Presentaciones Water Week 2015

Book Papers WWLA 2015

Water Governance

Implementing Payments for Hydrological Ecosystem Services within the Establishment of an Integrated Water Resources Management Framework.

Dr.- Ing. Johen Hack Hack@ihwb.tu-darmstadt.de

ABSTRACT The objective of this paper is to assess the potential functional role of the environmental policy instrument Payments for Hydrological Ecosystem Services within the concept of Integrated Water Resources Management. Current challenges of implementation of Integrated Water Resources Management are presented and structured using the framework of spatial fit and institutional interplay.

The scope and objectives of traditional water resources management instruments are discussed in this context. Then the characteristic features of policy instrument of Payments for Hydrological Ecosystem Services and the typical implementation are analyzed in terms of possible contribution to solve problems of spatial fit and institutional interplay resulting from Integrated Water Resources Management. Nicaragua, a country with a strong commitment to Integrated Water Resources Management, struggles with progress towards Integrated Water Resources Management at both a local and regional level besides important steps with respect to law and policy reforms on the national level have been taken. The experiences from a decade of implementation of locally self-organized Payments for Hydrological Ecosystem Services raise hopes that the implantation process and related actions of these payment schemes contribute to improve the Integrated Water Resources Management progress from the bottom up. The paper discusses conceptual advantages that Payments for Hydrological Ecosystem Services have compared to traditional water resources policy instruments in improving spatial fit and institutional interplay. An empirical analysis of several Payments for Hydrological Ecosystem Services case studies from Nicaragua reveals potential contributions to Integrated Water Resources Management operationalization.

INTRODUCTION Human survival, health, and productivity depend fundamentally on the access to and use of water. But water is equally important for the existence and dynamics of important ecosystems which human wellbeing depend on (MEA, 2005). The indivisibility of these functions of water to support human wellbeing directly and indirectly through the maintenance of ecosystems lies at the heart of a holistic view of the resource and the need to assure its sustainability for all those living today and for future generations.

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This understanding of a resource become more and more scarce is carried by the broadly accepted process of Integrated Water Resource Management and Development (IWRM). Thus, IWRM enhances, in contrast to traditional water resources management, the integration within natural systems and within human systems as well as the integration between these interdependent systems.

The Global Water Partnership (GWP) has developed a ToolBox (GWP, 2003) for an integrated management based on the principles of IWRM. This document will serve as a guideline for this paper to identify possible synergies between the IWRM process in the context of the establishment of watershed management plans and the requirements for payment schemes for hydrological ecosystem services. Whereas the GWP ToolBox situates Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) within the framework of financing and incentive structures of the enabling environment this paper reviews the potential of PES in a broader array of possibilities. A special focus will be one set on the mutual establishment of integrated watershed plans and PES with regard to poverty reduction strategies in Central American catchments.

In order to examine the general agreement of the PES concept with IWRM principles a background to the development of IWRM is given in the first place. Then, coming to the methodology part, a systematical analysis of the synergetic potential of the implementation of PES in a methodological manner in the establishment of integrated watershed plans is presented. This analysis refers to the requirement for an enabling environment, institutional roles as well as necessary management instruments. A reference to two Central American case studies is used to indicate individual practical realization opportunities. The last part of the paper concludes with recommendations and further research needs.

In 1992 the International Conference on Water and the Environment was held in Dublin because of the serious and growing threat of misuse and scarcity of freshwater resources in the world. The most important outcome of this conference was a “[…] call for fundamental new approaches to the assessment, development and management of freshwater resources, which can only be brought about through political commitment and involvement from highest levels of government to the smallest communities.”. The call for action was based on four guiding principles (The Dublin Principles): 1. Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment 2. Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy-makers at all levels 3. Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water 4. Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should recognized as an economic good

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These principles found universal support when they contributed significantly to the Agenda 21 recommendations (Freshwater resources in Chapter 18) adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, 1992. The international community has accepted these Dublin Principles as guiding principles underpinning IWRM at several subsequent major international water conferences (Harare and Paris, 1998; “Rio+5” follow-up meeting, 1998). In order to provide a common framework the GWP issued the following definition of IWRM: “IWRM is a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.” (TAC, 2000) This definition describes the important role of conserved ecosystems for human well-being. It actually falls back on the definition of sustainable development of the Brundtland Report in 1987 arguing that intact ecosystems are a prerequisite for sustainable development. Furthermore, in the context of economic disparities alleviating poverty is referred to as the only way to conserve and protect the environment.

The PES concept, also primarily initiated as conservation strategy for natural resources alone, has been in debate recently for providing the potential to combine somehow development and resource conservation goals (Adams et al., 2004; Wunder, 2001). Contrary to the majority of Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs), which focus mainly on biodiversity conservation, the PES concept as regarded in this paper intends to simultaneously increase incomes and conserve ecosystem services and goods which human-beings rely on. Emerging scarcity of ecosystem services, formerly provided by nature for free, as a result of ecosystem degradation threatens human development and makes these services potential subject to trade.

Here applies the core idea of PES assuming that external ecosystem service “[…] beneficiaries make direct, contractual and conditional payments to local landholders and users in return for adopting practices that secure ecosystem conservation and restoration.” (Wunder, 2001). Since “[…] IWRM aims to strike a balance between the use of resources for livelihoods and conservation of the resource to sustain its functions for future generations […]” (TAC, 2000) its approach is compatible to the PES concept. Within the problematic of poverty alleviation, it is often a combination of social inequity, a lack of appropriate governmental and economic marginalization that forces people to overexploit natural resources that results in negative impacts on water resources. The integration of PES concepts in a methodological manner in the process of establishment of watershed management plans within IWRM is discussed in the following part.

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The underlying assumption is that the establishment of an integrated watershed management plan as part of an IWRM process is desired and PES is a possible option. Thus assumed is that to reach desired sustainable development and natural resource management goals an integrated water resource management is needed. Best practices in GWP ToolBox offer a potential setting for successful implementation of watershed management plans. The ToolBox framework is used as a reference.

The concrete objective of investigation is to identify the benefits of a mutual design of an integrated watershed management plan and a PES scheme with regard to synergies and enhancement of the IWRM process.

METHODOLOGY The assessment of the implementation potential and possible limitations of the PES concept within the design of integrated water management plans as part of an IWRM process is guided by the GWP ToolBox setup (GWP, 2003). The ToolBox is divided into three superior categories: •

the enabling environment,

•

institutional roles and

•

management instruments.

To narrow down the assessment of possible synergies only critical issues concerning the establishment of a PES with possible counterpart in the IWRM process are regarded. For doing so minimum requirements for PES establishment need to be defined. These requirements can be derived from the popular PES definition according to Wunder (2001): “A PES is: 1. a voluntary transaction where 2. a well-defined ecosystem service (or a land-use likely to secure that service) 3. is being ‘bought’ by a (minimum one) ecosystem service buyer 4. from a (minimum one) ecosystem service provider 5. if and only if the ecosystem service provider secures ecosystem service provision (conditionality)”

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Experience shows that successful PES schemes require: 1. an integrated assessment of the considered ecosystem (service) related to land use and its alternation  physical description and monitoring of the natural resource base, 2. actions to form an effective and efficient framework of: a. policies, b. legislation and c. financing structures to support participation of buyers and sellers of ecosystem services and to reach public acceptance and transparency, 3. establishment of capable institutions to reinforce PES deals and 4. the enhancement of specific management instruments to assure service provision and payments.

Crucial, especially for pro-poor PES schemes, are also low transaction costs and official property rights. The rationale for synergies in implementing PES schemes in integrated watershed management plans is a positive impact on the development of those plans and enhancement of success criteria of PES. So, the assessment needs to reveal a possible PES scheme as an agent for an improved IWRM process.

An identification of synergy and agent acting options is exemplarily undermined by case study examples.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Enabling Enviroment The existence of a proper enabling environment is fundamental to ensure the rights and resources of all involved stakeholders1. Policies (from international to local one) and legislation constitute the “rules of the game” and are responsible for enabling stakeholders to play their respective role in the development and management of water resources. This responsibility includes the creation of public fora and facilities for information and capacity building. Finally, stakeholder participation is facilitated and exercised due to the provision of an adequate enabling environment.

PES in this context is often primarily regarded as a financing and incentive structure for the enabling environment. The thesis of this paper intends to reveal that it could potentially fulfill more than this single role. Synergies in the enabling environment of integrated watershed management plans and PES 1

Stakeholders represent individuals, public and private sector organizations and companies Water Governance – Water Week LA 2015

lie also in policies and the legislative framework. Setting goals for protection and conservation of water resources and their use through integrated watershed policies can be supported by PES. For both objectives an integral assessment of the resources base is needed and the PES concept requires also a valuing of those resources. This valuing and determining of marketable values can support water resources policies to formulate specific management and development goals. Moreover, a sound legislative framework of IWRM assigns intrinsic ecosystem values that can avoid a sellout of nature and provide a baseline for ecosystem valuation.

PES and IWRM legislative frameworks provide possibilities to control competition for land or loss of land property. PES schemes may provide access to land titles and property rights (Rosa et al., 2003).

An additional synergetic effect could be stakeholder involvement, which is enhanced by the enabling environment of IWRM and constituted partly through the identification of potential ecosystem service buyers and sellers. This service buyers / sellers setting facilitates a cross-sectoral and upstreamdownstream dialogue reflecting physical relationships in a cause and effect form. Different stakeholder involvements and participation promotion can lead to compliance of the principle of subsidiary.

Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO), Costa Rica In the 1990’s several national environmental laws (Forest Law No. 7575, Law of the Public Services Regulating Authority, Environment Organic Law, Soil Conservation Law and Biodiversity Law) were issued stating a strong commitment of the Costa Rican government to the sustainable development goals of the Agenda 21. The legal framework and policy agreements provided the framework for the National Forestry Financing Fund (FONAFIFO), which was legally constituted in national law in 1996.

In 1997, FONAFIFO launched the Environmental Services Payments Program (ESPP). This program rewards small and medium-sized landowners of forests or suitable lands for forestry activities for promoting the conservation and recovery of the country's forest cover.

FONAFIFO's funding sources and governing mechanism are guaranteed through institutional sustainability established by the prevailing legal. (FONAFIFO, 2009; modified) Ley General de Aguas Nacionales, Nicaragua The Nicaraguan national water law passed in 2007 provides a legal framework for the regulation of the use and access to water resources. Thus, it is part of an enabling environment for the IWRM process. It includes explicitly PES as an option for water conservation efforts and provides an institutional framework for its establishment, management and monitoring with the national water authority (Autoridad Nacional de Agua, ANA).

Box : Case study example for an enabling environment

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Institutional Roles As stakeholder identification is promoted by PES and participation enhanced by the enabling environment institutional roles as organizational framework for integrated water resource management are necessary. An institutional development implies not only the creation of formally constituted organizations (e.g. consultative committees, regulating authorities, service agencies or stakeholder networks) but also “[…] a whole range of formal rules and regulations, customs and practices, ideas and information, interest or community group networks […]”(TAC, 2000). Important for an effective co-ordination of cross-sectoral institutions is a requirement for successful IWRM. PES schemes are carried out in a cross-sectoral way as a causal relationship is established between land-use, ecosystem service provision and utilization and public and private sector participation. In this way, PES can promote a further cross-sectoral process of IWRM. Institutional roles for management and monitoring of the PES scheme can be implemented in watershed management organizations and this way lower transaction costs of the PES scheme. Mutual institutional responsibility can provide longer planning horizons as watershed development is guided by PES deals.

The electronic forum on payment schemes for environmental services in watersheds held by the Latin American Network for Technical Cooperation in Watershed Management (REDLACH) of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) from 12th of April – 21st May of 2004 states the following regarding the institutional framework of PES as a common agreement of all participants: “The implementing institution of the PES should be a multi-actor organization like a watershed authority or a micro-watershed management committee including representatives from the government, private institutions and NGOs, with procedures that guarantee transparency and impartiality. In some countries, government agencies act as managers of PES schemes.”

(REDLACH, 2004)

This recommendation indicates the potential synergies in the institutional setting between IWRM and PES. This potential becomes apparent in the case study example of the National Water Authority in Nicaragua.

Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO), Costa Rica The Environmental Service Payment Program (ESPP) incorporates various institutions from different sectors. Part of the institutional framework of ESPP of the FONAFIFO are the National System of Areas of Conservation (SINAC), National Forest Department (ONF), forest managers, the Association of Agronomist Engineers, cooperatives, regional (cantonal) agricultural centers, non-government organizations of this sector, and beneficiaries groups in general. The adoption of an innovative financial structure has been possible through this incorporation.

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At the national institutional level the FONAFIFO is embedded within the Ministry of Environment and Energy (MINAE) in cooperation with the National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC) integrating the State Forest Management (AFE).

(FONAFIFO, 2009; modified) Box : Case study example for institutional roles

Management Instruments Management instruments in the IWRM process represent tools and methods that are design to make rationale and informed choices between alternative measures. These instruments enable and help decision-makers to manage watershed developments in a sustainable way. A correct assessment of water resources is of great importance here. It requires a profound understanding of the nature and scope of interrelated ecosystems. PES schemes require management information and monitoring of water resources that are often included in water resource assessments for IWRM. Social and economic assessments can serve both purposes and guide, along with water resource assessments, watershed development options, resource use and human interaction.

There is a certain synergy potential where PES can deliver important additional information from the ecosystem marketplace identifying demand and supply side issues concerning ecosystem service buyers and sellers’ preferences and behavior. A contribution to demand and supply management of water resources is possible. PES has here the potential to contribute to the establishment of a water resource knowledge base shared by all stakeholders. This can lead to greater transparency and improve future investments in ecosystem services.

The integration of risk assessment tools can improve both the IWRM process and PES increasing certainty about possible future developments. PES can also serve for strategic land planning processes and to solve upstream-downstream conflict through its compensation potential. PES can also enhance participation and help to improve the common understanding of physical relationships within a watershed.

The enhancement of ecosystem functioning through PES schemes can be useful to address water resource management problems as for example competing forms of water use and differing upstreamdownstream interests. The improvement of water-quantity related ecosystem services by PES can help to mitigate flood risk or to improve water availability as a solution for water supply challenges and reservoir sedimentation problems. In these cases, PES can be a tool within IWRM.

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CONCLUSIONS This review of potential synergies between the development of integrated watershed management plans and PES shows that there is significant potential to implement PES as a tool within management plans in a methodological manner and in a broader sense as simply an incentive financing structure within IWRM. The principles of IWRM are congruent with the PES approach in order to achieve sustainable development in the same biophysical sphere.

A methodological implementation of PES in integrated watershed management goes beyond instrumental functioning. It provides prospects of a common reinforcement of the enabling environment, a common institutional share and coordinated development of management strategies. In form of a methodological implementation of PES within IWRM there are possibilities to reduce success limitations since e.g. transaction costs can be lowered, transparency increased and the planning horizon prolonged.

The IWRM process takes advantage of PES possibly in several ways as PES is implemented in a methodological or strategical manner. There are definitively synergies in organizational structures of institutions and capacities. PES can act as an agent for certain land use development plans for conservation purposes and water use efficiency. In conflict management and educative purposes, PES has the potential to procure an upstream-downstream dialogue and a common understanding of physical relationships within a watershed. In stakeholder involvement, PES can be useful to identify stakeholder groups and conflict potential. PES schemes can also complement IWRM as an encouragement to establish integrated management plans with a holistic view on water resource development and management apart from a cross-sectoral approach.

In this review, a short overview was given on the synergy potential of methodological implementation of PES in integrated watershed development. There is more research needed in combination with field studies of actual implementation of PES in the IWRM process as described in this paper. The embedment of PES in policy strategies and legislative frameworks of IWRM requires further investigation on its potential benefits. The consideration of the scale of the PES has to be included and especially the design of pro-poor PES needs further investigation.

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REFERENCES Adams W.M., Aveling R., Brockington D., Dickson B., Elliott J., Hutton J., Roe D., Vira B. and Wolmer W. (2004). Biodiversity conservation and the eradication of poverty. Science 3006:1146-1149.

Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO), Environmental Services. http://www.fonafifo.com/paginas_english/environmental_services/servicios_ambientales.htm. Costa Rica [Accessed on-line May 10, 2011] Global Water Partnership (GWP) (2003). ToolBox Integrated Water Resources Management Version 2 – Sharing knowledge for equitable, efficient and sustainable water resources management. The Press Works, London Latin American Network for Technical Cooperation in Watershed Management (REDLACH) (2004).

Final report - Electronic forum on payment schemes for environmental services in watersheds. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Chile Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Report (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis.

Island Press, Washington, DC. Rosa H., Kandel S., and Dimas L. (2003). “Compensation for environmental services and rural communities.” 78. PRISMA: San Salvador Southgate D., Wunder S. (2007). Paying for Watershed Services in Latin America: A Review of Current Initiatives. Working Paper No. 07-07. Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management Collaborative Research Support Program TAC (Technical Advisory Committee) (2000). Integrated Water Resources Management. TAC Background Papers No. 4. Global Water Partnership UNECE (Economic Commission for Europe, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) (2007). Recommendations on payments for ecosystem services in integrated water resources management. United Nations Publications Wunder S. (2001). Poverty alleviation and tropical forests - what scope for synergies? World Development 29 (11):1817-1833.

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Water Rights and Nodal Relations in a Watershed in Central Chile.

Dr. Felipe De la Hoz Centro del Agua para la Agricultura felipedelahoz@udec.cl Dr. D Rivera Departamento de Recursos Hídricos Laboratorio de Políticas Comparadas en Gestión de Recursos Hídricos CONICYT/FONDAP-15130015 Universidad de Concepción dirivera@udec.cl

ABSTRACT A healthy water market requires reliable and up-to-date information regarding the demands and supplies of water rights, as well as accessibility to information (data management).

Currently, there exist problems regarding the access and updating process of water rights information, as well estimations of water availability. This situation leads to errors and omission in information that are propagated downstream the water rights networks.

We collected 10,000 legal records from 29 water user organizations (Comunidades de Agua) in the corresponding CBR. Trained professionals read each record to define links among water rights, as the Conservador writes annotations every time a water right is modified (transfers, sellings). We also collected data for water shares (acciones) or volume (caudal). The fact that all modifications are still recorded by hand highlights the need for better data information management procedures, as manual handling is prone to errors and impedes more frequent updates of the CPA. Additionally we collected the following information: Source, water right type (consuntivo/consuntivo, continuous/intermittent), ID for the record, water community, total shares.

The basin has 6,002 current water rights, equivalent to 34234.2 water shares. The corresponding Watershed Board (Junta de Vigilancia) has 21074.7 water shares, while water shares declared by other Water Users Organizations (WUOs are 20,842.32. This difference is due to errors in the CBR records such as duplicated records, no extinction of water rights, or wrong annotations.

Thus, the correct functioning of the water market –once structural and legal changes are made- should rely upon an efficient and fit-for-purpose IT system.

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INTRODUCTION In terms of Chilean regulation, water is regarded as a national asset for public use, where the government provides water rights to individuals. A water right is granted subject to (Melo and Retamal, 2012): (1) there being no preference between different uses, (2) the water administration being obliged to allocate the water rights requested, wherever applicable from a legal standpoint. Regarding the granting process, if there is more than one application for the same water resource, the flows are allocated through an auction.

The allocation of current water rights is accomplished by trading water rights through market mechanisms. As noted by the Estrategia Nacional de Recursos Hídricos 2012-2025 (MOP, 2012), a healthy water market requires reliable and up-to-date information regarding the demands and supplies of water rights, as well as accessibility to information. It is worth noting that a report published in 1980 (MOP, 1980) highlights the need for an efficient data management mechanism to allow the proper functioning of the reform to the Water Code in 1981.

Currently, the Catastro Público de Aguas –CPA- is the official database for registered water rights at the Dirección General de Aguas (DGA). The objective of the CPA is to provide updated information to relevant stakeholders. Management of this database requires a considerable effort to handle, store, deploy and curate essential information. The information includes the rights of water sources and related claims (changes in the diversion coordinates, transfers of water rights, changes in the delivery coordinates), in addition to changes to water availability. This information is updated monthly for each region. The Water Code (Art 122) establishes the obligation for government agencies, Notarios, Conservadores de Bienes Raíces, Organizaciones de Usuarios de Aguas (Water Users Organizations) and water rights holders to inform of any changes in the water rights to DGA. According to Melo and Retamal (2012), under the current assignation system, water right holders should check new requests published in newspapers and analyze whether the conditions of supply and demand for water is likely to affect their future business strategy.

The legal obligation to inform, however, has not been sufficient to foster the water market as the CPA remains incomplete and out of date (MOP, 2012). Within the current framework, the Real Estate Registry (Conservador de Bienes Raíces, CBR) is a keystone, as the main holder and management provider of records.

This research presents the results from a thorough analysis conducted investigating the water rights held in the CBR. We checked the correctness of modifications by building and maintaining a relational database.

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METHODS Data on water rights correspond to an Andean watershed in Central Chile, where 54 % of the population live in rural areas. Precipitation occurs mainly during winter (May to August) and streamflow is controlled by rainfall. Land use is mainly annual crops, with a small area of orchards as ca. 13 % of the land is suitable for irrigation.

Data We collected 10,000 legal records from 29 water user organizations (Comunidades de Agua) in the corresponding CBR. Trained professionals read each record to define links among water rights, as the Conservador writes annotations every time a water right is modified (transfers, sellings). We also collected data for water shares (acciones) or volume (caudal). The fact that all modifications are still recorded by hand highlights the need for better data information management procedures, as manual handling is prone to errors and impedes more frequent updates of the CPA. Additionally we collected the following information: Source, water right type (consuntivo/consuntivo, continuous/intermittent), ID for the record, water community, total shares.

Methods The database produced is a relational database, as fluxes (waters shares) exist between water rights (nodes). Thus, we were able to understand the complex network of water rights transactions as a graph composed of water right (nodes) and water shares (weights). The direction of the link is defined by the seller/buyer relationship.

This approach allow us to “budget” each water right by summing incoming or original water shares with transferred water shares. We defined 3 types of outcomes: A. Extinct water rights. This type occurs when the total amount of water rights is transferred or sold. In this case, the water rights are no longer considered as current.

B. Incorrect transaction. This type occurs when the amount of water shares transferred or sold are greater than the nominal water rights (“you sell more than you have”) C. Correct transaction: Thus type occurs when the “budget” is correct. In the case, the water right is valid after the transaction as a certain amount of water shares remains.

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RESULTS Figure 1 shows the number of water rights granted per year. It is worth noting that after the modification of the Water Code introduced in 1981, there was a large expansion of water rights, but not necessarily of water rights holders. As the total amount of shares is approaching the availability of hydrological stocks, there is a decrease in granted water rights.

Figure 1: Number of water rights granted per year. Records are registered in the CBR.

The basin has 6,002 current water rights, equivalent to 34234.2 water shares. The corresponding Watershed Board (Junta de Vigilancia) has 21074.7 water shares, while water shares declared by other Water Users Organizations (WUOs are 20,842.32. This difference is due to errors in the CBR records such as duplicated records, no extinction of water rights, or wrong annotations.

In order to visualize the complex relationships among water rights, we display results for a subsample of 1,201 water rights corresponding to a single CBR. We broke down the database into its component networks, i.e. isolated sub networks with no sharing nodes. We identified 56 components ranging in size –number of nodes- from 2 to 300. More than 55 % has less than 4 nodes and 5 % has more than 10 nodes. It is worth noting that the component network with a size of 300 nodes (Figure 2A) was originated from a single water right granted in 1981. Figure 2B shows a network with 150 nodes with incorrect transactions.

Figures 2B, 2D and 2E show networks consisting of incorrect transactions. One can assume that all “downstream” transactions are essentially incorrect. However, from an operational point of view, CBR officials do not perform any “upstream” check when a modification is made. Taking Figure 2E as an example, the water right 38,611,995 had a nominal water share of 6.5, but it transferred 13 water shares. As there is not upstream checking, the transfer from node 1731951996 to 721131999 is legally correct.

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Figure 2: Component networks from the sample of 1201 water rights.

Our analysis suggests that the main errors in nodes are: (1) erroneous extraction of information from precedent records, (2) wrong transcripts from precedent records, including the assignation of less or more than the nominal shares. In both cases, the errors are the responsibility of the CBR. Common errors are: incorrect identification of the water right holder (changes in name, use of short names); water rights that were part of the land-ownership records and then transferred to the water records, leading to duplicated water rights; transfer of water rights within the same WOU or to other water rights, that were not annotated, leading in several cases, to duplicated records.

Our results are broadly applicable to the entire country. On one hand, the Water Users Organizations manage water rights information that could have be sourced at the beginning of the 1900s, when the current system- and its information requirement- was not in force. Thus, the WUOs used derived, fragmented, and even empiric evidence to fulfill legal requirements for water rights. On the other hand, the filing system at the CBR level is inefficient, and prone to errors. Moreover, the system has a large reluctance to changes.

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The main solution to this issue is to conduct large-scale surveys to verify the records, in order to fix errors, or at least, avoid their propagation downstream to the water rights networks. We would like to draw attention to two issues. The first topic is why we need to change the current system of information, and the second is determining who is responsible to carry out this type of survey. First, for every market is it fundamental to have reliable and updated information regarding the current state of the stocks. In the case of the water markets, we are not clear about the total water available for distribution and how, and when, water shares and water rights are moved. Additionally, we must include the inherent restriction of the distribution infrastructure that only allows “transacciones de papel” instead of actual changes in uptake and delivery points. Regarding the responsibility, the CBRs are obligated to inform change, but there exists a weak quality control on the management of records, adding the variability in size, level of infrastructure and human resources of the CBRs. The implementation and proper use should be conducted by the CBRs, but the quality control and subsidies could be implemented by the State.

FINAL REMARKS Successful experiences exist in Chile about implementing state-of-the-art Information & Technology (IT) Management. We now have the opportunity to provide our tax paperwork and obtain official certification online. Our most precious natural resource is managed digitally but using protocols from around 60 years ago. There exists a considerable difference between implementing IT upgrades and merely updating computers.

Thus, the correct functioning of the water market –once structural and legal changes are made- should rely upon an efficient and fit-for-purpose IT system.

REFERENCES Retamal, R; Melo, O; Arum, J L; Parra, O (2012) The Water Users Organizations in Chile. En: Chile: Environmental, Political and Social Issues (Editor: Diego Rivera Salazar). Nova Publishers, NY, USA. pp. 1-32 Ministerio de Obras Públicas (MOP) (1980) Banco Nacional de Aguas. Dimensionamiento General y Estudio de Costos. Tomo I. Informe Técnico.

Ministerio de Obras Públicas (MOP) (2012) Estrategia Nacional de Recursos Hídricos 2012-2025.

Informe Técnico.

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Spatio-Temporal Analysis of the Market of Groundwater Use in the Aquifers of La Ligua and Petorca River, Valparaiso Region, Chile.

Rodrigo Fuster G University of Chile rfuster@uchile.cl Jacqueline RodrĂ­guez M University of Chile jdrodriguezmendez@gmail.com

ABSTRACT The 1981 Water Code authorize the individual water use through a Water Rights issued by the General Water Management, granted free of charge to anyone who applies for it. These rights may be transferred or commercialized regardless of the earth, the exchange of rights generates the Water Market. Declining water rights available in most of the watersheds facilitates the increase Market and becomes the only option to access the resource.

The watersheds of Ligua and Petorca rivers present factors that propitiate a particular behavior in relation to the Water Market, including the change of agricultural scene to an important center for fruit export, in addition to growing water scarcity is seen in the area.

The specific objectives for the behavior of the Market in both aquifers were to establish the existence of temporal variability of prices and establish the existence of spatial distribution patterns of the different transactions prices of the Water Rights.

For the first objective, the methodology consisted of a descriptive analysis of the rates through linear regressions for each type of transaction. For the second objective spatial statistical analysis was performed to establish the presence and location of clusters of prices in each of the aquifers. In both objectives the price behavior was explained based on primary and secondary information.

The result of temporal prices analysis, indicated that these tend to increase in the time, reaching values of $2.363.021 in the aquifer Ligua and $4.274.504 in Petorca in the year 2012. The spatial analysis of prices indicated that only the aquifer of The Ligua presents distribution patterns.

It was possible to conclude that there are multiple factors that can influence the transaction price in the Water Right, the main factor driving the increase in the quantity and price of each transaction resource scarcity, in this case associated with a shortage with the declaration of legal restriction for new Water Rights and the growth in demand, primarily agricultural.

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INTRODUCTION Access to water in Chile is determined by the Water Rights (WR), granted by the General Water Management (GWM) who are granted free of charge to those who request, provided there is availability of the resource and not affect the rights of other people.

With this, ownership of water that falls on the user who can transfer independent of the land is established. With the increasing demand of water use and resource depletion, new applicants must resort to Market Rights to purchase (CEPAL, 1999; Donoso et al., 2010).

The decrease of rainfall in the country, from Antofagasta to Los Lagos (Vicuña et al., 2013), has led to declare several watersheds such as areas of water scarcity by Ministry of Public Works (MPW) (DGA, 2012a). Examples of this, there are the watersheds of the Ligua and Petorca rivers, which have been declared in seven opportunities as areas of water scarcity by the MPW, due to the drought affecting this province.

In these areas the Market Water is transformed into the main option to access the resource, since there are areas in the watershed where there is no surface runoff of water, in addition, the aquifers of Petorca and Ligua rivers were declared as restricted areas in 1997 and 2004 respectively 2, by the DGA. The objective of the present study consists in analyzing the spatio-temporal behavior of the Market of the WR underground in aquifers of Ligua and Petorca rivers, since it is of great importance to know the dynamics and processes occurring with the prices of the various transactions with real and empirical base, knowing the main characteristics of the Market.

METHODS For that a WR corresponds to an effective property right, it must be registered in the Register of Property of Water (RPW) of the Conservative Real Estate (CRE) respective, as indicated in the 1981 Water Code in article 112 and following3. The records give certainty on the effective of the right to possession and also, more information on the characteristics of the transaction 4.

Information was lifted from each record and their respective inscriptions of WR groundwater consumptive type and exercise permanent and continuous in force until October, 2012. It should be noted that a record in the CRE may correspond to one or more registrations of WR, that is to say, that a record can be associated to more than one registration of WR.

2

Resolution Nº 216 of June 16, 1997 y Resolution Nº 204 of May 14, 2004.

3

Corresponds to articles 112, 118, 120, 121,122 of the 1981 Water Code.

4

Decree with the Force of Law Nº 1122. Water Code. Santiago: Justice Ministry, 1981. 70p. [Published in the Official Daily on: 29 October 1981].

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Were considered as a Market, all those transactions that have been assigned a price to the transfer of a domain title, on the other hand, those transfers that do not have assigned a price, are recognized as Non-Market.

The values were expressed in liters per second (L s -1) to then calculate the price of 1 L s -1 of water.

Subsequently, each transaction prices were deflated according to IPC to be brought to present value through the equation named Current Value 5 (Field, 1995), updating historical prices and allowing a comparative analysis between each of the annual values.

In order to minimize the effect of extreme prices in the same year, an analysis was realized “box plot”, which gave the price information that deviate from the "reasonable" within the data set. Then, there was calculated the arithmetical average of the remaining values, corresponding this values to the representative price of the transactions of water for each year.

To establish the existence of temporal variability in prices, there was realized a descriptive analysis of the series of information, using for it, linear regressions, after this and analyzing the regression equation, it was possible to determine if the prices change or not in the time.

The analysis of spatial variability between the price and its location within the watershed was realized across spatial statistics, with the use of Geographical Information System (GIS), agreed to various tools in ArcGis 10 software which allowed the existence of clusters of prices in each of the watersheds. Used the tool I-Moran Global, which allows to measure the spatial autocorrelation of each transaction prices based on the location of each of them. Then, we used the tool Hotspots Analysis allows to identify cluster spatial statistically significant, throwing as a result the place where are grouped spatially the highest or lowest values of the data set.

RESULTS Based in the collected information in the CRE of Ligua and Petorca, a total of 3.839 inscriptions of WR were obtained, over 70% of inscriptions in each aquifer are part of the Non-Market, just the rest of them are considerate like transactions, it means, part of the Market.

Both watersheds are restricted areas for new extractions and would be expected that the Market of these zones had better representation that Non-Market due to the prohibition of establishment of new WR. While new rights weren’t awarded, the WC establishes that WR being used by a user and they aren’t registered, they would regularized when that user has completed five years of continuous use, counted backwards from the date of enactment of the WC of 1981 (DGA, 2011), this allows that Non-Market remain in force and still active when the aquifers correspond to restricted areas to new extractions.

5

m= VA x (1+r)t Where, m: future value (present value); VA: current value (real value); r: discount rate (5%); t: number of years involved.

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Were identified some transactions that don’t count with the information needed to be utilized in this analysis. The main reason to the elimination of data, in both aquifers, is the caudal expressed in percent. The article 119 of the WC, establish in numeral 5, that the original inscriptions must indicate the quote of Rights that corresponds to each user inside of the extraction source. Also, the article 7 of the WC, establish that the WR must express in volume per time unit, to both aquifers, the amount of register to improve correspond to 1516.

After the elimination of data, can be establish that considered transactions in this analysis correspond to 19% to aquifer La Ligua and 17% to Petorca. These transactions correspond to the Water Market in both watersheds, being the purchases and sales which dominate the Market with approximately 85% of the total inscriptions to the Ligua aquifer and 89% to Petorca.

In relation to the obtained prices in this analysis, can be establish that by 2012 the price of 1 L s -1 of water had a value of $2,363,021 in La Ligua aquifer, while this value to Petorca aquifer ascended to $4,274,504.

Then, Figure 1 shows the annual mean prices of the purchase and sale on each aquifer. The general behavior of both curves is to increase the price with the time.

Figure 1: Annual mean prices to purchases and sales in Ligua and Petorca aquifers.

In the river watershed Ligua and Petorca, since 90’s beginning, new farmers purchased lands, principally in hillsides, because of the fruit production (avocados and citrics mainly), increasing the digging wells. In this period, the obtention mechanism of WR wasn’t the Market, because the number 6

Decree with the Force of Law Nº 1122. Water Code. Santiago: Justice Ministry, 1981. 70p. [Published in the Official Daily on: 29 October 1981].

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of requests for new Rights in DGA was increased, this explains transactions nonexistent in this period (Budds, 2012).

To the year 1996, the same institution made a groundwater availability study, leaving the new requests in a waiting list until the aquifer state be confirmed. In spite of this situation, was possible to regularized the historic WR, thus, this was transformed in the main Rights adquision mechanism, but this process meant a huge waiting time. In this situation the Market was transformed in the main WR obtention way, but this isn’t reflected in the records obtained from CRE. According Budds (2012), this situation was due to that the users doesn’t sell their underground WR because of the speculation, also a lot of them wasn’t legalized, so they can’t be sold. On the other hand, those occasions where WR were on sale, the transaction price was too expensive. For all this, the farmers chose to: regularize the Rights, wait that the DGA distributed new Rights or use wells without Right duly constituted, instead of resort to buying them.

A temporal way to explain the effect on the groundwater scarcity in prices is through the water-scarcity areas statement. Both watersheds had been declared in seven opportunities as restricted areas. After that, both watersheds were declared in 2008, twice in 2011 and 2012 and once in 2013. For these specific years (2008, 2011, 2012 and 2013) isn’t appreciated a significant price increase in La Ligua aquifer, but through the regression analysis is possible to affirm that the prices tend to increase in time, because of this, it’s possible to say that the price hike would relate with the resource scarcity, which is given by the statements of water scarcity areas in both watersheds. Something similar says Donoso (1995) cited by Hadjigeorgalis and Riquelme (2002), in that an increasing scarcity should generate an increase in the real value of the WR in time.

To the purchase and sales case in La Ligua aquifer, a 29% of the total data wasn’t possible to obtain their geographical coordinates, in case of Petorca aquifer, a 28% didn’t have this information. The WC establish in article 119, 149 and 149 7, that the original inscriptions, the Rights requests and the administrative act constitution must individualize the places where water will be captured, the location of their device and the way that resource will be extracted. Although the WC don’t say the way of establishment the point of capture, the Bylaw about standards of exploration and exploitation of ground waters, in article 19, establish that capture points must indicate through coordinates UTM, using DatumWGS848.

Then, with the valid data to the analysis, the tool Moran Index was used to the purchase and sales of each aquifer. Was obtained as a result that values tend to cluster in relation to their location in space, with the aim to know the distribution of prices inside the watershed was made a Cluster analysis.

Figure 2 shows the obtained result through the analysis of hotspots. The wells in red shows the highest 7

Decree with the Force of Law Nº 1122. Water Code. Santiago: Justice Ministry, 1981. 70p. [Published in the Official Daily on: 29 October 1981].

8

Supreme Decree N°203. Bylaw about standards of exploration and exploitation of groundwaters. Santiago: Ministry of Public Works, 2013. 18p. [Published in Oficial Daily on: 07 march 2014]

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prices in relation to dataset and these are in center valley. The lowest prices are in the bottom of the watershed, represented with blue.

Figure 2: Spatial distribution of prices, La Ligua aquifer.

It can be expected that prices were higher in the bottom of the watershed, because according to Budds (2012), in the bottom of valley is expected that the current flow and groundwater levels be reduced as result of the use of groundwaters in the top of the valley to irrigate new plantings, increasing the pressure on the resource. The opposite happen in La Ligua aquifer, where the lowest prices are in the bottom of the watershed, which could be explained by a higher risk of the WR obtained in the bottom haven’t the backrest of water in the aquifer. On the other hand, the water price in the top of the watershed should be higher than the bottom because of the presence and behavior of water is less variable, reducing the risk of a right haven’t the physical backing of water in the aquifer, unlike what happened in the bottom of the watershed, where a greater uncertainty will be generate in relation to its behavior.

In the top of both watersheds still exists superficial water and population don’t depend only of the groundwater, the opposite occurs in the rest of the watershed.

Esto explicaría que el agua subterránea en la parte alta puede adquirir valores relativos más bajos, ya que su demanda puede ser suplida en parte por el agua superficial. En la parte baja de la cuenca, la disponibilidad de agua queda reducida al agua subterránea, esta incertidumbre tiene un costo en el Mercado, este DAA, que sería variable en el tiempo, no será valorado en el Mercado en relación a los DAA de la parte alta de la cuenca (DGA, 2012b).

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To the Petorca aquifer was applied the Moran Index too, which gave negative values, therefore, the prices of purchase and sale in the Petorca aquifer don’t tend to form clusters and have a dispersed behavior in space. The hotspots analysis in the Petorca aquifer confirms the inexistence of cluster of high or low prices inside the valley, therefore don’t exist distribution spatial patterns in the watershed (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Spatial distribution patterns of prices, Petorca aquifer.

Finally and as a conclusion it can be establish that the Market study is a complex analysis, mainly by the incomplete information and variable formats in which presents the domain titles in the respective CRE. While the WC and the bylaw of the Public Catastre of Water establish the basic characteristics that individualize the domain titles, obliges holders of Rights to perfecting them, taking responsibility of the information in the deeds to each water user.

By the temporal analysis can be conclude that the main factor that motivates the increase in the amount and price of each transaction of both aquifers, would be related with the scarcity of the resource, in this case associated to a legal scarcity with the constraint statement for new WR and with the demand growth, mainly agricultural.

The spatial analysis sheds as a result the presence of distribution patterns of prices of the WR in the Ligua aquifer, with higher values in the middle part of the watershed and lower prices in the lower part of the watershed, this behavior would be given by two factors: on the one hand the geographic concentration of the extraction of water in the watershed and by another water availability within it.

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The present study demonstrates how the different measures taken by the institutions related to the management of water resources, affects the behavior of the Market, since it is this, which allows you to reassign rights between different users and uses REFERENCES Budds, J. 2012. La Demanda, Evaluación y Asignación del Agua en el Contexto de Escasez: un Análisis del Ciclo Hidrosocial del Valle del Río La Ligua, Chile. Revista de Geografía Norte Grande, (52):167-184.

CEPAL (Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe). 1999. Debate sobre el Código de Aguas en Chile. Valparaíso, Chile: CEPAL. 26p.

DGA (Dirección General de Aguas), Chile. 2011. Guía para la Presentación de Solicitudes de Regularización de Derechos de Aprovechamiento de Aguas. Santiago, Chile: DGA. 2p.

DGA (Dirección General de Aguas), Chile. 2012a. Ministerio de Obras Públicas Decreta Zonas de Escasez Hídrica a las Comuna de La Ligua, Petorca y Cabildo. [En línea]. Santiago, Chile. Recuperado en: <http://www.dga.cl/noticias/Paginas/DetalledeNoticias.aspx?item=173>. Consultado el: 14 de octubre de 2012.

DGA (Dirección General de Aguas), Chile. 2012b. Informe Final: Programa de Diagnóstico de Titulares de Derechos de Aprovechamiento de Aguas de los Acuíferos de Río La Ligua y Petorca.

Santiago, Chile: DGA. 178p.

Donoso, G.; J. Cancino; O. Melo; C. Rodríguez y H. Contreras. 2010. Análisis del Mercado del Agua de Riego en Chile: Una Revisión Crítica a través de la Región de Valparaíso. Santiago, Chile: Oficina de Estudios y Políticas Agrarias. 142p.

Field, B. 1995. Economía Ambiental: Una Introducción. Ed. M. Suárez; Trad. L. Cano. Colombia: McGraw-Hill Interamericana. 587p.

Hadjigeorgalis, E. y C. Riquelme. 2002. Análisis de los Precios de los Derechos de Aprovechamiento de Aguas en el Río Cachapoal. Ciencia e Investigación Agraria. 29 (2): 91-100.

Vicuña, S.; I. Losada; L. Cifuentes y J. Beyá. 2013. Marco Estratégico para la Adaptación de la Infraestructura al Cambio Climático. Santiago, Chile: Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. 156p.

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From River to River, an Operational Perspective of the Water Governance.

Jorge Tavares A2O, Lda. jtavares@navia.pt

ABSTRACT The biggest challenge and goal of a water utility is to ensure the quality and availability of the service provided, at the lowest cost possible. To do so, it is almost mandatory to keep up the operational improvements with the technology developments. Simultaneously, it is extremely important the work done by the operational teams in the field. NAVIA™ is a specialized web platform developed specifically to support all processes connected with the OPERATION and integrate it with several other platforms and data sources, bringing together the Operational Management with the Operation of Infrastructure and the Strategic Management.

INTRODUCTION Considering the water cycle from “River to River”, either if we talk about of water treatment infrastructure, water distribution or wastewater collection and treatment systems, there are issues that operational management teams always need to deal with: • Large and dispersed infrastructure • Managing teams 24h/7d • Need to define and plan the work • Act promptly to solve emergencies • Register data and events • Ensure communication between all people involved, from field operators to managers • Gather and store information from field operations • Results assessment • Communication to legal entities • Answer to these entities and to customers.

