2014
Life Cycle Assessment Boutique Wine Production in Eskdale New Zealand Master of Environmental Management, Massey University
Sacayon Madrigal, Edgar Massey University 11/14/2014
EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Contents 1. 2. 3.
Abstract ....................................................................................................................... 2 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 3 LCA Methodology ........................................................................................................ 6 3.1. Goal and Scope ....................................................................................................... 6 3.2. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis .................................................................................... 8 3.2.1. Vineyard Activities ............................................................................................. 8 3.2.2. Bottling .............................................................................................................. 9 3.2.3. International Transportation ............................................................................. 10 3.2.4. Retailer ............................................................................................................ 10 3.2.5. Consumption ................................................................................................... 10 3.2.6. Waste management ......................................................................................... 11 3.3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment ............................................................................... 12 3.4. Normalisation ......................................................................................................... 13 4. Results ...................................................................................................................... 13 4.1. Life Cycle Impact Assessment ............................................................................... 13 4.2. Global Warming Potential [GWP] ........................................................................... 14 4.1. Abiotic Depletion Potential [ADP] ........................................................................... 15 4.2. Acidification Potential [AP] ..................................................................................... 16 4.3. Photochemical Oxidant Formation Potential [POCP] .............................................. 17 4.4. Eutrophication Potential [EP] .................................................................................. 18 4.5. Ozone Layer Depletion [ODP] ................................................................................ 19 4.6. TETP...................................................................................................................... 20 4.7. Normalisation ......................................................................................................... 21 5. Discussion ................................................................................................................. 22 5.1. Environmental Hotspots ......................................................................................... 22 5.2. Improvement Scenarios. ........................................................................................ 24 5.2.1. Reducing Bottle Weight ................................................................................... 24 5.2.2. Bulk Transportation.......................................................................................... 24 5.2.3. Improved Agricultural Management Practices .................................................. 25 6. Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 26 7. Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................... 27 8. References ................................................................................................................ 28
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
1. Abstract In the present study the life cycle of a small-scale wine from Eskdale, New Zealand is assessed. The entire life cycle form cradle to grave was included. Using the CML 2003 April 2013 seven impact categories were evaluated. The environmental hotspots were found at bottling, international transportation and during vineyard activities. Glass production has the biggest contribution to the seven impact categories. Fuel consumption from cargo ship to the United Kingdom produces a high magnitude of Acidification Potential. Pesticide use produces a high Terrestrial Eco-Toxicity Potential. The scenarios modelled demonstrate quantitative improvements of 40% to Acidification Potential, Global Warming Potential and Terrestrial Eco-Toxicity Potential categories. It is recommended that the small-scale winery adopts two of these improvement scenarios in order to improve their overall environmental performance.
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
2. Introduction The present case study explores the use of Life Cycle Assessment to identify the environmental impacts associated with wine production in a small scale winery in New Zealand. The wine is produced in Eskdale; a small rural settlement in Hawkes Bay located 15 minutes away from the north of Napier. Many wineries are concentrated here, making it the second largest region and the main producer of boutique wine in the country. (Ministry of Culture and Heritage, 2011).
Wine production is becoming an important industry for the New Zealand economy (NZWine, 2013; Rugani, Vázquez-Rowe, Benedetto, & Benetto, 2013). According to New Zealand Wine’s annual report $1.21 billion NZ dollars where generated in exports in the year 2013. The wine industry is showing a growing trend in exports and has now positioned itself amongst the first ten countries of boutique wine sellers in the world (NZWine, 2013).
It is estimated that a total of 250 million litres of wine were produced in New Zealand in the year 2013. From these, 169 million litres were exported to other countries. Australia, the largest importer of New Zealand wine bought 49 million litres worth $373 million, followed by the United Kingdom who bought 47 million litres worth $278 million and the United States consumed 43 million litres which produced $248 million (NZWine, 2013). Table 1 and 2, show the production and income statistics for a period of 10 years.
However, New Zealand’s wine industry faces several constraints in European markets (Sinha & Akoorie, 2010). New Zealand wine imports are strictly controlled and are seeing as economic competition for European wines. Consequently copyright laws and appellation of origin were created to restrict the use of names like Burgundy, Bordeaux and Champagne (Sinha & Akoorie, 2010). Furthermore the New Zealand Wine Industry foresees a big change in the sector responding to the evolution of business models and market demands. One of
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
most important changes is that overseas retailers are becoming brand owners and wine producers (NZWine, 2013). The influence of consumer preferences is becoming more evident as they expect environmentally sound products (Sinha & Akoorie, 2010).
Several strategies are being developed by the wine industry to address these challenges. Opening new markets in Asia is a strategy to increase wine exports (NZWine, 2013). To compete in the European market New Zealand’s wine industry has also adopted green marketing strategies that are starting to profile New Zealand Wine as a sustainable commodity (Sinha & Akoorie, 2010). To this end Life Cycle Assessment can play an important role in the improvement of New Zealand’s Wine production process. Identifying the environmental hotspots of wine production can result in environmental stewardship practices to entry into European wine markets. (Baumann & Tillman, 2004; Guinée, 2002).
