Department of Psychology
edgehill.ac.uk/psychology
Contents Welcome
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Support for our students
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Study Psychology
Psychology Field Trip Career opportunities Research Groups Our Research
Psychology news
Edge Hill: a great place to study Contact us
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Edge Hill University I Department of Psychology
Welcome to Psychology at Edge Hill University The Department of Psychology offers a high standard of British Psychological Society (BPS)-accredited degrees, currently taught to nearly 400 undergraduate students. Our team are highly qualified, experienced, enthusiastic and supportive academics, and pride themselves on delivering excellent teaching while producing nationally and internationallyrecognised research. Growing popularity Psychology has become the third most popular degree subject choice by undergraduate students (UCAS, 2006), and is the largest scientific discipline. A BPS degree provides eligibility for GBC (Graduate Basis for Chartered) Membership, essential for students who wish to become professional psychologists. For those who do not wish to follow this route, skills learnt studying psychology are highly transferable, and provide students with opportunities to pursue careers in a variety of other fields, such as human resources, marketing, management, and teaching. At Edge Hill we focus not only on providing an academically rigorous educational background through a BPS-accredited degree, but also the skills and experience necessary to secure employment in a highly competitive job market. Student satisfaction The Department continues to be recognised in the National Student Survey as a provider of excellent learning experiences. Of the 11 North West institutions offering a degree in psychology, the Department was ranked first in the region for Overall Satisfaction. In addition, psychology was ranked by the students in the top two in the North West for quality of teaching, assessment and feedback, academic support, personal development and learning resources. Campus life Located in the Social and Psychological Sciences building, on the Ormskirk campus, our purpose-built surroundings offer high quality teaching and research facilities. Specialised laboratory facilities support our cognitive, social, health, and sport and exercise research, while a dedicated IT suite provides psychology-specific software essential for experimental work.
Rated 4.20 out of 5 by our Psychology students (National Student Survey, 2011)
Top in the North West, and top ten in England, for overall student satisfaction (National Student Survey, 2011)
In the North West’s top two universities for overall satisfaction for the fifth consecutive year (National Student Survey, 2011)
Edge Hill ranks in the top two in England for personal development, with Oxford University, and is in the top three in the country for assessment and feedback (National Student Survey, 2011)
Ranked in the top 10 of all UK higher education providers for the quality of its courses and lecturers (WhatUni? Student Choice Awards, 2011)
Shortlisted for UK University of the Year in the Times Higher Education Awards 2011, 2010 and 2007
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Study Psychology Edge Hill University offers a variety of outstanding opportunities to study psychology at undergraduate and postgraduate level. • • • • •
BSc (Hons) Psychology BSc (Hons) Educational Psychology BSc (Hons) Sport and Exercise Psychology University Certificate in Psychology MSc/PG Dip in Psychology (conversion)
We offer three very popular BPS-accredited undergraduate degree programmes, as well as a University Certificate and MSc/Postgraduate Diploma in Psychology . The University Certificate in Psychology provides you with 60 HE credits if you do not have a degree in psychology. Completion of the University Certificate will allow you to apply for the Diploma in Psychology. The Diploma aims to provide graduates in disciplines other than psychology with the opportunity to obtain Graduate Basis for Chartered (GBC) Membership with the British Psychological Society. On successful completion of the Diploma, you have the option to progress on to the MSc in Psychology. To meet BPS requirements all our undergraduate degree courses cover the core psychology topics. In Year 1, you are introduced to the approaches and concepts that are central to the study of psychology. Two introductory theoretical modules cover social, developmental, cognitive, and biological psychology. An investigative psychology module provides background and training in the skills necessary to plan, conduct, analyse and report psychological research. This is an essential skill in psychology and will provide the building blocks for the more advanced research methods encountered later in the course. Year 2 builds on the core areas from Year 1. You will study five major, interrelated areas of psychology. More advanced research methods will be introduced, allowing you to conduct qualitative and quantitative research. For our psychology degree programme, Year 2 also offers the opportunity to study professional issues in areas such as occupational, educational, health and forensic psychology. Using the methods mastered in Year 2, the individually supervised Year 3 dissertation allows you to conduct your own research into an area of psychology that interests you. In Year 3, you will also have the opportunity to study options in specialised areas of psychology. These reflect the research specialisms of our team, and include areas such as clinical psychology, the psychology of substance misuse, developmental psychology, work psychology, and educational psychology.