Taking this in consideration, the software NAVIA™ has been developed for the last 12 years to answer these issues. Therefore, from different perspectives, NAVIA embedded these in a corporate culture and day-to-day operational activity: 1. Technical features – adapted for the work performed, leading to the improvement and optimization of results. For example, perform daily records of events and data from your parameterized infrastructure, execute planned service orders, answer clients requests and emergencies, work teams management, communication tools, alarms and notifications, Water Governance – Water Week LA 2015

chemicals consumption and stock control, residues production control, energy control, water flow measuring and billing, sampling records, water quality control and data analysis and evaluation.

2. Users - each user has a unique login and password. The administrator user defines the transactions allowed to each user, so different users and teams have different access levels and perform different tasks. All the information is traceable.

3. Technology – web platform and mobility app. Managers have a set of tools for tasks specification and work planning and operators have the tools to execute field registries as data and events, using an android app. The information is online on real time and integrated with other data sources (SCADA, commercial management, laboratorial software, GIS and others).

DEVELOPMENT By bringing together the specific technical features, the technology and the users, NAVIA creates a natural workflow, where the field and operational work is specified, planned, executed and evaluated.

Figure 1: NAVIA workflow.

Briefly, the managers parameterized the fieldwork in NAVIA, accessing via web, and define their own water infrastructure, worksheets, users and work teams. After this, and accordingly with it, the tasks are assigned by the manager and/or an agenda is generated automatically. The operators log in on the tablet and access their work agenda, go to the field, register the work done and instantaneously the managers in the office receive the information, alarms and notifications. The final phase is to analyse the data recorded and quickly cross information to evaluate the work and take actions to optimize results.

Therefore, for the 1st phase – Specification – the managers have a set of tools that allows them to build in NAVIA their own infrastructure and/or typify each service order they do.

Who better than the utility technicians to configure the utility infrastructure or tasks needed? By doing it this way, each utility is individually customized adapting the software to the reality and not the other way around. Technicians are autonomous to make changes in the parameterization, for example, add infrastructures, add users, changes tasks, agendas and others.

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Figure 2: Example of a utility infrastructure build in NAVIA.

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Figure 3:Tree of symptoms/requests to typify the service orders of a utility.

The 2nd phase – Scheduling – it is possible to plan ahead tasks to be done and set different frequencies for it allocating the work per locations, teams and time (Figures).

Figure 4: Interface of task planning. It is possible to set different frequencies for each task at each location.

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Figure 5:Assigning a service order to a team. This interface allows you to quickly verify the workload of the team.

Figure 6: Time view of the number of service orders planned per symptom.

In the 3rd phase â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Run - all data and events are recorded by the field teams. The mobility app of NAVIA installed on an android tablet allows the operators to quickly and intuitive record their work. While they are still in the field recording specific data of the task, they can complete the record with pictures or obtain coordinates to geolocate an infrastructure or a problem.

Figure 7: Android app to register data on the field. It is prepared to run offline or online.

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All the work is now paperless and traceable. The users’ communication becomes easy and flows in real time.

The final phase, the 4th – Rate - consists on evaluating results, cross information from different data sources or extract customized reports, allowing the technicians to evaluate tendencies and take not only corrective but also preventive actions.

Figure 8: Alarms tab on the home desktop of NAVIA. The information is accessible on real time and all the data is traceable.

Figure 9: Example of a query done in NAVIA, comparing the monthly values of energy and volume based on daily records of the operators.

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Figure 10: Example of a query done in NAVIA, listing the service orders made in the last month. It is possible to specify the query or just look at it from different perspectives: per symptom, per type of work performed and others.

Figure 11:Example of a query done in NAVIA, listing the costs of the service orders made in the last month. It is possible to aggregate the costs or evaluated it separately: operators, materials and others.

Water Governance â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

CONCLUSION In conclusion, the possibility to register and integrate the operational data with other platforms and rapidly consult this information is a great asset for any company in the water sector. Whether it is a water or sanitary utility, responsible for the infrastructure preceding the water distribution system or the distribution system itself, NAVIA features adapted to their operational management as it was developed taking into account the similarities and differences of their work issues.

It thus becomes possible to follow the cycle of water "river-to-river" through a single software application highly specialized and dedicated to the operational field tasks, with the possibility to integrate workers, data and processes.

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Water Governance: Trigger of Conflict or Cooperation.

Rita Vázquez del Mercado Arribas Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua (IMTA, Mexican Institute of Water Technology) rvazquez@tlaloc.imta.mx Sergio Vargas Velázquez Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos (UAEM) kuirunhari@yahoo.com.mx Denise Soares Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua (IMTA) dsoares@tlaloc.imta.mx

ABSTRACT Water management encompasses not only water resources from rivers, lakes and aquifers, but also water services, including infrastructure operation, extraction, storage, purification, distribution, sewage and treatment of residual waters. The decisions regarding how to protect, manage, use, assign, and preserve water, are essentially governance decisions. It is not surprising that water management is also management of conflicts. It is the quality of the water governance that generates the conditions for either cooperation or for conflict. When there is no balance between the State, the civil society, the market economy, and the environment, the water governance will be a source of conflict. In contrast, it will lead to cooperation when there is a balance in an equal, sustainable, and efficient use of water, achieved through democratic processes. Some examples of water governance as a trigger of conflict or cooperation will be analyzed in this article.

INTRODUCCTION Water management not only encompasses solely water resources from rivers, lakes and aquifers, but also the infrastructure operation, extraction, storage, purification, distribution, sewage and treatment of residual waters. At the same time, it also deals with the allocation of water for different uses and users, of permits and water rights that include a broad range of social and economic interests (Vargas et al, 2013). The decisions on how to protect, manage, use, assign, and preserve water are essentially governance decisions, and it is not surprising that water management is also conflict management.

Water feeds all the sides of society, from biological needs, the economy, aesthetics or spiritual practices, to supporting ecosystems. It oscillates greatly in space and time, its management tends to be fragmented and subject to imprecise legal principles and contradictory social practices. Its management has multiple objectives and faces interests in competition that are generally in disagreement. The complexity of finding acceptable solutions increases when more interested parties are involved and the water available is reduced due to damage or scarcity (Wolf, 2008).

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According to the Spanish Royal Academy, governance should be understood as "the art or way of governing that proposes as a goal to achieve a lasting economic, social and institutional development, promoting a healthy balance between the State, the civil society and the economic market". This means, governance implies the interaction between society and government and should not be confused with governability, which is the quality of being governable; of being able to be governed. The term governance has been applied to water to characterize how the interaction between political, social, economic, and administrative systems occur, that come to play in regulating the development and management of water resources and supply of water services to the different levels of society. Thus, the water governance exists where state organizations in charge of the management of the resource establish an effective policy, along with and adequate legal framework to regulate and manage water, in a way that it responds to the environmental, economic social, and political needs of the State, with the involvement of all social agents (VI FMA, 2012). It is the quality of the water governance what generates the conditions for cooperation or conflict. When a healthy balance between the State, the civil society, the market economy, and the environment is non-existent, the water governance shall be a source of conflict.

METHODOLOGY The methodology consisted in the bibliographic and hemerographic review of five recent conflicts for water in Mexico, with the purpose of characterize the positions, strategies and results, from the perspective of social groups, as well as the government entities involved, with the purpose to include them as case studies in a course on conflict mediation sponsored by the International Hydrological Programme and under the activities of the program From Potential Conflict to Co-operation Potential (PCCP) in Mexico (Vargas et al, 2013). The partial results of the revision of the governance in Mexico regarding these conflicts are hereby presented.

RESULTS Governance refers to the self-regulation in water management, in which there are no dominating actors nor agents that are completely determining the system. This occurs through institutional arrangements with a multiplicity of actors involved that constitute public action; it seems power, economic or other kind asymmetries are erasable through a counterweight system, spaces and forms of participation and principles of equity and sustainability. Governance designs the action and effect of governing as much as, in a broader sense, the new methods of inter-sectoral direction and coordination between policies and diverse interests observed in multiple levels, at a local level as much as in a national and international ones. These modalities articulate a complex relationship that promotes a balance between the State, the market and the civil society, closely related to the changes occurred in the last years in the global scene. The economic globalization, the technological advancements and the boom of nongovernment organizations, the growing political role of the civil society and other phenomena, have made the State partly lose its stewardship regarding public development and regulation, and increase its interaction in the definition of strategies and capabilities, with a multiplicity of private and public, national and international actors.

One of the many critiques made to the concept of governance of the international agencies is to use it in contexts where there are no political, economic and social development conditions comparable to the ones of the western democracies, thus turning the institutional arrangements of the European and North Water Governance â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

American democracies in the development yardstick for countries with such different histories, traditions, and cultures. The establishment of governance mechanisms, must take into account not only the formal institutions, but also all the social groups that may have an influence in one determinate situation. This is expressed into the existence of a regulatory framework in a local context, generally not legally recognized by the formal authorities, producing a situation of "legal pluralism" (Boelens et al, 2005), in which the decisions of the federal, state and even municipal government are mediated and reinterpreted within the jurisdiction of the social entities.

The first relevant result of our review is the characterization of water governance in Mexico, seen through a small sample of strongly mediatic water-related conflicts, many of them active or latent; 1) The transfer through the Canal Independencia water irrigation channel of the 018 Irrigation District Colonias Yaquis and 041 Valle del Yaqui for the city of Hermosillo; 2) the contamination of the Santiago River; 3) the locality of indigenous origin of Xoxocotla against the construction of 50,000 households that affect its Chihuahuita spring; 4) the conflict regarding the building of the El Zapotillo Dam, in Jalisco, to supply León, Guanajuato, Guadalajara, and Altos de Jalisco; 5) the construction of the La Parota Hydroelectric Dam, in Guerrero. Due to space reasons, we hereby only express the general conclusions and analyze the La Parota case in detail.

In the characterization of governance, the fact that stands out in the analyzed water conflicts are a strong centralization of functions and resources in the federal authority. This body, in all the cases, has more responsibility and capacity of action; it has all the legal means to exercise its functions adequately, but lacks economically or organization wise the means to meet its functions adequately.

The aforementioned, is due in great extent, to too many functions assigned and little contribution of social instances or the other governmental tiers. This produces concentration of power and decision making around the National Water Commission, and, in one case, the Federal Commission of Electricity. Not even in one case, the local institutional arrangement is recognized, this is called in Mexico “habits and customs”, and represents the local political order. The local organizations lacks influence over the decisions that affect them in higher or minor extent, due to the fact that the instances of participation (water counsels, commissions or committees), only have consultative functions. The case of the Yaquis is dramatic, given the state mobilization and decision-making did not go through the respective basin councils and commissions. The same happened in the town of Xoxocotla regarding their own potable water organization. In all the cases the mobilization of different resources in the conflict is shown, being the legally established ones the least effective and used by social organizations.

Although these are very mediatic conflicts, little is seen of the real effect of the mobilization of the citizens against a federal authority that concentrates functions and budget, but is ineffective to act at a local level. We can conclude that, in these water conflicts, a strong asymmetry of power between the involved parts prevails, being the current institutional arrangement incapable of solving them equitably and efficiently. In all the cases the further deterioration of the water resources is involved, with a growing social inequality and disparity regarding water. The organizational discrepancies, the prevailing concentration of functions and the limited collaboration of other groups of interest in water management, makes the current water governance in Mexico to stand more as a producer of conflicts than cooperation, and these keep growing in number, intensity, and complexity.

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On the other hand, in an international context in which the unbalance between the State, the civil society, the market economy, and the environment prevails, it is frequent that injustice abounds and the courts favor the powerful. This has supported the rise of several defense organizations, like the Frente Mazahua en Defensa del Agua (Mazahua Front for the Defense of Water), the Frente de Pueblos en Defensa de la Tierra y el Agua (People’s Front in Defense of the Land and Water) (Morelos, Puebla, and Tlaxcala), the Asamblea Nacional de Afectados Ambientales de México (ANAA, Mexican National Assembly of Environmentally Affected Groups), and the Coalición de Organizaciones Mexicanas por el Derecho al Agua (Coalition of Mexican Organizations for the Right to Water).

Among their goals are the defense, preservation, and conservation of water in favor of the society and the environment, through social participation, democratic management, and the recognition of access to water as a human right.

The Latin-American Water Tribunal (TLA) stands as an example, it is an autonomous and independent international organization of environmental justice, established in San José, Costa Rica, created in 1998 to help solve water conflicts in Latin America and to build a practical and moral framework to improve water management around the world. As an ethic tribunal, it gathers evidence, exerts the law and pronounces rulings, supporting itself on international law, many times ignored by the local courts. In its 16 years of existence, it has accepted more than 58 cases and attended to more than 250 consultations.

Around 70 accusations come from Mexican organizations or citizens. This led in 2012 to group and document dozens of Mexican cases, including several of those herein commented, in a lawsuit brought forth by the Asamblea Nacional de Afectados Ambientales. The TLA analyzed the over 600 where evidence is collected, legal and technical information about the situation of water throughout the country. In its ruling about the case “Possible Hydric Breakdown in Mexico and Violation to the Human Rights for Water of Present and Future Generations, Republic of the United States of Mexico” the TLA found the Mexican State guilty of violating the international treaties and the internal legal order that warrants the right to water as a fundamental human right. The ineptitude of the executive, legislative, and judiciary authorities to establish effective access mechanisms to environmental justice was addressed. It recognized the growing decline of the human right for water in the country and the lack of legal-political mechanisms, warning about the levels of social unrest and absence of instruments of citizen involvement to channel it. It was suggested to the Mexican State to defend its laws, procedures, public policies and everyday practices for the access to water and adequate environment, as a fundamental human right and as a social and common good. “The complexity of the existing environmental legal framework between the three levels of the Mexican State impedes an effective coordination of responsibilities that guarantee the effective application of the corresponding regulations for a sustainable management, favoring the avoidance of the institutional obligations”(VI TLA Public Audience, 2012).

In the case of the conflict of the building of La Parota dam, the TLA intervention was of special importance, since its pressure along the social and the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights pressure, helped to solve it.

In the case of conflict over the construction of the dam La Parota, the intervention of the TLA was especially important because its pressure coupled with social pressure, and the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of the United Nations, which helped resolving it.

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La Parota Dam was a hydroelectric mega project of the Mexican federal government, to be built in the state of Guerrero, near the port of Acapulco. It would have affected five coastal municipalities, destroyed 17,300 hectares of rainforest, displaced 25,000 farmers of 30 communities and affected indirectly other 75,000 people downstream. The project found great opposition from the potentially affected parties, who repeatedly took a stand against the project and pursued all the legal remedies at their reach. They took the case to the TLA, which in 2006 ruled against the project arguing technical (type of soil, zone of high seismicity, among others), social, and environmental reasons. Subsequently, the United Nations' Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights confirmed parts of the TLA resolution and included them in their observations (E/C.12/MEX/CO/4). This ruling gave the citizens further understanding of the problem and scientific and technical arguments to pressure the Mexican government. The state engaged in practices such as alleged assemblies to reach agreements, making sure the opposition groups could not arrive, and encouraged sympathizers and foreign people to approve their proposals in such assemblies. This entire process was documented and challenged by the opposition. Finally, after seven years of disputes (2003-2010), the Mexican government cancelled the project arguing “financial reasons". During the process, four people died and eleven were imprisoned.

The La Parota movement learned to combine legal and political strategies, and also to foster national and international solidarity.

CONCLUSIONS OR REFLECTIONS For governance to be a trigger of cooperation, it must take place in state based on the rule of law. Good governance refers to the constructive cooperation between the different sectors, where the result is the efficient use of resources, the responsible and reliable use of power, and providing services in an effective and sustainable way (VI FMA, 2012). Transparency, accountability, legislation, access to justice and social participation, are core principles for it (UNDP, 2009). Otherwise, governance will be a source of conflict.

The water resources crisis is not shaped as something related to the scarcity or the contamination of resources, but as a crisis in water management, in which the decisions are made in a vertical and partial way, ignoring the social and in many cases, the environmental logic.

Water governance requires the development of regulatory frameworks and organizations that manage water to carry out the practices that allow dialogue and negotiation between the groups of interest involved in water management. Water management is conflict management (Dourojeanni y Jouravlev, 2001), and when an ‘unfinished’, biased, insufficient governance exists, more water conflicts are generated than the institutional arrangement can process. This can be analyzed from the study of water conflicts, which in this case shows that there is a deficit in the Mexican institutional arrangement, as it is in the practices and strategies implemented by social groups, which frequently generate more conflicts than solutions. The development of capabilities in matters of alternative justice, mediation and negotiation for resolving water conflicts is a pending task for governments, as much as for the civil society.

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REFERENCES Aguilar Villanueva, Luis F. (2006), Gobernanza y gestión pública, México: FCE. Almazán, José Antonio (2008), La Parota: Proyecto hidroeléctrico de CFE, Grupo Parlamentario del PRD en la LX Legislatura de la Cámara de Diputados del Congreso de la Unión, Centro de Producción Editorial, México, D.F. Boelens, R.; Zwarteveen, M.; Roth, D. (2005), “Legal complexity in the analysis of water rights and water resources management”. En Roth, D., Boelens, R., Zwarteveen, M., eds. Liquid Relations, Contested water rights and legal complexity, Rutdgers University Press, New Jersey, pp. 1-19.

Dourojeanni, Axel y AndreiJouravlev (2001), Crisis de gobernabilidad en la gestión el agua: desafíos que enfrenta la implementación de las recomendaciones contenidas en el capítulo 18 del programa 21, Serie Recursos Naturales e Infraestructura, n° 35, CEPAL, Santiago de Chile.

UNDP Water Governance Facility at SIWI (WGF), (2009), Training Manual on Water Integrity, CapNet, WaterNet and Water Integrity Network (WIN).

Vargas, S., Vázquez del Mercado, R., Uribe, R. et al, (2013), Prevención de conflictos y cooperación en la gestión del agua en México, Jiutepec, Morelos, Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua, 100 p.

Wolf, A. (2008), “Healing the Enlightment Rift: Rationality, Spirituality and Shared Waters”, Journal of International Affairs, Spring/Summer 2008, vol. 61, no. 2.

VI Foro Mundial del Agua (2012), Hacia una buena gobernanza para la gestión integrada de los Recursos Hídricos, Proceso Regional de las Américas, Marsella.

VI Audiencia Pública del Tribunal Latinoamericano del Agua (TLA), Casos sobre Controversias Hídricas en México, Perú, Chile y Argentina. Buenos Aires, Argentina. http://tragua.com/2012/11/3148/

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Water Rights Without Works for Its Exercises: Beyond Hoarding and Speculation.

Christian Valenzuela Heidelberg Center for Latin America cvalenzuela@renare.uchile.cl

ABSTRACT In Chile, the patent for non-usage was implemented in 2005 to face stockpiling and speculation with the existence of these water rights. Thus, discerning between use and non-use is established by the existence/inexistence of works to exert the rights. This criterion is criticized, given that the existence of works does not ensure the use, and the inexistence does not guarantee the absence of use. This research seeks to expose the application of the patent in situations where the inexistence of works is not associated to stockpiling or speculating with water rights. The results reveal four situations where the application of the patent is debatable, highlighting the collection on ancestral use and rural potable water. In light of the situations described above, and of other academic researches, the main conclusions show that the patent at least has to be improved to meet its objectives.

Keywords: Patent for non-use, Water Rights, Alternative usages of water, Stockpiling, Speculation INTRODUCTION The 1981 Code, besides handing over freely the water use rights (WUR), did not demand its usage, with the consequent effects it produced9. To correct the consequences, a non-use patent (NUP) of WUR was created, with focus on the abundance of hydrological resources, opposed to the tenure payment of the WUR, which focused on scarcity.

The discrimination between use and non-use was established in the Act 20.017 (Ministry of Public Works, 2005) by an apparently objective criterion: the existence/inexistence of catchment works 10 in

9

These effects are: the proliferation of petitions to take a position regarding a strategic good as water is, the request for great volumes of water – ‘why asking for what you need if you can ask for all?’- , the generation of a legal or formal, but not real scarcity of the resource in important areas, the creation of obstacles for the development of projects, and the generation of entry barriers to certain markets, discouraging the competition in them (Bitrán & Sáez, 1994; Jaeger, 2001; Peña, 2004).

10

Catchment Works are all those elements that allow extracting water from their sources and conducting them to the place where they will be used. In subterranean waters, the catchment works are generally composed by mechanical installations that allow suctioning the waters from the aquifer to the surface, such as pumps (submerged or in-surface), electrical connections, wells or waterwheels, and conductive pipes. In superficial waters, besides using mechanical equipment, installations that obtain water through gravitational methods, like an inlet pipe in a course and subsequently a conductive channel are also used.

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the case of consumptive WUR, and of catchment and restitution 11 in the case of non-consumptive WUR12. The established criterion is reasonable for a context like the Chilean, where the authorized extraction of natural hydrological resources is not controlled by means of water flow meters, nevertheless, in some works (Gómez-Lobo & Paredes, 2000; Jara & Melo, 2003; Valenzuela et al., 2013) it is deduced that this criterion has a failure: the existence of works does not ensure use and the inexistence does not asure the non-use.

Besides the uses without works, there are other circumstantial reasons to maintain the WUR without constructed works.

This work seeks to specify and make a critical analysis of those situations where the absence of WURrelated works does not have as a goal the stockpiling and speculation that the NUP aims to attack.

This search is summarized in the research question: Beyond stockpiling and speculation, what other motives exist to maintain the WUR without works?

METHODOLOGY Information Sources Reconsideration Resources Against Charging for a Non-Use Patent As of June 2013, the "Reconsideration Appeals" (RA) against the different resolutions that set listings of WUR attached to NUP sum up to a total of 2.484. In these RAs, there are arguments constructed that justify why some WURs, which are found in determinate situations, should not pay NUPs. State Functionaries that Prepare Responses to Reconsideration Appeals In certain studies, the opinion of experts is necessary in a subject. These displays are frequent in qualitative and exploratory studies, being valuable and useful when the study goals require it that way (Sampieri et al., 1998). In this sense, those who can have knowledge and well founded opinions regarding the motives that the owners have to keep their WURs without works, are the state employees of the Dirección General de Águas (DGA, Spanish acronym for General Direction of Waters) that have been devoted to elaborate the resolutions that give answer to the RAs. Information Gathering The working method of this work is qualitative and consists in two stages: a) Review the RA and study in depth all those that support reasonable or at least debatable motives to appeal the charge of NUP; and 11

In non-consumptive WUR, asides from the catchment works, restitution works are mandatory. These, are the ones that allow returning the same amount of water originally catched. Restitution works are generally of the gravitational type. Some examples are: a pipe that reinjects waters to an aquiferafter making use of its thermal energy (as in the case of subterranean waters in a geothermal plant) or a cannel that returns the waters to a course after using its kinetic energy (in the case of superficial waters in a hydroelectric plant).

12

According to Peña (2003), the WURs given before 1981 are supposedly in use, since the waters license, the previous denomination of the WUR, becomes a definitive one only when the works were built. Nevertheless, NUPs have been charged to WURs from before 1981 for not having the corresponding works.

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b) Interview the State functionaries, and asking them: "according to your judgment, and beyond stockpiling and speculation, what other foundations are there to maintain the WUR without works, and where is at least debatable the application of the NUP?" Subsequently and directly, we ask for their opinion regarding the foundations encountered in the previous stage that are not mentioned by the interviewee.

Later, the situations where the NUP charges are debatable are defined.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Tourism and Conservation In 1998, in the Municipality of Pucón (Region of La Araucanía) approached the DGA, concerned by the increasing occupation of the rivers by hydroelectricity and aquaculture in the south of Chile, given that these activities were incompatible and excluding the nature-focused tourism that takes place there.

The NUP did not exist back then, therefore the DGA recommended protecting the sections of the rivers of interest by means of ownership of non-consumptive WUR (Soto, 2013).

The paradox today is that the touristic use – a water-using activity just as mining, agriculture, or hydroelectric generation – is in disadvantage for not needing works: the burden of a NUP. The Municipality of Pucón, the only owner identified in this situation, presented in 2009 a RA with arguments that to their judgment should be applied to keep their WUR exempt from paying NUP (Mansilla, 2009), RA that was rejected by the DGA (2009). This has led to the Municipality, up until the date of this study, to accumulate five years of unpaid NUP, for ten non-consumptive WURs in nine rivers, adding up to 1,8 million USD in debt (Dirección General de Aguas, 2013). The normal procedure should have been having these WURs auctioned for unpaid NUPs. However, the subject has turned politically sensitive and the auctions that the Water Code dictates have not taken place (Soto, 2013), since practically there is no logic in charging NUPs to the WURs of the Municipality of Pucón, given that its objective of preserving the natural landscape and protecting the touristic activity, given it is reasonable to open a consensual or legal procedure to exempt them (Schulbach, 2013).

The alternative is to broaden the exemption to all the WUR of fiscal property, which today, only applies to those exerted occasionally, with which interests of this type could be defended when the public apparatus, in this case a municipality, is who watches over the maintenance of natural aquifers with different purposes (Gutiérrez, 2013; Miralles, 2013).

Ancestral Use It will be understood by ancestral use of water, the one made by indigenous communities and indigenous individuals.

Charging the NUP on indigenous WURs has affected only the Mapuche ethnic group, between the Biobío and Los Lagos Regions, since other ethnic groups in Chile, like the Aymara and Atacameños, have WURs constituted under the exemption limit to the NUP. Despite the aforementioned, the amount of RA has been high, reaching 27,5% of the total in 2011.

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In their RA, the Mapuche initially claimed that their WUR had been acquired through the Fondo de Tierras y Aguas (Waters and Lands Fund) of the Corporación Nacional de Desarrollo Indígena (CONADI, Chilean acronym for Indigenous National Corporation for Development), that they used them for their community’s way of life, and even for drinking water solutions. However, when this was the argument, the DGA rejected the RA based on law (inexistence of works).

The subject started to cause a stir and the pressure was so high, that the DGA made its own interpretation to elaborate a mechanism to retire some of these WURs from the NUPs listings, but only those belonging to indigenous communities and not indigenous individuals (Gutiérrez, 2013), since the latter could have the same incentives that any other WUR owner to stockpile and speculate.

In spite the construction of an exemption mechanism by administrative means is considered reasonable, some criticize this procedure for considering it illegal, adding that a better mechanism could have been made, incorporating elements of comparative law.

Until now the DGA's formula has avoided charging a small portion of the universe of indigenous WURs included in the NUP lists and those that remain still have not been auctioned for the controversy this situation could unfold (Gutiérrez, 2013). Due to the above, as of May 2012, a bill rests in the National Congress, that reforms the Water Code, exempting from the payment of NUP the WUR of indigenous communities and indigenous individuals (Araya et al., 2012) 13.

Even though the proposal of completely exempting the WUR that represent an ancestral use generates certain consensus (Caneleo, 2013; Schulbach, 2013; Gutiérrez, 2013; Herrera-Indo, 2013; Miralles, 2013), there are also qualms to this measure, that have to do with placing restrictions regarding the ownership of the WUR, establishing that they cannot be transferred immediately – at present it is possible after 25 years from the registration – but they can be inherited (Gutiérrez, 2013).

Another proposal is that the WUR for the indigenous becomes property of CONADI, thus becoming exempt of the NUP payment (Montecinos, 2013).

Rural Potable Water The Water Code exempts WUR payment in the development or expansion plans of public sanitary services companies from NUP payment. Nevertheless, the Rural Potable Water Committees (RWC) 14, that just like public sanitary companies provide the population with clean water, but in areas where is not profitable, were not considered by the legislators to have their WUR exempt from NUPs. The DGA, after receiving the corresponding RA, realizes the illogical difference that the Water Code makes between Public Sanitary Services and RWC. Thereupon, to face the evident political problem this means, a formula to exempt the RWC committees from paying NUP is being studied, without 13

This bill also seeks to exempt minor farmers.

14

The RWC services are defined as those that are provided in non-urban areas, according to the city planning scheme, therefore, they do not have the denomination of public sanitary services. In its quality of particular services, its inspection is submitted to the corresponding Environmental Health Services, and is ruled by the regulations established by the Health Code (Dirección de Obras Hidráulicas, 2013).

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needing to go through the parliament (Gutiérrez, 2013; Herrera-Indo, 2013); a formula that today faces some criticism regarding its legality.

It has been suggested the idea that the WUR has legally bound the use it is intended to have – which does not happen in Chile – to later exempt all those constituted or redefined to be used in the supply of potable water (Montecinos, 2013).

Scarcity and Prolonged Drought Even though drought and scarcity are different, both combined with the NUP set off the same contradiction: an incentive to the use in scenarios of non-availability or non-abundance of water.

The legislator thought of preventing the former situation exempting from NUP the following WUPs (Public Works Commission of the Senate, 2004): a) Permanent ones that, because of a decision of the corresponding users’ organization, would have been subject to turns or proportional distribution; and b) The ones of permanent consumption constituted in rivers or sources that have been declared exhausted by the authority.

Nevertheless this exemption was finally not included in the bill for being considered redundant (Congress Mixed Commission, 2005). Sadly, the former reflection does not apply in most of the cases, since to apply a turn or share, first there has to exist an organization of water users, a situation that does not occur in many natural courses and most aquifers (Soto, 2013).

The aforementioned has caused that in several areas from northern and central Chile with water deficit the application of the NUP has motivated the presentation of RAs complaining: "how can be a WUR used if there is no water to exert it?". However, the DGA does not have tools in the law to protect these Ras. It is important to note that the NUP exemption commented above, not included in the bill, would have helped in part to solve part of this contradiction, given the DGA has declared exhausted many water sources where the WURs related to the described situation are constituted.

An ex post alternative is to effectively exempt from the payment all those WURs located in the area where a scarcity decree from the Ministry of Public Works is force (Montecinos, 2013).

CONCLUSIONS The motives to maintain WUR without Works were specified, the goal is not stockpiling and speculation, even when the NUP application ranges from questionable to openly inadequate. It is concluded from the critical analysis of these situations that the NUP instrument must be at least corrected and improved, however, due to multiple questionings, the idea of it being replaced by other legal mechanisms gains strength, if what it is intended is a more reasonable distribution of the WUR.

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An aspect in which there is full consensus about legislating is the situation of the Ancestral WUR, however, the application mechanism to protect this use from the NUP presents a more complex discussion, for there are interesting arguments to differentiate between indigenous communities and indigenous individuals at the time to talk about the ownership of the WUR. One of the main criticisms to the NUP instrument is to promote a focus of abundance of water resources, being the logic all over the world the opposite, a focus on scarcity (Valenzuela, 2009; Valenzuela et al., 2013).

REFERENCES Araya, P., Chahín, F., Goic, C., Hernández, J., Muñoz, A., Pascal, D., . . . Walker, M. (2012). ‘Reforma el Código de Aguas, eximiendo del pago de patente a pequeños productores agrícolas y campesinos, a comunidades agrícolas y a indígenas y comunidades indígenas que se señalan’. Cámara de Diputados, Congreso Nacional, República de Chile, Valparaíso.

Bitrán, E., & Sáez, R. (1994). ‘Privatization and regulation in Chile. The Chilean economy: policy lessons and challenges’. (B. Dornbusch, R. Bosworth, & R.Labán, Eds.) Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution.

Caneleo, C. (2013). ‘Comunicación privada’, (C. Valenzuela, entrevistador). Santiago.

Comisión de Obras Públicas del Senado (2004). ‘Segundo Informe de la Comisión de Obras Públicas, recaído en el proyecto de Ley, en segundo trámite constitucional, que modifica el Código de Aguas’.

Congreso Nacional, República de Chile, Valparaíso.

Comisión Mixta del Congreso (2005). ‘Informe de la Comisión Mixta, recaído en el proyecto de Ley que modifica el Código de Aguas’. Congreso Nacional, República de Chile, Valparaíso.

Dirección de Obras Hidráulicas (2013). ‘Programa de Agua Potable Rural’ Ministerio de Obras Públicas, República de Chile, Santiago.

Dirección General de Aguas (2009). ‘Rechaza recurso de reconsideración interpuesto por la Sra. Edita Esther Mansilla Barría, alcaldesa de la Ilustre Municipalidad de Pucón, en contra de la Resolución DGA Nº 3600 (Exenta), de 23 de diciembre de 2008’. Ministerio de Obras Públicas, República de Chile, Santiago.

Dirección General de Aguas (2013). ‘Bases de datos de listados de derechos de aprovechamiento de aguas afectos a pago de patente por no uso, procesos 2007 a 2013’. Ministerio de Obras Públicas, República de Chile, Santiago.

Gómez-Lobo, A., & Paredes, R. (2000). ‘Reflexiones sobre el proyecto de modificación del Código de Aguas’. Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Administrativas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago.

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Gutiérrez, R. (2013). ‘Comunicación privada’, (C. Valenzuela, entrevistador). Santiago.

Herrera-Indo, C. (2013). ‘Comunicación privada’, (C. Valenzuela, entrevistador). Santiago.

Jaeger, P. (2001). ‘La asignación original de los derechos de aprovechamiento de agua en el código de 1981: Análisis crítico’. Actas IV Jornadas de Derecho de Aguas. Santiago: Programa de Derecho Administrativo Económico, Facultad de Derecho, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.

Jara, E., & Melo, O. (2003). ‘Patentes de no uso de derechos de aprovechamiento en la reforma al Código de Aguas: ¿Se justifica su implementación?’. VIII Congreso de Economistas Agrarios.

Santiago: Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.

Mansilla, E. E. (2009). ‘Recurso de reconsideración contra la Resolución DGA Nº 3600 (Exenta), de 23 de diciembre de 2008’. Municipio de Pucón, Pucón.

Ministerio de Obras Públicas (2005). ‘Ley Nº 20.017: Modifica el Código de Aguas’. República de Chile, Santiago.

Miralles, C. (2013). ‘Comunicación privada’, (C. Valenzuela, entrevistador). Santiago.

Montecinos, R. (2013). ‘Comunicación privada’, (C. Valenzuela, entrevistador). Santiago.

Peña, H. (2003). ‘Incluso si es reformado, nuestro Código de Aguas será el más liberal del mundo’.

Chile Riego(14).

Peña, H. (2004). ‘Chile: 20 años del Código de Aguas’, en G. Donoso, A. Jouravlev, H. Peña, & E. Zegarra, Mercados (de derechos) de agua: experiencias y propuestas en América del Sur. Santiago: Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe, Naciones Unidas.

Sampieri, R., Collado, C., & Lucio, P. (1998). ‘Metodología de la investigación’. México: McGrawHill.

Schulbach, E. (2013). ‘Comunicación privada’, (C. Valenzuela, entrevistador). Santiago.

Soto, M. (2013). ‘Comunicación privada’, (C. Valenzuela, entrevistador). Santiago.

Valenzuela, C. (2009). ‘La patente por la no-utilización de las aguas en Chile: origen, diseño y primeras experiencias en su implementación’. División de Recursos Naturales e Infraestructura, Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe, Naciones Unidas, Santiago.

Valenzuela, C., Fuster, R., & León, A. (2013). ‘Chile: ¿Es eficaz la patente por no uso de derechos de aguas?’. Revista CEPAL, 109, 175-198.

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Water and Industry

Development of Technical Proposals for Effective Use of Water in a Dairy Processing Plant.

Cristian Bertram Bornhardt Brachmann Universidad de La Frontera cristian.bornhardt@ufrontera.cl José Miguel Arancibia Carrasco Universidad de La Frontera jose.arancibia@ufrontera.cl

ABSTRACT Water is an indispensable resource in all the stages of the food processing industry, and in the majority of other processing industries.

The dairy products processing plant evaluated in this study is located in the Araucanía Region (southern Chile). It uses large amounts of water to perform the tasks of receiving milk and whey, for the production of whey powder and manjar (“milk marmalade”), and transfer of fresh milk. Before this study, the issues related to the use of water was not characterized or quantified.

Therefore, the goals of this work were oriented to: • Obtain detailed information about the use of water in the plant, in order to determine the amount of water used by process area, identifying the critical ones.

• Develop technical proposals for the efficient use of water in the plant, including its preliminary economic assessment.

To know the productive process, visual inspections were carried out inside the plant, in order to observe and study the operations in the various process areas. In addition, involved equipment and water lines were identified, to make the description of the processes and to identify the respective water flows. In order to develop the water balance, the different water consumption or using points were identified, quantifying their flow rates by direct measurement; the flow of the industrial wastewaters were measured at the discharge points to the drainage system. The collection of this data allowed the preparation of a detailed table for each process area, identifying the critical stages that represent the highest potential for water savings.

On the other hand, a daily monitoring of the water consumption was made, by measuring the general water supply, drinking water, and boiler water meter, obtaining a record of water consumption for four months, in order to provide the enterprise with the information needed to establish possible targets of consumption.

It was found that the highest consumption of water (47.8 %) corresponds to the falling film triple effect Wiegand evaporator, due to the use of a mixing condenser, which is commonly used in the dairy industry.

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

This result, along with the evaluation of the water cost in the plant (43 CLP/m 3), allowed the proposal of a closed cooling water loop for this mixing condenser, using cooling towers, which would allow to recirculate 4,096 m3/week, equivalent to annual savings of approximately CLP 8.5 million, an amount that would allow a recuperation of investment period of approximately one year.

Finally, the development of a water balance in a dairy industry permitted the design of technical proposals for a specific plant, which, if implemented, would allow water saving of approximately 54%.

INTRODUCTION Water is necessary in all stages of the processing and, also, is decisive and crucial for the functioning of all the food processing industries. In this way, it can be established that it is "an indispensable resource" in the majority of the producing or processing industries. Water sources are being depleted and polluted, making necessary a holistic approach to continuous improvement to reduce environmental pollution, costs, and make improvements in the production and in the internal companies’ relations.

The processing plant of dairy products in study uses large amounts of water in order to perform their tasks of receiving milk and whey, for the development of whey powder and manjar (“milk marmalade”). So far the theme of the use of water was not characterized or quantified. Therefore, the objectives of this work were oriented to: • Detailed information about the use of water in the plant, in order to determine the amount of water used by process area, identifying the critical areas.

• Develop technical proposals for the efficient use of water in the plant, including its preliminary economic assessment.

METHODOLOGY In order to know the productive process, reconnaissance and visual inspections in plant in order to observe and study the operations in the various areas of processes. In addition, we identified equipment and water lines involved, and eventually, to make the description of the processes and block diagrams and respective flows of water. To develop the control and the water balance are identified the different points of consumption or use of this, measuring their flow rates by direct seats, as were also measured the industrial liquid wastes (RILes) at the points where downloads were made to drain . This collection of data allowed the preparation of a detailed table for each process area, identifying the critical stages that represent the greatest potential for water savings.

On the other hand, a daily monitoring of consumption was made, where a reading of the water meter of general supply, meter of drinking water, and water meter from caldera was made. This made possible to obtain a record of water consumption for four months, in order to provide the enterprise with the needed information to establish possible targets of consumption.

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RESULTS Productive Process: The plant, located in the Araucanía Region in the South of Chile, it’s mainly dedicated to the production of cheese whey powder and manjar (“milk marmalade”). In addition, fulfils the function of a central transfer of fresh milk, where the minor amounts of milk from the farms are transferred to transport vehicles of greater size, in order to be transfered to a plant, located about 250 km to the south. The analysis of the plant identified the following process areas: • Reception area (laboratory, reception and as those milk transferring, and reception of serum) • Evaporation area (silo 5, Wiegand evaporator, tubular cooler, crystallizers) • Dry area (NIRO Dryer, tubular heater, lungs ponds) • Manjar area (milk marmalade production) • Services area (caldera and subterraneous) • EMAN S.A. area (Delivered on lease to an external company for the manufacture of liquor cream) Figure 1 shows a block diagram of the main process for the production of whey powder, while in Figure 2 includes water currents involved in that area of processes.

Use the Water in the Plant: The general supply of water is obtained from a well that owns the company, which has a meter that enabled us to quantify the total daily consumption of water. An assessment of the cost associated with obtaining the process water yielded a value of 43 $ /m3 (approx.

US$ 0.08 /m3). The information collected is summarized in Table 1 for the four months that monitoring was carried out.

Table 1. Water supply of the plant: average of daily consumption and total consumption per month from September to December 2007

Month September October November December Average Oct.-Dec.

Average of daily consumption [m3/d]

Consumption per month [m3/month]

715,2 1.201,0 1.184,6 1.169,6 1.185,3

21.456,0 37.251,9 35.538,1 36.258,2 36.349,4

On the other hand, in order to obtain detailed information of the use of water in the plant, to raise the balance sheets, measurements were made during a specific week, registering a water well consumption of 8,875 m3/week. Table 2 summarizes the different types of use that was given to the water in the various areas of process, appreciating that approximately 12% of the total consumption could not be attributed to some specific use.

The specific water consumption in the production of whey powder was found to be in the order of 11 m3 of water / ton of liquid whey that enters the process. It was found that the increased consumption of Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

water (47.8 %) corresponds to the falling film evaporator triple Wiegand effect, given with a condenser of mixture, which is commonly used in the dairy industry (see Figure 3). To determine the consumption involved a mass balance and energy were made to the evaporator and then to the condenser, to estimate the amount of water needed for its operation, since it was not possible to make direct measurements.

The previous estimate, along with the evaluation of the water cost in the plant (43 $ /m3. This allowed an alternative circuit closure of water on this computer, using cooling towers, which would allow recirculate 4,096 m3/week, equivalent to an annual saving of approximately $8.5 million, an amount that would allow to recover the investment in a slightly longer period of one year. Considering the potential of all areas of the plant, the savings may reach up to 4,839 m3/week, which means a reduction of 54.5 % in the consumption of water process. It should be noted that the generation of waste water process is reduced in the same proportion, with the significant environmental and economic benefits that this would entail.

Figure 1: Block diagram of the production process of

Figure 2: Flow of matter associated with the production

whey powder.

process of whey powder.

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 3: Schematic of the falling film evaporator triple Wiegand effect connected to the condenser

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Table 2. Summary of the use of water in the plant during the week of balance Consumption [m3/week] Area Reception Evaporation Drying Manjar Services EMAN S.A. Other consumption Total % respect to total consumption

Use of Hoses 164 402 454 130 120 161 204

Washings

Caldera

Formulation

Cooling

Other consumption

612 267 26 6 -

433 -

1 5 -

4.242 -

8 3 31 99 472

1.635

911

433

6

4.242

613

18,4%

10,2%

4,9%

0,1%

47,8%

6,9%

Total plant Consumption [m3/week]

8.875

Unidentified

1.035

A systematized diagnostic focused on the development of a water balance in a dairy industry enabled us to propose technical proposals that, if implemented, would allow water saving of approximately 54 %.

The investments associated with these proposals might be recovered in a period of less than two years.