The results of a life cycle assessment can be used for several purposes. The most important from an environmental management perspective is the identification of hotspots that can lead to improved environmental management practices. These in return can translate into environmental product declarations and green labelling marketing schemes that in the long term can improve economic opportunities or create added value to a small-scale winery products.
Table 1. Wine Production in New Zealand. Source: NZWine Annual Report 2013.
Year Grape Production (Tonnes) Wine (million litres) Export Volume (million litres) Export Value (million NZ$ FOB)
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
165,500
142,000
185,000
205,000
285,000
285,000
266,000
328,000
269,000
345,000
119.2
102.0
133.2
147.6
205.2
205.2
190.0
235.0
194.0
248.4
31.1
51.4
57.8
76.0
88.6
112.6
142.0
154.7
178.9
169.6
302.6
434.9
512.4
698.3
797.8
991.7
1,041.0
1,094.0
1,177.0
1,211.0
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Table 2. New Zealand Wine Exports Sales. Source NZWine Annual Report 2013. Million NZ$ Year
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Australia
56.0
88.0
122.0
180.0
247.0
323.0
327.0
338.0
380.0
373.0
USA United Kingdom
80.0
113.0
138.0
176.0
160.0
224.0
212.0
232.0
251.0
284.0
119.0
162.0
166.0
227.0
241.0
268.0
299.0
294.0
284.0
278.0
6.0
13.0
22.0
34.0
47.0
49.0
59.0
59.0
70.0
78.0
Canada
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
3. LCA Methodology 3.1.
Goal and Scope
As stated by ISO Standards (ISO, 2006) the goal and scope definition are the first steps in the Life Cycle Assessment of a product and include all the relevant decisions and procedures that will take place during the assessment (GuinĂŠe, 2002). In the present study the goals where to determine the environmental impacts of a small-scale winery and identify improvement opportunities. The results will help wine producers in the Eskdale valley improve their environmental management practices.
For this study a 0.75 litre glass bottle of wine was established as a functional unit. The system boundaries (figure 1) consider all the life cycle stages of wine production from cradle to grave. These include the following 6 major stages: vineyard activities, wine production, bottling, international transportation, retailing, consumption and waste treatment.
The system inputs include fertiliser and pesticide production in their countries of origin, transportation, energy production used for transportation to New Zealand, electricity for irrigation, diesel, and oil for agricultural management practices (mulching, mowing and harvesting). The outputs registered in the vineyard from pesticides and fertiliser where considered as 15% of active ingredients to air 5% to agricultural soil, 3% of the oil used was assumed as emission to soil. A forklift process was included in vineyard, wine production and bottling stages. It was assumed that the forklift emitted 3.06 of CO2/kg. Glass, paper, cardboard, steel, wood, PVDC, wooden pallet, and polypropylene production processes were included during wine bottling. Landfill processes were included during wine production, bottling and retailing. In the final stage during waste management individual treatment processes where included for paper, metal and glass disposal. The emission information for these processes derives from the PE and LCD datasets (GaBi 6, 2014).
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Not included in this study due to lack of information were emissions from energy production and manufacturing of pesticides and fertilisers. Neither was the machinery production nor maintenance process during vineyard activities. Transportation data for additives and their production processes during wine production was not available. Also the capital goods for wine fermentation are excluded, as they don’t represent a significant contribution.
Figure 1. Life cycle flow diagram for New Zealand wine, 2014.
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
3.2.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
For the life cycle inventory the data compiled proceed from Xmas (2010) and was completed using PE and ELCD datasets (GaBi 6, 2014). The information presented in table 3 and 4 is the result of the complete life cycle stages that are described below.
3.2.1.
Vineyard Activities
Grapes were produced in Arthurs Vineyard. Here all the agricultural management practices take place. The fertilisers were imported from the United States travelling 10,460km, to New Zealand. It was estimated that 65.8 kg of nitrogen fertiliser was needed to provide 9.2 kg of pure nitrogen. 14 kg of phosphorous fertiliser was needed to yield 1.4 kg of pure phosphorous. These nutrients were applied two times per year.