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“I’ve developed a real passion for psychology, and each perspective has offered its own fascination, enabling me to develop a broad understanding of the complexities of humanity and the human experience.
“Having just completed my degree in psychology, the most important thing that I would say to prospective students is to read around the subject area. In my first year I was gaining very average marks. By the end I had a 1st class honours degree because I read a range of psychological literature, gaining a more comprehensive understanding of the different perspectives of psychology. This helped me to really think critically and allowed me to be more successful. “I’m hoping to study for a PhD as I’ve been able to achieve good grades whilst at Edge Hill, helped because I enjoy the subject matter. Study is no longer laborious, it’s full of fascination and wonder. “This course has given me a broader perspective and understanding of the world, and those within it. The abilities I’ve developed at Edge Hill will allow me to progress and hopefully succeed in any plans I make for the future.” Mark Clarke BSc (Hons) Psychology
Edge Hill University I Department of Psychology
Educational Psychology If you would like to develop a career in teaching, educational psychology, educational research, or work in an educational context, then we offer a dedicated pathway. In addition to studying the core areas of psychology, you will also consider the psychology of teaching, learning and instruction, and other specific areas of educational psychology. You will benefit from a work placement at the end of Year 2, providing an excellent opportunity to gain experience and enhance your career prospects. Sport and Exercise Psychology This pathway will appeal if you have a strong interest in sport, exercise and physical activity and would like to advance your understanding of behaviours in these settings. In addition to studying the core areas of psychology, as a sports and exercise psychology student you will explore psychological theory and research addressing sport and exercise behaviours. Specifically, you will look at issues such as elite sport performance, motivation, exercise adherence, and the influence of exercise on psychological wellbeing. University Certificate Psychology The Certificate allows you to obtain up to 60 HE credits to enable progression onto the MSc/PG Dip in Psychology. MSc/PGDip in Psychology (conversion) We also offer an MSc/Postgraduate Diploma in Psychology. The Diploma provides graduates in disciplines other than psychology with the opportunity to obtain Graduate Basis for Chartered Membership (GBC) with the British Psychological Society.
“Throughout my A level studies I was fascinated by psychology, the study of the human mind and behaviour, yet I always had a desire to work with children, so when I found a degree that combined the two I couldn’t believe my luck.
“The course has proved to be more than I expected, delving into key areas that I had a keen interest in, as well as awakening a passion for others that I didn’t even know about. You know you’re definitely on the right course when, at the end of the lecture, you’re left wanting to know more!
“I’ve made some amazing friends during my time at Edge Hill, young and mature, local, national and international, and each person brings a new dimension to your experience. I’m really looking forward to starting my career and putting into practice everything I’ve learned. After a stint in work I’d like to get back into education and work towards a Master’s in educational psychology.
“They say that 50 per cent of your university life is having fun and 50 per cent is learning. I’d say that when learning becomes fun, you know you’re onto a winner!” Jawad Shah BSc (Hons) Educational Psychology
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Student Support We recognise the importance of a structured and supportive environment over the course of the degree. This is not only to support academic needs but also to help guide you through your career choices, and develop the skills necessary to achieve your career goals. You are provided with a personal tutor to monitor and support your progress throughout your time here. In addition, the first year of the degree includes a programme of academic development, providing guidance on academic reading and writing, and critical thinking skills. We also value the importance of helping you develop key transferable and employability skills, dedicating time to this in the final year. How is Psychology taught? Our teaching methods vary from formal lectures to tutorials, seminars and workshops. Our purpose-built psychology facilities include an observation suite, with two-way mirrors and video recording equipment, teaching labs, audio-visual and observational suites, soundproof cubicles, and a group testing lab.