REFERENCES Andaur, J. (2003). “Estudio técnico económico para la implementación de una planta de secado de suero”. Work to be eligible for the title of Industrial Civil Engineering mention Agroindustry.

Universidad de La Frontera.

Gösta, B. (1996). “Manual de Industrias Lácteas”. A. Madrid Vicente Ediciones, Madrid, España.

Perry, J. (1966).”Manual del Ingeniero Químico”. Uteha, México.

Ulrich, G. (1986). “Diseño y economía de los procesos de ingeniería química”. 1° Edición. Editorial Interamericana S.A., México.

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

Efficient Use of Water in Tailings Management: New Methodologies for the Future Carlos Cacciuttolo Vargas Engineering Council Chile carlos.cacciuttolo@gmail.com Kathia Tabra Pizarro PontifĂ­cia Universidad CatĂłlica Peru kathia.tabra@pucp.pe Mauricio Sandoval Fedelli Independent Consultant Chile msf.sandoval@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Nowadays many major copper mining projects in desert areas with extremely dry climates, as in northern of Chile and southern coast of Peru, processes sulfide ores at high production rates; in some cases over 100,000 metric tonnes per day (mtpd), with the generation of large amounts of tailings, that are commonly managed and transported hydraulically using fresh water to tailings storage facilities.

Considering the extremely dry climate, water scarcity, communitarian demands, and environmental constraints in these desert areas, the efficient use of water in mining is being strongly enforced. For this reason, water supply is recognized as one of the limiting factors for the development of new mining projects and for the expansion of the existing ones in these areas.

New water supply alternatives such as seawater desalinization, direct use of seawater, or water recovery from tailings, represent the strategy developed by the mining industry to deal with this growing scarcity.

This paper presents the main alternatives for water supply in mining projects, focusing on dry climate mining operations and providing sustainable guidelines for water use and recovery on tailings management. Proven technologies on the following issues: (i) seawater desalination/pumping, (ii) tailings dewatering/disposal, and (iii) new trends of technologies combination are described, focusing on the efficient use of water, indicating advantages and disadvantages, and providing a comparative cost estimates that consider site specific conditions such as topography, energy costs, fresh water costs, among others.

The message on this paper focus on the possibility to apply different water supply technologies or a combination of these, implementing adequate water management strategies that consider: environmental issues, technical issues, stringent regulatory frameworks, community requests and costeffective strategies, resulting in a reduction of water make-up and water requirements for mining (m 3 per tonnes of treated ore).

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Keywords:Fresh water, seawater use, dewatered tailings, water recovery, make-up requirement, sustainable water use, water supply strategies.

INTRODUCTION Tailings are usually a very fine mud or powder, left over after ore is crushed and valuable minerals are extracted. Tailings production is immense, since only ounces or pounds of metal are extracted for every ton of processed ore. Tailings may also contain chemicals used in metallurgical process as well as other metals and sulphides contained in ore, which need to be considered for safe tailings management. For this reason most tailings are not inert from a geochemical point of view and must be disposal to care the environment.

The transport and storage of tailings require a relevant environmental management. This residue is generally managed and transported hydraulically using fresh water to tailings storage facilities (TSF), being this alternative cheaper than bulk transportation by conveyor belts, trains or trucks. Is relevant to mention that most of water used for tailings transportation, needs to be recovered for reuse in the metallurgical process.

Copper, silver, gold, lead, zinc, among others metals production is growing quickly, and part of the increasing water demand can be explained by the expansion of existing mines and new projects being developed. In addition, there is an important increase in copper extraction/production caused by declining copper grades at existing mines. As copper grades decline, more ore needs to be processed in order to produce the same amount of copper metal. The use of water is proportional to the amount of ore that is processed, so it follows that more water is needed to produce the same amount of copper when grades decline. The exploitation of large ore deposits with decreasing grades has led the need to use efficient large equipments for the milling and processing of ore which enables higher production rates, that in turn implies to increase water demand for metallurgical process.

Efficient Water Management in Latin American Mining In general, ore deposits located in Latin American countries with dry climates such as Chile, Peru, Mexico, Argentina, Bolivia, among others, has the following characteristics: (i) very low precipitation rates (annual precipitation of 10 mm/year or less), and (ii) high evaporation rates (monthly evaporation rates up to 10 mm/day); resulting in annual average evaporation rates over 2,000 mm/year, as in Atacama desert, where water supply becomes a major challenge. These issues have raised the necessity of an efficient water management plan to transport and manage tailings during mine lifetime. Other sites in Latin America with mining operations that lie in dry and water scarcity, where the themes of this paper can be applied areas are: • • •

Northern of Chile - Atacama Desert (Region of Arica, Region of Tarapaca, Region of Antofagasta, and Region of Atacama).

Southern of Peru – Atacama Desert (Tacna Department, Moquegua Department, Ica Department, and Arequipa Department).

Northern of Peru – Sechura Desert (Piura Department, and Lambayeque Department).

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

• • •

Southern of Bolivia – Atacama Desert (Potosí Department, and Oruro Department).

Centre and Northern of Argentine – Sierra y Pampa (Province of Catamarca, Province of La Rioja, Province of San Juan, and Province of Mendoza).

Centre and Northern of México (Chihuahua State, Sonora State, Zacatecas State, Durango State, and Baja California State).

Due to water scarcity, the supply of fresh water is not available from groundwater and surface courses.

In addition, increasing water demand of communities, agriculture and other productive sectors, has led to a vulnerability of freshwater resources, resulting in a conflict of needs for water between different water users. Water resources are increasingly affected by a combination of factors such as climate change, which results in the progressive decline of water supply, recharge and infiltration flows in these basins. Also, the productivity of watersheds has been affected dramatically as a result of dry hydrological stations.

As a consequence, stakeholders have been affected and, in some cases drinking water resources have been dramatically compromised, resulting in increasing social pressure. Figure 1 and Figure 2 shows as example the amount of water consumption at two northern Chile regions registered in 2007 and the consumption projected for the year 2017.

Figure 1:Water consumption in Antofagasta Region (Region II) of Chile (Samad and Singh, 2013).

Figure 2:Water consumption in Atacama Region (Region III) of Chile (Samad and Singh, 2013).

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

As shown in both figures, the proportion of water consumption in mining and industrial activities tends to increase, whereas in agriculture, livestock and drinking water consumption rate tends to decrease in both regions.

These studies demonstrate a competition for water use, therefore it is necessary to implement solutions, and implement water management tools to meet the water demands of all stakeholders.

Tailings Management Methodologies Description Engineers, scientists, mine operators, y authorities are working to improve the design and operation of tailings storage facilities (TSFs), focusing on the development of optimal solutions, which considers the following aspects: (i) reliable performance of technologies, (ii) a dynamic and robust TSF water balance (considering site specific conditions); and (iii) efficient water management with the control of water losses (evaporation and infiltration). If these key issues are successfully implemented, a reduction of water make-up requirements, decrease of negative environmental impacts and an increase of natural water supply will promote sustainable development.

Fresh water sources for mining activities must be carefully studied given the environmental impacts and costs for its implementation. Water supply during the operation must have the capacity to grow to provide the necessary supply of fresh water during the entire useful life of the project.

In the case of sea water, the different possible locations for the water intake plant at the coast, the requirement or not for desalination, the required pumping station, and the transport pipelines must be analyzed. In the sizing of the desalination and pumping plant, it is important to consider the variability of the required water flow. In general, water losses in tailings deposits increase over time due to increased evaporation area of the pond of clear water, increased consolidation of the deposited tailings and therefore higher seepages also involve seasonal variations.

The application of tailings dewatering technologies for increasing tailings water recovery is a relevant step to reduce water losses (water from fresh or sea water supplies) caused by evaporation, infiltration and retention at interstitial voids on tailings storage facilities, however, no doubt that is necessary to implement new designs in order to make an environmentally friendly tailings management focus on efficiency water use.

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The figure 3 shows different dewatering tailings technologies that focus on water recovery and efficient water management:

Figure 3: Dewatering Tailings Technologies – Water Management Focus.

Water Recovery from Tailings with Conventional Technologies (WRCT) In the current Chilean and Peruvian large scale mining at dry climate areas, most typical tailings disposal schemes consist of conventional, or slightly thickened at modest levels of tailings solids weight concentration (Cw 48–52%). Conventional TSFs have dams built of cycloned tailings sands (coarse fraction of tailings obtained by hydrocyclones), or have a slightly thickened tailings deposits with dams built of borrow material. Conventional tailing dams may have water recoveries as high as 65% - 75 % range in very well operated TSFs, which means they have appropriate tailings distribution, good control of the pond (volume and location) and adequate seepage recovery. In conventional dams, water decanting at the settling pond is recovered by floating pumps, or decant towers, and dam seepages is recollected by a drainage system and cut off trench systems. However, a high seasonal evaporation rate can substantially reduce water recovery from the pond area, and infiltration from pond in contact with natural soil can produce water losses.

Water Recovery from Tailings with Thickening Technologies (WRTT) Thickened Tailings Disposal (TTD) technology requires more background data than conventional tailings disposal. In the conventional approach, the properties of tailings are fixed by the concentrator plant, whereas in a TTD impoundment, the properties of the tailings and their placement are "engineered" to suit the topography of the disposal area. The behavior of tailings in both approaches is Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

entirely different. In conventional disposal, tailings segregate as they flow and settle out to an essentially flat deposit, whereas in TTD technology a sloping surface is obtained. The principal difference is that in TTD technology tailings are thickened before discharge to a homogeneous heavy consistency that results in laminar non-segregating flow from discharge. In this way TTD produces high water recovery (80 percent of tailings water recovery) and a self-supporting deposit with sloping sides, requiring small dams (Robinsky, 1999).

Water Recovery from Tailings with Filtering Technologies (WRFT) In the last 20 years, many mining projects around the world have applied a tailings disposal technology called filtered dry stacked tailings. This technique produces an unsaturated cake that allows to store this material without the need to manage large slurry tailings ponds. The application of this technology has accomplished: (i) an increase of water recovery from tailings (90 percent), (ii) reduction of TSF footprint (impacted areas), (iii) decrease in the risk of physical instability, being TSFs self supporting structures under compaction (such as dry stacks), and (iv) a better community perception.

The improvements of filtering technologies (pressure and vacuum filtering) in recent years has allowed to increase operational reliability and the development of large capacity filters, reaching in some projects 50,000 metric tonnes per day (mtpd) of filtered tailings nowadays (Cacciuttolo et al, 2014).

Water Recovery from Tailings with Hybrid Technologies (WRHT) The future trend in mining will be the complementary supply of seawater and fresh water, being the greater supply sea water. Along with this, the implementation of dewatering tailings technologies depending on the characteristics of the mineral (grain size, hardness, specific gravity, chemical composition of tailings, etc.), promote high water recovery. An alternative process to obtain filtered tailings consist on the recovery of the coarse fraction of tailings (cycloned tailings sand) through two cycloning stages followed by a drainage stage in dewatering vibratory screens to reduce tailings moisture and turn it into a paste easily to be transported to the adjoining dumping facility (Cacciuttolo et al, 2014).

Water Recovery Performance Tailings Management Technology Comparision Water losses at TSFs come from water retained in deposited tailings and in the evaporation from beaches formed at the TSF. To reduce these losses, new management technologies have been developed, which seek to maximize the reclaim of water before tailings are discharged to the TSF, by cycloning, thickening, and / or filtering tailings. Table 1 shows a comparison between different tailings management technologies, considering water make-up requirements (TSF water losses). Data from some projects at Chile and Peru located in extreme dry areas are given.

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Table1. Tailings management methodologies and average water make-up (TSF water losses)

Tailings Management Methodology

TSF Disposal and Water Management Parameters Tailings Storage Facility Name

Country

Production Rate (tpd)

PSD d50 (µm)

Solids Content Cw (%)

Average Make-up (m3/ ton)

Reference

FWS - CTWR Pampa Pabellon

Chile

120,000

52

52 (TT)

0.70

Wels et al. (2003)

FWS - CTWR Talabre

Chile

160,000

70

55 (TT)

0.64

Wels et al. (2003)

FWS - CTWR Los Quillayes

Chile

115,000

36

40 (SL)

0.35

Barrientos (2013), Samad (2013)

FWS - CTWR Quebrada Enlozada

Peru

120,000

45

40 (SL)

0.44

Obermeyer et al. (2013)

FWS - CTWR Quebrada Honda

Peru

150,000

75

37 (SL)

0.62

Serpa et al. (2008)

SWS - CTWR Esperanza (Centinela)

Chile

95,000

45

65 (TT)

0.50

Samad (2013), Thiele et al. (2011)

SWS - CTWR Cerro Negro Norte

Chile

20,000

75

65 (TT)

0.45

Pino (2013)

SWS - CTWR Laguna Seca

Chile

240,000

65

50 (TT)

0.66

Chambers et al. (2003)

FWS - FTWR

La Coipa

Chile

20,000

68

80 (TT)

0.22

Lara et al. (2012)

FWS - FTWR

Peñon

Chile

3,000

62

84 (TT)

0.20

Lara et al. (2011)

FWS - FTWR

Mantos Verde

Chile

12,000

57

82 (TT)

0.23

Lara et al. (2011)

FWS - FTWR

Cerro Lindo

Peru

7,000

65

88 (SL)

0.20

Lara et al. (2011)

FWS - HTWR Mantos Blancos

Chile

12,000

86

82 (TT)

0.28

Lara et al. (2012)

FWS - HTWR Caserones

Chile

90,000

74

60 (TT)

0.37

Pizarro (2012), Barrera (2009)

Note: The following terms mean: TT: Total Tailings, SL: Slimes (fine particle size distribution of total tailings), FWS: Fresh Water Supply and SWS: Sea Water Supply.

In recent years, the improvements in tailings dewatering technologies (thickening and filtering), have allowed an increase in water recovery. These technologies have been successfully applied for production rates up to 25,000 mtpd. There is still a need for more reliable equipments for the thickening and filtering processes on large scale, focusing in tailings water recovery and enhancing its reuse in mining processing. The following table shows water recovery quantities obtained with different dewatering tailings technologies:

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

Table 2. Water Recovery Comparison between Tailings Management Methodologies Unit

Conventional Tailings Management

Thickened Tailings Management

Hybrid Tailings Management

Filtered Tailings Management

Tailings Production

tpd

100,000

100,000

100,000

100,000

Cw before Thickening

%

28

28

28

28

Water on Conventional Tailings

l/s

2,976

2,976

2,976

2,976

Cw after Thickening

%

50

60

70 (*)

80

Water on Dewatered Tailings

l/s

1,157

772

496

289

Water Recovery from Thickeners

l/s

1,819

2205

2480

2,687

Water Recovery from TSF

l/s

382

255

164

95

Total Water Recovery

l/s

2,201

2459

2644

2,782

Water Recovery Efficiency

%

74

83

89

93

Description

Note: The following terms mean: Cw: Tailings solid content by weight (%). (*): 70 % signifies a mean target Cw value, considering dewatering tailings technologies applied.

RESULTS OF EVALUATION OF APPLICATION OF DEWATERED TAILINGS METHODOLOGIES AT LARGE SCALE MINING STUDY CASE A case of study is presented, based on a typical large copper mine that process 100,000 mtpd, with 20 years mine life and currently deposition of conventional slurry tailings with 50 % of solid content by weight. Water recovery from the TSF is very low, mainly because of high evaporation rate in the extreme dry area and infiltration. Different tailings management alternatives needs to be evaluated to select a cost effective solution, considering fresh water and sea water supply options, focusing to obtain a high water recovery from tailings and the proper disposal of tailings.

Table 3. Parameters considered for Alternatives Comparison Parameters

Value

Unit

100,000

mtpd

150

km

2,000

m.a.s.l.

Mine Lifetime

20

years

Discount Rate for Cost Estimate

10

%

Tailings Production Rate Sea - Concentrator Plant Distance Sea - Concentrator Plant Difference of Level

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The following table presents the alternatives cost estimate results for this study case: Table 4. Tailings Management Methodology Alternatives Cost Estimate

Tailings Management Methodology

Conventional Technology Cw 50%

Thickened Technology Cw 60 %

Hybrid Technology Cw 70 %

Filtered Technology Cw 80 %

a) Tailings Disposal

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

Case 5

Case 6

Case 7

Case 8

CAPEX, million US$

225

225

150

150

250

250

450

450

Total SUSTAINING Cost, million US$

100

100

200

200

125

125

50

50

OPEX, million US$ per year

15

15

25

25

35

35

50

50

Make up water flow rate, l/s

691

691

432

432

346

346

173

173

Tailings Disposal Cost, US$/t

0.9

0.9

1.2

1.2

1.5

1.5

2.1

2.1

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

Case 5

Case 6

Case 7

Case 8

CAPEX, million US$

50

750

25

650

15

500

5

250

Make up water, m3/t

0.8

0.8

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

Water Cost, US$/m3 (Fresh Water)

1.7

-

1.7

-

1.7

-

1.7

-

-

4.0

-

4.0

-

4.0

-

4.0

50

-

31

-

25

-

12

-

OPEX, million US$ per year (Sea Water)

-

117

-

73

-

58

-

29

Make Up Water Cost US$/t (Fresh Water)

1.4

0.3

-

b) Make Up Water Supply

Water Cost, US$/m3 (Sea Water) OPEX, million US$ per year (Fresh Water)

Make Up Water Cost US$/t (Sea Water)

0.9

0.7

-

4.2

-

2.9

-

2.3

-

1.1

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

Case 5

Case 6

Case 7

Case 8

Unit Cost, US$/t

2.3

5.1

2.0

4.1

2.2

3.8

2.4

3.2

Net Present Cost, Million US$

925

2,197

852

1,834

899

1,670

934

1,424

c) Integral Tailings/Water Management

Note: •

• • •

Par number cases considers fresh water supply, and impair number cases consider sea water supply.

Capex considers the following items: Process equipment, pipelines/conveyors, embankment, direct/indirect costs, owner costs, and contingency.

Sustaining Costs considers the following items: Deferred equipments, pipelines/conveyors and installations.

Opex considers the following items: Power, Flocculant, labor, maintenance, and earth moving equipment.

Costs are evaluated on the basis of water usage relative to the production efficiency of the mine. In copper ore deposits where the quality of ore grade is low, the cost of water used per unit weight of metal obtained is high. Therefore, mining companies have to assess the cost effectiveness of using brackish or desalinated water. As a result, mining companies are attempting to improve the efficiency of their water use in operations, by reducing water losses due to infiltration, evaporation or effluent generation.

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

The figure 4 shows the graphical results of the 8 alternatives and a comparative analysis of costs estimate:

Figure 4: Results of Cost Estimate for Tailings Management Alternatives

The results indicate that for use fresh water supply, given the characteristics of this large mining scale production study case, thickened tailings technology is the most cost effective alternative. The second options, not too far from the first place are conventional tailings technology and hybrid tailings technology. Competitiveness of these alternatives against thickened tailings technology will depend heavily on the unit cost of fresh water and the efficient management performance to control water loss.

On the other hand, filtered tailings technology is the less cost effective alternative with the use of fresh water. However, when the cost of sea water is incorporated, the situation changes and the technology become strongly competitive, being the most cost effective alternative. Finally, depending on the characteristics of the project being evaluated (distance/level from the coast, cost of energy, equipment cost and reliability, etc.), filtered tailings alternative could become the most convenient option in the future.

Although the development of thickening and filtering technologies has advanced significantly in the last years, more investigations / studies need to be conducted to understand their behavior, focusing to obtain a good performance at larger production scale with different tailings particle size distributions.

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

New Mine Operation Cases – Greenfield Projects Greenfield projects have additional complications because of the limited knowledge of project conditions. For example, early ore samples may not appropriately reflect the final source of tailings that will be used in the project for dewatering technologies. For this reason, in a Greenfield project evaluation it is necessary to include a risk analysis of the technologies considered for tailings management and water source. For these projects in particular, is recommended to consider the options and experiences from existing projects at the same production scale. Community, environmental and social issues should be given significant consideration.

The main economic and environmental drivers to consider the conversion to thickened/paste or tailings/filter cake deposition systems are: • • •

Major increase in water losses from the tailings in conventional technologies (slurry tailings) at extreme dry climates.

Eliminate high capital/operation costs for new water sources (sea water desalination) to maintain and/or increase production.

Substantial capital/operation cost reduction in the TSF as compared to conventional slurry tailings disposal.

The main economic and/or environmental drivers to consider the supply of water with sea water are: • Potential depletion of long-term source of water make up, with the need of a major increase in water recovery from tailings.

• Sustainable use of water, promoting economic, environmental and quality life development of stakeholders in the region.

It is important to note that for some specific cases, extracting water from the tailings has the potential to be a better option than sourcing water make up from the sea.

Expasion Mine Operation Cases – Brownfield Projects Brownfield Projects are less risky, as ore composition from mine is better understood and tailings management methodology is well known, but since most ore resources have been quite exploited, the economical reward is gradually less. The exploitation of a low-grade deposit requires extracting a greater quantity of ore and a greater amount of water use, to obtain competitive advantage in the market, which is why the beneficiation process and use of water resources requires a higher efficiency.

Engineers and mining operators have completed studies for 15 years on highly dewatered tailings disposal methods for number of large scale mining operations/projects in northern Chile. The lesson learned is that there are potential cost savings to motivate to change from conventional slurry tailings disposal systems to alternative highly dewatered tailings disposal systems in existing operations.

Make up water for mining operations has historically been obtained from surface streams and ground water located in Andes Mountains within environmentally sensitive areas. The majority these water sources are currently considered to be exploited to their limits, whilst some are nearing depletion or Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

will have to be closed down to limit environmental damage. Mining operations that operate in places with water scarcity and have expansion plans, are now turning their attention to the sea as a source of water for their future water needs. Table 5 presents mining operations that have taken the decision to supply its metallurgical processes and tailings management with seawater:

Table 5. Sea water use at mine operations for metallurgical and tailings process (Cochilco, 2013) Mine Operation Name Country

Tailings Production (mtpd)

Sea Water Pumping Capacity (l/s)

Sea Water Supply (%)

Status

Escondida

Chile

240,000

3,000

75

In Operation

Esperanza (Centinela)

Chile

95,000

1,500

100

In Operation

Candelaria

Chile

75,000

500

85

In Operation

Cerro Negro Norte

Chile

20,000

200

100

In Operation

Sierra Gorda

Chile

100,000

1,315

100

In Operation

RT Sulfuros

Chile

200,000

2,000

100

Project

Cerro Lindo

Peru

15,000

120

100

In Operation

Bayovar

Peru

15,000

450

100

In Operation

CONCLUSIONS Water is a resource requested by many stakeholders such as population, industry, agriculture, among others. In this context mining companies can make a significant contribution to society in terms of water management, with focus on sustainable development and long-term vision. Efficient use of water for industrial purposes should recover as much water as possible, reducing possible losses to the environment and must be distributed properly between users, according to their demands and requirements with the compliance of quality standards.

While industrial activities generate economical value and allow businesses transacting goods and services, this activity should also generate social value by improving quality life of people, mitigate negative impacts and promote sustainable development. Industrial and wastewater from mining activities should be recycled instead of increasing fresh water make up. Also, the use of seawater and wastewater reuse should be considered.

In many cases, the ability of a mine to operate is contingent on having sufficient water make-up to compensate for the losses incurred during the operations, which are mostly accounted by the TSF. For this reason, considering water recovery measures in the design of TSF and developing an accurate water balance model are important factors for the success of the project.

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Inadequate control of fresh water distribution and excessive use of fresh water for industrial purposes may cause a shortage of water for local population in northern Chile and southern Peru in the future.

A water management plan can provide an improvement of water recovery from tailings for its reuse in metallurgical process, hydraulic transport of tailings/concentrate and mine site reclamation. The implementation of a good water management plan can significantly reduce water make-up (fresh water) requirements and costs in the long term.

Taking into account the reasons announced above exist economic and environmental drivers to: (i) consider the conversion to thickened/paste or tailings/filter cake disposal technology, and (ii) consider the supply of sea water for mining processes. These aspects will be the new design and operation trends of Greenfield and Brownfield mining projects.

These are the major challenges for mining, agriculture, industries, population, and authorities nowadays. We have not solved all our difficulties yet and there are many interesting solutions waiting to be found.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author of this paper wish to express their appreciation to scientist Mrs. Kathia Tabra, and to engineer Mr. Mauricio Sandoval for reviewing and assisted with key contributions to create this technical article.

REFERENCES Avila, P., Brantes, R., and Perez, P. (2010). Sin Agua No hay Minería: Impacto de la Desalinización en la Posición Competitiva de la Industria Chilena de Cobre. In Aguas Antofagasta, Catholic University of North of Chile, and Ceitsaza (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd International Seminar on Desalination and Water Reuse, November 2010, Antofagasta, Chile.

Barrera S. and Riveros C. (2009) ´Caserones: Option of tailings classifying to improve water reclaim, Proceedings of the 12th International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, April 2009, Viña Del Mar, Chile.

Barrientos, S., (2013) Design, operation and control of the Mauro tailings dam, Plenary presentation at 1st International Seminar on Tailings Management, Santiago, Chile.

Bleiwas D. (2012) ´Estimated water requirements for conventional flotation of copper ores´, USGS, USA. Viewed September 2012 at: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2012/1089 Brantes, A., Olivares, G. and Zuñiga, A. I. (2008) ´Best practices and efficient use of water in the mining industry´, COCHILCO, ISBN: 978-956-8242-10-7, Santiago, Chile. Viewed September 2012 at: http://www.cochilco.cl/english/productos/doc/best_practices_and_the_efficient_use_of_water.pdf Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

Cacciuttolo, C., Barrera, S., Caldwell, J., and Vargas, W. (2014). Filtered Dry Stacked Tailings: Developments and New Trends. In Gecamin and Department of Mining Engineering at the University of British Columbia (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd International Seminar on Tailings Management, August 2014, Antofagasta, Chile.

Cacciuttolo, C., and Scognamillo, C. (2014). Improving Water Recovery with Different Tailings Management Technologies. In Gecamin and Centre for Water in the Minerals Industry, Sustainable Minerals Institute, University of Queensland, Australia (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on Water Management in Mining WIM 2014, May 2014, Viña del Mar, Chile.

Chambers, B., Howard, P., Pottie, J., Murray, L. and Burgess, A. (2003) ´Water recovery from a mine in the Atacama Desert´. In Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th Water in Mining Conference, October 2003. Brisbane, Australia: Australasian Institute.

Cochilco (2013). Proyección demanda de agua fresca en la minería del cobre, 2013-2021, Viewed April 2014 at http://www.cochilco.cl/descargas/estudios/informes/agua/2013_Informe_Proyeccion_de_agua_fresca__ 03012014.pdf Codelco (2012). Proyecto RT Sulfuros, Viewed September 2012 at: http://www.codelco.com/prontus_codelco/site/artic/20130531/asocfile/20130531113933/ppt_rrt_minisit io.pdf Lara J.L. and León E. (2011). Design and Operational Experience of the Cerro Lindo Filtered Tailings Deposit. Paste and Thickened Tailings 2011 Seminar, Australia.

Lara, J.L. Pornillos, E., and Loayza, C. (2012) The application of highly dewatered tailings in the design of tailings storage facilities – Experience in Mining Projects in Peru. In Geotechnical Engineering Program, Department of Civil Engineering, Colorado State University (Eds.), Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste, October 2012, Keytone, USA. Obermeyer, C., Enriquez, J., and Alexieva, T. (2013) ´Enviable water recovery in a desert environment: A case study´. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Mine Water Solutions in Extreme Environments, April 2013, Lima, Peru.

Pino, R. (2013) Depositacion de Relaves Espesados en Proyecto Cerro Negro Norte. 5th Paste Tailings Seminar, RELPAS, Santiago, Chile. Viewed December 2013 at: http://relpas.relpas.cl/relpas/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/4-Ra%C3%BAl-Pino-CMPC-Cerro-NegroNorte.pdf

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Pizarro, N. (2012) SCMLCC. 1st Mining Symposium, ATACAMAMIN, May 2012, Copiapo, Chile.

Viewed May 2014 at: http://atacamamin.atacamamin.cl/atacamamin/wp-content/uploads/pres2012/MODULO_1/1NPIZARRO.pdf Robinsky, E.I., 1999. Thickened Tailings Disposal in the Mining Industry. E.I. Robinsky Associates Ltd., 1 Lydia Court, Toronto, Canada.

Samad, M. A., and Singh, S. (2013) ´Mine Water Management Strategies in Dry Areas of Chile´.

Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Mine Water Solutions in Extreme Environments, April 2013, Lima, Peru.

Serpa, B., and Walqui, H. B. (2008) ´Tailings disposal at Quebrada Honda Toquepala´. In A.B. Fourie, R.J. Jewell, P. Slatter and A. Paterson (Eds.), Proceedings of the 11th International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings , May 2008, Kasane, Botswana. Perth, Australia.

Tabra, K., and Gaete, O., (2013) Ways to Deal with Mine/Plant Effluent Residues: A roadmap process.

Proceedings of the 142th SME Annual Meeting, February 2013, Denver, Colorado, USA. Tabra, K., and Lange, S., (2014). Active Treatment of Tailings Seepage with Focus on Sulphate and Manganese Removal. Proceedings of the 2nd International Seminar on Tailings Management TAILINGS 2014, August 2014, Antofagasta, Chile.

Tapia, E. (2013) Proyecto Cerro Negro Norte. 2nd Mining Symposium, ATACAMAMIN, Copiapo, Chile.

Viewed December 2013 at: http://atacamamin.atacamamin.cl/atacamamin/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/3-Eduardo-Tapia.pdf Thiele, C. and Parraguez, L. (2011) Minera Esperanza. 3rd Paste Tailings Seminar, RELPAS, Santiago, Chile. Viewed December 2011 at: http://www.relpas.cl/neo_2011/pdf/2011/M3/02%20Christian%20Thiele%20&%20Leonardo %20Parraguez.pdf Wels, C., and Robertson, A. MacG.. (2003). Conceptual Model for Estimating Water Recovery in Tailings Impoundments. In Geotechnical Engineering Program, Department of Civil Engineering (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste, October 2004, Vail, Colorado, USA.

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Learnings from CSN Steel Production Water Inventory.

João Castro Geoklock Consultoria e Engenharia Ambiental São Paulo/Brazil joao.castro@geoklock.com.br Raphael Turri CSN - Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional São Paulo/SP/Brazil raphael.turri@csn.com.br Antonio Simões CSN - Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional Volta Redonda/RJ/Brazil antonio.simoes@csn.com.br Henrique Alonso CSN - Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional São Paulo/SP/Brazil henrique.alonso@csn.com.br

ABSTRACT Steel industry has been reducing the need of raw materials, energy and water in order to improve the sustainability of the sector. Great improvements have been achieved in the last 40 years. Research and technology development have led to better efficiency patterns and more strength materials, demanding less natural resources. Over last years, water use concerning gained more importance. Increasing human demand associated to pollution is bringing water scarcity scenarios. The Usina Presidente Vargas (UPV), a steel production facility of the Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional (CSN), depends on water from Paraíba do Sul River, in Rio de Janeiro State. The Paraíba do Sul River is a very important water resource in Brazil. Its watershed is responsible for 75% of the total human water supply of the State of Rio de Janeiro. In order to deal with water issue, CSN developed a study to understand its relation with water resources and the impacts of the industrial use in the river basin. The main goal of this study is to evaluate, through an integrated overview, water withdrawals, recirculation and reuses of water, effluents treatment and discharge linked to the respective steel production steps. Water balance was calculated in two levels: macro and process. This approach was prepared based on the process controlling data and environmental department data, which manage the water inputs and outputs of the Paraíba do Sul River. The complexity of the internal water grid and the size of industrial facility were challenging to the study. As a result, a flow water diagram that links the two main water grids (treated and no treated) and the consumers inside the plant. Also, the water outputs are linked to the effluent launching points, considering the water flow and pollutants charges. No water is incorporated in the Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

products, thus the difference was assumed as evaporation. The steel production process demands huge volumes of water, around 150,000 cubic meters per hour, mainly to refrigerate the metal products.

Indeed, evaporation of water is very intense, achieving more than 3,700 cubic meters per hour.

Furthermore, the study confirms the good practices of water recirculation and reuses by the company, about 90% of total demand, considering water volumes for steel and non-steel processes in the facility.

Also, addressed opportunities to reduce water withdrawal and the tendencies of water availability in the watershed.

INTRODUCTION To manage water abstraction and discharges, inflow and outflow information is minimally needed.

Nevertheless, to measure water performance, assess river basin conditions and understand water related challenges and opportunities, a deeper approach is required. Organizations are ďťżchanging the way they address the water theme (CEO Water Mandate, 2014). Some factors contribute to general concern about water. Shortages and flooding, population growth, urbanization and climate change effects are important drivers. In Brazil, most of the municipalities are going to face supplying difficulties in 2015 (ANA, 2010).

The goal of this study is to achieve an integrated overview of water withdrawals, recirculation and reuses of water, effluents treatment and discharge linked to the respective steel production steps. The evaluation and the understanding of this base will help to develop effective water management strategies.

Founded in 1941, the Companhia SiderĂşrgica Nacional (CSN) or National Steel Company started operating in 1946, on the inauguration of the Usina Presidente Vargas (UPV) or President Vargas Steelworks. After successive expansions, implemented in the 1970s and 80s, the factory was privatized in 1993. A new cycle of investments in the modernization of production processes and the organizational structure, consisting of 8,000 employees and, 10,000 outsourced, was initiated. In 2013, the UPV had 10,500 employees and over 7,800 outsourced, a total of 18,300 employees.

The UPV is one of the main plants of the CSN, as well as one of the largest steel plants in Latin America. It has a production capacity of 5.6 million tonnes of flat steel per year, converted in plates, hot rolled, cold rolled and coated products.

This study is based on the guideline Corporate Water Disclosure Guidelines (The CEO Water Mandate, 2012) and presents the main results of the water accounting in the UPV plant, challenges and next steps to measure water performance and continue to assess the water theme in CSN.

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

METHODOLOGY The guideline Corporate Water Disclosure Guidelines - Toward a Common Approach to Reporting Water Issues (The CEO Water Mandate, 2012) was consulted as reference to the study. The water inventory was conducted as follows: Figure – Water study steps The water accounting, use and consumption, is based on the mass balance concept. Inside a delimited frontier, the mass conservation principle defines the relation among inflows and outflows.

Figure – Water balance flow chart

The river basin assessment aims to describe the local water situation, competition, quality, availability, based on the mains aspects of the watershed.

The guidelines indicate several methodologies to evaluate the impact. For this study, it was chosen the Water Footprint (WF), a multidimensional and environmental pressure indicator that shows consumption and polluted water volumes, geographically and temporally specified. The WF assessment provides a simplist approach to link the water provided by the River and the industrial water usage. The indicator has three components: green, blue, and grey water footprints. The definitions applied to assess the amount of water used were those described by Hoekstra et al. (2011).

Green Water Footprint: refers to the volume of rain water evapotranspirated by agricultural products. In this study, it is not applicable.

Blue Water Footprint: refers to water from ground-surface water bodies that is lost either by evaporation, transfered to another catchment area or incorporated into a product.

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Grey Water Footprint: is defined as the volume of freshwater required to assimilate a load of pollutants.

It is an indirect consume.

All the components in both, blue and grey water footprint, are presented as volume of freshwater such as liters or cubic meters.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Location and Watershed The Usina Presidente Vargas (UPV), a steel production facility of the Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional (CSN) depends on water from Paraíba do Sul River, in Rio de Janeiro State. The UPV plant is located beside the River, in the Municipality of Volta Redonda.

The Paraíba do Sul River is a very important water resource in Brazil, especially to the State of Rio de Janeiro: 75% of the total human water consumption in the State is provided by the Paraíba do Sul River Basin. The River Basin also provides water to the States of São Paulo and Minas Gerais.

Figure – UPV location and watershed

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The Paraíba do Sul River and Water Competition In the Paraíba do Sul River, upstream the UPV, there is a hydropower dam, named Funil. This barrier regulate the flows in a range of 80 to 700 m³/s. In the UPV region, the average flow is above 400 m³/s, in the rainy season, and around 200 to 250 m³/s in the dry season. The water availability (Q 95) is 200 m³/s.

According to the National Water Agency (Agência Nacional de Águas – ANA), the water demand from Paraíba do Sul River is 73 m³/s. It supplies water to 17.6 million inhabitants in the States of São Paulo, Rio de janeiro and Minas Gerais (INEA, 2014). In 2025, the water demand may reach 79 m³/s due to industry and population increasing tendency (ANA, 2010).

Upstream to UPV, an automotive cluster is being constructed, sharing the water resource. The UPV responds by 40% of the authorized withdrawals for industry in the whole Paraíba do Sul Watershed (AGEVAP, 2013).

The River flows from São Paulo state and cross the Rio de Janeiro state. The Great São Paulo has been facing water shortages and has required a transposition volume from the Paraíba do Sul River. It shall reduce the availability. However, the Paraíba do Sul River faced water shortage in 2001-2004 period, fact that reduced water abstraction and assimilation capacity of pollutants. Furthermore, the local agency estimated that 95% of the water availability downstream from UPV will be compromised in 2030, based on population and industrial increasing trends (INEA, 2014). This scenario may pressure water consumption reduction by users, especially in industry. The industrial sector is the last priority in the national water policy.

Water Use Charge The national water policy imposes, as a management instrument, fees for the use of water. In 2013, CSN disbursed 2.5 million reais to the national water agency, due to the authorization catchment and for the use and consumption: R$ 0.01 / m³ abstracted and more R$ 0.02 / m³ consumed. These taxes tend to be increased to incentive water savings.

UPV and the Water Production units, according to its function in the steelmaking context, compose the UPV plant, as follows.

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Figure – Main production units and products flows in UPV facility

The Paraíba do Sul River is the water resource that supplies freshwater to the plant. Three mains grids distribute water to the production units: crude, clarified and potable.

A flow water diagram that links the input flow, the main water grids and the consumers inside the plant was developed. Moreover, the production units water outputs, reuses and the treated effluent launching points was included.

Water pumped directly from the River supplies crude water grid, with no previous treatment. The crude water refrigerates a thermal power generation unit and then it is reused in specific operations by the production units.

For the clarified water grid, the crude water is submitted to a simple treatment and then distributed.

This type of water is widely used in the UPV plant, especially as make up water for cooling towers.

The potable water is produced in the UPV plant and supply the offices and internal restaurants. Over the last decade, the city of Volta Redonda used to be supplied by the UPV potable water system.

The water balance was performed firstly in a production units level. The main lines were considered, mapped as “from-to” flows, including all cooling towers, reuses and recirculation. Waste water treatment and discharge were included. Rain water was accounted in the areas that make use of this source or when the discharge point measurement accounts this contribution.

The interconnections of the production units water balances lead to the macro water balance, based in annual average flows, in cubic meters per hour. This accounting was prepared based on the process controlling data, which is responsible for water costs allocation among users, and environmental department data, which manage the inputs and outputs of water from the Paraíba do Sul River.

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The complexity of the internal water grid (more than 200 km) and the size of industrial facility (around 3 km²) were challenging to the study. More than 30 people were involved in this water balance.

Data quality assessment was conducted to ensure a consistent database. The flows were classified in measured, estimated, project data and calculated after the mass balance evaluation. Less than 5% of the total flows were measured. The plant was built in 1941 and several upgrades have been made. Some known flows were overestimated and there was a lack of data for many other lines. During the study, the working group visited all the process units in order to map the current water use and confirm data and assumptions. These field information were very important to the water balance.

Performance The UPV processes demands huge volumes of water, around 150,000 cubic meters per hour. The steel making runs in high temperatures (iron fusion) and the water mainly is used to cool down the steel products. Indeed, the water volume consumed for this purpose is large. The products do not incorporate water, thus the inflow-outflow difference was assumed as evaporation, which is expressive: it achieves 3,700 cubic meters per hour.

The main results are presented, as follows: Table. Inflow and outflows main results

Input Paraíba do Sul River

m³/h 16,643

Rain water

275

Coal humidity

37

Total inflow

16,954

Output Evaporation

3 785

Discharge (Effluents)

13,170

Total outflow

16,954

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Table. Recirculation and reuses mains flows

Flow

m³/h

Withdrawal

16,643

Cooling recirculation systems

72,265

Reused (treated)

63,572

Total demand

152,481

Total recirculated

135,838

The study confirms the good practices of recirculation and reuses of water by the company, about 89% of total demand, which includes water volumes for steel and non-steel processes in the facility.

Water Footprint Based on the water balance accounting, the operational blue water footprint (WF) was calculated. The rain catchment in the materials storage patios was included as freshwater inflow. The difference between the freshwater abstraction and the water volume in the effluent discharge is the blue water footprint. It means the volume of water abstracted from the water resource that did not return. In this case, the evaporation flow. The blue water of UPV operations accounted 32 million cubic meters that represents an average flow of 3,700 m³/s.

Figure – Operational blue WF

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As an indirect consume, the grey water footprint accounts 46 million cubic meters in 2013. It indicates the volume of freshwater required to assimilate a load of pollutants. The grey water footprint can be accounted as a consumption because the river need this freshwater volume available to assimilate the load of pollutants of the operation.

Figure â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Operational grey WF

The grey water footprint is calculated based on the pollution load launched to the river basin. The UPV effluents pollutans concentrations are under the assimilation limits, about 40%. It complies with the current regulation. The assimilation capacity of the River determines these limits, imposed by the environmental agency.

Although relevant metals concentrations were expected, the monitoring analysis indicated low content.

The main potential impact associated to this flow is the temperature parameter, carrying a thermal load to the River. The temperature may change the physical, chemical and biological dynamics of a water body. An increase in the average temperature affects the density and viscosity parameters, and more sedimentation of suspended solids may occur as consequence. In addition, the solubility of gases are reduced, such as dissolved oxygen (Odum, 2011).

The total operational water footprint represents the volume of water demanded from the river basin.

The figure as follows presents the average flow of ParaĂ­ba do Sul River and the WF expressed in percentage of an availability flow, assumed as 20% for the average flow. This fraction is a rough reference of a sustainable water availability, according to water footprint methodology.

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Figure – WF and River flow

In the wet season, the water footprint represents 2 to 3% of the water resource. In the winter, during the dry season, it is about 5 to 6%. In 2013, CSN had its major consume during the wet season. However, in this period, the water footprint indicator is the lowest. It means that in this season, the potential water impacts are lower than in the dry season, when the indicator reaches 6%. This analysis represents the UPV pressure over the River basin. A complete sustainability assessment should include all the major users that share the water resource.

Performance Indicators The World Steel Association (WSA) provides data from different steel producers regarding the water use. The figure bellow presents the water usage indicator for 30 steel producers in the world. The average water use is about 28 m³/t steel produced and the UPV indicator is 30 m³/t steel. The range is wide, from 1 to 148 m³/t, which indicates very different managements and technologies in the steel industry.