9.2 đ??žđ?‘” đ?‘ đ?‘Ľ
1 đ?‘˜đ?‘” đ?‘œđ?‘“ đ??šđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘Ąđ?‘–đ?‘™đ?‘–đ?‘ đ?‘’đ?‘&#x; 0.28 đ?‘?đ?‘˘đ?‘&#x;đ?‘’ đ?‘›đ?‘–đ?‘Ąđ?‘&#x;đ?‘œđ?‘”đ?‘’đ?‘›
1.4 đ??žđ?‘” đ?‘ƒ đ?‘Ľ
= 32.86 đ?‘˜đ?‘” đ?‘Ľ 2 đ?‘Ąđ?‘–đ?‘šđ?‘’đ?‘ đ?‘?đ?‘’đ?‘&#x; đ?‘Śđ?‘’đ?‘Žđ?‘&#x; = 65.8 đ?‘˜đ?‘” đ?‘“đ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘Ąđ?‘–đ?‘™đ?‘–đ?‘ đ?‘’đ?‘&#x;
1 đ?‘˜đ?‘” đ?‘œđ?‘“ đ??šđ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘Ąđ?‘–đ?‘™đ?‘–đ?‘ đ?‘’đ?‘&#x; = 7 đ?‘˜đ?‘” đ?‘Ľ 2 đ?‘Ąđ?‘–đ?‘šđ?‘’đ?‘ đ?‘?đ?‘’đ?‘&#x; đ?‘Śđ?‘’đ?‘Žđ?‘&#x; = 14 đ?‘˜đ?‘” đ?‘“đ?‘’đ?‘&#x;đ?‘Ąđ?‘–đ?‘™đ?‘–đ?‘ đ?‘’đ?‘&#x; 0.20 đ?‘?đ?‘˘đ?‘&#x;đ?‘’ đ?‘›đ?‘–đ?‘Ąđ?‘&#x;đ?‘œđ?‘”đ?‘’đ?‘›
For pest management practices 8 kg of Glyphosate is needed, 31.7kg of Captan is used and 1.7 kg of Fenitrothion is applied per 1 hectare. 10 kg/ha of oil and 7.6 kg/ha of diesel is consumed to spray the pesticides 7 times/year. Other agricultural management practices are irrigation, mowing, mulching and harvesting (XMas, 2010).
In total 7.2 tonnes of grapes are produced. They proceed to a wine fermentation facility, were they are crushed. The pomace is removed and the juice is fermented. Yeasts, enzymes, ascorbic acid and gelatine are added at this point. After the fermentation is complete the liquid undergoes a series of chemical steps to produce wine and is transported 40 km to the bottling facilities in Hastings.
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Figure 2. Wine production location in New Zealand
3.2.2.
Bottling
Glass bottles are manufactured in Auckland and travel 440 km to the Bottling Facility in Hastings. Each bottle has a volume of 0.75 L and weights 500 gm. It carries a steel cap, a polyvinylidene (PVDC) seal, a paper label and a wooden barrel. A 300g cardboard box is used to pack 12 wine bottles which are then arranged in a wooden pallet that can hold 80 boxes. 31 meters of polypropylene strappings are used to secure the boxes. Each meter of strap weights 0.1133 kg. Two and five percent cardboard and strapping respectively is sent for landfill waste (Xmas, 2010).
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
3.2.3.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
International Transportation
From the bottling facility in Hastings the wine is sent to Tauranga Port 320 km away. The wine then travels 20,854 km to London Port in England by a container ship through a known commercial route shown in Figure 3. Once in London the wine is sent 220 km to the retailers in Birmingham by truck (Xmas, 2010).
Figure 3. International transportation route from New Zealand’s Tauranga Port to London Port in England.
3.2.4.
Retailer
The wine boxes are stored for a period of 30 days in industrial coolers consuming 0.6 kWh per m3 of electricity. Wooden pallets are discarded for waste. The boxes travel 200 Km to a supermarket in Guildford (Xmas, 2010).
3.2.5.
Consumption
The consumption stage includes the supermarket, the consumer roundtrip to his residency and 3 days storage in the refrigerator. For this study the original roundtrip distance of 11km was reduced to 1km to allocate a proportion of the process to one wine bottle (McLaren
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
pers. Comm.). The electricity for a 272 L refrigerator was estimated as 0.0081 kWh for a 0.75 L bottle of wine. The cardboard boxes are stent for recycling in a waste treatment facility near the supermarket.
3.2.6.
Waste management
The waste management facilities are located 40km away from the consumer home. Individual processes where selected for the steel, paper and plastic which the wine bottle contains (Xmas, 2010).