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“I liked the fact that within the degree you explored a range of areas in psychology and gained knowledge in each field so that you could begin to see what area appealed to you. You could then use your preferences and specialise in certain modules to help you pursue your desired career.� Rebecca Kearslay BSc (Hons) Psychology
Edge Hill University I Department of Psychology
Psychology Field Trip to London Every year, our final year students have the opportunity to visit the Science Museum and The Freud Museum in London. Organised by Dr Craig Thorley, the trip introduces students to the history of psychology in the UK, in preparation for a subsequent course module. Day one: Science Museum As part of an ongoing commitment to promoting public engagement with psychology and its history, the British Psychological Society (BPS) currently sponsors a five-year curatorship at the Science Museum in London. During the visit, the BPS curator, Dr Philip Loring, gives a private lecture to students about the history of the widely used, highly controversial Rorschach inkblot test, and explains how it is used as a tool to assess personality and emotional functioning. Students then have the opportunity to investigate other personality measures not on display to the general public. Students explore the museum’s two main psychology collections, discovering, amongst other exhibits, a slice of human brain used for memory tests, an original Skinner Box used in the study of operant conditioning, and a copy of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. Day two: The Freud Museum Sigmund Freud, founder of psychoanalysis, moved to London in 1938 to escape Nazi persecution. The Freud Museum is the house he lived in, maintained as it was during his time there, and containing the famous couch patients reclined on during early therapy sessions. As part of a private viewing, students explore the house, before a presentation from the museum’s resident experts, and a discussion of Freud’s life and work.
“I chose psychology as it fascinated me and I felt it sat well with the type of enquiring mind and practical people skills I had already developed during my working career.
“The trip was a great chance to enjoy quality time with fellow students. We visited the Science Museum, where we viewed some of the museum’s unseen psychological artefacts. There was an excellent exhibit on Henry Gustav Molaison, the world’s most famous memory patient. He had part of his brain removed to cure his epilepsy but in doing so developed a specific type of amnesia. It's one of the most famous case studies in cognitive psychology because it helped develop the link between brain function and memory.
“We also visited Freud’s house which was really useful for the ‘Mind, Body and Consciousness’ module as I find it easier to understand a subject when I’m able to draw on some visual memory/connection with the topic. The ‘home video’ was particularly interesting.” Jayne Rushton-Woods BSc (Hons) Psychology
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Career Opportunities We aim to deliver a psychology degree that will teach you the skills necessary to give you a competitive edge on your preferred career path. This is why our degrees are accredited by the British Psychological Society, essential for anyone wishing to enter professional postgraduate training programmes in areas such as clinical psychology, forensic psychology, and educational psychology. For those who go on to pursue careers in a variety of fields not specific to psychology, you will have the skills needed for careers and further training in many areas, such as: • • • • • •
research and development health and social care marketing and public relations management, administration and human resources education the public sector
With further study, many career fields are open to graduates of any discipline, such as research, management, media, teaching, finance, law, marketing and management consultancy. For these job sectors, interpersonal and transferable skills are the most significant factors, rather than the specific degree subject. There are also a number of graduate training schemes available, where a degree in psychology is a considerable advantage. Whatever your interest, we offer the support and advice needed to set you on the right path.
Stanley Milgram (1933-1984) • Milgram’s Obedience to Authority experiment measured participants’ willingness to obey an authority figure instructing them to commit acts that conflicted with their conscience. • In part, the experiment was an attempt to understand the morality behind the Holocaust, although critics raised ethical questions over his “electric shock” method. • His “small world experiment” pioneered the controversial assertion that we are all, on average, within five acquaintances of one another – ie within modern societies there are only six degrees of separation. 8
“I secured full-time employment two months after graduating, and have been working with young, vulnerable people in London who are homeless or leaving care. I assess their support needs and determine what they need in order to live independently within the community. “I’m working with people who have many years of experience in this sector. My degree allowed me to develop the skills needed to do the job with much less actual work experience.” Stacy Smith BSc (Hons) Psychology
“This psychology course is definitely one that helps you succeed with your future plans and further academic study. I’ve now progressed onto the Post-compulsory Education and Training PGCE at the University.” Natalie Best BSc (Hons) Psychology
Edge Hill University I Department of Psychology
Research Groups The Department of Psychology is committed to producing theoretical and applied research of the highest quality. We have two dedicated research groups, investigating cognitive, health, sports and exercise, and educational psychology. The Educational Psychology Research Group (EPRG) The research group seeks to explore how psychology can be applied to education at all levels, from pre-school to university. We have interests in how psychology can be used to explain education phenomena, and also how educational interventions can be based on psychological theory. Staff expertise draws on developmental frameworks, socio-cognitive models and special educational needs. Recent research focuses on the impact of attentional salience in word learning within autism, contrasting the use of social-pragmatic skills and the alternative mechanisms of attending to novelty and perceptual salience as explanations of word learning. EPRG research also focuses on: • creative teaching in secondary schools and its impact on pupil creativity and motivation; • the role of attentional bias in test anxiety and the use of attentional bias training to reduce test anxiety; • how Chinese and English secondary students differ in their motivations and fears around high-stakes exams. A number of our academics are also interested in factors that influence achievement in higher education, including the role of emotional intelligence and inattention on academic progression. The Educational Psychology Research Group hosts a monthly seminar series, inviting speakers from across the UK to discuss the most recent research in the field of educational psychology. The Cognitive Science Research Group (CSRG) The Cognitive Science Research Group encompasses a wide spectrum of both applied and theoretical research, reflecting the many interests of our team. Some examples of our research: • the effects of drug misuse on different aspects of working memory (ie memory which helps us cope with the immediate world around us); • aspects of memory, including the development and production of false memories, collaborative remembering, memory conformity, and the effects of mood on prospective memory; • performance psychology, particularly areas concerning coping, confidence and mental toughness in the domain of sport and exercise. The CSRG hosts a monthly seminar series where academics from across the UK discuss the latest research in cognitive psychology.