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Figure – Total water use comparison, WSA average indicators and UPV

The process comparison based on water use per tonne of intermediate product is presented below.

Figure – Process water use comparison, WSA average indicators and UPV

The water reuse is expressive in UPV, mainly in the processes of Blast Furnace, Basic Oxygen and Casting. This indicator do not account recirculation water from cooling towers but the water volumes treated to the quality level required by the process, avoiding freshwater usage. The recirculation practices of CSN also avoid additional withdrawal from the Paraíba do Sul River. Considering both flows, 89% of the water demanded by the processes are recycled in UPV steel facility.

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CONCLUSION AND NEXT STEPS The water balance developed in this study is a first reference to management plans based on the guideline Corporate Water Disclosure Guidelines - Toward a Common Approach to Reporting Water Issues (The CEO Water Mandate, 2012).

The quality of the water flows information should be improved. Basically, the accounting considers project flows crossed with some measured and operational field information. It is important to consider that inconsistent information may be found due to performance variation of the pumps, new installations e operational improvements.

New water flow meters are planned to be installed, such as in the catchment pumps. In the carbochemical unit, the water for refrigeration without recirculation (once through cooling) will be refrigerated and recirculated, increasing the recirculation index of the UPV. The large recirculation volumes accounted should be studied in more details. It is imporant to notice that the factory is an old plant with huge recirculation systems and cooling towers. It may be working not on its best efficiency. As the factory produces its own energy, the pumping electricity consumption is not a concern, thus, large flows can be operated. The recirculation flows could be reduced in order to transport more heat per cubic meter of water. An energy-water balance may be developed to check it.

Considering the total heat provided by the coke in the iron melting and reduction in UPV and, converting it directly to evaporated water, 4 cubic meters would be needed to cool one tonne of steel, in a very rough estimation. The water balance indicates almost 7 cubic meters per tonne of crude steel produced. This approach can be explored in order to save water and energy.

The ParaĂ­ba do Sul River is a plentiful water resource. However, 75% of its availability is compromised considering the river basin and it may reaches 95% in 2030 (INEA, 2014). Thus, reduction in the evaporation and in the water withdrawal is a concern.

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES AGEVAP - Associação Pró-Gestão das Águas da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Paraíba do Sul, 2010.

Relatório Técnico sobre outorga com subsídios para ações de melhoria da gestão na bacia do Rio Paraíba do Sul. Disponível em: <http://www.ceivap.org.br/downloads2011/2Relatorio_final_2010_Outorga.pdf>. Acesso em: 25 abril 2014.

AGEVAP - Associação Pró-Gestão das Águas da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Paraíba do Sul, 2013.

Plano Integrado de Recursos Hídricos da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Paraíba do Sul e Planos de Ação de Recursos Hídricos das Bacias Afluentes – Diagnóstico Integrado e Contextualizado dos Recursos Hídricos. Resende/RJ: COHIDRO Consultoria Estudos Projetos. Disponível em: <http://www.ceivap.org.br/arqforum/Cohidro/Ativ-601604-rev1-dez13.pdf>. Acesso em: 15 maio 2014.

ANA - Agência Nacional de Águas, 2010. Atlas Brasil Abastecimento Urbano de Água. Rio de Janeiro/RJ Disponível em: <http://atlas.ana.gov.br/Atlas/forms/analise/Geral.aspx?est=7>. Acesso em: 10 setembro 2014.

Hoekstra, A.Y., Chapagain, A.K., Aldaya, M.M., Mekonnen, M.M., 2011. Water Footprint Assessment Manual – Setting the Global Standard, The Netherlands: Water Footprint Network.

INEA - Instituto Estadual do Ambiente, 2014. Nota Técnica DIGAT/INEA 01-A/2014: Proposta paulista de transposição de águas da Bacia do Rio Paraíba do Sul & Segurança hídrica do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro: Governo do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.

Odum, E.P.;Barret, G.W., 2011. Fundamentos de Ecologia. 5ª Ed. São Paulo: Cengage Learning.

The CEO Water Mandate, 2012. Corporate Water Disclosure Guidelines: Toward a Common Approach to Reporting Water Issues – Public exposure draft, Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute.

The CEO Water Mandate, 2014. Corporate Water Disclosure Guidelines: Toward a Common Approach to Reporting Water Issues, Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute.

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Ecobase Foods: The Importance of Sustainability Information.

Cristian Emhart Fundación Chile cristian.emhart@fch.cl Michelle Senerman Fundación Chile michelle.senerman@fch.cl Alejandro Florenzano alejandro.florenzano@fch.cl Cristóbal Loyola Fundación Chile cristobal.loyola@fch.cl Mariana Aguirre Fundación Chile mariana.aguirre@fch.cl

SUMMARY The food and agriculture sector is very important in Chile, since it is the second largest sector in the Chilean Economy. Additionally, this sector is highly focused on exports, being the 15th country in the world (US Commercial Service, 2012). This openness to foreign trade, as well as Chile being a member of the OECD countries, make necessary for companies in the sector to take actions in terms of sustainability and transparency in the value chain, following international trends.

To take these type of actions, the entire productive chain of a product or service needs to be considered, strategy known as life cycle analysis (LCA). A previous step is to obtain adequate information, that is to say, to develop a life cycle inventory (LCI), both harmonized and adapted to the region; which is an important challenge in terms of money and capacities. In this context, Fundación Chile, with the support of Corfo, is developing the Ecobase Food project: “Development of an Environmental Information Management System for Life Cycle Analysis, through a Technology Platform, to improve the sustainability and competitiveness of the Export’s Food and Viticulture Industry”. Its main objective is to improve competitiveness of food producers and exporters, including small and medium enterprises, through the availability of transparent and rigorous sustainability information of their products, as well as through the development of self management and diagnostic capacities.

This document is a summary of the methodology for the development of LCIs for food and agriculture products in Chile, adapted to the best international practices, seeking to quantify and report environmental impacts for the different productive stages. The methodology’s aspiration is to be Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

applicable to all products, but it will focus on 16 categories, divided in three groups: fruits and wine, aquiculture, and meats and diary. 16 impact categories will also be evaluated, including fresh and marine water eutrophication and water consumption. For eutrophication, important insights are expected to be obtained, since fertilizers and other agrochemical products that run off into natural waters are considered important contributors to eutrophication. Furthermore, concerning water consumption the Ridoutt and Pfister (2012) method will be employed, since this, unlike others that only consider liters or cubic meters of water employed, also includes an adjustment in terms of the region’s water scarcity, allowing to differentiate the consumption in different areas, highlighting those were scarcity is more severe. This will be useful for the case of Chile, where the lack of water has been an issue over the last few years, particularly in the center and northern areas.

At a national level, Ecobase Food is the first project of this nature for the appointed product categories, which is a big step forward for Chile, placing the country in a position of international leadership in terms of environmental evaluations, innovation, continuous improvement and proper and fair recognition of environmental performance of products.

INTRODUCTION The food and agriculture sector is very important in Chile, since it is the second largest sector in the Chilean Economy. Additionally, this sector is highly focused on exports, being the 15th country in the world (US Commercial Service, 2012). This openness to foreign trade, as well as Chile being a member of the OECD countries, make necessary for companies in the sector to take actions in terms of sustainability and transparency in the value chain, following international trends.

To take these type of actions, the entire productive chain of a product or service needs to be considered, strategy known as life cycle analysis (LCA). A previous step is to obtain adequate information, that is to say, to develop a life cycle inventory (LCI), both harmonized and adapted to the region; which is an important challenge in terms of money and capacities. Additionally, there is a lack of harmonized and regionally appropriate LCI, with a large diversity 1 and little international coordination (Heller, Keoleian and Willett, 2013).

In this context, Fundación Chile, with the support of Corfo, is developing the Ecobase Food project: “Development of an Environmental Information Management System for Life Cycle Analysis, through a Technology Platform, to improve the sustainability and competitiveness of the Export’s Food and Viticulture Industry”. Its main objective is to improve competitiveness of food producers and exporters, including small and medium enterprises, through the availability of transparent and rigorous sustainability information of their products, as well as through the development of self management and diagnostic capacities.

This document is a summary of the methodology for the development of LCIs for food and agriculture 1

For example World Food Database, International Life Cycle Data System (ILCD), Ecoinvent, AusLCI, Agribalyse.

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products in Chile, as well as to present the different impact categories to be included in the document.

The methodology is an adaption to the best international practices, balancing the generality and specificity of these to suit the Chilean industry requirements the best. An emphasis will be done in terms of water, particularly the method employed to calculate water use impact for the different products involved in the project.

METHODOLOGY The main sources for the methodology are: • The International Organization for Standardization’s Life Cycle Assessment method (International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 2006a; International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 2006b) • Ecoinvent Quality Guidelines (Weidema et al., 2012), as an important centre of expertise and support for the project, as well as the potential to provide the Ecoinvent database with information from the project.

• Shonan Guidance Principles (Sonnemann and Vigon, 2011), as a general guide for the methodology structure (Context, Unit process, Aggregation, Documentation, among others).

Along with the above, the methodology has been developed taking into account the different opinions of the trade organizations and ministries involved in the project (See Appendix 1 for the entire list of partners), and will pass through a critical review before final publishing.

The methodology could be applicable to any food or beverage product, but the project will focus on 16 different product groups (Table 1), which are categorized into: Fruits & Wine, Aquaculture and Meat & Dairy.

Fruits & Wine

Aquaculture

Meat & Dairy

Fresh Apples Dried Apples Table Grapes Apple Juice Wine Avocado Fresh Plums

Pork Salmon

Chicken

Mussels

Powdered milk Gouda cheese

Fresh Blueberries Canned Peaches Frozen Raspberries

Table. List of product in the Ecobase Food Project

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RESULTS Goal and Scope The goal of the project is to improve the competitiveness of producers and exporters of Chilean food and wine, including small to medium enterprises (SMEs). On the other hand, it is expected that the companies can use the resulting information to improve the communication with their clients. This is why unitary process inventories2 from “cradle to gate” are expected to be obtained, as well as secondary information regarding “cradle to retail” gate scenarios.

In terms of format, besides wine (0.75L) and apple juice (1L), 1Kg of product will be considered, for the final impact results can be understood by producers and exporters, as well as their clients (national and international retailers).

System Boundaries • the stages covered will be: • raw materials • agriculture • livestock & aquaculture • processing • packaging • distribution Allocation Procedure Whenever a single process produces more than one product or service (e.g. beef being produced as a co-product in the production of milk), an approach is needed to determine how the environmental impacts of the single process should be assigned to each of the products or services. This is commonly referred to as the allocation problem. The general rule is to avoid allocation, but when this is not possible, economic allocation is employed, the most common international method (Guinée et al., 2002).

Cut-off Rules No strict quantitative cut-off rule is followed in the project, and the database shall be as complete as possible, with all known inputs and outputs are recorded as such, particularly those that are anticipated to represent an important impact related to the entire life cycle.

Data Collection Guidelines For this project, one of the goals is to obtain data that represents the various realities (production technologies, raw materials, etc.) of each product. It will work with the principle of collecting the best available information, prioritizing completeness of systems, and basing the data collection efforts according to the following sources of information: 1.

Primary information: Information obtained directly from companies 2

Process where a transformation of the product occurs. One or various unitary processes form a life cycle stage.

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2.

• • • • • • •

Secondary information: Studies and other national projects related to each category.

Information available from the Clean Production Agreements from the National Council of Clean Production Information available in the Chilean national environmental impact assessment database (e-SEIA).

Documented estimates from national experts.

International studies or other projects related to each category which could be complemented with international experts’ contributions.

LCA databases internationally recognized, with the necessary and feasible adjustments to adapt them to the Chilean reality (energy matrix, transport distances, etc.).

Based on feedback by the trade associations supporting the project, the data collection tools developed have been designed to increase usability by the data providers. For each of the products in the database, a process list, with its inputs and outputs listed has been generated to guide the data collection process.

The data collection tools will be sent to private companies, through their respective trade association, with the project teams assisting the filling of the spreadsheets through visits to the facilities or farms, online workshops or other ways of more informal interaction.

Representativeness In order to maximize the usefulness of the LCI developed, a key aspect is representativeness (from a geographic, technological and productive point of view) of the most important product systems in term of market share exports.

Therefore, a hierarchy of objectives was defined and it is presented below

Figure: Hierarchy of objectives

Averaging, Aggregation and Data Confidentiality As one of the objectives of the project is to provide national baseline LCIs for the products under study, it is necessary to appropriately average and aggregate data from different companies.

The project will average data horizontally. This means that average inventory for each of the individual sub-processes in an inventory are weightily averaged and the sum of these then represents the inventory for the whole. This is preferred because it preserves data richness and it can be used to compare between similar processes from different industries. Maintaining data richness provides advantages such as the ability to see which parts of the processes contribute more to the impacts of their products.

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Data Quality Data quality is one of the main aspects in the construction of a national LCI database. To document it, an adapted version of the Pedigree Matrix developed by Weidema et al., 2012 (see complete table in Appendix 2) will be used. This matrix includes issues such as reliability, completeness, temporal, geographical and technological correlation.

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) Impact assessment models that are used to interpret LCIA data are still emerging and evolving internationally ISO 14044, recommends minimizing value-choices and assumptions during the selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterization models for the LCIA method, which is why this project includes a recommended LCIA method to be used. The recommended LCIA method is proposed based on the research documented in: • A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method for Use in Australia – Classification, Characterization and Research Needs (Bengtsson et al. 2010): • Identifying best existing practice for characterization modeling in life cycle impact assessment (Hauschild et al., 2013): • In essence the key considerations are: • Whether the impact assessment is conducted at mid-point 3, end-point4, or both.

• Whether the impact assessment should be based on best practice scientific methods per impact category (i.e. the BP LCI and AgAusLCI approach in Australia and the ILCD work in Hauschild et al., (2013)) or to adopt a ready-made LCIA method such as World Impact +, ReCiPe or CML. • Which approach offers the most regionally appropriate impact assessment method.

• The interim preference is to adopt ReCiPe on the basis that it: • Has the flexibility to calculate impacts at both mid-point and end-point, • Includes global characterization and normalization factors which are deemed by the project team to have higher degree of acceptance by the intended audience than European or US-centric LCIA methods.

• Aligns in terms of impact category selection with the best practice research for the BP LCI and ILCD • Is actively maintained and updated.

16 impact categories were selected according to the ReCiPe method, which includes climate change, ozone depletion, terrestrial acidification, marine and freshwater eutrophication, human toxicity, ecotoxicity, photochemical oxidant formation, particulate material formation, agricultural land use, urban land use, natural land transformation, water use, mineral depletion, fossil depletion. Ionizing radiation will not be included in the analysis, since it is of small relevance for Chile, mostly related to 3

Mid- point impact evaluation: translation of substance emissions and extraction of resources to environmental impact categories, such as acidificacion, climate change, ecotoxicity, among others.

4

End-point impact evaluation: conversion and aggregation of environmental impacts categories to human health, ecosystems and resource availability harms.

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the lack of nuclear energy in the country. For toxicity, the ReCiPe method will be replaced by Usetox method (Rosenbaum et al., 2008). On the other hand, water use will be replaced by Ruidoutt and Pfister (2012) consumptive water method, which will be explained in the following section.

The inclusion of ecotoxicity and eutrophixation is considered very important for agrifood products, where agrochemical use such as pesticides and fertilizer are of great impact in those categories.

Water Consumption Ruidoutt and Pfister (2012) consumptive water method looks to replace ReCiPe’s water use method.

Consumptive water is within the Water Footprint formula designed by the authors: Water Footprint (H2Oeq.) = CWU(H2Oeq.) + DWU (H2Oeq.) where: H2O eq = 1 liter of equivalent water represents the burden for the system of 1 liter of freshwater consumed according to the water stress index.

CWU= Consumptive water use DWU=Degradative water use On the other hand, CWU corresponds to: CWUH2Oe=iCWUi× WSIiWSIglobal Where: CWUi= Uso consuntivo de agua (balance) en la región i WSIi= Water stress index for region i, which is calculated at country level. In the case of Chile, 7.36*10-1 (m3/m3) will be used.

WSIglobal = Global water index is established at 0.602 H2Oeq. By using consumptive water use there is an adjustment regarding water stress in a region, which is an improvement over ReCiPe that only quantifies water used. This will be particularly important for Chile considering the severe water problems over the last few years.

Degradative water use in the formula will not be considered in this impact assessment, since this includes issues as ecotoxicity, eutrophication, etc., which will be considered separately with the ReCiPe method in order to avoid double counting.

Next Steps and Conclusions A data collection and life cycle impact assessment methodology has been developed for the Chilean LCI food and wine database project EcoBase, built upon international best practices and considering several stakeholders’ inputs. The methodology will be submitted for critical review to achieve scientific validation before final publishing. This review will be by the Chilean LCA Network nationally and Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

Quantis internationally, with the interest of seeking alignment with the World Food LCA Database.

Currently, the project is in data collection stage, both primary and secondary data, and workshops to facilitate navigation and learning of the tool are being carried out with companies for most of the product categories.

It is important to mention that all project deliverables including methodology, life cycle inventories, calculators etc. will be publicly available on an online platform operated by project partners. This way anyone can access the data, see a national average and calculate its own environmental performance.

EcoBase Food is one step towards a more transparent and sustainable food sector in Chile, but there is still a long way to go in this direction. While currently the project includes 16 products, the aim is to expand the scope in future both in terms of increasing the number of products and industries involved, as well as improving the quality of the results as and when additional information and/or methods become available.

REFERENCES Bengtsson, J. and Howard, N. (2010) ‘A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method for Use in Australia -Classification, Characterization and Research Needs’. Disponible en: <http://edgeenvironment.com.au/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/A-Life-Cycle-Impact-AssessmentMethod-for-Australia.pdf> [9 Diciembre 2013] Guinée, J., Gorrée, M., Heijungs, R., Huppes, G., Kleijn, R., de Koning, A., van Oers, L., Wegener, A., Suh, S., Udo de Haes, H., De Brujin, H., van Duin, R. and Huijbregts, M. (2002) ‘Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards’. Disponible en: <http://www.isa.utl.pt/der/ASAmb/DocumentosAulas/Recipe/Handbook%20on%20Life%20Cycle %20Assessment.pdf> [10 Julio 2014].

Hauschild, MZ., Goedkoop, M., Guinée, J., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., Jolliet, O., Margni, M., De Schryver, A., Humbert, S., Laurent, A., Sala, S., and Pant, R. (2013) ‘Identifying best existing practice for characterization modelling in life cycle impact assessment’. The International Journal Life Cycle Assessment 18: 683–697.

Heller, M., Keoleian, G. and Willett, W. (2013) ‘Toward a life cycle-based, diet-level framework for food environmental impact and nutritional quality assessment: A critical review’. Environmental Science and Technology 47(22):12632-12647.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2006a) ‘Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Principles and framework’. ISO 14040:2006.Second Edition 2006-06, Geneva.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2006b) ‘Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Requirements and guidelines’. ISO 14044:2006.First edition 2006-07-01, Geneva.

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Ridoutt, B. G. and Pfister, S., 2012. ‘A new water footprint calculation method integrating consumptive and degradative water use into a single stand-alone weighted indicator’. The The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 18(1):204-207.

Rosenbaum, RK., Bachmann, TM., Gold, LS., Huijbregts, MA., Jolliet, O., Juraske, R., Koehler, A., Larsen, H., MacLeod, M., Margni, M., McKone, T., Payet, J., Schuhmacher, M., van de Meent, D. and Hauschild, MZ. (2008) ‘USEtox—the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment’. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 13(7):532-546 Sonnemann, G., &Vigon, B. (2011) ‘Global guidance principles for life cycle assessment databases. A basis for greener processes and products’. UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Paris. Disponible en: < http://www.unep.org/pdf/Global-GuidancePrinciples-for-LCA.pdf> [30 Septiembre 2014 US Commercial Service, 2012. ‘Doing Business in Chile’. Disponible en: <http://export.gov/chile/static/CCG%20Chile%202012_Latest_eg_cl_050006.pdf> [10 Julio 2014] Weidema, BP., Bauer, C., Hischier, R., Mutel, C., Nemecek, T., Reinhard, J., Vadenbo, CO. and Wernet, G. (2012) ‘Overview and methodology. Data quality guideline for the ecoinvent database version 3.Ecoinvent Report 1(v.3)’. St. Gallen: the ecoinvent Centre. Disponible en: < http://www.ecoinvent.org/fileadmin/documents/en/Data_Quality_Guidelines/01_DataQualityGuideline _v3_Final.pdf> [30 Septiembre 2014] APPENDIX 1. Proyect Partners • Mandantes • Oferentes • Subcontratos • Socios

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APPENDIX 2. Data Quality Indicators (Adapted from Weidema et. al., 2012) Indicator

1

2

3

4

5

Reliability

Verified data based on measurement

Verified data partly based on assumptions or non-verified data based on measurements

Non-verified data partly based on assumptions

Qualified estimate (e.g. by industry expert)

Non-qualified estimate or unknown origin

Completeness

Representative data from a sufficient sample of sites over an adequate period to even out normal fluctuations

Representative data from >50% of the sites relevant for the market considered, over an adequate period to even out normal fluctuations

Representative data from only some sites (<<50%) relevant for the market considered or >50% of sites but from shorter periods

Representative data from only one site relevant for the market considered or some sites but from shorter periods

Representativeness unknown or data from a small number of sites and from shorter periods

Temporal correlation

Less than 3 years of difference to the time period of the dataset

Less than 6 years of difference to the time period of the dataset

Less than 10 years of difference to the time period of the dataset

Less than 15 years of difference to the time period of the dataset

Age of data unknown or more than 15 years of difference to the time period of the data set

Data from area under study (e.g.

Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Higgins)

Average data from larger area in which the study is included (e.g.

Central Valley Region)

Data from area with similar conditions (e.g.

Chile or Argentina)

Data from area with slightly similar conditions (e.g.

South Africa)

Data from unknown or distinctly different area (North America instead of Middle East, OECD-Europe instead of Russia)

Data from enterprise, processes, and materials under study

Data from processes and materials under study (i.e. identical technology) but from different enterprises

Data from processes and materials under study but from different technology

Data on related processes or materials

Data on related processes or materials but different technology

Geographical correlation

Further technological correlation

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

APPENDIX 3. Impact Categories Impact Category

Global Warming

Ozone depletion

Unit

Explanation

kg CO2-eq.

Global warming is the increase in the Earth’s average temperature. A common outcome of this is an increase in natural disasters and sea level rise. According to the IPCC, if left unchecked, human greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions will increase several fold over the 21 stcentury. The major contributing factor is the increasing concentration of GHG (e.g. carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, etc.) in Earth’s atmosphere, which is caused by human activity such as the burning of fossil fuels.

Ozone depletion is the decline in the total volume of ozone in the Earth’s stratoshphere. The depletion of the ozone layer increases the amount of the UVB that reaches the Earth’s surface. UVB is generally accepted to be a kg CFC-11-eq. contributing factor to skin cancer, cataracts and decrease in crops and plankton yield. This is due to the release of chlorine into the air mainly through fluorocarbons (CFC’s) and halons used in refrigerants, fire extinguishers and other applications.

Terrestrial acidification

kg SO2-eq.

Freshwater eutrophication

kg P-eq.

Marine eutrophication

kg N-eq.

Human toxicity, cancer

CTUh

Human toxicity, noncancer

CTUh

Ecotoxicity

CTUe

Photochemical oxidant formation

kg NMVOC

Acidification is the process whereby pollutants are converted into acid substances, which degrade the natural environment. A common outcome of this are poisoned lakes and rivers, toxic metal leaching, forest damage and accelerated corrosion of metals, concrete structures and limestone. Major contributing factors are sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide, hydrochloric acid and ammonia pollutants.

Eutrophication is an increase in the levels of nutrients, especially phosphates, nitrates and chlorates in the environment. A common outcome of this is high biological productivity that can lead to oxygen depletion, as well as significant impacts on water quality, affecting all forms of aquatic and plant life. Major contributing factors are sewerage effluent and fertiliser running off into natural waters.

It is the emissions of toxic substances to the environment that has the potential to damage human health due to the possibility of an increase in cancer cases.

It is the emissions of toxic substances to the environment that has the potential to damage human health.

It is the release of toxic substances into the ecosystem. A common outcome of this is the accumulation of pollutants in freshwater plant and sea life and accumulation of toxic substances on land. Major contributing factors are agricultural pesticides and fluoride emissions.

Photochemical smog is a type of air pollution that is caused by a reaction between sunlight, nitrogen oxide and volatile organic compounds (VOC’s).

This is a known cause for respiratory health problems and damage to vegetation. Major contributing factors are fossil fuel burning power plants,

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automobiles and industrial manufacturing sites

Particulate matter formation

kg PM10

Agricultural land occupation

m2a

Urban land occupation

m2a

Natural land transformation

m2

Water stress

m3H2O-eq.

Mineral depletion

kg Fe-eq.

Fossil depletion

kg oil-eq.

PM10 is a mixture of organic and inorganic fine particulates with a diameter of less than 10 Âľm. This causes several human health problems, as it affects the airways and lungs when inhaled. Major contributing factors are small particulate (dust), sulfur dioxide, ammonia and nitrogen oxides.

It is the occupation of land for a determined time period. This can have effects on biodiversity, for example, in the agricultural case the farmer wants to has just one type of plant in their land: the crop.

It is the transformation of land from one type to another (e.g. from forest to agriculture). This can lead to loss in biodiversity and life supporting ecosystem functions.

The water stress is the freshwater consumption adjusted by the water scarcity factor of a region. This regionalized indicator allows differentiating the consumption of water through different areas, highlighting those where water scarcity ishigher.

It is the loss of mineral resources. These resources are essential in our everyday lives, and the majority of them are currently being extracted at an unsustainable rate. Major contributing factor is the substantive activity in the mining industry.

It is the loss of fossil resources. These resources are essential in our everyday lives, and the majority of them are currently being extracted at an unsustainable rate.

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Mapping the Feasibility of Seawater Supply to Minning Operations in the Second Region of Chile.

Manuel Alejandro Maya Senzano 1,2 Centre for Water in the Minerals Industry, Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland 2 Universidad Católica del Norte mms018@ucn.cl 1

Greg Keir Centre for Water in the Minerals Industry, Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland g.keir1@uq.edu.au Neil McIntyre Centre for Water in the Minerals Industry, Sustainable Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland n.mcintyre@uq.edu.au

ABSTRACT The mining industry has an important role in the economic development of Chile. Currently, the processes used in this industry require a permanent water supply throughout the year. This is a potential issue, considering the increasing copper production in Chile and greater demand for water, which looks set to become increasingly scarce. This is especially the case in Chile’s Second Region, containing the world’s driest desert, where the main Chilean mining operations are concentrated.

To avoid excessive use of freshwater in the mining process, seawater appears to be a good alternative, since it can be considered as a virtually inexhaustible resource. While seawater could be used to try to solve the water scarcity problem in northern Chile, it is important to evaluate the costs of seawater supply projects, considering implementation, operation, and especially the associated energy cost of water pumping and risks of energy supply interruptions.

Typically, water scarce mining operations are geographically distant from the sea both in terms of horizontal distance and elevation, which can lead to significant pumping costs. This is again especially so in Chile’s Second Region, and it can be reasonably hypothesised that these energy costs could be a dominant concern in assessing the feasibility of such schemes and in optimising water supply networks.

To test this hypothesis, in this project a broad scale mapping technique was used to determine and delineate feasible pipe networks for seawater supply for mining operations, based on optimisation of the network structure to minimise pumping energy consumption.

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The cost of the generated networks was then analysed, taking into account the following factors: • The location and the water requirements of individual mine sites; • The distance from the nearest source of seawater; • The topography between the seawater source and mine site; • The cost of energy supply; • The lineal cost of pipeline construction; and • The capital and operating costs of desalination plants required to supply such a network.

This broad scale approach has potential to identify high level risks (such as the impact of energy shortages on seawater supply) and opportunities (such as opportunities for sharing of seawater between multiple mines) associated with seawater supply for mining operations at a regional scale as mining development progresses into the future. Such a model may be useful for regional planning, before moving on to more detailed design and engineering considerations.

INTRODUCTION The mining industry, particularly copper mining, has played a central role in Chile’s economy (Newbold, 2006, Rehner et al., 2014), and looks to continue to do so for the foreseeable future (Joaquín Jara et al., 2010). The majority of the industry is concentrated in the Antofagasta region (Chile’s Second Region, shown in) in the north of Chile (Lagos and Blanco, 2010). The mining industry is estimated to account for 60% of total water consumption in this region, which is projected to increase to 70% by 2020 (Gálvez et al., 2014).

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Figure – Location of study area in Chile’s Second Region, showing major mining operations

However, the unique climatic and geographic conditions in the Second Region make obtaining a constant water supply for mining operations a challenging exercise. This region has little surface water resources and very little precipitation; demand for these surface water resources in the Second Region far outstrips availability (Valdés-Pineda et al., 2014). This has led several major mining companies to modify their operations to use seawater as a supply source (Gálvez et al., 2014), either in raw or desalinated form. This is in spite of the typically remote, high altitude nature of these mine sites, which can incur large energy expenses for pumping of seawater to site. In keeping with this trend, draft legislation was recently introduced in the lower house of Chile’s Congress (Cámara de Diputados) to potentially compel all mines requiring a water supply of 150 L/s or greater to incorporate seawater supply into their operations (Cámara de Diputados de Chile, 2013).

In this paper, we consider a scenario where all ‘major’ mining operations are forced to meet their water requirement exclusively through supply of desalinated seawater. We then use broad scale mapping techniques in a geographic information systems (GIS) environment to determine likely routes for seawater supply to all mines, based on the criterion of minimising pumping energy use for the entire piping network. Clearly this is a considerably simplified scenario; however, it is sufficient to at least initially evaluate the utility and feasibility of such methods.

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METHODOLOGY The mapping and modelling process was undertaken entirely using ESRI ArcGIS 10.1, making use of the Spatial Analyst and Network Analyst toolboxes, as well as some Python code written by us.

Relevant spatial datasets for Chile’s Second Region were obtained from a range of free sources, including digital elevation contour data and spatial representations of restricted areas (Albers, 2014); as well as locations of major mining operations and associated water use and production data where possible (Chilean Copper Commission, 2014). The mapping and modelling process involved six main stages, listed below.

Location of Seawater Intakes (sources) and Mines (destinations) Locations of 47 major mining operations were identified within the study area. Water demand for each of these mines was estimated based on published production rates for 2013. These were multiplied by representative water demand rates per ton of output for each site or commodity based on industry data (Chilean Copper Commission, 2014), yielding water demand rates varying between approximately 11 L/s and 2400 L/s. These data were unavailable for 22 of the mines, for which a representative value of 50 L/s was assumed. Intake points were arbitrarily located along the coastline at intervals of approximately 20 km, resulting in 22 total potential intake points.

Raster Data Generation A digital elevation raster and corresponding slope raster were generated from digital contour data at 100 m intervals. These were then used to generate a cost raster, which identifies the ‘cost’ of travelling through each raster cell, as a function of both slope and the location of protected areas. Example elevation, slope and cost rasters are shown in .

Figure - Elevation, slope, and weighted cost rasters for study area

Determination of Approximate Minimum Energy Route Rasters Least cost paths were then calculated for the above rasters using the Path Distance tool from the Spatial Analyst toolbox. This allows for the least cost path to be calculated as a weighted function of both a cost raster, as well as horizontal and vertical factors which represent any additional costs of moving horizontally and vertically through a cell. In this case, the horizontal and vertical factors are set to represent the energy loss due to friction in a horizontal length of pipe (using the familiar HazenWater and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

Williams equation for HDPE-lined steel pipe), and the energy loss due to elevation change in a length of pipe, respectively.

The weighting for the least cost path was empirically chosen by trial and error so that 80% weight was given to the horizontal and vertical factors (i.e. the energy required to pump water along that path), and 20% weight was given to the cost raster. This produced paths which were of generally sensible layout (i.e. avoiding extreme slopes for ease of construction, but generally also avoiding undesirable features for a hydraulic network, such as switchbacks or negative grades), and close to the absolute minimum energy path. Using this method, an approximate least cost path was constructed for each combination of the 22 intake points and the 47 mines. Example least cost paths for a single intake point to every mine are shown in (a).

Figure – Example approximate least cost paths based on hydraulic pumping energy minimisation, proceeding (a) from a single intake point to every mine, (b) from every intake point to every mine, (c) to each mine from the identified corresponding minimum energy intake point

Creation of Routing Network The raster-based least cost paths were then converted into vector format and aggregated into a single geometric network dataset to facilitate the use of network analysis methods. Each generated least cost path network was superimposed with connectivity enforced for all intersecting edges (so, for example, a routing algorithm could ‘turn’ at junctions within the network and travel along portions of more than one least cost path if required). A representation of the aggregated network is shown in (b).

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Selection of Minimum Energy Network Using the Network Analyst toolbox, an overall network structure was then identified according to the criteria of minimising pumping energy consumption across the entire network. This process was performed as follows: • A subset of the available intake points (approximately equispaced along the coastline) was selected for use as source nodes in the network.

• All mine points were selected for use as destination nodes.

• The Closest Facility tool from the Network Analyst toolbox was used to identify the optimal intake point for each mine site and path to that point, using approximate pumping energy consumption as the impedance factor. It should be noted that in some cases, available intake points may not be selected at all, and some intake points may be selected by multiple mines.

• The paths identified for each mine were then aggregated into a final network, as shown in (c).

Calculation of Overall Cost The total economic cost for each identified network was then approximated, including: • The annual cost for energy required for pumping based on an energy price of $150USD/MWh (approximately equal to the average Chilean industrial energy price in 2013); • The cost for construction of the network, assuming a lineal cost of $1000USD/m of pipeline; • The cost for construction of a reverse osmosis desalination plant for each utilised intake point, based upon the daily treatment volume for each plant (determined by the aggregated water demand for the mines supplied by each plant). These capital costs were determined based on confidential Chilean industry data for the Antofagasta Region, incorporating costs for equipment, engineering, ports and customs charges; civil works and buildings; technical inspection, electromechanical assembly and startup, and various indirect costs.

• The annual operational cost for each desalination plant, again as a function of the daily treatment volume for each plant (also based on confidential Chilean industry data, incorporating energy, labour, chemical, membrane replacement, maintenance and repair, and laboratory costs); and • The equivalent annual cost for each network, incorporating all costs above over an assumed lifetime of 30 years and an assumed 10% cost of capital.

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RESULTS Results are shown in terms of total network energy and cost. For brevity, only a small subset of the available intake point networks is shown.

Table - Summary of energy and cost totals for multiple identified minimum pumping energy networks Number of potential intakes

Number of utilised intakes

Pumping energy consumption (MW)

Annual pumping energy cost ($M USD)

Pipeline construction cost ($M USD)

Desalination plant capital cost ($M USD)

Annual desalination operating cost ($M USD)

Equivalent annual cost ($M USD)

22

17

273.9

360

2853

942

226

989

11

10

275.4

362

3005

839

220

990

7

7

278.5

366

2740

746

213

949

5

5

278.4

366

2767

720

212

948

3

3

288.5

379

2932

591

200

953

2

2

315.1

414

2924

554

197

980

As expected, a higher number of potential seawater intake points yields a more energy-efficient network, as mines are able to select a nearby intake point more easily. Interestingly, the energy benefit realised with additional network complexity (more intakes) appears to become minimal after more than five intakes are utilised, as shown in Figure.

Pipeline construction costs, on the other hand, are not minimised with increasing network complexity, with the seven potential intake configuration yielding the lowest pipeline construction costs. One might casually assume that the most energy efficient network should have the shortest pipe lengths and hence the lowest construction costs; however, this is not the case as more pipe sections are shared between mines in configurations with less intake points. In practice, these shared pipe sections would require greater pipe diameters than equivalent parallel pipe sections. However, the cost function used here considers length only (and not diameter), and hence comparatively low construction costs are observed for the five and seven potential intake configurations, which balance the propensity for pipe section sharing with geometric efficiency.

Overall desalination capital and operating costs, however, do decrease with decreasing number of potential intake points (i.e. decreasing number of desalination plants). This is because of the efficiencies of scale (both in capital and operating costs) afforded by the larger desalination plants required for scenarios with less intake points.

Evaluating the total cost of each configuration then reveals that the minimum equivalent annual cost is obtained for the five potential intake network, closely followed by the seven potential intake network.

However, further network simplification (to the three and two intake cases) does not reduce equivalent annual costs. It is worth noting that the minimum cost configuration (five intake points) would require desalination plants to supply multiple mines operated by separate companies. This may have Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

implications for the adoption of such seawater supply schemes in the Second Region, as it implies that cooperative efforts between mining companies to share desalination and pipeline infrastructure are necessary to reduce costs on a regional level.

320 310 300

) W (M ry e g in p m u P

290 280 270 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Number of utilised intakes

$1000M $990M $980M $970M $960M

)E D S U M ($ s o c tu n le a iv q

$950M $940M 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

15

16

17

18

Number of utilised intakes

Figure â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Reduction in total network pumping energy as a function of number of potential seawater intake points selected by energy minimisation algorithm

Additionally, as initially hypothesised, pumping energy costs do constitute a significant portion of this equivalent annual cost, ranging from approximately 36% for the 22 intake configuration, to 42% for the 2 intake configuration.

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Some comments are warranted regarding approximations and potential inaccuracies in this modelling methodology. Particular potential sources of error in this modelling include: • The estimation of water demands for individual mines; • The use of uniform hydraulic friction coefficients for HDPE-lined steel pipe in initial estimation of pipe routes based on energy use (when in reality, these frictional coefficients are a non-linear function of flow rate as reflected in the final pumping energy calculations) • The calculation of energy consumption for individual parallel pipelines from a particular intake point serving multiple mines, when in reality a branching pipe network would likely be used; • The arbitrary placement of intake points along the coastline; and • The assumption of mine water requirements being fully met by seawater supply only.

Given the broad scale, exploratory approach of this initial mapping exercise, however, it is considered that these assumptions are reasonable. Further, the points raised above can be relatively easily addressed without significant modification to the model.

With some minor refinements, it is considered that this model could be useful for a range of scenario analyses to identify risks and opportunities. One particular risk in the Second Region is energy availability, as the regional power grid (Sistema Interconectado del Norte Grande) is heavily reliant on thermoelectric power plants, typically fuelled by imported coal or natural gas, which have historically been subject to supply interruptions. Blackouts due to earthquake activity have also interrupted mine electricity supply in recent years. Scenario analysis using an extended version of this model could be used to determine the cost implications in times of reduced energy availability of disabling certain parts of the regional electricity supply network used to power pumping infrastructure, or to evaluate costs of alternate ‘fall-back’ local water sources.

Conversely, an opportunity afforded by the regional optimisation approach presented in this model may be to examine the potential for sharing of seawater supply between nearby mines. Future work is being planned to facilitate such analysis, including the automated identification and systematic evaluation of potential mine ‘clusters’, and incorporating elements of water reuse for sharing between mines to potentially further minimise reliance on seawater supply.

CONCLUSION This work has presented a broad scale mapping technique to identify energetically feasible routes for seawater supply to mines in Chile’s Second Region. Routes were established according to the criterion of minimising pumping energy across the entire supply network, considering both frictional and elevation losses. Multiple networks were created with varying numbers of potential seawater intake points (and associated desalination infrastructure) to investigate the energy requirements of each network, as well as associated economic costs.

The study results indicate that allowing for greater numbers of potential intake points leads to the generation of more energetically efficient networks, as mines can more easily ‘select’ an intake point which minimises pumping energy usage, and hence energy costs associated with pumping. However, Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

these networks do not guarantee minimum economic costs, due to the capital costs associated with pipeline and desalination infrastructure construction, as well as the ongoing costs of desalination plant operation. This is primarily because networks with less potential intake points are able to exploit the economies of scale afforded by larger desalination plants, but also due to such networks relying heavily on shared pipe sections for multiple mines â&#x20AC;&#x201C; these shared (increased diameter) sections are not penalised by the pipeline cost model used here, which considers total network pipe length only. Of the scenarios investigated here, the minimum cost network used five seawater intakes (of five potential intakes), with a total equivalent annual cost of $948M USD. As hypothesised, pumping energy costs comprise a significant portion of this annual cost ($366M USD, or 39%).

It is acknowledged that the results presented here are for a largely artificial scenario, and many assumptions have been made to simplify the analysis. However, the results may be instructive in the adoption of seawater supply schemes in the Second Region, as they imply that cooperative efforts between mining companies to share desalination and pipeline infrastructure are necessary to reduce costs on a regional level. As seawater supply schemes progress in Chileâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mining sector, it will be interesting to observe if such cooperative approaches are indeed employed.

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES ALBERS, C. 2014. Portal de la Geografía [Online]. Available: http://www.rulamahue.cl/mapoteca/ [Accessed September 29 2014].

CÁMARA DE DIPUTADOS DE CHILE. 2013. Plantean la desalinización del agua de mar para su uso en procesos productivos mineros [Online]. Available: http://www.camara.cl/prensa/noticias_detalle.aspx?prmid=87145 [Accessed September 10 2014].

CHILEAN COPPER COMMISSION. 2014. Cochilco - Statistics - Mining Productio [Online].

Available: http://www.cochilco.cl/english/statistics/production.asp [Accessed September 29 2014].

GÁLVEZ, E. D., CRUZ, R., ROBLES, P. A. & CISTERNAS, L. A. 2014. Optimization of dewatering systems for mineral processing. Minerals Engineering, 63, 110-117.

JOAQUÍN JARA, J., PÉREZ, P. & VILLALOBOS, P. 2010. Good deposits are not enough: Mining labor productivity analysis in the copper industry in Chile and Peru 1992–2009. Resources Policy, 35, 247-256.

LAGOS, G. & BLANCO, E. 2010. Mining and development in the region of Antofagasta. Resources Policy, 35, 265-275.

NEWBOLD, J. 2006. Chile's environmental momentum: ISO 14001 and the large-scale mining industry – Case studies from the state and private sector. Journal of Cleaner Production, 14, 248-261.

REHNER, J., BAEZA, S. A. & BARTON, J. R. 2014. Chile’s resource-based export boom and its outcomes: Regional specialization, export stability and economic growth. Geoforum, 56, 35-45.

VALDÉS-PINEDA, R., PIZARRO, R., GARCÍA-CHEVESICH, P., VALDÉS, J. B., OLIVARES, C., VERA, M., BALOCCHI, F., PÉREZ, F., VALLEJOS, C., FUENTES, R., ABARZA, A. & HELWIG, B. 2014. Water governance in Chile: Availability, management and climate change. Journal of Hydrology.