Table 3. Life cycle inventory inputs of the wine production process. Source Xmas (2010)
Consumption
International Transportation
Retailing
Waste Treatment
Wine Production
5.27E+01
3.06E+01
1.50E+01
2.57E+01
2.35E+00
2.59E+02
8.40E-02
9.13E-02
1.30E-01
3.68E-03
5.48E-03
5.71E-02
3.16E-01
2.40E-02
9.13E-02
1.30E-01
3.68E-03
5.48E-03
5.71E-02
Crude oil (resource)
2.58E-01
8.35E-03
7.95E-02
1.20E-01
2.72E-04
1.66E-03
4.46E-02
Hard coal (resource)
1.19E-02
5.67E-03
9.64E-04
4.52E-04
8.95E-04
4.70E-04
3.42E-03
Lignite (resource)
7.67E-03
1.34E-03
1.58E-03
6.35E-04
1.56E-03
1.47E-03
1.05E-03
Natural gas (resource)
3.79E-02
8.63E-03
9.19E-03
9.01E-03
9.15E-04
1.87E-03
7.99E-03
Peat (resource)
1.44E-04
3.30E-05
3.88E-05
1.50E-05
4.08E-05
1.52E-05
8.78E-07
Uranium (resource) Renewable energy resources
3.79E-07
8.08E-08
9.33E-08
3.78E-08
9.37E-08
6.58E-08
5.85E-09
6.00E-02
6.00E-02
2.32E-14
8.29E-15
2.41E-14
5.90E-07
1.86E-15
Material resources Non-renewable elements Non-renewable resources
3.86E+02
5.26E+01
3.05E+01
1.49E+01
2.57E+01
2.34E+00
2.59E+02
3.23E-04
1.55E-05
5.32E-05
9.09E-05
2.93E-05
7.23E-05
5.49E-05
2.35E-01
7.72E-02
3.21E-02
1.33E-02
3.13E-02
3.05E-02
5.00E-02
Renewable resources
3.85E+02
5.25E+01
3.05E+01
1.48E+01
2.57E+01
2.31E+00
2.59E+02
Water
3.84E+02
5.24E+01
3.02E+01
1.48E+01
2.56E+01
2.23E+00
2.58E+02
Air
7.63E-01
1.15E-01
2.75E-01
3.00E-02
6.94E-02
7.88E-02
1.93E-01
Carbon dioxide
2.15E-02
1.47E-03
1.30E-02
1.86E-03
8.24E-04
1.98E-04
3.51E-03
Nitrogen
5.67E-05
5.67E-05
6.28E-13
5.91E-14
1.10E-13
3.09E-10
4.56E-13
Oxygen
8.36E-04
3.24E-04
7.08E-04
-1.24E-05
-3.51E-05
-2.53E-05
-1.23E-04
Inputs Flows
LCA
Resources
3.86E+02
Energy resources Non-renewable energy resources
3.76E-01
Bottling
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Table 4. Life cycle inventory outputs of the wine production process. Source Xmas (2010)
Retailing
Waste Treatment
1.27E-02
3.65E-02
1.85E-01
4.74E-02
2.87E+00
9.96E-01
2.04E-01
2.92E-01
3.14E+00
7.31E-08
1.59E-07
1.22E-07
1.27E-08
7.53E-08
9.37E-08
7.63E+00
5.81E-01
2.58E+00
9.75E-01
1.49E-01
1.43E-01
2.99E+00
7.32E-03
1.83E-04
2.04E-03
8.57E-04
1.47E-03
2.58E-03
1.79E-04
Other emissions to air
7.36E-01
8.26E-02
2.82E-01
1.98E-02
5.34E-02
1.47E-01
1.51E-01
Particles to air
4.55E-04
1.10E-04
5.99E-05
2.35E-04
9.69E-06
2.19E-05
1.75E-05
Pesticides to air Radioactive emissions to air
6.04E-03
2.55E-14
3.66E-09
0.00E+00
2.24E-16
3.96E-16
6.04E-03
4.29E-10
8.93E-14
3.07E-15
6.08E-16
1.09E-15
4.29E-10
7.48E-13
Emissions to fresh water Analytical measures to fresh water Heavy metals to fresh water Inorganic emissions to fresh water Organic emissions to fresh water Other emissions to fresh water
3.77E+02
5.16E+01
2.79E+01
1.43E+01
2.54E+01
1.42E+00
2.56E+02
2.04E-04
6.55E-05
7.46E-05
2.26E-05
7.78E-06
9.87E-06
2.26E-05
2.18E-05
3.96E-06
4.61E-06
3.09E-06
3.11E-06
2.39E-06
4.57E-06
2.84E-02
5.06E-03
8.38E-03
1.23E-02
8.02E-05
8.95E-05
1.99E-03
1.57E-04
7.40E-05
5.72E-05
1.58E-05
3.49E-07
4.49E-07
5.98E-06
3.77E+02
5.16E+01
2.79E+01
1.42E+01
2.54E+01
1.42E+00
2.56E+02
Particles to fresh water
1.65E-03
4.70E-04
6.91E-04
3.48E-04
5.45E-06
1.49E-05
8.96E-05
Emissions to sea water Emissions to agricultural soil
3.57E-01
8.80E-02
9.68E-02
4.03E-02
9.83E-02
2.68E-03
2.98E-02
2.01E-03
8.25E-08
3.39E-07
2.69E-07
3.25E-09
1.91E-09
2.01E-03
Emissions to industrial soil
1.20E-04
2.20E-06
3.47E-06
2.06E-07
8.94E-06
1.05E-04
4.59E-07
Output flows
LCA
Bottling
Consumption
Deposited goods
3.59E-01
4.53E-02
3.09E-02
Emissions to air
8.38E+00
6.64E-01
Heavy metals to air
5.40E-07
Inorganic emissions to air Organic emissions to air (group VOC)
3.3.