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Our Research Investigating factors that affect the production of false memories Dr Lauren Knott from Edge Hill University, with colleagues Dr Stephen Dewhurst (University of Hull) and Prof Mark Howe (Lancaster University), has published on factors that affect the production of false memories in the Deese–Roediger & McDermott (DRM) paradigm. Dr Knott says: “In the DRM paradigm participants are presented with semantically related word lists (eg thread, pin, eye, and sewing), all of which are related to a non-presented critical lure (eg needle). The false memory occurs when the participant later incorrectly recalls or recognises the critical lure at test. Findings suggest that the major predictors of false recall and recognition are a strong association between the critical lure and the list item, and weak association between the list items themselves. The paper investigates the role of these two important factors in the production of false memory illusions. “The body of evidence that is accumulating in this area is of significance for issues relating to memory organisation and accuracy in many different disciplines, including education and forensic psychology.”
Drug misuse and memory impairment Professor Philip Murphy and colleagues investigated drug misuse and cognitive deficit, studying the relationship between the consumption of ecstasy and cannabis, and memory performance. “Three participant groups were tested on long-term memory (LTM) and working memory tasks. Users of both ecstasy and cannabis showed impairments on a long-term memory task. There were no significant effects related to working memory tasks. “A regression model comprising intelligence measures and estimates of ecstasy and cannabis consumption predicted redundancy scores (long-term memory measure), but only cannabis consumption contributed significantly to this prediction. Impaired access to semantic LTM may be related to cannabis consumption, although the involvement of ecstasy and other stimulant drugs cannot be excluded here. Executive inhibitory functioning (related to working memory), as measured by the random letter generation task, is unrelated to ecstasy and cannabis consumption.” Professor Murphy argues that matters of drug-related cognitive impairment have potentially important consequences for the lives of the many people who use these drugs, and research in this area should be regarded as a priority for the wellbeing of people in society.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) • Pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve, the learning curve and the spacing effect. • The forgetting curve describes the exponential loss of information that one has learned. • The spacing effect suggests we find it easier to learn items in a list when they are studied a few times over a long time period. • In 1885, he published his defining work, Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. 10
Edge Hill University I Department of Psychology
Pre-competitive confidence, coping strategies, and subjective performance in sport Senior Lecturer Dr Andy Levy’s research specialises in the psychological factors that influence performance in sport. A recent publication investigated the complicated relationship between confidence and subjective performance in sport, and how coping, which is considered as the ability to manage external and internal demands encountered in a stressful situation, mediated this relationship. Dr Levy explains: “Athletes who employed mental imagery, a method used to actively alter the source of stress, generally coped more effectively than those using resignation, a method used to try and disengage oneself from the task. “This is the first study to explore coping as a potential mechanism to account for the confidence–performance relationship. The findings suggest that improving an athlete’s confidence through effective coping strategies could lead to better performance. To achieve this, sport psychologists may need to ensure that athletes appropriately use mental imagery.”
Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999) • A developmental psychologist most famously known for her contributions to Attachment Theory, the study of how humans develop long term relationships. • Developed the ‘strange situation’ procedure to observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and child. • Investigated the effects of maternal separation on child development and how disrupted mother-child bonds can lead to "adverse development”.
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Memory conformity and suggestibility
Fear of failure: effects on test anxiety and test grade
In the Journal of Psychology, Crime, and Law, Dr Craig Thorley examined whether the degree to which participants engage in memory conformity, which occurs when a person alters their memory report of an event to be consistent with another person, can be predicted by their levels of interrogative suggestibility (IS) — the degree to which people are susceptible to altering their memory reports during questioning.