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

Water, a Challenge for Small and Medium Companies in Chile.

Providers Development Program.

Michelle Senerman Fundación Chile michelle.senerman@fch.cl Cristián Emhart Fundación Chile cristian.emhart@fch.cl Cristóbal Loyola Fundación Chile cristobal.loyola@fch.cl Mariana Aguirre Fundación Chile

SUMMARY Although Chile as a whole has important water resources, mainly from precipitations, the distribution is not equitable along the country. In fact, from the Metropolitan region northward, already since 2010 the water budget was negative (Banco Mundial, 2011). This situation will continue to worsen, since, on the one hand, demand will increase due to continuous economic growth of the country; while from the supply point of view this will decrease because of climate change, which will generate a 2-4°C temperature rise, reducing snow storage capacity during winter months (Ministerio de Obras Públicas, 2013).

One of the ways to deal with this problem is to improve water efficiency use, task that summons several actors; among them small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Walmart Chile’s Program for the Development of Suppliers (PdP due to its Spanish initials), financially supported by Corfo and with technical advisory from Fundación Chile, is an initiative that seeks to strengthen self diagnostic and self management capacities of 12 of Walmart’s SMEs providers, as a way of improving their sustainability performance through the complete value chain of their products. These providers commercialize products such as fresh and processed food, as well as others like detergents, which depend intensively on water resources in some stages of their products’ life cycle. As an example, cookies critical points (or hotspots) related to water are in the production of flour and sugar, while in the case of detergents these are in the customers use stage.

On a first step, PdP consisted on the diagnostic of the current situation of companies, for a later identification of hotspots for the sustainability of their products and a roadmap of actions to manage them. In addition to periodic accompaniment and consultancy on the spot, providers have received recurrent training on different topics relevant to sustainability. In terms of water, during the first year, Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

providers identified the impacts related to consumption and contamination of water extracted in the different life cycle stages of their products. After a year and a half of work, some companies have already taken concrete actions to manage those impacts. An example is Comercial e Industrial Soho, which has implemented measures to improve water efficiency use in the processing facility, specifically in the oil extraction process.

Projects like PdP show that it is possible to establish line of actions and a subsequent practical solution in terms of sustainability in Chile, and that there is public and private will; although, there is still a long way to go. The project, its stages and the involved actors will be studied next, since to know this in detail can give key insights to promote other projects, as well as to generate synergies with future activities that can facilitate reducing water stress in the country.

INTRODUCTION Although Chile as a whole has important water resources, mainly from precipitations, the distribution is not equitable along the country. In fact, from the Metropolitan region northward, already since 2010 the water budget was negative (Banco Mundial, 2011). This situation will continue to worsen, since, on the one hand, demand will increase due to continuous economic growth of the country; while from the supply point of view this will decrease because of climate change, which will generate a 2-4°C temperature rise, reducing snow storage capacity during winter months (Ministerio de Obras Públicas, 2013).

One of the ways to deal with this problem is to improve water efficiency use, task that summons several actors; among them small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Unfortunately, SMEs do not always count with enough resources to set aside for topics such as efficiency in the use of resources or social and environmental sustainability. On the other hand, initiatives like “Sustainability 360” of Walmart Inc., launche by its CEO in 2007, looks to engage not only stores, but providers and partners in the sustainability of the company (Walmart Inc., 2007).

In that framework the Program for the Development of Suppliers(PDP in Spanish) of Walmart Chile arises. The program is financially supported by the Economic Development Agency (Corfoin Spanish) and Walmart Chile, with technical advisory of Fundación Chile. This initiative seeks to strengthen self diagnostic and self management capacities of 12 of Walmart’s SMEs providers, allowing them to understand the impacts related to their products, to establish course of actions, measurement and improvements in different stage of the production, as well as to develop a common language between sellers and buyers of Walmart Chile, setting goals and monitoring progress.

Most of the SMEs participating in the program belong to the food industry, and are also located in the central zone of Chile, which makes water an important issue for them. The paper will first address the different companies within the program and the different stages and methodologies involved. Later, the results section shows what the diagnostic for each companywas and some actions they have already implemented, overall and specific regarding water. The paper will finish with the conclusions.

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

METHODOLGY First year Currently, 10 of Walmart Chile providers are involved in the program. The name of the companies and their products is presented below: COMPANY

PRODUCT

Sociedad Buen Alimento Limitada

Edibleseaweed

Sociedad Industrial Vida Saludable

Cookies

Diego Matas

Mint

Comercial Soho

Olive oil

Agrícola María Eugenia Limitada

Lettuce

Envatec S.A.

Detergent

Setas del Huerto

Oystermushroom

Santiago Trading

Rice

Hidropónica La Cruz

Hydroponiclettuce

Agrícola Los Arrayanes

Tomatoes

Table 1. List of SMEs that belong to the PDP program in Semptember 2014

The program stared with a diagnostic of the different companies, with results suggesting that few of them had the capacities to identify their impacts and to address them. This set the basis to establish a course of action and timeframe for the program (Figure 1). During the first year, companies managed to identify the magnitude of their social and environmental impacts, as well as to start the systematization of their records and to establish baseline indicators. This was accomplished with visits to their installations, theoretical and practical workshops, gathering and processing of information, and finally a socialization of the results for a coordinated build-up of plans of actions.

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 1: Timeline for the PDP program

International Methodologies To identify the main social and environmental impacts, two methodologies were employed, Life Cycle Analisis (LCA) and the Sustainability Consortium Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) Life Cycle Analysis LCA is an objective and comprehensive tool to analyze environmental impacts related to the making of a product or service, considering inputs and outputs of the different processes that define that product or service. As a summary, LCA consists of 4 steps: • Setting of goals and scope.

• Life Cycle Inventory: collection of information of all the inputs and outputs of the different processes in the creation of a product, throughout itslife cycle.

• Life Cycle Impact Analysis: the results of the inventory are related to the potential impacts on human health and the environment, through models that consider availability and depletion of resources, time of permanence, allocation of pollutant in the different environmental compartments, and their effects on living organisms and the quality of the air, water and land.

• Interpretation of the obtained results of the impact analysis, towards the previously established goals.

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

The Sustainnability Consortium (TSC) TSC is an organization of diverse global participants that work collaboratively to build a scientific foundation that drives innovation to improve consumer product sustainability. They develop transparent methodologies, tools, and strategies to drive a new generation of products and supply networks that address environmental, social, and economic imperatives.

The TSC methodology is called Sustainability Measurement and Reporting System (SMRS), which is based on Investigation, Summarization and Measurement (Figure 2). Basically, an extensive international research about possible critical points (or hotspots) is performed for a specific product; afterwards there is a filter of those that are relevant and feasible to be improved. Finally, different improvement options are identified, and the key performance indicators (KPIs) are developed. The KPIs are questions that the companies can use to evaluate and monitor their performance in critical issues for the sustainability of their product.

Figure 2: TSC's SMRS methodology

Second and Third Year of the Program During the second year, companies have been trained in different topics, such as carbon footprint, foodwaste, water footprint and life cycle analysis. Additionally, openLCA 5 was installed in each company. This is a free, professional LCA and footprint software. The software, as well as the baseline life cycle inventories collected for the companies, allows them to calculate and visualize their environmental impact, as well as to see how any actions they take can affect their performance.

5

http://www.openlca.org/ Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

In October 2014 the third and final year of the project begun. This is expected to reinforced concepts companies have learned, particularly the capacity to identify improvement opportunities and how this will affect their environmental and social performance, thanks to a deeply involvement with the software, ensuring they can continue using it without external help.

RESULTS Main Impacts and Implemented Actions so Far Table 2 summarizes environmental (green) and social (light blue) impacts of the companies in the project, considering the different life cycle stages of the products. In terms of social impacts, workers are important for all companies, considering topics such as working hours, benefits, contracts, among others. Additionally, a good communication with consumers is essential in most cases. For example, for Envatec, detergent producer, to teach consumers about product quantity and water to use in each wash is essential to reduce the total impact of their product. On the other hand, for all products where a packaging is involved it is important to evaluate recyclability, and if that is a reality to communicate consumers about how and where to recycle them.

About raw materials and production, companies have been advised by specialists in the most relevant environmental topics for each of them, and most companies have already begun implementing changes.

To mention a few: • In 2014 Agrícola Los Arrayanes made its last application of Methyl Bromide, an agrochemical employed to disinfect soils. This fumigant has been banned to import in Chile since 2015 (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2015). This will be replaced by a less harmful to the ozone layer (and others) agrochemical, as well as biological control of pesticides and organic applications.

• Agrícola María Eugenia made the change from urea to manure turkey, a less disruptive fertilizer. They have also started earthworm breeding to reduce the quantity of organic waste, which they can also use as a source of nutrients for the soil.

• Hidropónicos La Cruz are performing field tests to change stonewool to coconut fibre as a substrate, which will reduce their environmental impact.

• Diego Matas invested in a machine which applies localized fertilizer next to the seed, as well as being a slow release fertilizer, avoiding the loss of product that is not used by the plant. On the other hand, they have also installed an earthworm breeding and the farmer purchased a compost tea machine, both measures that seek to improve the quality of the soil and to reduce the use of inorganic fertilizers.

• Setas del huerto improved the quality of their mill, as well as transfer it in order to reduce the movements inside the company, which reduces the use of fuel. Additionally, a roof on the yard managed to reduce the temperature by a few grades, which reduces the need for air conditioning.

• ComercialSoho is working closely to its supplier of glass bottles in order to reduce the weight of the bottles. They also keep searching for options to use the crushed olive pulp, such as compost and animal feeding.

• Be Cookies is studying the possibility of a change in packaging, although the current Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

â&#x20AC;˘

â&#x20AC;˘

option is the one that generates the less environmental impact.

CV Trading is taking important actions to improve the energy efficiency in the distribution of their product. Currently, they measure the pressure of the tires, the charge their trucks with fuel in the company and are incorporating aerodynamical designs for the trucks.

Envatec is performing internal quality tests to change their tensoactive, which would reduce their environmental impact on an 80%.

Water and Industry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Supplier

Agrícola Los Arrayanes Agrícola María Eugenia

Extraction and pre-processing of raw materials MethylBromide Mainfertilizer Compost Urea Fertilizers

Production

Distribution and storage

Workers

Use

Workhours Documents

Transparency Feedback

Benefits

Health and security

End of life

Irrigation Fertilizer use Transport

Responsability

Local jobs Stonewool Hidropónic os La Cruz

Electricity Fertilizers use Packaging

Diego Matas

Setas del huerto

Comercial Soho

Packaging Weathstraw Glassbottle

CV Trading

Envatec

Electricity

Benefits

Feedback

Contract Local commitment Substratedisp osition Diesel

Benefits Workhours Local commitment

Crushed olive pulp

Responsability

Health and security Transparency Feedback Health and security Transparency Feedback

Responsability

Responsability

Benefits Workhours Local commitment

PETpackagin g

Workhours

Oilbutter Flour

Rice transport Pallets Film Sodium carbonate Sodium sulfate Neutral bases

Transparency

Workhours

Irrigation

Rice

Workhours

Local jobs

Tray Fertilizers Water use

Sugar Be Cookies

Greenhousep lastic

Transport to distribution center

Contract Health and security Local commitment Film

Diesel

Workhours Fidelization Local commitment Benefit

Boxes

Workhours

Attendanceregistration Hygieneregulations Local commitment Table 2. Environmental and social hotspots of the suppliers

Health and security Transparency Feedback Health and security Transparency Feedback Salud y seguridad Transparency

Responsability

Responsability

Responsability

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

Specifically in terms of water, Agrícola Los Arrayanes, Diego Matas and Comercial Soho found that water use was an environmental hotspot.

Agrícola Los Arrayanes is located in Olmué, V region. Water use for the irrigation of tomato is considerably, a delicated topic in a location strongly affected by drought over the last few years. To address this problem, the company is evaluating the possibility of incorporating a new reservoir, in which the rain that falls over the greenhouses can be accumulated, also using the slope of the filed to facilitate its movement. Additionally, the company covered the reservoir with a net in order to decrease the losses due to evaporation, given the high temperatures during summer in the zone.

Diego Matas is performing “Californian irrigation”, a type of furrow irrigation that involves the use of pipes to move the water directly to the furrows, making it more efficient than using just natural canals.

This options, although less efficient than drip irrigation, would be more ideal for the location of the company. Basically, the high salinity of the water in the region makes it necessary to purchase a water softener, which costs more than the water itself, making it prohibitive. Additionally, the high presence of hares makes it necessary to have higher humidity in the furrow in order to reduce their entry.

Comercial Soho performs drip irrigation in the olive cultivation, reaching high efficiency levels in this task (95%). Because it is not possible to do more in this area, the company decided to manage water use in the process of oil extraction, particularly drinkable water that is used to wash the olives. This was achieved by installing a sand filter and a bomb that allows the recirculation of water. Thanks to this action they managed to reduce water use by 68% in this stage of the process.

Another interesting case in terms of water is Hidropónicos La Cruz. This company is located in Quillota, V region, declared water scarcity zone. This is why the company has a highly automatized greenhouse, where all the water that is used for irrigation that is not absorbed by the lettuce is recycled, along with the nutrients it contains. This way the loss of water is reduced to a bare minimum.

CONCLUSIONS In general terms, companies have been very receptive to incorporate social and environmental issues concerning their products, particularly when a strict measurement of inputs and outputs by stage (water, energy, product waste, production, among others) allows them to identify improvement options, higher efficiency, and eventually higher economic returns. Additionally, it is important that the project didn’t end only in the diagnostic stage, but it also identify actions and implement them, as well as monitoring how many of them are evolving and generating both environmental and economic results.

It is expected that a higher number of initiatives like this arise, with other large companies and in other industries, as a way to encourage sustainable growth of SMEs in Chile, considering economic, social and environmental topics, particularly those relevant to the water scarcity that will continue to affect Chile.

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES Banco Central(2011). ‘Diagnóstico de la gestión de los recursos hídricos’. Disponible en: http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2011/07/21/000020953_201107210 91658/Rendered/PDF/633920ESW0SPAN0le0GRH0final0DR0REV.0doc.pdf Ministerio del Medio Ambiente (2015). ‘Ministerio del Medio Ambiente anuncia que Chile pone fin al uso de bromuro de metilo’. Disponible en: http://portal.mma.gob.cl/ministro-del-medio-ambienteanuncia-que-chile-pone-fin-al-uso-de-bromuro-de-metilo/ Ministerio de Obras Públicas (2013). ‘Chile cuida su agua: Estrategia Nacional de Recursos Hídricos’ Disponible en: http://www.mop.cl/Documents/ENRH_2013_OK.pdf The Sustainability Consortium (2013). ‘About the Consortium’ Disponible en: http://www.sustainabilityconsortium.org/our-products/ Walmart Inc.(2007). ‘Wal-Mart CEO Lee Scott Unveils "Sustainability 360". Disponible en: http://news.walmart.com/news-archive/2007/02/01/wal-mart-ceo-lee-scott-unveils-sustainability-360

Water and Industry – Water Week LA 2015

Water and Energy Scenarios

Computer System Tool to Optimize the Extent of Mini Hydroelectric Plants and their Interconnection Lines to the Networking System.

Juan Ignacio Alarcón Marambio jignacioa@gmail.com Andrés José Díaz Alarcón Industrial Engineering School, Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Diego Portales andres.diaz@udp.cl

ABSTRACT This paper presents an optimization model developed to determine the optimal network connection to the trunk transmission system and optimize the size of a group of MCH (Spanish acronym for mini hydroelectric plants) of a basin, with a criterion of profit maximization. The mathematical model was solved by the use of an entire mixed optimization methodology with continuous and discrete decision variables (TRES). TRES was developed based on defined production and transportation projects, covering all the alternative of development of a basin. The analysis of watersheds, MCH projects and different alternatives of transmission, allowed verifying the effectiveness of the optimization model, providing this way, a new assessment and planning tool for the development of MCH. INTRODUCTION Chile currently presents advances in Non-Conventional Renewable Energy (NCRE), which have been achieved through the use of several promoting tools and regulations in the electric sector aiming to achieve in short, medium, and long term, penetration goals, with the main objective of a sustainable, economic, and secure energy supply. However, the development of NCRE faces a number of entry barriers that hold back its materialization. Particularly the mini hydroelectric plants (MCH) are restricted by the difficulty in the connection to the transmission networks due to their remoteness, being forced to incur in significant costs related to the construction of transmission lines.

Many computing models have been developed to simulate and optimize hydroelectric systems both at a national as at international levels. These models generally consider a much generalized data input, looking for the optimization of operations based on results obtained in bigger scale models. Within a national framework, there are operation and planning programs that allow studying the Chilean Energy matrix. These programs are used by companies and regulatory entities, but do not specifically study NCRE or MCH. Among those programs are PET (Technical Committee of the Energetic Scenarios Platform 2030, 2013), PLP, OSE2000 (OSE 2000, 2012), Plexos (Energy Exemplar Pty Ltd, 1994).

Celis (Celis Rioseco, 2011) developed a software that consists in determining in a continuous form the tension, capacity and voltage level of the connection lines from generators to trunk system. The Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

software uses an optimization method called minimum spanning tree. The main objective of the model is making design studies of transmission lines for cluster of specific projects, giving also a financial evaluation thereof. Energy PLAN (Advanced Energy System Analysis Computer Model, 2013) is a deterministic computing model design for the analysis of energy systems that use the Monte Carlo Method, which optimizes the operation of an energy system through the data input. This model is able to analyze the fluctuating influence of renewable energy sources in the system, as well as weekly and seasonable differences in demand for electricity. Its main limitation is that it does not consider transmission restrictions and that it portrays a simplified representation of the system.

HERA (PSR, 2010) developed by the PSR company, which by means of a mathematic model, allows the estimation of the hydroelectric potential of a hydrographic basin. HERA maximizes the economic benefit through calculations that provide the difference between revenues from sales of produced energy and the total costs, both direct and indirect investment. Its main objective is defining the emplacement of projects, and choosing the best design.

In order to determinate basins that are economically feasible to develop through MCH, a computerized tool has been developed which allows selecting and sizing these centrals as well as the connection network to the transmission system. All of these with a profit maximization criterion considering the environment constraints of the generating units and connection network.

METHODOLOGY This work consists in determining the voltage level and capacity, both for producing units as well as the trunk transmission system branch to which they will be connected. In addition, the voltage level and the capacity of the branch in in accordance with the producing units considered must be determined. The pressure level, capacity, and length of the connection lines and the branch, depend on the quantity and location of the installed generators and their power. The sizing of each producing unit (installed power) will depend on the hydrological behavior of the river flows, the drop height, and the sales prices of the energy and power.

Mathematical Formulation

The mathematical formulation consists in defining the objective function and the restrictions which allow determining the production and transmission projects that maximize the economic profit of the cluster of projects. In fact, the objective function should maximize the expected value for the profits of the generation projects, through the difference between the revenues that stem from energy sale (net injections to the network) and associated costs.

The assessment should also allow that a generating unit may be sized (search for the optimal extent of installed capacity) or fixed size.

Within the restrictions subject to the objective function, are those related to transmission constraints, hydrology, environmental flows, and representation of fixed and variable investment costs associated to the installed capacity, among other restrictions.

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Transmission for Renewable Energy Systems (TRES) is a computing tool developed under the aforesaid mathematical formulation and whose objective is to maximize the total benefits of a group of MCH located in a same basin. TRES was developed using the GAMS software, wherein all restrictions that allow to represent the problem properly, considering the restrictions of transmission, environmental flow, maximum power, date of entry and exit, among others, according to the mathematical formulation are incorporated.

Objective Function

The objective function (Fobj) of the mathematical model that maximizes de economical profit of the MCH group of projects is expressed in formula (1). In the following equations, the sub-indexes (a,p) represent the stage corresponding to the year (a) and period (p), (h) the hydrology, (g) a generation project and (l) a transmission project.

The present value of the quotas of the objective function, are determined with the update factor Df(a,p) defined as follows:

where Sn(a,p) is the number of steps between step(a,p) and the starting date of the optimization.

The expected revenues are calculated as: 1.

:The sum of the net injections of energy to the trunk transmission system InyNet(a,p,h) in each step (a,p) and hydrology h, multiplied by the probability of the hydrology Pr(h) and updated

by Df(a,p)

2.

:The sum of incomes from firm capacity Ipf(g,a,p), in each step (a,p), updated by Df(a,p)

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The costs are calculated as follows: 1.

2.

3.

:The sum of the fixed investment costs of the generation projects in the (a,p) step, updated by Df(a,p) :The sum of the variable investment costs with the capacity of the generation projects in the step (a,p), updated by Df(a,p) :The sum of the investment cost of the transmission projects in the step (a,p), updated

by Df(a,p)

Restrictions Additionally, among the restrictions subject to the objective function are the following: 1. Maximum Power Restriction. This maximum power limit is applied to the installed power of each generator g in each step(a,p), which at the same time limits the power generated by the unit. The generated power (Pg(g,a,p,h)), shall be less or equal to the installed power.

2. The Generated Power is Calculated as Follows:

In the above equation, the turbine flow is also related to the inflow (Qi (g,a,p,h)) and to the discharge flow (Qv(g,a,p,h)).

Likewise, in every moment the discharge flow shall be higher or equal to the environmental flow (Qe (g,a,p,h)), to preserve the ecosystem conservation.

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

3. Injections: The flow injections to the network (FN(a,p,h)), are determined by the sum of the flows injected for each line that is connected to the connection node with the trunk.

4. Restriction of maximum: The flow F(l,a,p,h) of the transmission lines should respect the maximum flow limit.

This way, the maximum flow equations are given by: 1) The maximum positive flow: 2) The maximum negative flow:

5. Loss Restrictions: One of the important aspects in the design of transmission lines are the power losses that occur by the Joule Effect, due to the conduction of current, named ohmic losses, given that the utilization of larger cross-section conductors decreases losses, however increases the investment, being there an optimum size for each level of tension. It must be noted that the applications that use these models, usually make a linear approximation by the part of losses function, which enables their incorporation in effective linear optimization routines (Brokering, et al., 2008). The equation of losses is featured below:

where, Losses(l,i→k) represent the loses in the transmission lines, R(l) the ressistance in the transmission lines F(l,i→k) to the flow or power that circulates in the transmission lines. To represent in linear form the transmission losses, it is necessary to consider positive or negative power flows according the nomination in the end bars.

6. Income restrictions: The incomes from net injections of energy into the trunk transmission system, (InyNet(a,p,h)), in each step (a,p) and hydrology h, valued at the sales price of energy, are calculated as the sum of all power flows that reach the connection node to the trunk transmission system.

Where FN(a,p,h) represents the flow injections to the trunk transmission system, in step (a,p) and hydrology h, correspond to the power that is injected by the branch to the trunk transmission system. Dur(a,p) is the elapsed time in each step (a,p). Finally, PE(a,p,h) is the price of energy in each step (a,p) and hydrology h.

7. The incomes from installed capacity (Ipf(g,a,p)) (CDEC-SING, 2010) of each generating unit in Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

each step, valued at nodal price (Pnudo)(Comisión Nacional de Energía, 2010), are calculated as:

where FPfirme(g) is the installed capacity factor of each generating unit that depends on hydrology in a dry year. (Arellano, et al., 2004).

8. Costs Restrictions: The fixed and variable investment costs of the generation projects (CFG(g,a,p), CVG(g,a,p)), in each step (a,p), are calculated with the following parameters: • Lifetime of each generating unit, VidaUG(g) • Fixed investments of the generating units (InvFG(g)), (value in monetary unit per mega-watt (UM/MW)), corresponding to the access pathways, to the intakes, machine houses, among others.

• Variable investments of the generating units (InvVG(g)) (value in UM/MW), corresponding to the electric generator, pipes, converters, among others.

• Investment, operation, maintenance, and administration (COMA) fixed costs of the generating unit (COMAFG(g,a,p)),(value in UM/MW), in the step (a,p). Corresponds to the fixed operational, maintenance, and administration costs of the Project.

• The COMA variable of the generating units(COMAVG(g,a,p)), (value in UM/MW), in the step (a,p).

• The investment costs and the fixed COMA of the generating units that do not depend on the installed capacity; the single values are calculated with the maximum power that can be installed (PMax(g)).

Investment costs and COMA variable of the generating units; this value depends on the installed power and therefore must be calculated according to the power considered by the model.

9. To estimate the investment costs of the transmission projects (CL(l,a,p)), in each step (a,p), the following parameters have to be considered.

• Shelf life of the transmission lines VidaUL(l) • The investments in the transmission lines InvL(l), (value in UM/MW), corresponding to the access roads, easement rights, conductors, towers or poles, among others.

• The transmission lines COMA COMAL(l,a,p), (value in UM/MW), in the step (a,p), corresponding to the operation, maintenance, and administration costs of the project.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

•

The investment costs and COMA of the transmission lines; the single values are calculated with the maximum power of the line.

RESULTS Figure 1: Projects in Lake Ranco Basin.

The case study corresponds to the evaluation of a basin in the XIV Region of Chile(Alarcón, 2013).

Figure 1 shows Lake Ranco's basin and its corresponding projects. Figure 2 presents the alternatives of straight line transmission for each generator and connection branch to the trunk system. The lines were sized to enable an upstream power transportation of potential power plants.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 2: Transmission Project in the Lake Ranco Basin

The study considers two cases corresponding to 110 and 220kV lines, both of 40.5 km and with a substation of 66kV. The cases were assessed in a 9-year timeframe (2012–2020) and considering 2 scenarios as part of the sensitivity analysis. The sensitivity analysis considers the energy sales price variation in the connection point and the investment costs of the projects. The first scenario (base scenario) considers a price forecast per hydrology for each step (a,p). The second scenario, considers a price forecast increased in 32 US$/MWh, related to the 0,4 UTM/MWh fine, considered in Law 20.257. The above, corresponds to the maximum price the ERNC Projects could obtain for their renewable energy certificates (Ministerio de economía, 2008). Table 1 displays the parameters considered in both scenarios with a total installed power of 180 MW.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Table 1. Parameters considered in generation projects.

Project

Maximum Power (MW)

Fixed Investment (MUS$/MW)

Fixed COMA (MUS$/MW)

Variable Investment (MUS$/MW)

Variable COMA (MUS$/MW)

Lifespan (years)

Project 1

6

2.328

40,5

998

2,0

40

Project 2

10

2.450

26,4

1.050

2,1

40

Project 3

20

2.083

14,9

893

1,8

40

Project 4

5

2.083

47,2

893

1,8

40

Project 5

25

1.925

12,5

825

1,7

40

Project 6

10

1.925

25,4

825

1,7

40

Project 7

15

1.925

18,2

825

1,7

40

Project 8

15

1.855

18,0

795

1,6

40

Project 9

3

1.750

75,2

750

1,5

40

Project 10

5

2.083

47,2

893

1,8

40

Project 11

6

1.925

39,7

825

1,7

40

Project 12

32

1.995

10,7

855

1,7

40

Project 13

12

2.328

22,6

998

2,0

40

Project 14

20

2.328

15,4

998

2,0

40

For the optimization methodology the following parameters were considered: hydrology (dry, medium, and wet); 10% discount rate defined in the Article N° 82 of the General Law of Electric Services (LGSE); environmental flow of a 5% in relation with the maximum capacity of the generator; and a power node price of 9,215 US$/kW-month (Comisión Nacional de Energía, 2013).

Transmission Lines An 110kV line of two circuits of different capacity between their bars and with a single circuit to the trunk system, allowing the transportation of the maximum capacity was taken in consideration. In addition, three 220kV lines of a single circuit of different capacities to the backbone were also considered. Both transmission lines should carry the total power of the 14 generation projects or of the total selected projects. Table 2 displays the different alternatives for the connection lines. This way, TRES will opt for the line that minimizes the operation costs and energy transportation of each project.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Table 2. Circuits used.

Lines

NodeA

NodeB

Maximum Power (MW)

L1

220kV

Trunk

225

L2

220kV

Trunk

160

L3

220kV

Trunk

120

L1

110kV

Trunk

160

L1

110kV-1

110kV-2

160

L2

110kV-1

110kV-2

120

Once the lines are traced and their sizes determined, the investments in infrastructure will be valued, whose estimate unit costs (US$/km) are displayed in Table 3.

Table 3. Unit cost of infrastructure of the transmission lines

Unit costs (US$/km) Line 220kV Line 1: LĂ­ne2: Line 3: 110 Converter-Trunk: Line 110kV Circuit 1: Circuit 2: 12 - 66 kV converter Maximum flow from 1 to 4 (MW): Maximum flow from 5 to 15 (MW): Maximum flow from 16 to 25 (MW): Maximum flow from 26 to 40 (MW): 66 - 220 kV converter: 66 - 110 kV converter:

350.000 300.000 260.000 1.100.000 250.000 230.000 80.000 200.000 400.000 500.000 800.000 650000

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Thus, the investment (InvL(l)) and single COMA of the transmission lines (COMA(l)) were calculated respectively as:

where CU is the unit cost of the transmission line (US$/km) and Fmax(l) the maximum capacity of the transmission line. Finally, for COMA, a 5% of the investment was considered.

Figure 3 shows a price projection per year and trimester, used in Scenario 1 (Mega Prisma S.A., 2013).

In scenario 2, an increase of 32 US$/MWh was considered on the projection of prices.

Figure 3: Energy Price forecast.

The following chart points out, for each scenario, the year and entrance period, the installed power, and the total installed capacity of the group of projects. Table 4, shows that the projects considered in Scenario 1 have a capacity higher than 13 MW, entering only 6 projects. This is because the projects of lesser capacity, have significant transmission costs. On the other hand, the operating start-up of many projects, is feasible during last years of assessment, due to higher prices. In Scenario 2, we may observe that by increasing the projected prices in 32 US $/MWh, a total of 7 projects are obtained. The projects with capacities higher or equal to 13 MW, are considered at the beginning of the assessment, leaving for the last year project 6, with a power of 8,8 MW. Again, this is due to the higher prices in recent years.

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Table 4. Date of entry into service

Generator

Scenario 1 Year

Project 5 Project 12 Project 7 Project 3 Project 8 Project 14

2019 2019 2019 2020 2020 2020

Total Installed power(MW): Scenario 2 Generator Year Project 3 Project 5 Project 7 Project 8 Project 12 Project 14 Project 6

2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2020

Period Trim2 Trim2 Trim3 Trim2 Trim2 Trim2

Period Trim2 Trim2 Trim2 Trim2 Trim2 Trim2 Trim2

Total installed power (MW): The results indicate that the installation of a 220kV is more convenient than an 110kV line, this is because the first line may transport the total installed power of the group of projects to the trunk transmission system. Table 5 shows that the 220kV line was selected in all scenarios with a power of 225 MW, despite being used with maximum power between 111 and 147 MW. Table 5. 220kV bar selected in each scenario

Lines Line

Node A

Node B

Maximun Power (MW)

Power (MW)

Scenario 1

L1

B220kV

Trunk

225

111

Scenario 2

L1

B220kV

Trunk

225

119

The table above shows that the total installed power in both scenarios is lower than the maximun power of the chosen transmission line. Next, an analysis is presented in wich the date of entry to service of the line that is consistent to the toal installed power of the centrals is established. To establish the forced Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

entry date of the lines of transmission in the two scenarios, of th2 220kV line with a maximum power of 120 MW was forceed. As it may be seen in Table 6, the expected obtained profit for each scenario is larger than the profit that could have been obtained if the forced transmission line had been selected.

Table 6. Comparision of objetive funtionwith new analysis

Expected Objetive Function (MUS$)

Objetive Function with Forced Line (MUS$)

Scenario 1

9280,91

9208,56

Scenario 2

11371,53

109118,84

The analysis above shows that the profit difference between the best alternative and the adjusted line is of approximately 2%. The difference in the investment cost of the transmission lines is of MUS$ 2.025 between the line of 160 and 225 MW, this is, approximately, the updated net profit difference. The difference between the transmission lines of 120 and 225 MW is of MUS$ 3.645, doubling the updated net profit. By selecting the 225 MW, there is a surplus of 61,5 MW, which will allow incorporating new centrals, prorating the investment among more line users.

The difference observed among both scenarios, for the expected total annual income in the assessment period (Table 7), is due to the increase of US$/WMh concerning the promotion of ERNC established in Law 20.257.

Table 7. Total annual income

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Total Income(MUS$)

Scenario 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 31.221,02 90.135,21

Scenario 2 82.617 91.59 97.993 113.423 89.013 93.863 94.200 99.567 130.22

121.356,23

892.486

Finally, the scenario that maximizes profits and grants more benefits to investors is Scenario 2, where the profit amounts to $111.371,53, in relation to $9.280,91 of Scenario 1.

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

CONCLUSIONS The validation carried out in the Lake Ranco Basin, allowed checking and validating the implemented mathematical model in TRES. It may be concluded from the case study, that by counting with an increase in the projection of prices, a larger amount of projects are feasible. Also, if the projection of prices is larger during the last years of assessment, a higher quantity of projects may be considered.

It was observed, in the base scenario, that a large amount of generating units (<10 MW), are not installed because their fixed investment cost are too high in comparison with the maximum power of each unit. The increase in the amount of installed projects is possible due to the increase of sales prices.

Nevertheless, the results obtained in the Lake Ranco Basin, show that a 32 US $ / MWh increase in energy prices, is not sufficient to incorporate the smaller projects (<10 MW).

This way, counting with hydrological information of the area, the price projection, the characteristics of the generation and transmission projects, TRES allows to determine the best alternative for connection to the trunk transmission system and the respective dates of entry of the selected projects, being this a support tool for the assessment of MCH projects.

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES Advanced Energy System Analysis Computer Model, 2013. http://energy.plan.aau.dk. En línea: http://energy.plan.aau.dk/introduction.php[Último acceso: 20 05 2013].

Alarcón, J. I., 2013. HERRAMIENTA COMPUTACIONAL PARA LA OPTIMIZACIÓN DEL TAMAÑO DE MINI CENTRALES HIDROELÉCTRICAS Y DE SUS LÍNEAS DE INTERCONEXCIÓN AL SISTEMA DE TRANSMISIÓN, Santiago: Tesis de Magister, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Diego Portales.

Arellano, S., Moya, O., Palma, R. & Rudnick, H., 2004. Procedimiento de determinación de potencia firme y balances de potencia bajo Ley 19.940, Santiago: Estudio para el Ministerio de Economía y la Comisión Nacional de Energía.

Brokering, W., Palma, R. & Vargas, L., 2008. Los Sistemas Eléctricos de Potencia. Primera Edición, 2008 ed. Santiago: Prentice Hall.

CDEC-SING, 2010. Cálculo de potencia firme y determinación del balance entre empresas generadoras, Santiago: s.n.

Celis Rioseco, D. A., 2011. Tesis de Pregrado "Conexión de Energías Renovables No Convencionales al Sistema Eléctrico", Santiago: Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.

Comisión Nacional de Energía, 2010. www.cne.cl. En línea: http://www.cne.cl/tarificacion/electricidad/precios-de-nudo-de-corto-plazo[Último acceso: 15 10 2012].

Comisión Nacional de Energía, 2013. Fijación de precios de nudo, Santiago: CNE. Comité Técnico de la Plataforma Escenarios Energéticos 2030, 2013. Escenarios Energéticos Chile 2030, Santiago: Primera edición Julio 2013.

Energy Exemplar Pty Ltd, 1994. Energy Exemplar. En línea: http://energyexemplar.com/software/plexos-desktop-edition/[Último acceso: 07 2013].

Mega Prisma S.A., 2013. Proyección de precios del SIC, Santiago: Consultora del mercado electrico chileno.

Ministerio de economía, 2008. Ley 20.257. Santiago: BCN. OSE 2000, 2012. OSE 2000. En línea: http://www.ose2000.kasing.cl[Último acceso: 07 2013].

PSR, 2010. PSR - HERA. En línea: http://www.psrinc.com.br/portal/psr_es/servicos/modelos_de_apoio_a_decisao/studio_plan/hera/[Último acceso: 22 Octubre 2012].

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Application of New Biological Processes at the Wastewater Treatment Plants for Improving their Energetic Balance and Reducing GHG Emissions.

José Luis Campos Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez (Chile) jluis.campos@uai.cl Anuska Mosquera-Corral Universidad de Santiago de Compostela (España) anuska.mosquera@usc.es Alba Pedrouso Universidad de Santiago de Compostela (España) alba.pedrouso@rai.usc.es Nicolás Morales Aqualia (FCC Group) (España) nicolas.morales.pereira@fcc.es Ángeles Val del Río Universidad de Santiago de Compostela (España) mangeles.val@usc.es José Ramón Vázquez-Padín Aqualia (FCC Group) (España) jvazquezp@fcc.es Ramón Méndez Universidad de Santiago de Compostela (España) ramon.mendez.pampin@usc.es

ABSTRACT Up to now the main goal of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) was to remove pollutants content in order to protect downstream users. For this reason most efforts done to improve WWTPs design have been traditionally focused on achieving the disposal requirements in terms of solids, organic matter and nutrients content. Recently, new challenges are under consideration, oriented to assure the sustainability of WWTPs in terms of their technical reliability, economic feasibility and environmental impact. Energy consumption and greenhouse gases emissions are among the aspects that should become key-factors concerning the overall performance of the WWTPs.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

With regards to energy consumption, the potential energy available in the raw wastewater influent exceeds the electricity requirements of the treatment process. However, in actual WWTPs only a low fraction of this energy is recovered through methane production during anaerobic sludge digestion while a large fraction of this energy is dissipated in the secondary biological reactors to remove nitrogenous compounds by nitrification-denitrification processes. In order to improve the recovery of energy from the raw wastewater, the application of partial nitrification and Anammox (Anaerobic Ammonia Oxidation) processes, which take place without organic matter requirement, is one of the most interesting options. These processes would allow increasing the amount of organic matter converted into methane and decreasing the oxygen needed to remove nitrogenous compounds. They are already applied at full scale to treat the supernatants of the anaerobic sludge digesters, the total electrical consumption of the WWTPs being reduced by 40-50%. If these processes are also applied in the main stream the energy savings could be increased and the WWTPs could change from energy consumers to energy source systems.

The application of partial nitrification and Anammox processes would also allow decreasing the greenhouse gases emissions of the WWTPs due to the reduction of energy requirements and to the lower production of N2O compared to that of the nitrification-denitrification processes.

INTRODUCTION Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) use large amounts of energy in order to remove pollutants and obtain a suitable effluent to fulfil the required standards (Mo and Zhang, 2013). Moreover WWTPs are among the industrial sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission since they use biological processes for the removal of nutrients which produce nitrous oxide (N 2O) (Yerushalmi et al., 2013). In the next years with the increasing water consumption and more stringent regulations, the energy consumed and the amount of N2O emitted by WWTPs will increased. For this reason, it is necessary to apply new biological processes to treat wastewater in order to improve the performance of WWTPs under economic and environmental point of view.

It is known that the potential energy available in the raw wastewater, as organic compounds, exceeds significantly the electricity requirements of the applied treatments (Garrido et al., 2013). However, part of this organic matter is wasted when the nitrification and denitrification processes are used to remove nitrogen and organic matter simultaneously (equations 1, 2 and 3). In reality an effective use of the contained COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) is only performed in the case of primary and secondary sludge which are normally anaerobically digested and energy is recovered through methane production (Wett et al., 2007). However, in these conditions only about 35-45% of the solids are converted into CH4 during anaerobic digestion. This limitation increases the interest in implementing sludge disintegration units previous to the anaerobic digesters to maximize the recovery of energy from sludge (and also to decrease sludge production) (Carrère et al., 2010).

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Nitrification reaction: NH4+ + 2 O2  NO3- + H2O + 2 H+

[1]

Denitrification reaction:NO3- + 5/8 CH3COOH  HCO3- + ¾ H2O + ¼ CO2 + ½ N2

[2]

Overall reaction: NH4+ + 2 O2 + 5/8 CH3COOH  5/4 CO2 + ½ N2 + 11/4 H2O + H+

[3]

In order to improve the recovery of energy from the raw wastewater, the application of partial nitrification and Anammox processes (equations 4, 5 and 6), which take place in autotrophic conditions, to the main stream in the WWTPs is one of the most interesting options (Wett et al., 2013).

According to this strategy both organic matter and nitrogen are removed in separated processes. In this case the energy contained in the organic matter can be saved and recovered by means of the application of an aerobic stage operated at a low solids retention time (Ge et al., 2013) followed by an anaerobic digestion of the generated sludge. Thus oxygen requirements are minimized while methane production is maximized.

Partial nitrification reaction: NH4+ + 0.85 O2  0.43 NH4+ + 0.57 NO2- + 0.57 H2O + 1.14 H+

[4]

Anammox reaction: 0.43 NH4+ + 0.57 NO2- + 0.03 H+ 0.44 N2 + 0.11 NO3- + 0.86 H2O

[5]

Overall reaction: NH4+ + 0.85 O2  0.44 N2 + 0.11 NO3- + 1.43 H2O + 1.11 H+

[6]

Two different configurations can be applied to combine partial nitrification and Anammox processes: 1) Two stage reactor configuration: In the case of a two reactors configuration, partial nitrification and Anammox processes are carried out in two separated units (Figure 1a). The first reactor is operated under aerobic conditions to convert around half of the ammonium to nitrite, whereas the second reactor is operated under anaerobic conditions to obtain autotrophic denitrification which is performed by Anammox bacteria; 2) Single stage configuration: Under limiting oxygen conditions a mixed culture of both ammonia oxidizers and Anammox bacteria can be obtained in one single reactor (Figure 1b). This culture converts ammonia directly into nitrogen gas with nitrite as intermediate product. Ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) consume oxygen and generate both nitrite and an anoxic environment for Anammox microorganisms. Biofilm and granular reactors are a suitable technology to develop simultaneously these processes (Figure 2). AOB can grow in the outer part of the biofilm and produce nitrite and consume oxygen to provide anoxic conditions in the inner part of the biofilm. In this anoxic zone, ammonium (left from the AOB activity) and nitrite (produced during partial nitrification) have to be present in order to allow the growth of Anammox bacteria (Vázquez-Padín et al., 2009).

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

a)

b) N2

NH4+ (100)

Partial nitrification

NO2-/NH4+

Anammox

(55/45)

NO3-

NH4+

(10)

(100)

Partial nitrification/ Anammox

N2/NO3(90/10)

Figure 1: Possible configurations to partial nitrification and Anammox processes: a) Two stage reactor configuration and; b) single stage configuration.

NH4+ O2

PARTIAL NITRIFICATION ANĂ&#x201C;XICA AEROBIC

NO2-

ANOXIC N2 + NO3-

NO2NH4+

ANAMMOX

Figure 2: Simultaneous partial nitrification and Anammox processes in granular systems.