International Transportation
Wine Production
Life Cycle Impact Assessment
For the life cycle impact assessment we followed the steps outlined by ISO Standards (ISO, 2012). The inventory data was classified and characterised using the CML 2002- April 2013 method (GuinĂŠe, 2002). In this study we selected seven baseline impact categories relevant to the goal and scope and also suggested in the literature (Barry, 2011; Gazulla, Raugei, & Fullana-i-Palmer, 2010; Villanueva-Rey, VĂĄzquez-Rowe, Moreira, & Feijoo, 2014). Global Warming Potential (GWP), Acidification Potential (AP), Photochemical Oxidant Formation (POCP), Eutrophication Potential (EP), Ozone Layer Depletion (ODP), Terrestrial Ecotoxicity Potential (TETP) and Abiotic Resource Depletion (AD) are impact categories that
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LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
supply information at the midpoint level of the cause-effect chain of events and provide a clear means of comparison with other wine LCA studies (Gazulla et al., 2010).
3.4.
Normalisation
A normalisation step was taken using the CML World factor with GaBi 6 Software. The purpose of a normalisation step is to identify the impact categories with the highest magnitude in the whole product system. Normalisation procedures are useful to present to decision makers and non-LCA experts the impact assessment results (GuinĂŠe, 2002; Udo de Haes, 2002).
4. Results 4.1.
Life Cycle Impact Assessment
The results from the impact assessment present the life cycle stages and their relative contribution to each impact category (Figure 4). It was noted that the life cycle stages that make the biggest contribution to the impact categories are: bottling, international transportation and vineyard activities, in their relative order. Waste treatment and consumption contribute in a much lesser proportion.
Bottling is the life cycle stage that makes the biggest contribution to the seven impact categories, 100% to ADP, 73% to ODP, 60% to TETP, 35% to GWP and more than 25% to AP, EP and POCP. International transportation contributes 67% to AP, 65% to POCP, 61% to EP and 25% to GWP. Vineyard activities contribute 38% to TETP, 12% to GWP and less than 10% to AP, EP and POCP. Waste treatment contributes 27% to ODP and 10% to GWP. Consumption contributes 10% to GWP and to a lesser extent to all impact categories.
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LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Figure 4. Relative contribution of the six life cycle stages from the production of 0.75 L glass bottle of wine to the seven impact categories selected
4.2.
Global Warming Potential [GWP]
GWP 100 years 1.82 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4
Global Warming Potential [kg CO2-Equiv.]
1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7
0.6 0.6 0.5
0.43
0.4
0.27
0.3
0.22 0.17
0.2
0.1 0.1
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.0 Total
International Transportation Bottling
Vineyard Consumption
Retailing Waste Treatment
Transport to Supermarket Distribution in UK
Wine Production
Transport to Bottling Transport to Waste Treatment
Figure 5. Global Warming Potential for the complete life cycle of a wine bottle in New Zealand.
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LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
The GWP is a relevant impact indicator for the wine industry. It’s being used worldwide to measure the effects of wine production on climate change (Rugani et al., 2013). The characterisation model is based on the effect of greenhouse gases on radiative forcing in the earth’s atmosphere (Guinée, 2002; Udo de Haes, 2002).
Figure 5 show the results from the complete life cycle (1.82 kg CO 2 Eq.). Bottling was the stage with the highest GWP (0.64 kg CO2 Eq.) followed by international transportation (0.43 kg CO2 Eq.) and consumption (0.23 kg CO2 Eq.). Alone emissions of CO2, CH4 and N2O (Udo de Haes, 2002) from energy consumption during glass production yield 0.57 kg CO 2 Eq. which is 34% emissions of the complete life cycle. The other relevant stages where there is a considerable amount of fuel consumption are shipping to the UK, the consumer roundtrip to the supermarket and agricultural management practices.
4.1.
Abiotic Depletion Potential [ADP]
ADP elements 2.7e-6 2.7e-6
2.652e-6
2.6e-6 2.5e-6 2.4e-6 2.3e-6 2.2e-6 2.1e-6 2.0e-6
Abiotic Depletion elements [kg Sb-Equiv.]
1.9e-6 1.8e-6 1.7e-6 1.6e-6 1.5e-6 1.4e-6 1.3e-6 1.2e-6 1.1e-6 1.0e-6 0.9e-6 0.8e-6 0.7e-6 0.6e-6 0.5e-6 0.4e-6 0.3e-6 0.2e-6 0.1e-6
0.011e-6
0.01e-6
0.008e-6
0.002e-6
0.001e-6
0.000e-6
0.000e-6
0.000e-6
0.000e-6
0.0e-6
-0.081e-6 Bottling
International Transportation Total
Consumption Vineyard
Retailing Wine Production
Distribution in UK Transport to Supermarket
Transport to Waste Treatment Transport to Bottling Waste Treatment
Figure 6. Abiotic Depletion Potential of the life cycle stages of wine production in New Zealand
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LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Abiotic resources include “deposit”, “funds” and “flows”. Fossil fuels, minerals, sediments and clay, are categorised as deposits because they cannot be regenerated within a human lifetime. Groundwater and soil are considered funds because they can be regenerated within a human life (Guinée, 2002). In the CML method the category indicator is expressed as the relationship of a resource reserve to the extraction rate using antimony as reference resource.