In his study Dr Dave Putwain investigated factors that influence learning and achievement, particularly the fear of failure, motivation, competence beliefs and classroom environment.
In a laboratory-based study, memory conformity was introduced by having participant and confederate pairs study words and then complete a social recognition test where they took turns to make judgements on the same items.
School pupils were instructed for one week under a low threat condition under which no fear appeals were made, and another week under a high threat condition in which fear appeals were made salient (the teacher used the following statements: the tests were important, that hard work was required to avoid failure, and that test results would be seen by parents and the headteacher). An end-of-week test was given in both conditions. Pupils reported an increase in test anxiety related with worrisome thoughts and autonomic reactions under the high threat condition, but not in off-task behaviours. Test scores were lower under the high threat condition, but were not attributable to the increases in test anxiety-related thoughts and autonomic reactions.
“From a psycho-legal perspective, this research is important as eyewitnesses often discuss incidents amongst themselves before providing a formal police testimony or giving evidence in court. There have been several reported real-world instances of misinformation being inadvertently introduced into such discussions and subsequently tainting eyewitness testimonies. “The study provided an insight into why some eyewitnesses who have engaged in pre-interview or pre-trial discussions may be more susceptible to having their testimonies contaminated than others.”
Dr Putwain investigated whether fear appeals (in this case, reminders of a test but placing no importance on this test) used prior to a test increased self-reported test anxiety and had a detrimental effect on test scores.
This study adds weight to the argument that fear appeals are a damaging classroom strategy, but the mechanism by which fear appeals are reducing test scores is not yet clear.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) • Trained in psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, Erikson also studied the Montessori method of education, which focused on child development. • Childhood and Society, his most famous book, was published in 1950. • His major innovation, on psychosocial development, argued that human beings go through nine stages from birth to death, and was a development of Freud’s five psychosexual stages of life. • Coined the phrase identity crisis. 12
Edge Hill University I Department of Psychology
News Get By — with a Little Help From Your Friends
The Psychology of Learning
Psychology tutors at Edge Hill University are using their research to help their students bond in order to improve academic progress.
Researchers looking at how psychology can be applied to education have a unique opportunity to explore this further during Edge Hill University’s seminar series.
Dr Debbie Pope has been looking at emotional intelligence and the effects on learning in both children and adults.
Thought-provoking topics on the agenda include knowledge exhibited through children's drawings, what teachers need to know about loneliness, and social and emotional aspects of learning.
The influence of emotional intelligence on academic progress and achievement in UK university students investigates the emotional intelligence levels of individuals and why some students perform better than others. Dr Pope explains: "The research indicates that overall measures of emotional intelligence do not predict academic performance. However, the measurement of individual key competencies is a better predictor of progression. In particular, students who have good social awareness skills are more able to access social support and integrate socially, and therefore experience less stress and are less likely to withdraw from their studies.”
Senior Lecturer Dr Dave Putwain, Educational Psychology Research Group Coordinator, explained: “The emotional side of learning is very important and one which practitioners need to understand when working in this type of environment to ensure that they can understand and motivate individuals.” The seminar series gives Edge Hill staff and students opportunities to draw on contemporary expertise, formulate new ideas, and embark on new projects and research partnerships.