The partial nitrification and Anammox processes are already applied at full scale to treat the supernatants of anaerobic sludge digesters (Lackner et al., 2014). This application allowed reducing the total electrical consumption of the WWTPs by 40-50% since 20% of the nitrogen loading is removed without the need for organic matter which can be mostly removed by anaerobic digestion increasing the methane production and reducing costs associated to aeration (Siegrist et al., 2008). Futhermore, N 2O emissions from partial nitrification and Anammox processes are rather lower than those generated during nitrification/denitrification processes (Kampschreur et al., 2008).

Therefore, if the partial nitrification and Anammox processes are applied in the main line the energy savings could be probably increased and the N2O emissions minimized. For this reason, the aim of this work was to carry out an overall evaluation of the application of Anammox based processes on the WWTPs performance.

METHODOLOGY The effects of the Anammox based processes implementation on the WWTP performance have been evaluated from an energetic point of view taken into account the increase of methane production and the costs reduction associated with aeration (Siegrist et al., 2008; Kartal et al., 2010). However, the implementation of these processes also affects to the sludge and N 2O production. Then, in order to quantify all these effects on the WWTPs performance, the possible implementation of the Anammox based processes in both sludge and water lines of a conventional WWTP at several configurations was evaluated. Five possible modifications of the conventional WWTP configuration were proposed to improve its energetic efficiency (Figure 3). Case A: the implementation of a sludge disintegration unit Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

prior to the anaerobic sludge digester. Case B: the implementation of an Anammox based processes system to treat the supernatant of the anaerobic sludge digester. Case C: the implementation of both sludge disintegration unit and an Anammox based processes system in the sludge line. Case D: In addition to modification of Case C in the water line the nitrification-denitrification reactor was replaced by an aerobic reactor operated at a solids retention time (SRT) of 2 d, in order to remove only organic matter and maximize the sludge production, followed by an Anammox based processes system. Case E: an anaerobic membrane reactor was used to remove organic matter previously to the application of the Anammox based processes systems as single units of the WWTP. To evaluate the performance of each option mass and energy balances were performed. The chosen characteristics of the influent were: total COD of 500 mg/L (S s: 150 mg/L; SI: 50 mg/L; Xs: 200 mg/L; XI: 100 mg/L) and NH4+-N of 30 mg/L. The required characteristics of the effluent were a COD concentration lower than 125 mg/L and total nitrogen concentration lower than 10 mg/L. The inlet flow rate was of 50,000 m3/d and the operational conditions of the WWTP were: solids retention time of 15 d; hydraulic retention time of 12 h; internal recycle ratio of 3; external recycle ratio of 1; aerobic volume percentage of 65%; anaerobic digester VSS removal efficiency of 45%. Sludge disintegration unit + anaerobic digester VSS removal efficiency of 55%. Oxygen consumption, biogas production and sludge generation were taken as the output parameters of the calculations. In order to evaluate the economic implications the following considerations were taken into account: energy for aeration: 1 kW·h/kg O2; sludge disposal costs: 200 Euros/ton TSS; electricity production: 2 kW·h/m 3 CH4; electrical energy for pumping and mixing: 0.02 kW·h/pe·d (Siegrist et al., 2008); and electricity cost: 0.12 Euros/kW·h. N2O gas emissions were also estimated considering that one single unit stage was used to remove nitrogen. This stage converts around 0.6% of the treated nitrogen into N 2O while this conversion is around 3.6% for conventional nitrification-denitrification processes (Kampschreur et al., 2008).

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 3:Possible modifications of a conventional WWTP to improve its energetic efficiency: sludge line (dotted lines); water line (boxes indicating the substituting units).

RESULTS Results obtained from the calculations corresponding to the five modifications are shown in Table 1.

When the sludge disintegration unit (Case A) is implemented in the sludge line, biogas generation increases and sludge production decreases. However the ammonia concentration in the supernatant of the sludge digester increases which increases the amount of organic matter and oxygen needed for denitrification and nitrification, respectively in the water line. Since more nitrogen is removed in the main stream, the N2O emissions increase. If an Anammox based processes unit is used to treat the sludge return stream (Case B), the nitrogen loading rate fed to the biological reactor is reduced around 15-20%. Then organic matter requirements for denitrification are lower, therefore, more organic matter can be derived to the anaerobic digester which increases both biogas and sludge production derived from the primary settling. Moreover, a lower nitrogen loading rate means lower oxygen requirements during nitrification and lower N2O emissions. In Case C, synergetic effects of both previous cases occur since the increased amount of ammonia in the supernatant of the sludge digester is removed before its returns to the main line in an Anammox based processes unit. When the Anammox based processes unit Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

is applied to the main stream combined with an aerobic unit to remove organic matter (Case D), both biogas generation and oxygen savings increase up to 67% and 50%, respectively while N2O production decreases 83%. Nevertheless, sludge generation slightly increases due to the maximization of its production during the aerobic process. The best results are obtained when the organic matter of the main stream is removed by an anaerobic psychrophilic membrane reactor (Case E).

Table 1. Effects of Anammox based processes applications on the WWTPs performance. All data are referred to the results of the calculations of a WWTP without any modification.

Parameter

Case A

Case B

Case C

Case D

Case E

Aeration requirements (%)

+13

-26

-25

-50

-86

Biogas production (%)

+15

+18

+51

+67

+250

Sludge generation (%)

-24

+17

-1

+9

+4

N2O emissions (%)

+3

-22

-22

-83

-83

Saving costs (%)

6

7

19

28

68

These results indicate the potential benefits of the implementation of Anammox based processes in the WWTPs configuration. Nowadays there are already Anammox based processes systems implemented at full scale treating the supernatant of the sludge digesters, sludge disintegration units, psychrophilic anaerobic units, and high loaded aerobic units. Nevertheless, there are only few works focused on the application of Anammox based process in the main stream of the WWTPs (Hu et al., 2013; Morales, 2014). Results obtained in these works showed the feasibility of this application. However, further research is needed to maintain the long-term stability of the process in order to obtain a suitable effluent quality.

Acknowledgements This work was funded by the Spanish government through the project Plasticwater (CTQ2011-22675) and ITACA (CDTI 2011/CE525).

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES Carrère, H., Dumas, C., Battimelli, A., Batstone, D.J., Delgenès, J.P., Steyer, J.P., Ferrer I., 2010.

Pretreatment methods to improve sludge anaerobic degradability: A review. J. Hazard. Mater. 183, 115.

Garrido, J.M., Fdz-Polanco, M., Fdz-Polanco, F., 2013. Working with energy and mass balances: a conceptual framework to understand the limits of municipal wastewater treatment. Wat. Sci. Tech. 67, 2294-2301.

Ge, H., Batstone, D.J., Keller, J., 2013. Operating aerobic wastewater treatment at very short sludge ages enables treatment and energy recovery through anaerobic sludge digestion. Water Res. 47, 65466557.

Hu Z., Lotti T., de Kreuk M., Kleerebezen R., van Loosdrecht M.C.M., Kruit J., Jetten M.S.M. and Kartal B. (2013). Nitrogen removal by a nitritation-anammox bioreactor at low temperature. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 79(8), 2807-2812.

Kampschreur, M.J., van der Star, W.R.L., Wielders, H.A., Mulder, J.W., Jetten, M.S.M., van Loosdrecht, M.C.M., 2008. Dynamics of nitric oxide and nitrous oxide emission during full-scale reject water treatment. Water Res. 42, 812-826.

Kartal, B., Kuenen, J.G., van Loosdrecht, M.C.M., 2010. Sewage treatment with Anammox. Science 328, 702-703.

Lackner, S., Gilbert, E.M., Vlaeminck, S.E., Joss, A., Horn, H., van Loosdrecht, M.C.M., 2014. Fullscale partial nitritation/anammox experiences: An application survey. Water Res. 55, 292-303.

Mo, W., Zhang, Q., 2013. Energy-nutrients-water nexus: Integrated resource recovery in municipal wastewater treatment plants. J. Enviro. Manage. 127, 255-267.

Morales N. (2014). Novel technologies for WWTP optimization in footprint, nutrients valorization, and energy consumption. Doctoral Thesis. University of Santiago de Compostela.

Siegrist, H., Salzgeber, D., Eugster, J., Joss, A., 2008. Anammox brings WWTP closer to energy autarky due to increased biogas production and reduced aeration energy for N-removal. Water Sci. Technol. 57, 383-388.

Wett, B., Buchauer, K., Fimmi, C., 2007. Energy self-sufficiency as a feasible concept for wastewater treatment systems. Asian Water September, 22-25.

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Wett, B., Omari, A., Podmirseg, S.M., Han, M., Akintayo, O., Gómez Brandón, M., Murthy, S., Bott, C., Hell, M., Takács, I., Nyhuis, G., O’Shaughnessy, M., 2013. Going for mainstream deammonification from bench to full scale for maximized resource efficiency. Wat. Sci. Tech. 68, 283289.

Yerushalmi, L., Ashrafi, O., Haghighat, F., 2013. Reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) generation and energy consumption in wastewater treatment plants. Wat. Sci. Tech. 67, 1159-1164.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

The Expected Impacts of Climate Change on Hydrology Power Generation and Potential Adaptation Strategies in South America.

Carlos Eduardo Ludena Inter-American Development Bank carlosl@iadb.org David Ryfisch Inter-American Development Bank dryfisch@iadb.org

ABSTRACT Hydropower is the backbone of South American electricity production, providing energy security at low-carbon intensity. Extensive potential and near-future expansion plans will likely foster this dependence. Designed on the basis of historic stream flows, hydropower plants and productivity are vulnerable to changing river runoffs as a consequence of climate variability and climate change. To ensure energy security without jeopardizing the low-carbon energy matrix, suitable adaptation strategies for water systems and hydropower stations need to be identified. This paper revisits existing climate change-hydropower impact studies in the region, analyzes existing hydropower expansion plans against the backdrop of climate change projections, and compiles adaptation measures, aiming at identifying readily deployable no-regret measures.

INTRODUCTION A country's successful economic development depends, amongst other factors, on an infrastructure that ensures reliable energy supply. In South American countries, energy security substantially hinges on the provision of electricity through hydropower. Still, the unexploited potential greatly exceeds the installed capacity, having led most countries to plan and implement hydropower projects of varying scales in the current decade (IEA, 2012). Having an investment horizon of more than fifty years, hydropower plants require the highest possible planning reliability. Plants are designed to exploit resources most beneficially given the observed historical river flows (Milly et al., 2008). Therefore, substantial changes in river flows pose an undeniable threat to the energy security of South American countries, and are associated with large economic losses. 1 One of the likely sources of river flow variations in the medium- and long-term is climate change. The individuality of each basin combined with the uncertainty inherent in hydro-climatic modeling processes and data scarcity impede gross generalizations concerning future water availability.

1

1.5% of Brazilian GDP was the associated economic losses as a consequence of the drought-caused electricity shortage in 2001 (Magrin et al., 2007).

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Depending on model and climate change scenario, the analyzed cases suggest that some hydropower plants may benefit from climate change while others will face substantial reductions in productivity.

Acknowledging both- the large uncertainty as well as the necessity for cost-effective adaptation measures, this study examines three tiers of actions: measures at the hydropower plant, measures and policies at the tributary, and soft measures like knowledge generation. The study suggests that a set of no or low-regret measures are readily implementable which will reduce the vulnerability of hydropower plants while generating co-benefits, e.g. the creation of knowledge and the management of basins and ecosystems.

METHODOLOGY The study contains an overview of the role of hydropower in South America, followed by a short review of the expected climatic changes in South America. The main objective of this document is a review of existing case studies on the expected impact of climate change on hydropower production and an analysis of the South American expansion plans in light of available climate change projections.

The paper concludes with a categorization and analysis of adaptation strategies for hydropower plants.

Throughout the second half of the last century, Latin American countries substantially invested in hydropower generation (IHA, 2012). The region observed the highest growth in hydropower capacity during the last thirty years (Rubio and Tafunell, 2014). Totaling an installed hydropower capacity of 134 GW, South America accounts for 15% of the total global share (IHA, 2012). With an average share of 61% in the generation mix (see figure 1), hydroelectricity in South America is three times as high as the global average (IHA, 2012), and represents nearly all of the electricity generated through renewable energies in South America (De la Torre et al., 2009).

Figure 1: The diachronic change in hydropower production as a share of total electricity production in South America (World Bank, 2013).

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The additional 29.1GW - notably Brazil accounts for two thirds of it - of hydropower capacity in the construction phase will add to the share of hydroelectricity in the countries' energy matrices (IJHD, 2013). Once the additional planned capacity of 72.8 to 82.6GW joins the existing capacity, the dependence on hydropower will be even more pronounced (see figure 2).

Figure 2: Additional Hydroelectric Capacity Planned or under Construction compared to Existing Capacity (IJHD, 2013) 2

Former hydropower installations were designed in accordance with stationary projections of historical river flow series, assuming variations within a predefined range (Milly et al., 2008). With changing river runoffs due to climate variability and climate change, the availability of robust hydro-climatic projections is critical to quantify the impact on the electricity generation of existing and projected hydropower installations. However, in accordance with the analysis by Ludena and Ryfisch (2014), who compare thirty-eight climate studies in South America, the existing studies in South America allow for very few robust projections, due to the large variation across models and the specificity of individual basins, in particular in the Andes mountain range.

Partially overlapping with the studies relevant for the hydrological projections, this paper reviewed South American studies that estimate the impact on hydropower plants (see table 1). Evidently, the importance of hydroelectricity in the South American energy matrix is not reflected in the availability of climate change impact assessments in the sector. Recent regional efforts to determine the effect of climate change on national economies have incorporated impact studies on hydropower but vary in scope and complexity. Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela - all generating over 70% of electricity from hydropower - completely lack these impact studies. 3 Though poor in hydropower to date, Guyana and 2

The average was taken if different values were given per country. Brazil is not shown for illustrative reasons as Brazil’s historical share in South American installed hydropower capacity exceeds 50% (Rubio and Tafunell, 2014).

3

In Venezuela, the climate change vulnerability of the Simon Bolivar Hydroelectric Power Plant (Gurí) will be assessed in 2015 with the support of the IDB. Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Suriname are planning on exploring their domestic hydropower potential in the near future.

Table 1. Overview of analyzed studies concerning country and analyzed hydropower plants

Country

Number of Studies

Analyzed Hydropower Plants

Argentina

1

Yacyretá, Salto Grande, Alicurá, Piedra del Águila, Arroyito, El Chocón, Banderita, Pichi Picún Leutú

Bolivia

1

Corani, Zonga, Tiquimani, Miguilla, Angostura, Santa Isabel, Botijalca, Coticucho, Santa Rosa, Sainami, Chururaqui, Harca, Cahua, Huaji, Choquetanga, Carabuco, Chojilla Antigua, Yanacachi, Kanata, Kilpani, Landara, Punutuma, Quehata

Brazil

3

Multiple but not clearly defined

Brazil /Paraguay

1

Itaipú

Chile

1

Laja system, Maule Alto-Colbún system, extrapolation to other systems

Colombia

2

Guavio, Urrá-1

Ecuador

1

Paute

Peru

1

Mantaro, Restitución, Cañon del Pato, Huinco, Matucana, Callahuanca, Moyopampa, Huampaní, Chimay, Yuncan, San Gabán, Carhuaquero, Machu Picchu, Cahua

To account for the extensive hydropower expansion plans in the region, the future sites were linked to the hydro-climatic projections obtained through the extensive literature review in Ludena and Ryfisch (2014). The purpose of this arguably weak linkage is to identify cases in which projections differ considerably from the historic stream flows and, thus, would make considering adaptation measures prior to the implementation sensible.

The study concludes identifying potential adaptation measures for hydropower plants and establishes a three-tier categorization scheme for these measures. The three tiers broadly differentiate between measures at the hydropower plant, soft and hard measures at the basin level, and soft, proactive measures of knowledge generation, capacitation, and information technologies (see figure 3). In view of the uncertainties inherent in climate change, the paper aims at identifying no-regret measures that are readily employable.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 3:Three tiers of adaptation measures related to hydropower productivity

RESULTS The overarching results of the literature review and in-depth analysis suggest that (i) the variations in projections make it difficult to foresee the medium- and long-term changes in hydropower production in South America; (ii) for existing hydropower facilities – in absence of large reservoirs – there does not seem to be any obvious adaptation strategy; (iii) for new facilities, the first best option is to ensure good planning and design; and (iv) the existing studies do not reflect the large hydropower dependence in South America, and its vulnerability in view of the changing climate.

With a very long investment horizon existing hydropower plants were designed under the premise of historical climatic conditions, much different from those projected for the future (Mukheibir, 2013).

Though hydropower facilities have always been subject to sequences of dry and wet years, the severe economic losses due to temperature increases and precipitation reductions, as evidenced in recent history, suggest that climate change could provoke sizable economic losses. Assuming that spillway capacities are not exceeded, positive and negative alterations during the wet season are unlikely to severely impact the plants’ productivity. If spillway capacities, which are designed in accordance with historical observations, are exceeded this could have potentially catastrophic outcomes. Interestingly, this scenario was not considered in any of the case studies, even though some regions may face increases of more than 100% in precipitation.4 On the other hand, small adverse changes during the dry 4

The productivity changes and economic losses projected in the case studies have to be taken with caution as linear approximations tend not to reflect properly the relationship between flows and changes in power generation.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

season can significantly impact production levels. If robust climate change projections existed, power plants could be adapted accordingly, minimizing the production losses and broader risks. In absence of robust predictions and, thus, foreseeable future productivity and risks, the sizable past economic costs and the large likelihood of changes call for the implementation of adaptation measures that guarantee risk reduction at a small economic cost.

The demand for low-cost solutions emerges from the impossibility of taking completely informed, optimal actions by the decision-makers. An optimal measure would require acknowledging local differences, the range of possible outcomes, and the inter-generational equality (Fisher-Vanden et al., 2011). However, due to the large variation in climate projections, entailing thick tail distributions, the optimality has to be approached through no- and low- regret measures. Independent of future climatic conditions, no-regret measures ensure that the societal return exceeds the cost inherent in the action (Ebinger, 2011). Low-regret actions entail a relatively low present cost and are likely to have a large return under future climatic conditions.

Under this premise, it is concluded that there is a set of adaptive measures for existing hydropower facilities that comply with the no- or low-regret criteria. In absence of an obvious, comprehensive adaptation strategy, a large set of potential adaptation measures ought to be analyzed for each case individually to identify the most cost-effective, sustainable, and energy-securing adaptation measure.

While increasing the reservoir size would undoubtedly improve the possibility of smoothing out rising climate variability, costs, both economically and environmentally, may be too high. Other structural changes are similarly costly and may only be considered in case of routine maintenance. The second and third tier measures are more prone to being part of the subset of no- and low-regret measures: Droogers et al. (2009) identify demand-side management policies as a no-regret policy. Reforestation has been shown to produce positive cost estimates, suggesting that ecosystem services may provide multiple gains (IDB, 2014). In general, given its range of application beyond providing information for hydropower generation, knowledge generation in terms of modeling improvements and data collection should be amongst the first-best options.

Contrary to existing facilities, new facilities are not restricted by the existing structures that were designed in accordance with historical stream flows. Therefore, good planning and design can allow for low-cost upfront adaptation investments and measures to the likely increased weather variability that is, acknowledging the increased frequency and magnitude of extreme events independent of changes in the mean river runoffs. This requires widening the hydrological projections employed to design the hydropower plant, not only considering historical observations but also climate scenarios. Projected changes in climate variability would reflect accordingly in dam heights, reservoir storage capacity, and spillway capacity, amongst others. Locating new plants on watersheds that demonstrate strong resilience to climate variability will ease the demand for structural adaptations upfront. Optimally, the plants will be designed and located based on a climate risk assessment.

Despite the potential economic losses triggered by the lack of energy security as a consequence of climate variability and climate change, there are only a small number of studies analyzing adaptation measures.5 Though often mentioned as necessary in climate change projection studies, at best, they are 5

To exemplify, Rivarola Sosa et al. (2011) estimate that the annual losses due to a reduced production at Itaipu hydropower plant would be US$ 17.16 million by the end of the century. CEPAL (2014) estimates that the accumulated loss due to reductions in hydropower Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

qualitatively assessed. While the qualitative assessment of second tier, basin management policies, and third tier, knowledge creation and capacity building, adaptation measures might provide an indication of the possibilities in ensuring hydro sustainability, they do not suffice to identify the most costeffective adaptation measure, guaranteeing energy security through hydropower production. Private stakeholders are interested in executing the most cost-effective measures, guaranteeing the productivity of their hydropower plants. Therefore, impact-directed adaptation measure research should ideally comprehend an analysis, quantifying the advantages of measures of all three types. Acknowledging the particularity of each river basin and respective hydropower plant structure, a large number of impact assessment studies will be necessary to derive general conclusions in terms of measures effectiveness.

On a regional scale, a recent study in Central America (IDB, 2014) can be understood as a first attempt to identify the most cost-effective measures, securing the productivity of hydropower plants. Following the groundwork undertaken by that study, more assessments acknowledging the local river basin and hydropower plant characteristics should be carried out.

production in the Argentine part of the La Plata basin will more than US$ 3.2 billion, when calculating with 0.5% discount rate.

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REFERENCES CEPAL (2014) ‘La economía del cambio climático en la Argentina’, Santiago de Chile, January 2014.

De la Torre, A., Fajnzylber, P. and Nash, J. D. (2009) ‘Low carbon, high growth: Latin American responses to climate change: an overview’, World Bank publications.

Droogers, P., Butterfield, R. and Dyszynski, J. (2009) ‘Climate change and hydropower, impact and adaptation costs: case study Kenya’, Report Future Water 85: 27.

Ebinger, J. O. (2011) ‘Climate impacts on energy systems: key issues for energy sector adaptation’, World Bank Publications.

Fisher-Vanden, K., Wing, I. S., Lanzi, E. and Popp, D. C. (2011) ‘Modeling climate change adaptation: Challenges, recent developments and future directions’, Mimeographed Paper, Boston University.

Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) (2014) ‘Vulnerabilidad al cambio climático de los sistemas de producción hidroeléctrica en Centroamérica y sus opciones de adaptación’, IDB, Washington DC. International Energy Agency (IEA) (2012) ‘Technology Roadmaps: Hydropower’.

International Hydropower Association (IHA) (2012) ‘2011/2012 activity report’.

International Journal on Hydropower and Dams (IJHD) (2013) ‘World Atlas & Industry Guide’.

Ludena, C. and Ryfisch, D. (2014) ‘The expected impacts of climate change on the South American hydrology - a technical review’, Inter-American Development Bank Working Paper.

Magrin, G., García, C. G., Choque, D. C., Giménez, J. C., Moreno, A. R., Nagy, G. J., Nobre, C., and Villamizar, A. (2007) ‘Latin America. Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability’, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, UK: 581-615.

Milly, P., Betancourt, J., Falkenmark, M., Hirsch, R., Kundzewicz, Z., Lettenmaier, D. and Stouffer, R. (2008) ‘Climate change. stationarity is dead: whither water management?’, Science (New York, NY) 319(5863): 573.

Mukheibir, P. (2013) ‘Potential consequences of projected climate change impacts on hydroelectricity generation’, Climatic Change 121(1): 67-78.

Rivarola Sosa, J., Brandani, G., Dibari, C., Moriondo, M., Ferrise, R., Trombi, G., and Bindi, M. (2011) ‘Climate change impact on the hydrological balance of the Itaipu basin’, Meteorological Applications 18(2): 163-170.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Rubio, M and Tafunell, X. (2014) ‘Latin American hydropower: A century of uneven evolution’, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38: 323-334.

World Bank (2013) ‘Data retrieved from World Bank database’, accessed on 12/04/2013.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

The Expected Impacts of Climate Change on Hydrology in South America – a Technical Review.

Carlos Eduardo Ludena Inter-American Development Bank carlosl@iadb.org David Ryfisch Inter-American Development Bank dryfisch@iadb.org

ABSTRACT South American countries depend to a large extent on hydropower in their electricity production.

Exhibiting vast potential, future demand will most likely be met through hydropower, further deepening that dependence. Designed following historic runoff conditions, hydroelectric power generation will be affected by climate change-induced variation in river runoff. With substantial changes in temperature, precipitation, and extreme weather events likely to occur, South American countries require the best available knowledge to design appropriate adaptation strategies. This paper reviews the advancement in climate change and hydrological studies in South America, and identifies potential for further improvements in this area.

INTRODUCTION Water availability is crucial for most sectors within the economy, notably agriculture, energy production, and household demand. To-date, water is broadly disposable in most river basins of South America but is heavily impacted by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)-produced inter-annual variation (McInnes et al., 2010). Though hydropower facilities are planned in accordance with historically recorded stream flows, which involve the reoccurrence of the ENSO weather phenomena, they have repeatedly suffered from production losses during periods of drought (Ludena and Ryfisch, 2014).6 Thus, large variations in stream flows can have substantial consequences for the energy security in the region, in particular considering the large existing hydropower capacity, planned new facilities, and untapped potential.

One of the likely causes of river flow variations in the medium- and long-term is climate change. The evidenced changes in temperature (Vuille and Bradley, 2000), precipitation and extreme rainfall (Penalba and Robledo, 2010), as well as glacier melting patterns (Rabatel et al., 2013) in South 6

The authors recognize the importance of hydrological resources beyond the provision for hydroelectric production. While fresh water supplies and the satisfaction of agricultural demands are certainly of high importance as well, the authors decided to focus on hydropower as many South American countries are planning on expending their capacities and, in addition, clean energy security has fundamental second round implications (Ludena and Ryfisch, 2014).

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

American countries are already altering the river runoff patterns. As changes intensify, the economic loss entailed in this processes, through inter alia the impact on hydropower plants, is to be minimized.

In the absence of perfect forecasts, modelling chains of climatic and hydrological models allow to approximate potential changes in weather patterns, and ultimately in river basins. The analysis in this paper shows that despite the necessity of analysis and the recent methodological and technological advances, little research has been carried out in the region. As some weather patterns are much localized, each catchment requires an in-depth analysis to provide reliable forecasts. Despite the potential large costs for elaborate data collection and hydro-climatic analysis, the hydropower sector should be willing to incur these costs in order to minimize potential future losses that outweigh these upfront investments.

METHODOLOGY The paper considers the role of hydropower in South America, followed by an extensive literature review of the relevant climate, hydrological, and ecosystem model literature. Against this background, existing climate and hydrological projection studies in South America are analyzed to expose modelling shortcomings in the region and identify further challenges.

In most South American countries the generation share of hydropower exceeds fifty percent (see figure 1). The volatility of the hydropower share in electricity production in Uruguay exemplifies the effect of extreme weather events on energy security in South America. Further changes in precipitation patterns, being the main determined of stream flows, and increases in frequency and magnitude of extreme events are very likely (IPCC, 2013).

Figure 1: The diachronic change in hydropower production as a share of total electricity production in South America (World Bank, 2013).

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The unreliability of historic stream flow patterns for hydropower designs in view of the climatic changes makes it necessary to consider future climate change projections. The literature review suggests that, to precise the potential variations in river runoffs in the future, an adequate analysis necessitates the application of climatic projections and the application of the projected data as an input to river or basin level hydrological models. Along the modelling chain (see figure 2 as an example), the quantity and type of models employed present a trade-off in terms of input requirements, precision, and cost. Simultaneously, each modelling step introduces an additional element of uncertainty in the projection (Fowler et al., 2007; Solman and Pessacq, 2012; Velazquez et al. 2013).

Rarely found in the hydrological projection literature, the current state of ecosystem modelling is also examined since a variety of ecosystems provide important regulatory services in the hydrological cycle (Anderson et al., 2011). As it is not well understood yet, few studies have attempted to examine the potential impact of climate change through changes in ecosystem services, such as glaciers, the PĂĄramo ecosystem, and wetlands (CĂŠlleri et al., 2009; Montroull et al. 2013; Vergara et al., 2011).

Figure 2: A suggested modelling chain for hydro-climatic ensemble projections - adapted by authors from Velazquez et al.

(2013)

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The theoretical analysis in mind, the largest possible selection of recent hydro-climatic studies in South America is collected and analyzed. The study analyzes three regional studies, being two focused on runoff variations in large South American stream flow systems. Thirty-eight studies are considered for the purpose of this review. The majority of them project stream flow variations for a single basin per country (see figure 3). Due to its predominant role in terms of hydropower production and available studies, the La Plata basin (LPB) is treated individually.

Figure 3: Overview of analyzed studies concerning country, climate, and hydrological projections

Except for the concentration on the LPB and the absence of studies in the northernmost countries of Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname, the geographical coverage of studies is relatively balanced (see figure 4). Even though multiple studies are concentrated on the LPB, the hydrological data is distributed across the basin which reduces the comparability of the different studies.

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Figure 4: Map represents the changes in mean annual runoff produced by selected hydro-climatic projection studies in the region analyzed in the present study.

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

RESULTS The analyses originated from the literature and case study review suggests that (i) the range of hydroclimatic studies in South America has improved in terms of complexity and geographical scope; (ii) South American hydro-climatic projection studies to date have not been able to provide projections robust enough to base hydropower plant designs on it; (iii) the accuracy of the modelling hinges on the availability and quality of hydrological and meteorological data which in South America is very limited; (iv) both public and private entities should be willing to incur the costs to foster the availability of high quality data and the complexity and scope of regional and local climate change projection studies; and (v) in the medium-run, the climate change-induced alterations in ecosystem services have to be considered.

As indicated in both regional (Milly et al., 2005) and local studies (Vera and Silvestri, 2009), the noncoherence in precipitation signals across GCMs is a large source of uncertainty - the biggest compared to emission scenarios (Graham et al., 2007), and hydrological models (VelĂĄzquez et al., 2013). Though some GCM ensembles have been employed, the majority of studies are biased towards a single-GCM HadCM3/HadAm3. The predominance of this GCM is attributable to its good performance reproducing large-scale weather patterns, as well as the key weather anomaly in the region, the ENSO. The robustness of single-GCM, single-RCM is highly debatable. Continuing along the modelling chain, the lack of RCM and hydrological model ensembles exacerbates the problem. However, recent publications in the region indicate that the state-of-the-art projections are feasible in the region, employing GCM ensembles or reanalysis data, RCMs, statistical unbiasing methods, and distributed hydrological models (Demaria et al., 2013).

In light of the large current and future dependence of South American countries on hydropower, the impact induced by climate change can have far-reaching economic and societal consequences. To avoid incurring large costs, the provision of robust projections is crucial. Despite the recent use of state-ofthe-art projections, the density of complex basin-level projections is very low. The scarcity of more robust projections is explicable by the accuracy-cost trade-off of computational climate modelling.

Against the backdrop of complex topographies and local forcings, individual climate models produce a large spread of forecasts, lacking explanatory and forecasting power. In the absence of ensemble applications and unbiasing techniques, uncertainties are perpetuated through the modelling chain, leading to flawed forecasts, which may ultimately lead to costly, ineffective measures.

Independent of modelling improvements, the accuracy hinges on the quality of available data, in order to improve the understanding of local climate forcings and ameliorate the ability to calibrate and validate the climate models. Key barriers to this lack of data are the restricted access of data that is privately owned and the sparse and partially outdated network of meteorological stations. The spread across datasets is huge, reaching differences of over 80% (Solman et al., 2008). The interpolation of data over large distances, abstracting from the strong climatic differences, will tend to smooth out data and, thus, skew projections. A strong bias towards lower elevation stations causes a lack of in-situ data in higher elevations necessary for model verification and to understand the local climate forcings (Buytaert et al., 2010). To exemplify, when analyzing the stream flows in the Santa River basin, Condom et al. (2011) and Vergara et al. (2011) rely on merely one meteorological station due to the lack of adequate historic records.

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Large investments in hydropower capacity throughout South America during the 20 th century have caused the countries to rely heavily on hydroelectricity in their electricity mix. Simultaneously, hydropower investors incur large up-front investment costs and plan on a very long investment horizon.

As climate change will induce changes in runoff patterns, uncertainty in hydropower generation and project risks increases. Indeed, depending on their reservoir size, some hydropower plants may easily adapt to increased seasonality. However, for the lion's share of plants the mean annual runoff analysis, as employed in most studies, will not be sufficient since the magnitude in change increases substantially on a monthly basis. Depending on the hydropower station, daily to seasonal fluctuations pose a large risk to hydropower plants (CEBDS, 2013). The complexity and individuality of each basin requires a case-to-case calibration of the hydrological model. Despite the apparent vulnerability of hydropower production in light of climate change and its key role in energy security, very little research assessing the impact of climate change on individual plants has been carried out to date. In consideration of the long investment horizons and costs comprised in hydropower plants, it should be in the interest of both public and private entities to incur the cost of state-of-the-art modelling, which is likely to produce relatively robust projections for the foreseeable future. Though this will make the analysis costly in the short-run, the long-run gains may largely outweigh these costs, as knowledge increases will improve planning security beyond the electricity sector.

It becomes evident that the ecosystem services have to be studied intensively when considering that up to 60% of a Peruvian catchment’s runoff was glacier-melt driven (Vergara et al., 2007) and that the largest Ecuadorian hydropower plant, Paute, is completely fed by Páramo-released runoffs during the dry season (Buytaert et al., 2007). Climate-change induced increases in temperature, evapotranspiration, precipitation and cloud coverage are likely to alter the ecosystems’ natural habitats, causing them to disappear or partially lose their ability to regulate the hydrological cycle.

Consequently, the efforts in monitoring and modelling the ecosystems’ services must be intensified.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES Anderson, E. P., Marengo, J., Villalba, R., Halloy, S., Young, B., Cordero, D., Gast, F., Jaimes, E. and Ruiz, D. (2011) ‘Consequences of climate change for ecosystems in the tropical Andes’, Climate Change and Biodiversity in the Tropical Andes, MacArthur Foundation, Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research and Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment: 1-5.

Buytaert, W., Iniquez, V. and de Bièvre, B. (2007) ‘The effects of afforestation and cultivation on water yield in the Andean Páramo’, Forest Ecology and Management 251(1): 22-30.

Buytaert, W., Vuille, M., Dewulf, A., Urrutia, R., Karmalkar ,A., and Celleri, R. (2010) ‘Uncertainties in climate change projections and regional downscaling in the tropical Andes: implications for water resources management’, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 14(7): 1247-1258.

CEBDS (2013) ‘Estudo sobre adaptação e vulnerabilidade à variabilidade climática: casos do setor elétrico brasileiro’, Conselho Empresarial Brasileiro para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável.

Célleri, R. and Feyen, J. (2009) ‘The hydrology of tropical Andean ecosystems: importance, knowledge status, and perspectives’, Mountain Research and Development 29(4): 350-355.

Condom, T., Escobar, M., Purkey, D., Pouget, J., Suarez, W., Ramos, C., Apaestegui, J., Zapata M., Gomez, J. and Vergara, W. (2011) ‘Modelling the hydrologic role of glaciers within a water evaluation and planning system (WEAP): a case study in the Rio Santa watershed (Peru)’, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 8(1): 869-916.

Demaria, E., Maurer, E., Thrasher, B., Vicuña, S. and Meza, F. (2013) ‘Climate change impacts on an alpine watershed in Chile: do new model projections change the story?’, Journal of Hydrology.

Fowler, H., Blenkinsop, S. and Tebaldi, C. (2007) ‘Linking climate change modelling to impacts studies: recent advances in downscaling techniques for hydrological modelling’, International Journal of Climatology 27(12): 1547-1578.

Graham, L. P., Hagemann, S., Jaun, S. and Beniston, M. (2007) ‘On interpreting hydrological change from regional climate models’, Climatic Change 81(1): 97-122.

IPCC (2013), ‘IPCC AR5 Working Group I - Summary Report’, United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Ludena, C. and Ryfisch, D. (2014) ‘The expected impacts of climate change on hydroelectric power generation and potential adaptation strategies in South America’, IDB Working Paper.

McInnes, R. N., Taylor, I. H. and Sanderson, M. G. (2010) ‘Technical note 83: Rainfall and runoff changes in South America during the twenty-first century: A comparison of HadGEM1 and the CMIP3 multimodel ensemble’, Hadley Centre.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Milly, P. C., Dunne, D. and Vecchia, A. V. (2005) ‘Global pattern of trends in streamflow and water availability in a changing climate’, Nature 438(7066): 347-350.

Montroull, N. B., Saurral, R. I., Camilloni, I. A., Grimson, R. and Vasquez, P. (2013) ‘Assessment of climate change on the future water levels of the Iberá Wetlands, Argentina, during the twenty-first century’, International Journal of River Basin Management 11(4): 401-410.

Penalba, O. C., and Robledo, F. A. (2010) ‘Spatial and temporal variability of the frequency of extreme daily rainfall regime in the La Plata Basin during the 20th century’, Climatic Change 98(3-4): 531-550.

Rabatel, A., Francou, B., Soruco, A., Gomez, J., Cáceres, B., Ceballos, J., Basantes, R., Vuille, M., Sicart, J.-E., Huggel, C. et al. (2013) ‘Current state of glaciers in the tropical Andes: a multi-century perspective on glacier evolution and climate change’, The Cryosphere 7(1): 81-102.

Solman, S. A., Nunez, M. N and Cabré, M. F. (2008) ‘Regional climate change experiments over southern South America. i: present climate’, Climate Dynamics 30(5): 533-552.

Solman, S. A. and Pessacg, N. L. (2012) ‘Evaluating uncertainties in regional climate simulations over South America at the seasonal scale’, Climate Dynamics 39(1-2): 59-76.

Velázquez, J., Schmid, J., Ricard, S., Muerth, M., Gauvin St-Denis, B., Minville, M., Chaumont, D., Caya, D., Ludwig, R. and Turcotte, R. (2013) ‘An ensemble approach to assess hydrological models' contribution to uncertainties in the analysis of climate change impact on water resources’, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 17(2): 565-578.

Vera, C. and Silvestri, G. (2009) ‘Precipitation inter-annual variability in South America from the wcrpcmip3 multi-model dataset’, Climate Dynamics 32(7-8): 1003-1014.

Vergara, W., Deeb, A., Valencia, A., Bradley, R., Francou, B., Zarzar, A., Grunwaldt, A. and Haeussling, S. (2007) ’Economic impacts of rapid glacier retreat in the Andes’, Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 88(25): 261-264.

Vergara, W., Deeb, A. and Leino, I. (2011) ‘Assessment of the impacts of climate change on mountain hydrology: development of a methodology through a case study in the Andes of Peru’, World Bank Publications.

Vuille, M. and R. Bradley (2000) ‘Mean annual temperature trends and their vertical structure in the tropical Andes’, Geophysical Research Letters 27(20): 3885-3888.

World Bank (2013) ‘Data retrieved from World Bank database’, accessed on 12/04/2013.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Achievements and Risk of Hydraulic Fracturing to Water Systems.

Vinio Floris, Ph.D., PE viniofloris@yahoo.com

SUMMARY Hydraulic fracturing or â&#x20AC;&#x153;frackingâ&#x20AC;? is a method of extracting hydrocarbons from shale rock layers deep within the ground. It is carried out with horizontal and vertical drilling by injecting highly pressurized water, proppants (mostly sand) and chemicals. This historic energy and economic revolution in the United States of America (US) and in some other countries, has created an unprecedented boom in the energy sector, rendering significant gains to the economy evidenced by increased household incomes, progress in energy independence, trade and job creation, as well as reducing carbon emissions by largely displacing traditional coal-fired power plants.

Without a doubt, fracking provides many benefits that extend far beyond the energy sector, but it also comes with some risks that must be acknowledged. Potential impacts to water and air quality, the environment and occupational and public health and safety, are all factors that need to be taken into consideration and further researched. Currently, public perception is equally divided in favor and against.

Though fracking is a practice that has been around for decades, its increased use in recent times warrants a closer look from different angles. Among the main concerns regarding impact to water systems are: a) Extensive freshwater withdrawals from surface and groundwater (about 3,700 to over 15,000 cubic meters of water per well on average) considering that in the US near half of the fracking projects are in arid or semi-arid regions. b) Storage of flowback and produced waters, and large amounts of fracturing fluids in on-site pit and pond storage. c) Treatment of produced and flowback waters, recycling and potential discharges to natural water bodies. d) Casing and cementing incidents that could lead to releases of fracturing fluids to aquifers. e) Impacts to water quality and supply due to land clearing and infrastructure construction. f) Inadequate or antiquated government regulations with respect to water management and fracking.

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The objectives of this paper are: a) To present an introduction of fracking practices, and their benefits and impacts focusing on water management. b) To dissect achievements and challenges of fracking with respect to water management. c) To present current best management practices and lessons learned as well as the need for government regulations and needed research.

INTRODUCTION Hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) is a well stimulation technique that injects (via the well) water, proppants (treated sand or man-made ceramic materials) and chemicals under high pressure into a petroleum-bearing bedrock formation. This process fractures low- permeability rocks (like tight sandstone, shale, and some coalbeds) and increases the size and connectivity of the fractures producing an increase of oil and/or gas flow. All of this is carried out in conjunction with vertical and horizontal drilling (process commonly known as “unconventional” drilling) that has enabled drillers to reach previously inaccessible hydrocarbons in geological formations.

Fracking is a technique used since the 1940s in the US. It gained popularity in the late 1980s and early 1990s when it was combined with horizontal drilling (Figure 1).

Figure 1: History of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Source: GAO (2012).

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 2 depicts the five stages of the hydraulic fracturing water cycle. This includes the supply of water to be mixed with the fracking fluid, the mixing of chemicals, injection under high pressures and the recovery of flowback and produced water. The final stage is related to the collection, treatment and/or disposal of the wastewater used (EPA, 2012).

Figure 2: Illustration of the five stages of the fracking water cycle (EPA, 2012).

BENEFITS AND IMPACTS OF FRACKING Fracking has created a historic energy and economic revolution in the USA (and in some other parts of the world). This unprecedented boom in the energy sector has rendered significant gains to the US economy evidenced by increased household incomes. For instance, shale gas alone contribution to gross domestic product was US$ 76.9 billion in 2010 and is forecasted to reach US$ 118 billion by 2015, and US$ 231 billion in 2035.

Fracking has also contributed to progress in energy independence (the US is about to become a natural gas exporter and oil will soon follow), trade and job creation (600,000 jobs in 2010; estimated to increase to 870,000 by 2015) as well as reducing carbon emissions by largely displacing traditional coal-fired power plants.

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figures 3 and 4 show the historical and projected energy production and consumption for the US to Year 2040 in which fracking is responsible for a greatly increased energy supply. Other nations besides the US also have very high potential for shale oil and gas reserves development (Figure 5).

Figure 3: USA historical and projected energy production by fuel. Source: EIA (2014)

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 4: USA historical and projected total energy production and consumption. Source: EIA (2014)

Figure 5: Top ten countries ranked by shale oil reserves (left) and shale gas reserves (left). Source: EIA (2014).