Glass production consumes a large amount of water, hard coal, natural gas and crude oil (Neto, Dias, & Machado, 2012), and thus responsible for 2.7 e-6 kg Sb Eq. from the total life cycle.
4.2.
Acidification Potential [AP]
AP .019
Acidification Potential [kg SO2-Equiv.]
.012
.005
.000
Total
Bottling International Transportation
.000
Vineyard Consumption
Distribution in UK Transport to Supermarket
Wine Production Waste Treatment
Retailing
Transport to Bottling Transport to Waste Treatment
Figure 7. Acidification Potential for the complete Life Cycle of Wine production.
Acidification indicators measure the amount of hydrogen ions that a pollutant has the potential to create using a model that relates them to SO2- Equivalents. (Guinée, 2002). Hydrogen ions can accumulate by leaching and complex chemical reactions in soil, water or
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LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
air. Consequently living organisms and ecosystems can suffer severe damage (GuinĂŠe, 2002; Udo de Haes, 2002).
The acidification potential of the complete life cycle is 0.19 kg SO2- Eq. mainly caused by emissions of SO2 and NOx from the fossil fuel combustion during the shipping to the UK and glass production.
4.3.
Photochemical Oxidant Formation Potential [POCP]
POCP 1.05e-3
1.0e-3
0.9e-3
Photochem. Ozone Creation Potential [kg Ethene-Equiv.]
0.8e-3
0.701e-3 0.7e-3
0.6e-3
0.5e-3
0.4e-3
0.296e-3 0.3e-3
0.2e-3
0.1e-3
0.042e-3
0.024e-3
0.022e-3
0.014e-3
0.001e-3
0.0e-3
-0.004e-3 Total
Bottling International Transportation
Waste Treatment Consumption
Retailing Vineyard
-0.005e-3
-0.019e-3
-0.022e-3
Transport to Waste Treatment Transport to Supermarket Wine Production Transport to Bottling Distribution in UK
Figure 8. Photochemical Oxidant Formation Potential from the life cycle stages of the production of wine
Photochemical Oxidant Formation expresses the potential of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOC) pollutants to create photo-oxidants in the troposphere (Udo de Haes, 2002). They have negative effects to human health and ecosystems. The indicator uses an ethylene equivalent as a reference substance (GuinĂŠe, 2002).
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LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
A value of 1.05e-3 Ethene Eq. was obtained for the total life cycle. The stage with a highest POCP is international transportation (0.701e-3 Ethene Eq.) followed by bottling. These are caused by emissions of SO2, NOx (Barry, 2011) and VOC from fossil fuel combustion.
4.4.
Eutrophication Potential [EP]
EP 2.089e-3
2.0e-3 1.9e-3 1.8e-3 1.7e-3
Eutrophication Potential [kg Phosphate-Equiv.]
1.6e-3 1.5e-3 1.4e-3
1.268e-3
1.3e-3 1.2e-3 1.1e-3 1.0e-3 0.9e-3 0.8e-3 0.7e-3 0.6e-3
0.524e-3
0.5e-3 0.4e-3 0.3e-3
0.172e-3
0.2e-3
0.062e-3
0.1e-3
0.021e-3
0.014e-3
0.013e-3
0.007e-3
0.004e-3
0.003e-3
0.002e-3
0.0e-3 Total
Bottling International Transportation
Consumption Vineyard
Distribution in UK Waste Treatment
Retailing Transport to Supermarket
Transport to Waste Treatment Transport to Bottling Wine Production
Figure 9. Eutrophication Potential
The indicator measures the emissions of nitrogen and phosphorus and their potential effect to air, water or soil. The model uses nitrates or phosphate equivalents. High levels of nutrients affect aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems due to depletion of biological oxygen demand or the increase in biomass (GuinĂŠe, 2002).
NOx coming from the fossil fuel combustion during international transportation, glass production and vineyard activities account for 0.0027 kg PO-3 Eq. for the complete life cycle.
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
4.5.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Ozone Layer Depletion [ODP]
ODP, steady state 2.897e-9 2.8e-9 2.7e-9 2.6e-9 2.5e-9 2.4e-9 2.3e-9
Ozone Layer Depletion Potential [kg R11-Equiv.]
2.2e-9
2.089e-9
2.1e-9 2.0e-9 1.9e-9 1.8e-9 1.7e-9 1.6e-9 1.5e-9 1.4e-9 1.3e-9 1.2e-9 1.1e-9 1.0e-9 0.9e-9
0.797e-9
0.8e-9 0.7e-9 0.6e-9 0.5e-9 0.4e-9 0.3e-9 0.2e-9 0.1e-9
0.004e-9
0.004e-9
0.002e-9
0.000e-9
0e-9
0e-9
0e-9
0e-9
0e-9
0.0e-9 Total
Waste Treatment Bottling
Consumption Retailing
Vineyard International Transportation
Wine Production Transport to Supermarket
Transport to Waste Treatment Transport to Bottling Distribution in UK
Figure 10. Ozone Layer Depletion
The ODP indicator measures the potential of a substance to reduce the UV-radiation absorption capacity of the ozone layer. The characterisation model is related to a trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11) equivalent (Udo de Haes, 2002).