As a result of the findings, Edge Hill University's Psychology Department has revamped the Freshers' Week experience for first year students. They organise social trips out, hold smaller group sessions to allow students to develop friendships more easily, and make the initial meetings with staff more personal to allow them to build better relationships with students. Dr Pope is editor of the Psychology of Education Review (PER), a committee member of the British Psychological Society Education Section, and has achieved Chartered Psychology Status in Teaching and Learning.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) • His work influenced our understanding of children's intellectual development, supporting the idea that children think differently than adults. • Piaget's observations on children's intellectual growth and thought processes were "so simple that only a genius could have thought of [them]”, according to Albert Einstein. • In 1955 Piaget created the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology. • Key research in: developmental psychology,cognitive psychology, genetic epistemology, and education reform. 13
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A Great Place to Study Set in 160 acres of beautifully landscaped grounds, the Ormskirk Campus is an inspirational place to study. Industry standard resources and cutting edge technology combine to make an interactive and highly advanced teaching and learning environment. Everything you could want is on one site with 25 acres of sport and leisure facilities, more than 1,400 rooms in halls of residence and fantastic modern spaces in which you can study and socialise. The Hub is a new £13.5m state-of-the-art facility, a communal space for students and staff to meet, eat, relax, and collaborate, and forms the centre of the campus. The Students’ Union gives you a voice, promoting positive change to ensure you have the best possible experience while at university. This includes access to a variety of student clubs and societies, from puppetry to pilates, and the opportunity to dust down a soapbox and enter the world of student politics. Those looking for a creative outlet can sign up for a shift on the online mag, or subject peers to their eclectic music collections as a broadcaster on L39, the Uni’s radio station. Our 25 acre sports site provides high quality indoor and outdoor facilities, and a range of sports clubs which compete with other educational institutions locally and nationally through the British Universities and College Sport (BUCS) leagues. The University Library gives you access to thousands of books, journals, online resources and extensive PC and media provision. You'll get all the support you need to succeed, reflected in Edge Hill University’s position in the top two in England for students' personal development, and the top three in the country for assessment and feedback, in the 2011 National Student Survey. The University is also in the top four in England for graduate employment (HESA, 2011).
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“I think Edge Hill University has a great location. It’s close to Liverpool and Manchester for whenever you want to visit, and the campus has a very friendly, homely vibe — something I noticed on my very first visit.” Charlotte Corkish BSc (Hons) Psychology
Edge Hill University I Department of Psychology
A Short History of Psychology in the UK 1853
J.D. Morrell’s (1816-1891) Elements of Psychology is the first British publication to use the term ‘psychology’.
1882
The Society for Psychical Research is founded to research telepathy, hypnotism, hauntings and hallucinations.
1892
James Ward’s The Human Mind is published, one of the most influential British psychology textbooks.
1901
The Psychological Society is formed at University College, London. ‘British’ is added to the title in 1908. The first paper is on ‘The Evolution of Laughter’, presented by James Sully in 1902.
1915
Charles Myers, editor of the British Journal of Psychology, coins the term ‘shell-shock’ in The Lancet, after spending time with soldiers injured during WWI. Up to 80,000 cases of ‘shell-shock’ had been identified by the end of the war.
1920
A psychological test is introduced in the civil service. Forty thousand candidates are tested over the first four years.
1938
Sigmund Freud settles in London, after escaping the Nazi occupation of Austria. He dies a year later.
1946
Oxford University establish a Chair of Psychology.
1955
The Underwood Report (Report of the Committee on Maladjusted Children) focuses on educational psychology, and its incorporation into school psychological services by local education authorities.
1958
HJ Eysenck causes controversy when he introduces behaviour therapy to British psychiatry, in a lecture before the Royal Medico-Psychological Association.
1960
The University of Sheffield opens a psychology department, and in 1966 installs an Elliott 903C computer for the first UK online psychological experimentation.
1968
The British Society of Sports Psychology meet for the first time.
1972
A Level Psychology is launched by the Associated Examining Board – 275 candidates sit the exam.
1982
Metropolitan Police Training School introduce ‘policing skills’ training, focusing on interpersonal skills, and developing ‘an awareness of self, of others and of the community’.
1983
Research reveals that Heads of Psychology Departments in the UK regard BF Skinner as the most important living psychologist, followed by HJ Eysenck and DE Broadbent. Freud, Piaget, Pavlov, Skinner and James are considered the five most important psychologists of all time.
1997
Supercomputer Deep Blue beats the world's best chess player, Gary Kasparov, a milestone in the development of artificial intelligence.
2003
Simon Baron-Cohen's 'The Essential Difference: Men, Women and the Extreme Male Brain' proposes that autism may be an "extreme form of maleness". 15
Preston
Blackburn M65
M6
Southport
M62
M66
Bolton Ormskirk
Wigan
M61
M60 M58
MANCHESTER
M57
M67 M62 M60
LIVERPOOL
Warrington
Aberdeen
M53 Dundee
M56 Edinburgh
Glasgow
M6
Carlisle
Derry
Chester
Newcastle
Donegal Belfast
M6
Sligo
Knock
Isle of Man Leeds
Preston
M62
Athlone Galway
Liverpool
Manchester
Dublin
Sheffield M1 M6
Nottingham
Shannon
Norwich
Limerick Birmingham
Wexford Waterford
Cambridge
Kerry
M1
Cork M5
Cardiff
Exeter
Bristol
M4
London
M25
Portsmouth
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