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

In spite of the benefits mentioned above, fracking has also become a controversial practice due of its potential impacts to water and air quality, the environment and occupational and public health and safety. Although it has been around for decades, it is not until recently that it has been used intensively.

Its potential negative impacts are still being researched but public perception is divided equally in favor and against. Among the main concerns regarding impact to water systems are: • • • • • •

Extensive freshwater withdrawals from surface and groundwater (about 1 to 4 million gallons of water per well on average) considering that about half of the fracking projects are in arid or semi-arid regions.

Storage of flowback and produced waters7, and large amounts of fracturing fluids in on-site pit and pond storage.

Treatment of produced and flowback waters8, recycling and potential discharges to natural water bodies.

Casing and cementing incidents that could lead to releases of fracturing fluids to aquifers.

Impacts to water quality and supply due to land clearing and infrastructure construction.

Inadequate or antiquated government regulations with respect to water management and fracking.

To complicate this situation further, most of the fracking sites in the US are either arid or semiarid regions with expanding population is placing additional demands on water. Still, the water used for shale development (Figure 6) is still small in comparison to other water uses, such as agriculture and other industrial purposes. However, the cumulative effects of using surface water or groundwater at multiple oil and gas development sites can be significant at the local level, particularly in areas experiencing drought conditions.

Shale Drilling Fracking Barnett 946 17,413 Eagle Ford 473 18,927 Haynesville 2,271 18,927 Marcellus 322 21,198 Niobrara 1,136 11,356 Figure 6:Average freshwater use per well for drilling and hydraulic fracturing in cubic meters at different shale plays in the US. Source: GAO (2012).

7

Water trapped in underground formations that are brought to the surface during oil and gas exploration and production.

8

Recovered water based solution that flows back to the surface during and after the completion of hydraulic fracturing. It consists of the injected fluids used to fracture the shale.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

A detailed survey was conducted by Resources for the Future (Krupnick, et al, 2013) among 215 US experts that embodied research, academia, energy companies and non-governmental organizations. The consensus graph they reached is depicted in Figure 7 which clearly shows that water is the resource most impacted from all activities. The experts also identified six fluid burdens as having a “high priority” for further action (Figure 8); most of them having direct or indirect impacts to water.

As many other countries aside from the US are in the process of considering fracking as key tool for developing their shale resources, it is important to indicate that the potential impacts of water stress due to fracking need to be taken into account. The World Resources Institute (2014) has developed the world’s baseline water stress map (Figure 9). Among the key findings are: • • • •

38 percent of shale resources are in areas that are either arid or under high to extremely high levels of water stress.

19 percent are in areas of high or extremely high seasonal variability.

15 percent are in locations exposed to high or extremely high drought severity.

386 million people live on the land over these shale plays, and in 40 percent of the shale plays, irrigated agriculture is the largest water user. This is seen as a source of conflict among water users.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 7: Consensus routine risk pathways (Krupnick, et al, 2013).

Water and Energy Scenarios â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Where the Fluid is Found Flowback and produced water Drilling fuids

Fracturing fuids

Fluid Burden Naturally Ocurring Radioactve Materials (NORM) Aromatc hydrocarbon Hydrogen sulfde Diesel oil Naturally Ocurring Radioactve Materials (NORM) Oil (inlcuding dfesel)

Figure 8: Six Fluids burdens identified by all expert groups as having “high priority” for further action. Source: Krupnick (2013).

Figure 9: Location of world’s shale plays, volume of technically recoverable shale gas in 20 countries with the largest resources, and the level of baseline water stress (Reig, 2014).

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

CONCLUSIONS AND LESSONS LEARNED Managing water for oil and gas production is critical for our future. Policy makers, energy companies, investors, and civil society groups must be engaged in finding common grounds for implementing economic and environmentally practices that optimizes the common good. Fracking carries many benefits but also important challenges. The US experience is, with no doubt, key for developing this resource all over the world. Here are some of the conclusions and lessons learned: • Water Use and Reuse. There has been a considerable improvement with respect to water reuse and recycling in fracking operations. In the Marcellus shale play (covering the US States of Pennsylvania and surrounding States), some companies are reusing almost all of their flowback with minimal treatment. This practice has decreased the freshwater demand. Still, only between 16% and 35% of fracturing water returns to surface, therefore in addition to reusing, much work is left to make up the deficit. (Rao, 2014).

•

Recycling of Flowback Water. In the Permian basin in West Texas, one of the onshore most productive areas (but also one of the most arid) several companies are treating and recycling all flowback waters. Water “mining” and extracting brackish groundwater is not an uncommon practice, and depending on its salinity, could require minimum treatment (making it eligible for a more sophisticated process like nanofiltration). . Oil and gas company Pioneer Natural Resources is leading the recycling operations in the US; for instance, it has a purchase agreement with nearby municipalities to use (and treat) considerable wastewater. Their goal is to not use any freshwater in the next few years, a goal that is expected to be followed by all energy companies.

•

Management of Chemical Additives. A common concern during fracking is related to chemical additives in fracturing fluid. Some of these additives are known to be toxic. If they are not properly handled, they pose a risk to water quality if they come into contact with surface water or groundwater. Drilling companies are challenged to construct wells that have no impacts to drinking water aquifers. There is also a concern that leaks or spills of impoundments (due to overflow) could contaminate other water bodies.

•

Reinjection. Even though produced and flowback waters are mostly recycled and reused, there is the potential for pollution if improperly reinjected back into the ground. This process needs to be performed thoroughly with proper supervision by all stakeholders.

•

Monitoring and Regulation.Even though fracking has been around for several decades, intensive fracking activities are fairly recent. Therefore, it is difficult to determine the long-term effect on water resources because the scale and location of future shale oil and gas development operations remains largely uncertain. As a result, the cumulative impacts also remain to be studied. Several US government agencies are currently carrying out in depth studies that would greatly assist not only to assess the effect of water management but also to provide important lessons learned. On top of this, different regulatory agencies need to invest resources in collecting and monitoring water supply and demand information in order to develop effective water policies and science-based targets and goals.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

•

Transparency. All stakeholders need to work together to disclose and communicate water management approaches. This is extremely valuable for corporations that need to reduce their reputational risk. Companies that embedded water management as a core value of their business strategy have minimized exposure to unnecessary risks and have a better chance of ensured financial and environmental sustainability.

•

Fracking with Less or no Water. Besides the use of lower quality water, important research has been conducted to minimize and even eliminate water. These technologies currently being tested (e.g. energized or foamed water-based fluids which can reduce water usage by 30 to 85 percent) use non aqueous liquids or even no liquids at all. However, even though these initiatives are promising, environmentally and financial feasibility is still under research.

REFERENCES Krupnick Alan, Hal Gordon, and Sheila Olmstead (2013). Pathways to Dialogue. What the Experts Say about the Environmental Risks of Shale Gas Development.

Jacobs, Trent (2014). “As Scarcity Hits, Water tech Flows In”, Journal of Petroleum Technology (JPT), October 2014: 68-76.

Rao, Vikram (2014). “How Thirsty is Shale Gas”, Journal of Petroleum Technology (JPT), July 2014: 20-21.

United States Energy Information Administration (EIA) (2014). Annual energy Outlook 2014 with projections to 2040.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2012). Study of the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources. Progress Report.

United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) (2012) Information on Shale Resources, Development, and Environmental and Public Health Risks.

Water and Energy Scenarios – Water Week LA 2015

Corporate Strategic Water Management

Integral Management of Water Resources, from the Water Footprint Assessment of La Paz, Bolivia.

Jazmin Campos Zeballos Servicios Ambientales S.A jazmin@sasa-bolivia.com Margot Franken mvfranken@gmail.com

SUMMARY In response to a growing need for an integral management of water resources, new indicators are being developed and applied as a basis for the design of public policies aimed at increasing resilience, especially in cities, in the face of the enormous challenge of global urbanization. The Water Footprint is an indicator of water management that allows visualizing the use, consumption and pollution of water, identifies deficiencies and prioritizes measures to maintain the supply for various sectors, restore and/or maintain a good quality of water bodies and avoid social conflicts, among others. The methodology developed by the Water Footprint Network, was applied for the first time at the level of cities in the framework of the “Cities Footprint” project 1, of which one is La Paz, Bolivia.

This city shares the water supply system with the city of El Alto, which has an important demographic growth (5% per year), with a consequent increase in the demand for water. Both cities are supplied by dams that capture water from precipitation (90%) and glaciers in the Cordillera Real (10%). The glacier contribution appears to be insignificant, however, in times of drought the contribution can reach up to 25% of the total. The total extinction of these glaciers is expected during this century, so this volume of water – which will not be available in the future – must be obtained from other sources or reduced of the city's water demand through improved management.

The assessment of the Water Footprint of La Paz aided in identifying the residential sector as the one with greater impact (85% of the total), which highlights the importance of more efficient water use at the household level. With the reduction of the residential Water Footprint, are also reduced the possibilities of water scarcity and reliance on glaciers, which in turn increases the resilience to the current and future impacts of climate change. The management of effluents in all sectors is also fundamental, as they are currently untreated and discharged directly into rivers: the gray Water Footprint of the city represents 98% of the total.

1

Supported by CAF, CDKN, facilitated by FFLA, implemented by SASA in coordination with the MG of La Paz, Quito and Lima, and the technical assistance and validation of the Water Footprint Network and Carbonfeel. www.citiesfootprint.com.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

The purpose of the study is to propose public policies for integral water management in order to achieve a city that is resilient to climate change and sustainability in the use of water for future generations, starting mainly from the demand-side management. Taking into account that the largest volume of water used by a citizen is used for personal hygiene, measures proposed include incentives for the use of water-saving equipment, which can reduce up to 100% of water used in toilets, showers and faucets , changes in the billing of water to large consumers, etc. These measures are discussed and proposed as basis for the development of public policies at the municipal level.

INTRODUCTION The demographic growth in La Paz city and, the adjacent city of El Alto, has substantially increased the water demand in the basin.

Furthermore, due to climate change and the global temperature rise -which is higher in the range of the Andes2 - the surface of the glaciers is shrinking. In the case of the city of La Paz's annual contribution of glacier is 5 to 12%, but in the dry season this contribution can rise to 25% (Olmos, 2011 (a)) (Soruco, 2012).

Both cities are supplied from dams that collect water from the high basins of tributary rivers of the Choqueyapu River and Titicaca Lake, to a lesser extent by the waters of Kaluyo River (high Choqueyapu basin3), and glaciers of the Cordillera Real.

For both cities, improving and implementing enhancements in water management is vital to address possible future water scarcity.

METODOLOGY The quantification of Water Footprint (WF) of the city of La Paz, was performed using the methodology of The Water Footprint of Assessment Manual ( Hoekstra, et al., 2011), developed by the Water Footprint Network.

Figure 1: Phases of the assessment methodology Water Footprint

Source:Own elaboration based on ( Hoekstra, et al., 2011) 2 3

(Hoffmann & Requena, 2013) Subcuenca no regulada, es decir sin embalse Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

This methodology has been applied for the first time to a city level. The WF gives the possibility to visualize some problems and prioritize actions to maintain the water supply of the different sectors, restore and maintain a good quality of water bodies.

OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE The objective of this evaluation was to lay foundations for the development of public policies aimed at better management of water from a new quantifiable, verifiable and easy-to-communicate indicator: the Water Footprint.

The scope of the evaluation covered the urban area of La Paz, and activities from the residential, commercial, industrial and public sector.

RESULTS OF EVALUATION The total WF of La Paz City is 208.489.287 m3 for the year 2012, composed by Blue WF4: 3.474.592 m3 and Gray WF5: 204.836.986 m3. The residential sector contributes 85% to the total footprint, the industrial sector 10% and the public and commercial sectors 5%.

The Gray WF represents 98% of the total, which evidences that the main problem of water in La Paz is the contamination of water bodies by untreated effluents.

The total volume of La Paz WF is about 8 times larger than the volume of water used in the city 6, and 5 times larger than the volume removed 7.

4

The Blue WF refers to the volume of water that is extracted from the basin, evaporated or incorporated, and does not return to the same basin.

5 The Gray WF refers to the volume of water that a water body needs to assimilate pollutant loading to appropriate environ mental standards.

6 It refers to the volume of water evaporated or incorporated, and does not return to the same basin.

7 It refers to the volume of water extracted from the basin that not necessarily evaporated or incorporated.

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 1: WF Volume versus 1 liter of water billed

L i t r e s

W a t e r

Blue WF

Gray WF;

Volume of Billed Water

Blue WF + Gray WF

Source: Own elaboration base on WF La Paz city results.

Sustainability Assessment At the end of the dry season -between October and November-, the water volume available in the basin is minimal, and when most glacier contribution occurs.

Table 1. High Basins Water Availability, year 2012 (in Hm 3)

Availability

Demand = Extraction

Milluni

19,63

16,61

Kaluyo

26,51

3,53

Incachaca

8,07

5,19

AjuanKhota/ Hampaturi

23,35

14,19

TOTAL

77,55

39,53

Source:(Proyecto de adaptaciĂłn al impacto del retroceso acelerado de glaciares en los Andes tropicales (PRAA), 2012)

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Furthermore, the losses of water on the production and distribution of drinking water, reach 39% (Olmos, 2011 (b)), that means that for 1 liter of water billed, 1,4 liters are drawn from the basin.

Figure 1: Losses of water for 1 liter of billed water

Source: Own elaboration based on (Olmos, 2011 (b))

Even these lost volumes return to the basin, are an important factor to consider for the future water supply and the operation costs for the local water company.

Regarding the Sustainability Assessment (Figure 4), it is observed that the Blue WF does not affect the ecological river flow, therefore it is sustainable 8.

8

The real availability â&#x20AC;&#x201C; considers only the 20% of the water volume available, the remaining 80% is considered ecological flow. ( Hoekstra, et al., 2011)).

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 1: Blue WF Sustainability Assessment

Source: Project Footprint of Cities – La Paz results

For the Gray WF Sustainability Assessment used as a starting point the monthly flow data at the output of Choqueyapu River. As seen in Figure 5, the Gray WF of the city repeatedly exceeds the Choqueyapu River flow. It requires 1,5 times the entire surface runoff to dilute its waters, and meet the minimum standard Class D9. The Gray WF between the period of April to December is not sustainable.

Figure 1: Gray WF Sustainability Assessment

Source:Project Footprint of Cities, (SENAMHI – Datos de caudal 1990 – 2012, 2012)

9

Class D Quality, refers to the maximum concentrations to body waters. (Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia, 1992) Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

If a treatment plant for domestic wastewater were implemented, the Gray WF would be reduced between 54%10 and 73%11 of the current footprint. In both cases, the Choqueyapu River would dilute the pollutant load in all months of the year, so, the gray WF could become sustainable (Figure 6).

Figure 1: Gray WF Sustainability Assessment with treatment

Source: Own elaboration

RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INTEGRAL WATER MANAGEMENT The volume of water abstracted from the basin depends primarily on two factors: •

The actual demand of city sectors, reflected in the volume of water billed.

•

Losses in the system from catchment, treatment and distribution to the consumer (responsibility of the local water company).

Water Demand Reduction To define measures to reduce water use, it’s important to identify the uses differentiated activities within a household and their percentages of water use.

10 11

Using 80 mg/l as value of maximum concentration industrial effluents. (Ind. Quality) Using 30mg/L as value of maximum concentration for BOD 5 (corresponding to Class D) Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Table 1. Water use in the home by activity and reducing potential USE

Toilets

Cleaning

Irrigation

CONSUMPTION

CONSUMPTION

Germany

Spain

%

%

32

5

27

6

3

POSSIBILITIES FOR REDUCING

Estimated as % of sector Implementation of lowconsumption toilets

Up to 40%

Implementation of waterless ecological toilets

Up to 100 %

Implementation of vacuum systems

Up to 80 %

Reuse of shower and sink gray water in toilets

Up to 100 %

Use of rainwater in toilets

Up to 100 %

Reuse of shower and sink gray water

Up to 100 %

Use of rainwater

Up to 100 %

Reuse of shower and sink gray water

Up to 100 %

Use of rainwater

Up to 100 % More than 50 %

Laundry

13

19,8

Implementation of lowconsumption equipment

Personal Hygiene

38

35,9

Implementation of lowconsumption taps and showers

Dishwashing

7

Food

2 Entire House

POSSIBILITIES OF REDUCING

More than 50 % (algunos grifos pueden ahorrar hasta 90 %)

Implementation of lowconsumption taps

Up to70 %

Use of water flow valves in the supply line

Up to50 %

11,4

Source: Own elaboration based on (Umweltbundesamt, 2001) (CEPYME, n.d.) (Abbotsford Mission Water & Sewer Services., 2011)

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

If the reduction potential of each proposed alternative is added, water use in a home could be reduced by up to 87%.

It is important to encourage the importation and adoption of equipment and accessories of low consumption, sensitize the population about its benefits and/or subsidize their purchase.

Furthermore, the promotion of Green Bulding standards in the construction sector,-through property tax relief, for example, aimed at saving, reuse and recycling of water, such as: •

The construction of ecological toilets without water use with the reintegration of products with nutrients contained in compost. 12

•

Flow segregation at level house, building and/or condominium with focus on reuse and recycling of gray water for toilets, cleaning, irrigation.

•

Rainwater harvesting for irrigation. With the implementation of double sanitary pipe, rainwater can also be used for toilets, washing clothes, cleaning etc.

In the city of La Paz, in an area of 100 m2 roof can be harvested about 35 m3 of rainwater (based on (Boese, 2011)). Activities can be encouraged with intensive use of irrigation water to change the source of irrigation from tap water to rainwater.

The use of rainwater and recycling gray water in the residential sector, needs segregation of flows inside the house or condo, as well as the implementation of a second sanitary distribution piping. If captured or recycled water is only used for watering the gardens, a second pipe is not essential.

The implementation of a vacuum system13. These systems reduce the demand for water, Blue and Gray WF, and also produce fertilizer for green areas and energy in the form of biogas.

An important measure is the creation of models in the form of new ecological condos, with ecological management of the entire water system. Researches about different decentralized models of urban water management are being produced in Germany and China. (Dezentrales Urbanes InfrastrukturSystem, n.d.) (Institute for Social-Ecological Research, n.d.)

12

663 implementing composting toilets until 2036 is expected to serve 3978 people in peri-urban areas (Planes Maestro Metropolitanos de Agua Potable y Saneamiento de La Paz y El Alto, 2013) 13

Sewer vacuum equipment on airplanes and cruise ships, it can be used in new developments, with biogas production and use of waste as fertilizer.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Reduction HH Gray It is important to reduce pollution from wastewater before it is discharged into the rivers. Water pollution reduction can be achieved by: •

Reuse and recycle of a part of the wastewater in a closed cycle (which also reduces overall water demand)

•

Change to a separate sewer system. In the oldest parts of the city there is a mixed sewer. Carry stormwater to the rivers. Carry wastewater to treatment plants. Thus, bypasses to the treatment plants are avoided from water diluted during the rainy season and severe storms.

•

Take sewer pipes directly to one or more purification plants. Decentralized partial treatment at least, is recommended. For example, Imhoff tanks or modern compact stationary and mobile plants could be implemented (Zeolitas e Insumos Nacionales, n.d.) (Agua Market, n.d.). The Imhoff tanks only treat pre sediment solids, their installation is not expensive, and are easy to operate and maintain. Implementation of a purification plant, with at least a mechanical and a biological phase with activated sludge 14.

•

Use sludge formed during the purification process for agricultural purposes 15.

Population Awareness •

Raise awareness among the population about the risks of some components of wastewater (use less detergent, do not throw drugs and other waste to toilets etc.)

•

Encourage the use of composting toilets and use the remaining gray water for irrigation 16.

•

Encourage recycling of grey wastewater for use in toilets and cleaning.

•

Implementation of streams segregated at the decentralized level.

•

Encourage the creation of developments model including the treatment of wastewater.

Sustainability and Potential for Introduction of Decentralized Systems The following figure shows the decentralized water management at household and state level is more sustainable, not only in ecological sense but also in an economic sense.

14

No se recomiendan lagunas de estabilización, por la gran superficie necesaria y por su bajo rendimiento.

Solo si los contaminantes contenidos están debajo de los límites permisibles.

16 The soil and plants retain the remaining contaminants by much, but the entry of toxic or pathogens are not allowed 15

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Figure 1: Evaluation of sustainability of three scenarios of water management

Source: (Hiessl & Toussain, 2002)

Conclusions and Validation of Water Footprint Tool as a Basis for the Integral Water Management The Water Footprint (WF) assessment methodology has been applied for the first time at city level through the Cities Footprint Project. The direct Water Footprint was measured in the geographical area of the watershed of La Paz to provide guidelines to local and national authorities on water resources management, oriented to increasing the resilience of the city.

Areas for improvement in the water supply management were identified, as the levels of losses in distribution. Unsustainability of the gray WF of the city, which is a hotspot 17 throughout the urban area, is translated into the requirement of a volume of water 2 times greater than the available to assimilate the pollution load generated in the city. The sector contributes more to the total WF in La Paz is the residential (over 90%), so reduction measures should focus on the Gray WF. The Gray WF can be reduced through implementation of preferably decentralized measures of recycling wastewater treatment plants and reuse of water, on the demand side, such as: •

Separation of the wastewater disposal system and natural water

•

Implementation water-saving artifacts

•

Creation of models in peri-urban areas and new housing developments, including the treatment of waste water in place.

On the other hand, the Blue WF is minimal because the water used in the city returns to the lower watershed and does not affect the ecological flow of the rivers in the watershed of La Paz. This is important for the natural system of running water, but says nothing about the ability of the upper watershed to supply enough water to the city.

17

Critical point (physical or temporal) in which the volume of water in the basin is not enough to absorb the polluting load generated.

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For an integrated management of water, the study of the WF must be complemented with data of water withdrawals by the city. Water sources are limited to and defined by the availability of water in the watershed and the resulting “real offer”. In this case, the traditional tool of balance between water supply and extraction is required to judge the situation of current and future supply to the population.

To increase the resilience of the city and of water management, critical problems to be attacked must identified, such as losses in distribution and declining demand to a minimum.

The consumption of water per capita in the residential sector was on average 77 l/capita/day 18. Up to 12% of this volume (9 l) comes from glaciers. To increase the resilience of the city, you could set the goal of eliminating the consumption of each citizen the glacier contribution. To do this, it would suffice to replace the main component of consumption, showers and toilets, for water-efficient models. The reduction of a percentage of the volume of water used daily by every citizen may amount to the volume that provides a costly dam, or to that provided by a set of glaciers in extinction, contributing to the process of increasing the resilience of the city The validity of the WF as a new tool for water management has been clearly demonstrated, although it is not the only factor that must be taken into account for the sustainable management of water resources. The WF especially allows to visualize and quantify the environmental impacts in monetary sense (Figure 3), showing the externalities, the cost which is currently absorbed by the environment.

Both tools, the traditional and the new tool of the WF are essential for good management of water resources. Both complement each other.

REFERENCES Hoekstra, A. Y., Chapagain, A. . K., Aldaya, M. M. & Mekonnen, M. . M., 2011. The Water Footprint Assessment Manual. London • Washington, DC: Earthscan.

Abbotsford Mission Water & Sewer Services., 2011. Our Water Matters - Indoor Water Conservation.

[Online] Available at: www.ourwatermatters.ca/Indoor-Water-Conservation [Accessed 14 Marzo 2014].

Agua Market, n.d. Agua Market. [Online] Available at: www.aguamarket.com/productos/productos.asp?producto=3998&nombreproducto=planta+movil+para+tratamiento+de+aguas+residuales [Accessed 5 Abril 2014].

Boese, K., 2011. Regenwasser fuer Garten und Haus, Staufen bei Freiburg, Deutschland: Oekobuch.

18

Data for the 2012 year.

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CEPYME, n.d. Guía práctica sobre ahorro de agua, Zaragoza, España: s.n.

Dezentrales Urbanes Infrastruktur-System, n.d. DEUS 21. [Online] Available at: www.deus21.de/ [Accessed 10 Marzo 2014].

Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia, 1992. Ley de Medio Ambiente Nº 1333 - Reglamento en Materia de Contaminación Hídrica. La Paz - Bolivia: s.n.

Hiessl, H. & Toussain, D., 2002. Szenarien urbane Wasserinfrastruktursysteme – Perspektiven fuer eine langfristige Modernisierung.- En: Oekologische Sanitaerkonzepte contra Betriebs- und Regenwassernutzung?. Volume Febrero, pp. 9, 47 – 55.

Hoffmann, D. & Requena, C., 2013. Bolivia en un mundo 4 grados más caliente. Escenarios sociopolíticos ante el cambio climático para los años 2030 y 2060 en el altiplano norte. La Paz: s.n.

Institute for Social-Ecological Research, n.d. ISOE. [Online] Available at: www.isoe.de/en/projects/current-projects/wasserinfrastruktur-und-risikoanalysen/semizentral/ [Accessed 3 Marzo 2014].

Olmos, C., 2011 (a). Gestion des ressources hydriques des villes de La Paz et d’El Alto (Bolivie): modélisation, apportsglaciaires et analyse des variables.-Tesis de Doctorado. Bruselas - Bélgica: Universidad de Bruselas.

Olmos, C., 2011 (b). Pérdidas de agua entre extracción y consumidor.- Base de datos EPSAS- Estudios Université Libre De Bruxelles, PRAA (Resiliencia) y Plan Maestro Metropolitano del 2014, La Paz, Bolivia: s.n.

Planes Maestro Metropolitanos de Agua Potable y Saneamiento de La Paz y El Alto, C. S. C. y. e. V. C. d. T., 2013. Informe Etapa II: Demandas futuras y estrategias de expansión, VOLUMEN IV Escenarios y Estrategia de Mejoramiento y Expansión de los Servicios de Saneamiento, La Paz, Bolivia: s.n.

Proyecto de adaptación al impacto del retroceso acelerado de glaciares en los Andes tropicales (PRAA), 2012. Estrategia de Gestión del Sistema de Distribución de Agua Potable para Enfrentar Impactos del Cambio Climático – Programa de gestión de agua no contabilizada. Informe No. 3: Programa Integrado y de Gestión Sostenible de Reducción de ANC, La Paz, Bolivia: s.n.

SENAMHI – Datos de caudal 1990 – 2012, 2012. Caudales en el Río Choqueyapu 1990 - 2012, La Paz, Bolivia: s.n.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Soruco, A., 2012. Medio siglo de fluctuaciones glaciares en la Cordillera Real y sus efectos hidrológicos en la ciudad de La Paz.. La Paz - Bolivia: IRD. Umweltbundesamt, 2001. Ohne Wasser laeuft nichts, Berlín, Alemania: s.n.

Zeolitas e Insumos Nacionales, n.d. Zeolitas e Insumos Nacionales. [Online] Available at: www.zeolitas.info.

[Accessed 5 Abril 2014].

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Water Footprint as an Enviromental Strategy of Joint Responsibility for the IX World Games Held in Cali.

Diego Arévalo Good Stuff International Latinoamérica (GSI-LAC) (57)3218523054, Cr. 46 N° 56-11, Medellín, Colombia, diego@goodstuffinternational.com Claudia Patricia Campuzano Centro de Ciencia y Tecnología de Antioquia (CTA), (57) 4442872, Cr. 46 N° 56-11, Medellín, Colombia, ccampuzano@cta.org.co Viviana Martínez Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana (UPB), (57) 3544524, Circular 1 No. 70-01, Medellín, Colombia. viviana.martinez@upb.edu.co

ABSTRACT The city of Cali was appointed as the scenario of the IX World Games, to be held from July 25 to August 4, 2013, under the slogan "Fair Play with the Planet", and being this, the first time that the World Games would be held in South America.

Also, the water footprint is a tool applicable to Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), which informs us about the human impact on water, in a geographic and temporally explicit form, and allows improving the understanding of our current situation on the sustainability of water resources, allowing an orientation towards a change in the conceptualization of the water-men relationship.

Under the scope of these arguments and seeking for an innovative tool that would link a world class event with a local water and basins problem, it was decided by the organization Fondo Patrimonio Natural (National Heritage Fund), in technical association with the organizations Good Stuff International Latinoamérica (GSI-LAC) and the Centro de Ciencia y Tecnología de Antioquia (Science and technology center of Antioquia) (CTA), to estimate the water footprint of the IX World GamesGames, and generate a communication strategy on the event's hydrologic responsibility, that would contribute to the implementation process of the incentives scheme to the conservation of Cali River's basin.

The water footprint associated to the direct or indirect consumption of water by food or water intake in the IX World Games was estimated, the impact of the event in terms of water was determined, and a strategy for responsible water use was proposed. The results of the water footprint and its strategy of responsible water use were presented transparently to the media, a recognition of the event was made as a space which promoted the awareness-raising towards its water-use responsibility.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Once the water footprint was assessed- which led to significant results in decision-making by part of the competent authorities of the location where the event was developed- the project as a measure for reducing impacts on water- it originated different strategies to influence not only the competitions spectators, but also the sports delegations, volunteers, and logistics team in general, in the amount of water that was required to produce the existing foods in order to avoid waste.

For the conservation and protection of the River Cali basin, large deployments of resources were conducted to support this awareness-building strategy and important contributions were generated, since this is the second priority source of supply for the city of Cali, and according to the study, 20% of the water consumed in the World GamesGames, came from this basin.

Key Words: River Cali basin, water footprint, World GamesGames, water sustainability.

INTRODUCTION In activities related to environmental responsibility of an event of almost any magnitude, it is common to find the carbon footprint concept, used as a sustainability indicator which allows the overall impact assessment of an organization on climate change, in relation to emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) that are released into the atmosphere due to the event. However, currently a trend of efforts seeking to incorporate water matters as one of the variables of utmost importance in the sustainability of an event has begun, and in this sense, a parallel is sought between the carbon footprint and the water footprint.

With this idea of impact assessment of water as a resource, the Fondo Patrimonio Natural commissioned, as a contribution to the organization of the World Games 2013 Cali, the organizations Good Stuff International LatinoamĂŠrica (GSI-LAC) and Centro de Ciencia y TecnologĂ­a de Antioquia (CTA), to generate an alliance that brought together several key experts to address the subject at a national and international level.

The purpose of such alliance consisted in estimating the water footprint of the IX World Games 2013 in Cali (Colombia) and generating a communication strategy on the responsible water use of the event that would contribute to the implementation process of the incentive scheme for the conservation of the River Cali Basin.

Conceptual Framework The assessment was made taking into account the three components of the water footprint: Green Water Footprint: Refers to human appropriation of the water resources that are present in the soil from rainfall (precipitation), which does not turn into runoff and that satisfies an environment demand without requiring human intervention.

Blue WaterFootprint: refers to human appropriation of surface or groundwater (rivers, lakes, aquifers) to satisfy demands generated in a process.

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Grey WaterFootprint: Is defined as volume of freshwater that is required to assimilate the load of pollutants from a body of water, taking as reference the environment quality standards, and connecting the established limits to a good quality for the environment and people. It refers to a reduction in water availability by means of quality problems associated to an anthropic process.

DEVELOMENT OF THE SUBJECT AND RESULTS The proposal was developed with two major work frames: Technical axle: associated to the quantification and impact of the water footprint in the World Games, taking into account, for the assessment, 25 sport scenarios, 11 days of competition, more than 100 events, more than 8,000 people authorized for the event. Three HIH components were assessed, for the direct and indirect consumption of water and food during the event.

The consumption per lodging (referring to the water impact generated by the hotel occupancy in the World Games) was also taken into account, the consumption of the audience during the sport events (refers to the water impact generated by the public agglomeration attending to the sports events of the World Games), and the mass feeding for the authorized personnel attending to the sport events of the World Games were all taken in consideration.

A total amount of 3,862 users were registered in the total amount of days in hotel services in relation to the organization of the World Games, which generated a blue water footprint of 645,000 water liters (water withdrawal from the natural source and not returned to the basin).

The contribution of gray water footprint is not considered significant by the configuration of the sanitation system of the city of Cali, which is able to absorb the additional pollution load generated by the Games without changing in a significant way the functioning conditions of the PTAR of Cañaveralejo, or the reduction the Cauca River’s assimilation capacity in such section.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 1: Consumption per lodging: water use impact per lodging in Cali.

The results of the water footprint for the sport events of the World GamesGames depended directly, in first place, on beverages consumption by the audience, athletes, judges, and volunteers, and, in second place, of the food consumption of the audience only.

Figure 2: Audience consumption chart for each sports events.

Water footprint of food and beverages consumption in sport events.

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During the sports events, the contributions to the water footprint increased considerable in relation to those of lodging, which is basically because the virtual water of the foods and agricultural ingredients of the beverages, mainly sugar, which include the impacts over water in terms of quantity and quality along the chain value.

Around 400,000 spectators were registered, who together with the sportsmen and delegates assisted to more than 700 hours of several sporting events, where a water footprint of 233 million liters of water related to the consumption of hydrating beverages such as water, energy drinks, soda, coffee, â&#x20AC;&#x153;cholaosâ&#x20AC;?, among others was generated, and 1,015 million liters of water related to the consumption of foods like burgers, french fries, cookies, fruits, among others.

The aforementioned generated a total water footprint of 1,248,580 m3 of water consumed during sports events.

Figure 3: Audience consumption per each sport event

The result of the water footprint for the food services contracted to the authorized personnel, depend directly on the consumption of beverages and foods by the athletes, judges, doping control, volunteers, and policemen among others, and the number of users, which changed depending on the sport event performed during the day.

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The 15 days in which food from the company contracted for such purpose were also included It was found that value of the green water footprint related to the consumption of water from rain and stored in the soil by the agricultural sector are much higher to those related to the blue water footprint (irrigation in agriculture and direct use in the livestock sector). The above shows the clear relationship and relevance of environmental conservation as a key strategy to provide an efficient use of water.

Figure 4: Mass feeding for authorized people. Food consumption during the event

The information of services provided to the authorized personnel was supplied by the contracting company of the World Games 2013 Cali. In total, a number of 221 thousand services (lunch and dinners) was accounted, and in average 7,700 people were served on a daily basis with a total water footprint of 240 million of liters of water required for the production of the food consumed during this time period.

From this total, 231 million liters are related to the water consumed (green and blue water footprint) and 9 million liters are related to the need for assimilation of pollutants generated by the production of these foods.

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Figure 5: Mass feeding for authorized people: food consumption during the event

Communicational axle: related to a strategy of responsible water use in the World Games. As a response action to the quantification of the water footprint and subsequent partial identification of the probable impact, a strategy of responsible water use that counts with two main components was designed: • Awareness-building towards the responsible consumption and its relation with water.

• Co-responsibility strategy oriented to promote the environment conservation in basins for water sustainability. Proposed case study: incentive projects to the conservation of the River Cali basin.

As an exercise according to the slogan of the World Games "Fair Play with the Planet" the Awarenessbuilding communicational Strategy for the responsible consumption and its relationship with water, based in the assessment of the water footprint of the games, was based on a campaign aimed to the general public, focused in illustrating the relationship between the reduction of food wastes, and responsible consumption, in sport scenarios where the competitions scheduled on the event’s agenda were carried out.

The event's slogan was designed, newsletters, summary of the games and their sustainability goals in English and Spanish, press conferences, a messages matrix for social networks (Facebook and Twitter) and mass dissemination media aiming to reach out to the population interested in the sporting event, as well as to reiterate the messages, a video in English and Spanish, among others.

The video is available on YouTube in Spanish and English versions: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ReL4zjD0Yp8 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XO4nv9ycqFc

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Table 1. Messages for social networks Date

Twitter

Facebook

07/24/2013

They will be conscious and sensitive events towards water-responsibility

The Cali 2013 World Games have taken in the challenge of knowing its water footprint and formulate a water use strategy to inform, sensitize and create awareness in relation to this concept.

07/25/2013

It will promote the awareness-building and the water use responsibility by measuring its water footprint.

The Cali 2013 World Games seeks to know its water footprint. The water footprint allows defining strategies for the rational use of resources, optimizing process and moderating lifestyle of population

07/26/2013

Cali plays fairly with the planet knowing and giving information on the water footprint of the World Games 2013.

The impact of the Games in term of its water footprint, will be accounted in relation to the direct consumption of water, beverages and foods by the audience, the sports delegations, the logistic team, and other assistants to the more than 100 sports events that will be celebrated during the 11 days of competitions.

The co-responsibility strategy aimed at promoting environment conservation in basins for the water sustainability is based in a wide range vision towards the need of basins conservation, where the water footprint is presented as a useful and necessary tool in such strategy, providing information to achieve the objective.

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Figure 6: Strategy of responsible water use

The strategy was based in the steps designed for â&#x20AC;&#x153;water resources managementâ&#x20AC;? proposed by WWF (WWF, 2012) and focused on establishing a favorable scenario for the efficient and operational reception of an increasing commitment from the business sector with the water problems, which was based in the understanding and appropriation of the co-responsibility before the environmental sustainability.

CONCLUSIONS Three independent processes related with the celebration of the World Games 2013 Cali were identified. They were analyzed for being those that concentrate the largest water impact, in terms of water footprint, due to the development of the sport event.

After the quantification phase, it was determined that the impact of lodging is less than the 1% of the total, being the most significant impact the one generated by the 400,000 spectators who attended over 720 hours of sport events, with a score of 84% of the total; followed by the water footprint from the food provided to the authorized people from the organization, which represented about the 16% of the total water footprint.

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Figure 7: Process analysis with increased water impact

In presence of the total estimated amount of water footprint, the relevant percentage to the direct water footprint is lesser than the 2% of the total, being more than 98% the indirect water footprint, associated to the chain of value of the agricultural products involved in feeding or hydration of the people involved in the sports event's development.

The total water footprint generated by the World Games is estimated in approximately 1,500 million of liters of water for the days the sport event was celebrated.

Regarding the relative weight of the components, for each process analyzed, it is displayed the high relevance that the green water footprint has in the quantification of the total water footprint of the games. It is assumed that the food products consumed in the games were grown in Colombia, in production areas of each product of the country, and under average conditions of water availability in these growing areas of the country.

Likewise, the high weight of the green water footprint allows establishing a clear relationship between environmental sustainability and water producing areas and eco-system services providers and the productive sectors, which are represented in the value chain of daily consumption products and make explicit their co-responsibility in the sustainability of water by means of the water footprint.

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Figure 8: Green water footprint of the event

There was an awareness-raising process for the water sustainability that reached all the actors involved in World Games.

For the particular case of the Cali River basin, there was an effort focused on the conservation through the promotion of incentives for conservation that was an example of general applicability strategy for water resources management for this project, using for that purpose the results of the water footprint of the World Games.

REFERENCES Patrimonio Natural, Good Stuff International Latinoamerica y Corporación Centro de Ciencia y Tecnología de Antioquia (2013). Informe Final, Estudio de la huella hídrica de los juegos mundiales 2013 Cali.

Hoekstra, A., Chapagain, A., Aldaya, M., & Mekonnen, M. (2011). The water footprint assessment manual, Setting de global standar.London: Earthscan.

World Wildlife Fund for Nature. (2012). Una mirada a la agricultura de Colombia desde su huella hídrica.Bogotá.

World Wildlife Fund for Nature. (2012). Estrategia de “Custodia del Agua”.

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Post-earthquake Recovery of the Wastewater Treatment System Stabilization Ponds with 0 Power Consumption. Maule, Chile.

Miguel Peña V, Ph.D. Associated Professor, Instituto Cinara Universidad del Valle. AA 25157.

Cali, Colombia. miguelpe@univalle.edu.co Luis Carlos Ríos Gallego, Civil Engineer & Ground Engineer. Saya - Timagua Ltda.

Cali, Colombia. timagua@timagua.com Guillermo Saavedra, Bachelor of Science degree in Engineering, President of the Federación de Cooperativas de Servicios Sanitarios de Chile (Chilean Cooperative Federation of Sanitary Systems)-FESAN. Santiago de Chile, Chile gsaavedra@fesan.coop

ABSTRACT The earthquake that hit Chile in 2010 caused a serial of consequences for the infrastructure and people’s lives. The effects were particularly hard for the rural central region of the country. The Maule location, with 2.500 potable water and sewage users, provided by the Cooperativa de Servicios Sanitarios Maule (Maule Region Sanitary Services Cooperative), suffered among other consequences, damage in its stabilization ponds (WSP).

This cooperative is a membership of the Federación Nacional de Cooperativas de Servicios Sanitarios (National Cooperative Sanitary Services (FESAN), www.fesan.coop, and as such, it participates in the projects with the Cinara Institute from the Universidad Del Valle at Cali, Colombia, www.cinara.univalle.edu.co, with the support of UN-HABITAT and IDB. The objective of this project is to remediate the damage caused by the earthquake, and the reconstruction of the stabilization ponds system with scientific research and the most up to date technology, under the concept of sustainable green technology with 0 consumption of power.

One of the main perspectives that will guide this Project from the design phase through the construction and operation phases in stable conditions, has to do with the application of the concept of ecosystem services based in eco-technologies for environmental pollution bio-remediation, as defined by Seppelt et al (2011), “The concept of eco-system services may be understood as a policy instrument to achieve the sustainable use of natural resources”.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

In this particular paper, we refer to the implementation of this concept, and therefore, our natural elements are water and energy, the objects of sustainability for which we aim when executing this project.

Likewise, if we refer to a green technology for water treatment of stabilization ponds, the concept will result in additional benefits such as zero power consumption, greenhouse gas sequestration, reuse of treated water, biogas and biomass production, and the generation and dissemination of new knowledge.

The importance in considering the alternative of simple technologies, accounting sustainability (low rates) and eco-efficiency is reaffirmed with the application of a natural system of self-sufficient photosynthesis in terms of energy.

Social players, such as the community, FESAN, and Cooperativa Maule, will be beneficiated with this development strategy, for which the Maule Region could become a model in demonstration management projects with success in zero-energy-consumption, something like a learning community center worth following, not only in the region but also nationally.

In short, this is an example of a public-private partnership involving the community and academic and financial institutions, which give rise to the concrete and tangible implementation of a project that includes the environmental contemporary thinking, as well as guarantee its economic, social, and environmental sustainability.

Keywords: Ecological sanitation, waste waters, eco-technologies, stabilization ponds, Eco-system services INTRODUCTION El Maule is a small municipality, located south of Santiago de Chile, in Region VII, which has 2102 potable water and sewage users, more than 285 subscribed users only to the potable water service, provided by the Cooperativa del Maule. Also, the Cooperativa del Maule is partner of the FederaciĂłn Nacional de Cooperativas de Servicios Sanitarios, FESAN, and as such, participates in the current project, developed with the Instituto Cinara from the Universidad Del Valle at Cali, Colombia, with the support of the UN-HABITAT and BID. The objective of this project is to know and remediate the damages caused by the earthquake of February 27th, 2010 which struck the central area of Chile, and damaged the infrastructure of the public water supply services and wastewater treatment of Cooperativa del Maule. Additionally, the project will evaluate recovery alternatives and will offer recommendations for the recovery of the stabilization ponds system with the latest scientific and technological research criteria under the concept of sustainable green technology with related eco-system services.