Water vapour during the production of cardboard at the bottling stage is liable for 2.1e -9 kg R-11 Eq. and incineration during waste treatment of glass produces 0.80e-9 kg R-11 Eq. which in total result in 2.9e-9 kg R-11 Eq.
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
4.6.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
TETP
TETP inf.
Terrestric Ecotoxicity Potential [kg DCB-Equiv.]
.033
.019
.012
.000
Total
Vineyard Bottling
Consumption
.000 International Transportation Transport to Supermarket
Waste Treatment
Retailing Transport to Bottling
Wine Production Transport to Waste Treatment
Distribution in UK
This indicator can be interpreted as the amount of a terrestrial ecosystem polluted to the maximum tolerable limit of a toxic substance. It is measured with a model relative to a 1,4 dichlorobenzene equivalent (GuinĂŠe, 2002).
Emissions from mercury, chromium and arsenic (Barry, 2011) during glass production are responsible for 0.19 kg DCB Eq. at bottling stage. Emissions from Captan, Fenitrothion and Glysophate are accountable for 0.12 kg DCB Eq. during agricultural management practices.
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
4.7.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Normalisation
Figure 11. Normalisation using the CML 2001- Apr. 2013 World Method.
The normalisation results in figure 12 shows that AP is the impact category with the highest magnitude caused by emissions from the International Transportation and Bottling stages. It also shows that Bottling has an important effect on the other impact categories. The third impact category with the highest impact is TETP.
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5. Discussion 5.1.
Environmental Hotspots
From the results three environmental hotspots can be identified. The first hotspot is situated during the bottling stage. The emissions from energy production and use necessary for glass production have an important effect on all the impact categories. Glass production consumes a high amount of energetic resources that is reflected on the high contribution to ADP.
Other studies that have found glass production as an environmental burden are the ones by Gazulla (2010), Barry (2011) and Fusi et al. (2014). A report from the UK (WRAP, 2007) describes how reductions to bottle weight can improve the environmental performance of the wine’s life cycle using the GWP indicator. Barry (2011) suggests the use of light weight glass bottles to minimize environmental impacts. Cleary (2013) on the other hand showed that refillable glass bottles have the least environmental impact when comparing it with lightweight single use glass bottles, PET bottles and aseptic cartons (Cleary, 2013). Fusi (2014) recommends the use of aseptic cartons because they can also reduce the impacts associated with transportation. There is however a caveat in these comparisons because they used different methodological approaches and impact indicators. A scenario analysis in GaBi 6 is discussed in the next section to explore the improvement possibilities at this stage.
The second hotspot identified was located during shipping to the UK. The results show a large impact due to the fossil fuel consumption of cargo ships. It can be argued that there is a direct relationship with environmental impacts as the distance of transportation increases (Fusi, Guidetti, & Benedetto, 2014). The WRAP report (2007) and the work by Barry suggest improvement opportunities through bulk transportation which reduce the GWP indicator. A scenario analysis that models bulk transportation presented in the next section.
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Finally the third hotspot was located in the Vineyard. Application of the pesticides Captan, Fenitrothion and Glyphosate has a strong effect on TETP. Vineyard activities also show the third highest magnitude from all impact categories in the normalisation results. VillanuevaRey et al (X) report environmental improvements using biodynamic viticulture. To be considered biodynamic the vineyard must have at least three years of organic certification and the agricultural management practices include a sharp reduction of external inputs into their production system (Villanueva-Rey et al., 2014). Although there are climatic effects and regional soil differences across the world that make difficult comparisons in this study it is suggested that pesticides and fertilizers reduction can potentially improve the environmental performance. A scenario analysis will be further discussed in the next section.
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
5.2. 5.2.1.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Improvement Scenarios. Reducing Bottle Weight
Reducing the glass weight from a normal 500g glass bottle to a 400g glass bottle shows a reduction of 20% of the ADP. Reducing the glass weight to 300g results in a 40% improvement.
Figure 12. Glass bottle weight reduction using scenario analysis in GaBi 6 Software.
This scenario also affects other impact categories. However we only show the improvement made to the higher magnitude ADP.
5.2.2.
Bulk Transportation
For the bulk transportation we used 3.5g weight per wine bottle from a 80kg flexitank made out of recycled material related to 32,000 wine bottles per tank (WRAP, 2007).
This
scenario shows an improvement of 40% reducing GWP emission from 1.81 to 1.12 kg CO 2 Eq.
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EDGAR E. SACAYON 14029583
5.2.3.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
Improved Agricultural Management Practices
For the vineyard improvement scenario two alternatives where considered, one using mixed agricultural practices (half organic, half traditional). This meant using only half the amount of the original pesticide and fertilisers. A 18% improvement is expected using mixed agricultural management practices to the TETP. The second scenario was considered as using zero pesticides and fertiliser. Under these considerations a 40% improvement is expected.
