have passenger aeroplanes? 7 In your opinion, what was important about Amelia Earhart, apart from her record-breaking flights? 1 Imagine if Sophie Blanchard and Amelia Earhart somehow got to meet one another! Write three questions that you think each of these aviators might ask the other. 2 Think, pair, share: Discuss how transport has changed over time. What do you think the next big changes in transport might be? Design and draw a vehicle that would be suitable for the year 2080. Highlight the interesting features in your design and explain their purpose. 3 Group work: Choose one of the aviators discussed in the lesson. Use Glogster,

Flipgrid, Book Creator or PowerPoint to write a newspaper report about them.

Remember that the report should be written as if your are writing it during the aviator’s lifetime. You can include interview questions and answers. For example, you might ask them what they think their achievements will contribute to transport in the future.

Improvements in aviation technology have led to a dramatic decrease in journey times. For example, in 1934, a passenger travelling from London to Singapore would have around spent eight days flying. Today, the flight takes only around 12 hours on a jet airliner. ©The Educational Company of Ireland