Figure 13. Improved Agricultural Management Practices
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LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF A SMALL-SCALE WINERY IN ESKDALE, NEW ZEALAND
6. Conclusions Three environmental hotspots where found in the life cycle of New Zealand wine. Emissions of CO2, SOx, NOx from the glass production process during the bottling stage have a high environmental burden that reflects in the relative distribution of the seven environmental impact categories in this study. Emissions of CO2, SOx, NOx when the wine is shipped to the UK has the highest impact associated to Acidification Potential category. The use of phosphate and nitrogen fertilisers as well as Captan, Fenitrothion and Glyphosate pesticides have a Terrestrial Eco-toxic Potential.
This study shows that these three environmental hotspots can be improved. By reducing the amount of glass bottle to 300g a reduction of 40% of the Abiotic Depletion Potential can be expected. Transporting the wine in 24,000 litre flexitanks can reduce the carbon emissions by 40%. Improving vineyard activities by mixed or organic agricultural management practices can also render up to 40% improvements.
It is recommended that the small-scale winery adopts either reducing glass weight or selects bulk transportation as a shipping method. One of these alternatives can be combined with mixed or organic agricultural practices. These two changes could provide the greatest environmental improvement.
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7. Acknowledgments The author of the present report would like to thank Prof. Sarah Mclaren, Prof. Miguel Brandao, and PhD student Agneta Ghose for their insights and advise during the model construction and result interpretation. The instructors from PE International were also very helpful answering all questions during a two day training workshop at Massey University.
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8. References Barry, M. T. (2011). Life cycle assessment and the New Zealand wine industry : a tool to support continuous environmental improvement : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management in Life Cycle Management at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand. (M.Env.Mgt.), Massey University. Baumann, H., & Tillman, A.-M. (2004). The hitch hiker's guide to LCA : an orientation in life cycle assessment methodology and application / Henrikke Baumann & Anne-Marie Tillman: Lund, Sweden : Studentlitteratur, c2004. Cleary, J. (2013). Life cycle assessments of wine and spirit packaging at the product and the municipal scale: a Toronto, Canada case study. Journal of Cleaner Production, 44, 143-151. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.01.009 Fusi, A., Guidetti, R., & Benedetto, G. (2014). Delving into the environmental aspect of a Sardinian white wine: from partial to total life cycle assessment. Sci Total Environ, 472, 989-1000. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.148 GaBi 6. (2014). Product Sustainability Software (Version 6.3.1.14): PE International. Gazulla, C., Raugei, M., & Fullana-i-Palmer, P. (2010). Taking a life cycle look at crianza wine production in Spain: where are the bottlenecks? The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 15(4), 330-337. doi: 10.1007/s11367-010-0173-6 Guinée, J. B. (2002). Handbook on life cycle assessment : operational guide to the ISO standards / Jeroen B. Guinée (final editor): Dordrecht ; Boston : Kluwer Academic Publishers, c2002. ISO. (2006). Environmental management : life cycle assessment ; principles and framework: Geneva, Switzerland : ISO, 2006 2nd ed. ISO. (2012). Environmental management : life cycle assessment : illustrative examples on how to apply ISO 14044 to impact assessment situations: Geneva : International Organization for Standardization, [2012] 2nd ed. Ministry of Culture and Heritage (Producer). (2011, 23/4/2014). Fruitful Eskdale. Raodside Stories. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g1QFCx9hq4s Neto, B., Dias, A. C., & Machado, M. (2012). Life cycle assessment of the supply chain of a Portuguese wine: from viticulture to distribution. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 18(3), 590-602. doi: 10.1007/s11367-012-0518-4 NZWine. (2013). New Zealand Winegrowers Annual Report. New Zealand Wine. Rugani, B., Vázquez-Rowe, I., Benedetto, G., & Benetto, E. (2013). A comprehensive review of carbon footprint analysis as an extended environmental indicator in the wine sector. Journal of Cleaner Production, 54, 61-77. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.04.036 Sinha, P., & Akoorie, M. E. M. (2010). Sustainable Environmental Practices in the New Zealand Wine Industry: An Analysis of Perceived Institutional Pressures and the Role of Exports. Journal of Asia-Pacific Business, 11(1), 50-74. doi: 10.1080/10599230903520186 Udo de Haes, H. A. (2002). Life-cycle impact assessment : striving towards best practice / edited by Helias A. Udo de Haes ... [et al.]: Pensacola, FL : Society of Environment Toxicology and Chemistry, 2002. Villanueva-Rey, P., Vázquez-Rowe, I., Moreira, M. T., & Feijoo, G. (2014). Comparative life cycle assessment in the wine sector: biodynamic vs. conventional viticulture activities in NW Spain. Journal of Cleaner Production, 65, 330-341. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.08.026 WRAP. (2007). The life cycle emissions of wine imported to the UK. Bunbury, Oxon: Waste and Resource Action Programme XMas. (2010). Course Exercise: LCA of Wine. Palmerston North: XMas.
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