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METHODOLGY The implementation of this project began with an initial training activity for several employees of FESAN. It was in technical and administrative aspects of the eco-technology for wastewater treatment within the framework of a mission to the Cinara Institute from the Universidad Del Valle, at Cali, Colombia. Said mission was sponsored by the IDB and UN-HABITAT during the month of May 2010.

As a result of this activity, subsequently a visit of Cinara's members was planned to visit FESAN and Cooperativa del Maule in Chile. Hereafter, a review of the main activities done during the visit is presented. Figure 1 shows a picture of the Stabilization Ponds System of Maule, after the 2010 earthquake.

The main purpose of the visit was the on-site assessment of the damages caused by the earthquake on the infrastructure of the municipality's public services of water supply, sewage, and wastewater treatment.

Figure 1: Cooperativa del Maule wastewater treatment plant.

The Maule's wastewater treatment system is comprised by two parallel rows of primary facultative stabilization ponds, plus a final maturation pond, and consists of the following units of unitary operations and processes: Coarse and fine screens, hair and fiber sifts, two (2) primary facultative ponds, a maturation pond, and chlorine disinfection unit. After disinfection, the final effluent is discharged into a natural watercourse of floodwaters that surrounds the land where the stabilization pond system is built. After revising the method and design criteria used for the Maule ponds system -from June 2010- it was found that this system was designed considering the local environmental conditions, however it had an outdated design model regarding the current development of research and technological development of this eco-technology.

Likewise, it was also verified on-site, that the ponds that are part of the system, present an important superficial aggradation of floating aquatic plants that interfere with the required amount of sunlight for the microalgae photosynthesis. Such aggradation is being caused by a floating macrophytic plant which has completely colonized the surface of the two primary facultative ponds. Hence, this prevents the operation of these ponds as photosynthetic algal bioreactors with sufficient natural oxygenation to oxidize the organic matter of wastewater. It is possible that during spring and summer, this situation Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

causes unpleasant odors for the community, for when the floating plant biomass enters senescence, it increases the organic load in the system as a result of the dead biomass that decomposes inside the ponds.

The photographs shown in the following section of the document, show the colonization of the in the ponds of the aforementioned macrophytes. Another problem observed, was the absence of the sand removal process unit for wastewater before the entry to the primary facultative ponds. This makes coarse solids such as sand and soil particles settle inside the ponds, thereby generating a substrate or support source for aquatic macrophytes plants to colonize the ponds in search of nutrients.

Another observation noted, was the absence of suitable devices for measuring inflows in different ponds. This way, the Maule stabilization ponds system lacks an adequate quality monitoring program for the final flow, but most of all, it needs an operation and maintenance program that includes the technical and administrative training of the Cooperative staff, as well as a plumber or operator in charge of the system's proper functioning.

Damages caused by the earthquake to the Maule Pond System The ponds were dug in primary alluvial soil and developed from sedimentary rocks. From the surface to the foundations, the walls are made of sandy loam, and the bottom is made of lime clayish of medium or low plasticity. Due to the soil characteristics and the constructive process of the ponds, it is very likely that there is water percolation from the pond, with preferential permeability due to the sand strata.

Given the natural ground level, the ponds' conformation required the construction of backfills to create the cavity, particularly at the side of pond two (2) against the chlorination tank. This condition enabled the loss of content from the lagoon, saturating sand and forming a water mesa in contact with the lower permeability clayish lime. The magnitude of the earthquake and its frequency pattern facilitated the fault in the in-filled areas with lateral movements towards the bottom or estuary, thus making more critical the ex-filtration of contents of the ponds (see Figures 2 and 3).

Figure 2: Fault areas due to landslides of marginal earthwork towards the estuary.

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Based on the aforesaid findings in the on-site visit and taking into account the damages caused by the earthquake to the ponds dams, it is considered important to review and to adjust the designs and physical processes of the system to implement the necessary improvements, which in any case will be more economical than building a new system or changing technologies.

Thus, the project was presented to the Government of Chile in late 2010 by the Municipality of Maule, in order to secure funding for the technical design of the improvement of the Ponds of Maule. This first step was already approved and is currently awaiting funding for the project development in partnership with the Instituto Cinara of the Universidad Del Valle at Cali, Colombia.

Figure 3: Absence of sand catching unit and aggradation of the facultative ponds with floating macrophytes.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS After the process carried out to this date, it was found that the existing technological alternative in the Maule suffers from an outdated design in accordance with latest technical and scientific criteria. Even though this technology is robust, the earthquake did affect it in an important structural component as is the marginal dam which helps holding wastewater inside the bioreactor. Therefore, the system must be recovered and optimized using the latest knowledge on the subject, in such way the benefits may be maximized for the existing environmental conditions in the Maule.

A detailed analysis of the problems of this stabilization pond system which in future incorporates an improved and sustainable eco-technology should include at least the following technical components: a) Construction of the grid trap; b) physical repair of ponds; c) deepening and waterproofing with clay or geo-membrane; d) provision of an anaerobic zone for pre-treatment of wastewater and capture of greenhouse gases (GHGs); e) total or partial coverage of anaerobic zones to capture and recover biogas; d) construction of a wetland in the last current pond to mature the final effluent; e) pumping system to use water from the final effluent for irrigation of surrounding eucalyptus forest.

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Likewise, the aforementioned project in addition to the engineering component must include a master plan for training in technical, operational, administrative, and community participation to improve the sustainability aspects of the Maule ponds system. In fact, it is intended that all previous experience of the Maule cooperative of sanitation services be enhanced through this project, achieving the development of El Maule as a Community Learning Center. Thus, in the medium and long term there would be a community or cooperative institution in a position to replicate and transfer their knowledge to many of Chile's rural communities that today suffer in some way a degree of disregard from the Chilean State, whose laws and regulations on water and sanitation are designed for large cities and large service providers on the assumption of free trade as an engine of development for this sector.

Last but not least, one of the main perspectives that this project will be guided by, and that it intends to achieve starting with the design phase, construction, start-up, future operation under stable conditions, has to do with the application of the concept of eco-system services in constructed ecosystems such as the case of eco-technologies for bio-remediation of environmental pollution, with special emphasis on water pollution in this particular situation. Thus, the diagram on next page shows the possible ecosystem services derived from the eco-technologies such as stabilization ponds or built wetlands.

A pragmatic definition of eco-system services according to Seppelt et al (2011) which has strongly contributed to the millennium ecosystem assessment (2007) is as follows: The concept of eco-system services may be understood as a policy tool to achieve the sustainable use of natural resources”.

However, a more instrumental definition of this concept, which is the most disseminated in different media and social communities, is “eco-system services are defined as the benefits provided by ecosystems to humankind”. Meanwhile, the relations between such services, mankind’s wellbeing, and the monetization of those services is not a new concept at all. Therefore, in this paper in particular we are referring to the use of the first concept listed above, and this way, the natural element of water is lastly the one whose sustainability we are aiming for with the implementation of projects as the one hereby described.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 4: Possible eco-system services derived from Eco-techs.

Similarly, if we refer properly to eco-technology (i.e., stabilization ponds or constructed wetlands) then the same concept has application on this constructed ecosystems that will derivate on other additional benefits to the wastewater treatment (i.e., energetic recovery, capture of greenhouse gases (GHGs), reuse of treated water, biomass production, generation and appropriation of new knowledge, etc.). Note that finally what is being proposed is a new epistemology and reference of the technology concept, whose meaning and current sense derivate historically from the proper techno-scientific reductionism of the modernity. For the reader interested in this discussion and its cognitive as well as practical and philosophical implications we recommend the papers of authors as Heidegger (1953), de Groot et al.

(2002), Seppelt et al. (2011), Chen et al. (2009), and PeĂąa et al. (2011).

After this process and in the light of the objectives set out, the importance of considering technological alternatives that from their design, construction, operation, and maintenance consider the sustainability and eco-efficiency concepts was reaffirmed. This is applied to water purification technologies as well as for the treatment of wastewaters.

The stabilization ponds, as well as the constructed wetlands have positive externalities that must be included in a socio-economical assessment, and which are also related to the creation of complementary economical activities that may be developed by the local community. This will not only solve the pollution problems, but also at the same time, will be building an economic activity that Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

generates sources of employment and incomes for the organization that provide and is responsible of the service. Note that it will also be contributing to the treatment eco-efficiency with the application of a self-sustainable photosynthetic natural system in energy terms.

Key social players as FESAN, The Municipality, The Cooperativa de Servicios Sanitarios del Maule, and the community in general may be highly beneficiated with the development strategy here presented, and that will allow changing post-earthquake events in opportunities for finding new funds and new knowledge. Thus, Maule could become a successful demonstration project and a management model or Knowledge Community center to follow, not only in the Region VII but at a national level.

Summarizing, this is an example of private-public partnership with the participation of the community and academic and funding institutions, which ultimately will allow the physical, concrete and tangible implementation of a project that incorporates the contemporary environmental thinking, with concern for future of mankind and an ethic of responsibility in acting from a particular sector such as water services and sanitation.

REFERENCES Chen, Z.M., Chen, G.Q., Chen, B., Zhou, J.B., Yang, Z.F. & Zhou, Y. (2009). Net ecosystem services value of wetlands: Environmental economic account. Commun.Nonlinear Sci. Numer.Simulat. 14, 2837-2843. de Groot, R.S., Wilson, M.A. & Boumans, M.J.R. (2002). A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services.Ecol. Econ.(Special issue). 41, 393-408.

Heidegger, M. (1953). La pregunta por la técnica.(Die Frage nach der Technik, en Alemán).En: Einblick in das was ist.Academia Bávara de Bellas Artes. Bremen, Alemania.

Peña, M.R. & Mara, D.D. (2004). Thematic overview paper on waste stabilization ponds.Specialised e-technical publication.IRC publications series, NL. URL: http://www.irc.nl/page/14622.

Peña, M.R. & Rios, L.C. (2010). Informe técnico de visita al sistema de lagunas de estabilización del Maule. Alternativas de mejoramiento sostenible post-terremoto. Cali, Colombia.

Peña, M.R., Sandoval, J.J., Gutiérrez, C., Madera, C.A., Sanabria, I.J., Peña, E.J. & Torres, C. (2011).

Ecosystem services from constructed wetlands in the tropics. In: WETPOL 2011 Congress & Joint Meeting of Society of Wetlands Scientists. Prague, Czech Republic.

Seppelt, R., Dormann, C.F., Eppink, F.V., Lautenbach, S. & Schmidt, S. (2011). A quantitative review of ecosystem service studies: approaches, shortcomings and the road ahead. Jou. Appl. Ecol. 48, 630636.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Community Center for Water and Sustainable Sanitation Learning, Maule, Chile.

Mariela García M.A. Associated Profesor, Insituto Cinara Universidad Del Valle. AA 25157. Cali, Colombia. mariela.garcia@univalle.edu.co Guillermo Saavedra, Bachelor of Science degree in Engineering President of the Federación de Cooperativas de Servicios Sanitarios de Chile (Federation of Sanitary Services Cooperatives) - FESAN Santiago de Chile, Chile gsaavedra@fesan.coop

ABSTRACT The purpose is the implementation of a Community Center for Learning (CCA, Spanish acronym for Centro Comunitario de Aprendizaje ) about water and sustainable sanitation at the VII Region of El Maule, Chile, and subsequently, two centers in Requegua, VI Region, and Hospital Champa, Metropolitan Region of Chile, jointly developed by FESAN, Federación Nacional de Cooperativas de Servicios Sanitarios Ltda., www.fesan.coop, and the Centro Internacional de Economía Social y Cooperativafrom the Universidad de Santiago de Chile, CIESCOOP, www.ciescoop.usach.cl.

This effort, which comprises 3 physical centers and a virtual one, for training and capacity-building in the management of rural sanitation is addressed to 60 community leaders, managers and operators of 12 rural sanitation services (APR, Spanish acronym for rural potable water program), that represent 30,000 people and a demonstration center for eco-technologies applied on communal systems for wastewater treatments.

The CCA Maule and its virtual mirror in FESAN´s website, will be the pilot programs for the improvement of the other two centers with similar characteristics, and which will serve to enforce the empowerment of the communal organizations (development of management and administration skills, planning and control, and access to information technologies) and other associative actions that contribute to the generation of social capital, such as cultural, educational, and even productive.

This project will take advantage of the wastewater sanitation technology available in rural sanitation services at the Maule Region, based on stabilization ponds, as to generating a demonstrating experience of community management improvement. It counts with the technical support of Instituto Cinara from Universidad Del Valle in Colombia, www.cinara.univalle.edu.co, which has a vast experience implementing such kind of systems, with good indicators of community management, quality of processed water, and operative cost reductions.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

The methodology used, involves the operational, administrative, and community management diagnosis of water supply and sanitation services in the Maule Region and the subsequent establishment of participatory operating mechanisms, communication, and maintenance of the CCAs at Maule, Requegua, and Hospital.

Later, workshops to provide training on administrative, communal, and operational management and maintenance of sustainable sanitation systems are going to be implemented, and finally dissemination and transferring will take place through the systematization of the model and its dissemination in FESAN's website, congresses, and seminars.

The result will be a new management model for the APR cooperative services, while it develops knowledge surrounding the adoption of eco-technologies for the sanitation of wastewater.

•

Establishment of the CCA and a Library on Water open to the community.

•

60 operators and leaders of 12 APR services from the Metropolitan Region, VI, and VII Regions, who serve 30,000 individuals, trained in operational, technical, and community management.

•

Transfer of methodologies of community operational management to 60 leaders of the APR organizations.

•

Systematization of the CCA cooperative methodology management and methodological guide for APR sanitation through the use of eco-technologies in FESAN's website.

•

Transfer of knowledge to other social players at a national level as well as related discussions, in order to acknowledge the importance of the role of APR community organizations and the sanitation challenge.

Keywords: Water, Eco-technologies, community management, environmental sanitation, sustainable.

INTRODUCTION Chile initiated, in the decade of the 60's a governmental program with the support of the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB), whose goal was to supply potable water to the rural population, which at the time the coverage level did not exceed 6%. The focus of that program primarily targeted the supply of water, leaving for future phases investments related to wastewater management.

Under the rural potable water program (APR), with community frameworks and social education for the proper use of the resource, and government funding for infrastructure, over 1,500 rural water sanitation systems that currently provide potable water services to a 98% of the rural population (over 2 million people), have been implemented. These systems are managed by nonprofit local community associations, cooperatives or APR committees, which take-on the responsibility for the technical and administrative management of the services. These operators are technically supervised by the Dirección Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

de Obras Hidráulicas del Ministerio de Obras Públicas (Ministry of Public Works Driecion of Hydraulic Works). However, there are pending tasks related to wastewater treatment services and strengthening community association models for the proper management and operation of these systems. Currently, Saavedra (2013), only 15% of the APR operators have a treatment system for their wastewaters. In this context, improving the capabilities for the operation and system maintenance represents a need to improve prospects for sustainability of investments.

On the other hand, a diagnosis drawn up by the Departamento de Programas Sanitarios del Ministerio de Obras Públicas (Sanitation Programs Department of the Ministry of Public Works) , Fuentealba (2011), reported as result that 30% of the country's committees and cooperatives do not register the minimum acceptable technical levels and that a high percentage of these organizations have management problems, such as absence of annual investment plans (66%), absence of management planning, and assessment tools (56%) and operational sustainability problems (75%), that results in a fragile maintenance of the existing infrastructure.

This issue affects the country's water supply efficiency, being imperative to strengthen the management weaknesses existent in operators, so as to contribute to an improvement in the management of potable water and rural sanitation services, while maintaining participatory models that ensure the empowerment of the inhabitants of the communities.

According to statistics of the CEPAL, Carrasco (2011), said weaknesses are also present in other countries of the Region, the main ones are: • Absence in participative processes in design and technologies selection; • Weak organization and training of the services suppliers; • Absence of Regional support schemes and technical assistance in the systems operation and maintenance; • Introduction of rating systems that disagree with the population's payment capacity; • Lack of participatory processes intended to connect user’s community with the provided service.

The introduction of rural sanitation systems with eco-technology is an opportunity for operators to generate good management practices and a more efficient technical operation.

In order to increase sanitation coverage with treatment and promoting the sustainability of the rural sanitation services, learning community centers (CCCA) in water and sanitation in the rural central area of Chile will be created with the following purposes: • Develop capacity-building of FESAN and sanitary services cooperatives from Maule, Hospital, and Requegua, for the management of potable water and rural sanitation ecotechnologies for about 11,000 families in the rural central area of Chile, through a strategic alliance with Instituto Cinara of the Universidad Del Valle in Colombia.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

•

Share the knowledge of wastewater natural treatments, creating the conditions to develop processes to update knowledge, with the purpose of sharing information and knowledge on technical, social, and environmental management with FESAN's partners and other community operators in Chile.

METHODOLOGY The Maule Region has several water and rural sanitation services which provide potable water services by means of stabilization ponds which give natural treatment to the wastewater of 15 thousand inhabitants.

To meet the challenge of strengthening the APR operators in matters of cooperative management and dissemination of the natural sanitation systems, FESAN, in alliance with USACH (acronym for Universidad de Santiago de Chile), through CIESCOOP, had developed this project that seeks to improve the knowledge, contribute to make easier the access to wastewater treatment services, and ensure the sustainability of the investments to be made for the optimization of some systems and the construction of new ones, experience which will be demonstrative for other APR operators at Regional and national level.

The project, with an 18 months duration, aims to strengthen the Maule Region's operators management capacity and FESAN's partners from the Metropolitan Region and the VI Region, and generating conditions for the dissemination and adoption of eco-technologies by other rural water cooperatives throughout the country, by the creation of physical and virtual learning community center (CCA), in water management and rural sanitation eco-technologies.

The Project will be implemented by USACH through CIESCOOP and FESAN, which receive consultancy from Instituto de Investigación y Desarrollo en Abastecimiento de Agua, Saneamiento Ambiental y Conservación del Recurso Hídrico (CINARA, Institute for Research and Development in Water Supply, Sanitation and Water Resources Conservation) of the Universidad del Valle in Colombia, Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

entity which maintains an strategic partnership with FESAN to support the wastewater system development in Chile, taking advantage of the eco-technologies and strengthening community management systems in rural areas. The support and technical assistance provided by CINARA during the projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s execution will benefit primarily the members, leaders, and operators of the participating cooperatives, and FESAN and CIESCOOP will also benefit from the transfer of this knowledge.

The indirect beneficiaries of this project will be over 3,000 families, which are customers of FESAN's cooperative associates, and more than 500 rural water and sanitation services operators at a national level.

Description and Goals: The purpose of this Project is the implementation of a learning community center (CCA) in water and sanitation in the Maule Region, which will be a training center in the management of rural sanitation focused on community leaders, administrators, and operators of different rural sanitation services, and at the same time, a demonstration center on the efficient use of eco-technologies applied to wastewater community treatment systems which will be placed at a location to be determined within 3 possible choices, La Chiripa, Maule, and Pencahue, all in the VII Region.

Maule

Pencahue

La Chiripa

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The CCA Maule will be the pilot for implementing the other two learning centers of similar characteristics in the other 2 communities of the central area, and, besides the role already indicated, will serve to reinforce the executive management of the community organization and other actions of an associative type that will help in the generation of social capital, such as cultural activities, sport, educational and even productive activities.

Particularly this project will take advantage of the water sanitation technology available in the Maule Region, based on passive treatment systems through different stages of water filtration by plants (phyto-purification) and minerals, generating a demonstrating experience of the community management improvement. This will be undertaken with the support and technical assistance of the CINARA Institute, which has extensive experience in implementing such systems, with good results in terms of community management, water processed quality and operational costs and Reduction of operational costs.

Components of Project's Implementation 1. Diagnosis and establishment of operating and communication mechanisms of the CCA Maule, with development of a cadaster of the rural sanitation technologies in Chile; APR database and conditions needed for the implementation and potential development of sanitation ecotechnologies at the Maule Region; deploymentof the information center; operations manuals, and CCA website development.

2. Diagnosis of administrative and community management of water and sanitation services in the Maule Region; workshops; improvement plans and monitoring system in three dimensions: administrative management, technical/operational, and community management; development of competences and skills of the managers and partners of the APR organizations, and development of specific activities intended for women in order to highlight the role of women in water management and enhance their participation in the management, direction, and operation of APR Cooperatives.

3. Development of skills for administrative management, community, operational and of sustainable sanitation treatment systems, aimed to provide training and technical assistance to Maule sanitary operators and other community players in the operation and maintenance of ecotechnologies for wastewater treatment, which will be under the direction of Instituto Cinara.

4. Dissemination and transfer.

5. The objectives of this component consist in the systematization of the developed model, knowledge transfer to other players at a national level and topic discussions in order to demonstrate the importance of the role of APR Community Organizations and the sanitation challenge.

The project will develop, asses, and systematize a new management project for water supply and rural sanitation cooperatives. The product of this knowledge to be developed, will be a methodological guide that will be available for water and rural sanitation operators by means of FESAN's website. In addition, a seminar will be held at national and international levels.

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The main audiences of the project are the APR operators, these partners of this organization, communities in general, local governments, and public sector institutions related to the supervision and strengthening of the APR's ecosystem, particularly the Dirección de Obras Hidráulicas and the Subdirección de Agua potable Rural of the Ministerio de Obras Públicas. The project will seek to transfer the developed knowledge to those actors at a national level, in order to demonstrate the importance of the role of APR Community Organizations and the sanitation challenge.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSSIONS At first, the sustainability of rural sanitary services depends on factors that have to do with the governance, the performance of operational and administrative management, and to the O&M of the services provider.

These two fundamental sustainability aspects are covered in this project, which will allow teaching, disseminating, transmitting, and ensuring the implementation as much as possible, of the use of ecotechnologies for the treatment of wastewaters in rural areas of Chile, seeking for the maximum influence in the public policies thereon.

As a result, the project will develop, asses and systematize a new management model for the water supply and rural sanitation cooperatives, while developing knowledge on the adoption of ecotechnologies for sanitation at a local communities level, which will be replicated by CIESCOOP, FESAN, and the cooperatives participating in this project, with the following main products: • Diagnosis and updated Regional database of rural systems.

• Information Center open for the community with operating schemes for the CCA, developed through participation.

• Implementation and monitoring of the improvement plans, and operators of water and sanitation trained in 3 management dimensions, and soft skills.

• Systematization of the Cooperative Sanitation Management Model with the Methodological Guide, Manuals, and a Virtual Center in FESAN’s website, methodology transference to two water and sanitation cooperatives and alliances among operators.

REFERENCES Fuentealba R. (2011) http://bidcomunidades.iadb.org/pg/file/read/120657/reinaldo-fuentealbasostenibilidad-en-sistemas-de-agua-potable-rural-en-chile Carrasco W. (2011) Políticas Públicas para la prestación de servicios de agua potable y saneamiento en áreas rurales, CEPAL. Saavedra G. (2013) Plan Sectorial de Saneamiento Rural Chile, BID.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Industrial Food Water Footprint Case study for Chilled Dessert and Ice Cream J.Aylwin Poch Ambiental javer.aylwin@poch.cl M. Mella Poch Ambiental macarena.mella@poch.cl

ABSTRACT The water footprint (WF) is a multidimensional indicator that considers direct and indirect freshwater use and contamination by a company, product or person among others. This paper summarizes and compares the WF of a chilled dessert and an ice cream; following ISO 14.046 guidelines and the Water Footprint Network methodology. The largest freshwater use by these products relates to the production of raw materials, with a significant difference between assessed products. The largest WF for both products during the production stage (including auxiliary services) was related to energy consumption and cleaning processes. Results suggest that the largest WF reductions can be achieved by selecting raw materials with lower WF. Keywords: Water footprint, Water Footprint Network, chilled dessert, ice cream.

The IPCC concluded that observed changes where the result of anthropogenic activity, and that projected trends were not in line with historical natural process magnitudes. Society, as a whole, had to acknowledge its responsibility over its influence on climate and assume the challenge of having to deal with and adapt to changes that are already influencing peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; lives.

Hydrological cycles are affected by variables, most of which are related to human activities and to some extent, with climate change (precipitation patterns, seasonality, temperature regime, etc.) impacting resource availability.

Water use efficiency within production processes, agriculture and land use; and discharges to water bodies, are actions that now a days are under scrutiny by all stakeholders and society in general. In this context, a scale up of water related conflicts is understandable as a result of a larger demand caused by more water intensive production systems, and a growing population; combined with a more restricted and insecure water supply. Hence an immediate action is vital, in order to secure fair and sustainable use of the resource.

Under this scenario, WF concept is an indicator that allows us to answer questions such us Where?

How much? and When? water is being used; differentiating between direct and indirect water use. It distinguishes freshwater coming from surface and underground sources (associated to blue WF Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

concept), freshwater coming from precipitation that does not become run-off (associated to green WF concept); and the relation between the volume of freshwater needed to dilute contaminated water to accepted standard (natural background concentrations and existing ambient wĂĄter quality) as an indicator of water pollution.

This paper is based on production data gathered between January and December 2011 at the production site located in the metropolitan region of Santiago, Chile, including production of raw material at the country of origin.

METHODOLOGY For the calculation of the WF, ISO 14.046 norm requirements were followed, in conjunction with the methodology from the Water Footprint Network (WFN).

Once de scope was set, water flows for each step of the production phase were determined. For this purpose, several visits to the manufacturing plant where carried out, identifying water sources, uses and consumption points, and all relevant activities, such as normal employee practices, operational procedures, protocols, among others.

Auxiliary services, such as, toilets, changing rooms, cafeteria, etc., were also considered as part of the volumes accounted for during the study (see table 1). Data was gathered at the production facility.

Where information gaps were identified, most reasonable assumptions where agreed with the plant manager and its team.

Once all the information was gathered, calculations were carried out. WF were calculated for each of the products, differentiating the different types of WF (blue, Green and grey). A sensitivity analysis was carried out for a number of variables affecting the total WF for each product, based on the most critical sources identified throughout the lifecycle of each product, assessing their impact. Final estimations were carried out by the addition of each specific WF at different stages within the scope.

RESULTS System Boundary The scope of the study considers the production of a chilled dessert and an ice cream within a manufacturing plant located in the Metropolitan region of Santiago, Chile. Temporal boundary is the year 2011.

Functional Unit The functional unit for each product corresponds to one unit of the product itself; this is a 70 grs unit of ice cream stick and 130 grs unit for chilled dessert. All WF were considered in liters.

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

ITEM SCOPE AND PROCESSES

Item Raw materials

Scope and Processes • • •

Production of raw materials: sugar, milk, cream, cocoa, wood stick, others.

Production of packaging material Energy production

Production

• • • • •

Storage supplies Mixture preparation Production line Packing and palletizing Storage final product and distribution

Auxiliary services

• •

Water used for hand washing, toilet flushing, drinking Water used for cleaning

Table 1. Scope and processes considered.

Source:Self built from factory data

Commercialization, consumption and final disposal stages were not considered as Little information was available for any calculation. Additionally, WF of raw materials and packaging materials that represented less than 2% of the whole product composition (for both products), or that information was not reliable enough, were excluded. It is important to note that all liquid effluents from the factory are treated within site before being discharged into the local sewer for further treatment in the city’s water treatment plants. Under this scheme, grey WF was considered to be zero (0) for production and auxiliary services.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Product Description A list of raw materials and their contribution within the mix of ingredients used on the elaboration of ice cream and chilled desserts are presented on Table 2 and Table 3.

Raw materials

Country

Quantity used [Ton/year]

Product composition (%)

Water

-

647.90

49.6

Sugar

Chile

204.71

1,5

Cocoa powder

Brazil

17.30

1,3

Cream

Chile

241.10

18,4

Milk powder

USA

70.71

5,4

Milk

Chile

29.51

2,3

Culinary steam

-

96.11

7,4

Packaging material

-

Corrugated cardboard

-

58.07

-

Plastic cup

-

73.93

-

Table 2. Raw materials used to produce the chilled dessert during the year 2011.

Source: Self built from factory data.

Raw materials

Country

Quantity used Valor

Valor

Product composition (%)

Water

-

556.96

Ton/year

71.4

Sugar

USA

214.6

Ton/year

27,5

Milk powder

USA

8,85

Ton/year

1,1

Stick Wood

Chile

61.73

Ton/year

-

Corrugated cardboard

Chile

115.93

Ton/year

-

Packaging material

Table 3. Raw materials used to produce the ice cream during the year 2011.

Source: Self built from factory data.

There were two raw materials excluded from calculations given that they either didn’t contribute significantly to the total WF; or there wasn´t reliable data to back up calculations. In this line, reliable information for only two packaging materials was available.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Information Sources Information regarding freshwater sources, production and treatment through all production phases, including auxiliary services, were provided by the factory, while WF information from raw materials were extracted from publications from the Water Footprint Network.

Table 4 summarizes results in liters per functional unit of each product, for every stage of the lifecycle considered, differentiating between water footprints types.

WF

Chilled dessert (130 g)

Ice cream (70 g)

Raw material

Production and auxiliary services

Total

Raw material

Production and auxiliary services

Total

Green WF

85.33

0.00

85.33

2,95

0.00

2,95

Blue WF

6,32

2,11

8,43

1,51

3,05

4,56

Grey WF

5,4

0.00

5,4

0,52

0.00

0,52

Total WF

97.05

2,11

99.16

4,98

3,05

8,03

Table 4. Water footprint in liters per unit.

Source: Self built from factory data.

Chilled dessertsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; WF was significantly larger than that from ice cream, were the largest contribution to the total WF came from raw materials. Grey WF during production phase including auxiliary services was considered zero as treated effluent was discharged into local sewage system. Figure 1 shows WF results for each product.

Figure 1: Water footprint by products.

Source: Self built from factory data.

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

For chilled dessert, green WF accounts for nearly 87% of the total WF, which is mainly related to raw material production sourced from agricultural origins. The main factor for this is the number and origin of raw materials used in the manufacture of the chilled dessert. On the other hand, in the ice cream’s WF there’s a larger incidence of the production and auxiliary services.

Water Footprint: Productive Porcess and Auxiliary Services In the following table, details of the WF for product elaboration and packaging processes within the plant are displayed. For both products, the largest water volumes are associated with energy consumption and production line and equipment cleaning.

Production and auxiliary services

Water footprint (liters/unit) Chilled dessert (130 g)

Ice cream (70 g)

Water embodied in the product

0.00

0.00

Water used for washing equipment and tanks

0.42

0.68

Water used during the process (cooling, pasteurization, others)

0.23

0.22

Evaporated water

0.07

0.12

Water associated with electricity consumption

1,1

1,93

0.30

0,11

Production

Auxiliary services Water used for auxiliary services

Table 5. Production processes and auxiliary services water footprint, by type of use.

Source: Self built from factory data.

To estimate the WF associated to the electricity used during production phases of each product, raw generation from hydroelectric plants within the Central Interconnected System for central Chile during the year 2011 was considered. A 44.68% of the electricity consumed for the elaboration of each product contributed to the total WF. The mix of products produced within the plant were taken into account when assigning electricity consumption to the specific products. Water consumption for washing and cleaning of production line and additional equipment were directly measured, considering the product mix for the period under study.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Water Footprint: Raw Materials Table 6 presents WF in liters/unit for the elaboration of the raw material and packaging materials, given each productâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ingredients. The geographical location for raw material supplier (country of origin) it is also considered. WF data for raw material were obtained from WFN references.

Supply

Country

Water footprint (liters/unit) Chilled dessert (130 g)

Ice cream (70 g)

Raw material Water

-

-

-

Sugar

Chile

2,38

2,22

Cocoa powder

Brazil

39.83

-

Cream

Chile

26.80

-

Milk powder

USA

24.75

2,75

Milk

Chile

3,28

-

Culinary steam

-

-

-

Corrugated cardboard119

-

0.00

1,01

Plastic cup220

-

0.00

-

Stick Wood3 21

Chile

-

1,36

Packaging material

TOTAL Table 6. Water footprint for raw material production.

Source: Self built from factory data.

A significant difference between the ice cream and chilled dessertâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s WF related to raw materials is appreciated, which is the result of the larger number of ingredients used to elaborate the chilled dessert, and to local practices to generate the specific material at the country of origin. For the chilled dessert the ingredients that contributed the most to the total WF are cocoa powder, milk cream and trim powder milk. On the other hand, raw materials used for the ice cream production still contributes the most to the total WF, however packaging material takes a more important stake in the global WF of the product. In line with the methodology proposed by the WFN, raw materials and inputs that represented less than 2% of the total composition of the product were excluded, as they were considered not significant in terms of the total WF. An exception to this was the case of cocoa, given its high 19

1 Jefferies

et al., 2012 Ercin, Aldaya & Hoekstra, 2011 21 P. R Van Oel & A. Y. Hoekstra, 2011 20

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

contribution the global WF even though its contribution within the product composition was lower than the established limit (1.3%).

Transportation of raw materials to the processing plant was done by diesel vehicles, which does not contribute significantly to the water footprint, unlike the case of biodiesel, which has an important component of water use during the growing stage of crops; hence it was not considered.

Impact Assessment The estimated impacts of the WF for both products were assessed. The focus of this assessment was water volumes used during the production stages, given that the company has operational control upon activities, procedures and operations at this level.

The influence zone is the Santiago basin, which is located at 500 meters above sea level, between the Andes and Coastal mountain range. The Mapocho and Maipo rivers cross the basin from the mountains to the Pacific Ocean (CNR, 2007).

The percent of water consumption of main activities in the Metropolitan region, where Santiago is located, can be seen on the following figure (PUC, 2011).

Figure 2: Total water consumption per activity.

Source: Self built.

Complementing this, local and international organizations forecasting with weather models, have established that water availability would be restricted in the future for central Chile given by a reduction in precipitations of up to 10 to 30% (McPhee et al. 2011); and lower water reservoir up the mountain, (this will reduce river flows up to 40% according to McPhee et al. 2011). It is important to notice that Central Chile has had several dry years in a row to date. Under these scenarios, where water demand might exceed the available water, the current manufacturing siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s operation would not be sustainable in the long term, challenging not only them, but all stakeholders to improve water use efficiency and current productive systems.

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

In conclusion WF accounting throughout the production chain, allows identifying critical points of the process where to focus resources in, so as to manage and reduce it in order to sustain productive systems. A basin approach including all stake holders is necessary in order to obtain beneficial results for all water users and to sustain development in time.

When considering both products under study, the large stake which raw materials accounts for, makes us realize that efforts to reduce the total WF should be made at this level. In addition, considering that water demand for agricultural purposes will increase up to 20% from 1992 levels (MMA, 1992) it becomes imperative to work with raw material suppliers to optimize resource use.

In this sense, there are two main alternatives that will allow the reduction of the WF of these products.

In one hand the selection of raw materials which are less wĂĄter intensive, as shown in the sensitivity analysis. Optimization of production processes will also help increase the amount of products per liter of water use.

Alternatives such as a water efficiency program focused on cleaning and sanitizing process, besides reducing the WF for these products will help to reduce costs associated to water and energy consumption.

Given that energy generation in Chile relies to a large extent on hydraulic systems, an energy efficiency program that reduces energy consumption on production processes would also help reducing the WF. To efficiently manage water, the establishment of additional water indicators and goals for water use on site and a documented registration system were suggested.

Finally, the adverse future scenario where water availability will be restricted makes it essential that private and public sector acknowledge their roles as another actor with responsibilities, to manage water resources efficiently allowing for development that can be sustained over time.

Corporate Strategic Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES Comisión Nacional de Riego (CNR). 2007 Diagnóstico de caudales disponibles en cuentas no controladas de recuperación. Cuencas Aconcagua y Maipo. Santiago, Chile.

Ercin, A., M. Aldaya and A. Y. Hoekstra. 2011. The water footprint of soy milk and soy burger and equivalent animal products. Appendix II: Water footprints of raw materials and process water footprints for the ingredients and other components of the soy products. Twente Water Centre, University of Twente, Enschede. The Netherlands.

Jefferies, D., I. Muñoz, J. Hodges, V. King, M. Aldaya, A.E. Ercin, L.M. I Canals, and A. Y. Hoekstra.

2012. Water footprint and life cycle assessment as approaches to assess potential impacts of products on water consumption.

McPhee, J., L. Vargas, M. Rojas, G. Cortés, L. García y A. Descalzi. 2011 Report on Work Package 1 Analysis of Historical and Future Scenario “Climate Adaptation Santiago – CAS”. Universidad de Chile. Santiago, Chile.

Mekonnen, M.M and A.Y. Hoekstra.. 2010a. The green, blue and grey wáter footprint of farm animals and animal products. Twente Water Centre, University of Twente, Enschede. The Netherlands.

Mekonnen, M.M and A.Y. Hoekstra.. 2010b. The green, blue and grey wáter footprint of crops and derived crop products. Vol. 2. Appendix II. Water footprint per ton of crop or derived crop at national and sub-national level (m3/ton)(1996-2005). Twente Water Centre, University of Twente, Enschede.

The Netherlands.

Ministerio del Medio Ambiente (MMA). 2011 Segunda Comunicación Nacional de Chile ante la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre Cambio Climático, Chile.

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Centro de Cambio Global (PUC). 2011 Analysis of agricultural water demands in the Maipo Basin. Technical report. Santiago, Chile.

P. R Van Oel and A. Y. Hoekstra. 2011. Towards quantification of the wáter footprint of paper: a fist estimate fits consumptive component.

The water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard 2011, Hoekstra, A.Y., A.K. Chapagain, M.M Aldaya, and Mekonnen, M.M., Earthscan, London, UK.

Corporate Strategic Water Management – Water Week LA 2015

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management

Water Footprint Assessment at the Porce River Basin, Colombia.

Claudia Patricia Campuzano Centro de Ciencia y Tecnología de Antioquia (CTA) 4442872, Cr. 46 N° 56-11, Medellín, Colombia ccampuzano@cta.org.co.

Diego Arevalo Centro de Ciencia y Tecnología de Antioquia (CTA) 4442872, Cr. 46 N° 56-11, Medellín, Colombia darevalou@gmail.com.

Juan Esteban González Centro de Ciencia y Tecnología de Antioquia (CTA) 4442872, Cr. 46 N° 56-11, Medellín, Colombia jgonzales@cta.org.co.

Luis Javier Montoya Profesor Asociado Universidad de Medellín 3405303, Cr. 87 N° 30-65, Medellín, Colombia ljmontoya@udem.edu.co.

ABSTRACT In the study of “Water Footprint Assessment at the Porce River Basin” 5 sectors were analyzed: domestic, hydropower, mining, agricultural and livestock, and industrial. The geographical scale was the river basin of Porce River. An analysis of environmental sustainability was performed where environmental, social and economic aspects were articulated, the information was gathered for a period that comprehended the years 2005-2011 with monthly temporal resolution, and a prioritization of projects according to identified problems in the basin.

Keywords: Porce River Basin, Water Footprint (blue, green and gray), economic sectors (domestic, industrial, agricultural and livestock, mining, and hydropower) INTRODUCTION Colombia has always been described as a country with abundant water resources; according to (FAO, 2013) it occupies the 7th place in water wealth, however the different domestic and industrial activities, among others, increasingly have affected the availability of this resource. As an example of this situation is the Aburrá river basin, where the second largest urban conglomeration of Colombia is located, a consolidated industrial and mining activity associated with the extraction of construction materials. All these activities have greatly altered the conditions of the quality of water resources, as evidenced by the results obtained from the monitoring network of Aburrá River. Of the 8 measuring stations, in 3 of them the results were Bad and Regular quality, and only at its origin (Alto de San Miguel) you find Good quality (Universidad de Antioquia, Universidad Nacional, Universidad de Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management – Water Week LA 2015

Medellín, and Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, 2011).

This situation has generated the assessment of different environmental indicators intended to monitor the state of water resources and how these vary according to the different interventions by environmental agencies. One such indicator is the Water Footprint, whose main function is to quantify the actual water consumption either in the production process, a product, a community or for a geographic area, analyze the impact caused by water sources by discharges and identify key intervention measures to improve the state of the water resource.

The Water Footprint indicator was proposed by Arjen Hoekstra and developed at the University of Twente (Netherlands) where the methodology for assessing the Water Footprint (Hoekstra, Chapagain, Aldaya, & Mekonnen, 2011) was published. The Water Footprint consists in three indicators, each represented by a color: blue, green and gray.

The blue footprint refers to the consumption of water from surface or underground sources, in the case of green footprint it refers to water available in the soil and that is only used by vegetation coverage. In the case of the gray footprint, it no longer aims to quantify water consumption but to determine the theoretical volume of water required to assimilate the pollutant load to maintain in acceptable conditions the quality of the source receiving shedding (Hoekstra, Chapagain, Aldaya, & Mekonnen, 2011). With these three indicators the intention is to give the agencies responsible for environmental issues more tools for making decisions on behalf of the management of water resources. Some Water Footprints studies are (Cazcarro, Hoekstra, & Sanchez, 2013), (Vanham & Bidoglio, 2013), (Zeng, Liu, Koeneman, Zarate, & Hoekstra, 2012), (World Wildlife Fund for Nature, 2012), (Chilean copper Commission, 2010), other studies are available at www.waterfootprint.org.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MATTER For this study, the Basin of Porce River was defined as an analysis unit mainly for 3 reasons: • The Porce River Basin is the second most polluted, only surpassed by the Bogotá River Basin (IDEAM, 2010).

•

In studying the Water Footprints for Colombian agriculture, it was deemed that the green and gray footprints are very high for this basin (World Wildlife Fund for Nature, 2012).

•

It is a basin that brings together different sectors such as domestic (about 4 million inhabitants), industrial (Medellín, Itagüí and Sabaneta are the highest industrial average in Colombia), agriculture and livestock (20% of milk production is generated in the basin), mining (gold and construction supplies) and about 16% of hydropower generation occurs in this area (Corporación Centro de Ciencia y Tecnología de Antioquia, 2013).

All these elements make it a basin of great importance not only in environmental terms but also economic development of Antioquia and Colombia. Figure 1 presents the location of the Porce River Basin.

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 1: Geographical location of Porce River Basin

It is noteworthy that for the development of this project, with the participation of 16 organizations which provided resources and knowledge, the presence of environmental authorities having jurisdiction in the basin (Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá, Corantioquia and Cornare), universities (Universidad de Medellín, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, School of Engineering of Antioquia, Tecnológico de Antioquia and the Universidad de Antioquia), Medellin Public Enterprises, National Cleaner Production Centre, WWF Colombia, Good Staff International, SDC, UNESCO, Ministry of Environment of the Municipality of Medellín and the CTA. The conceptual basis and methodologies for estimating Water Footprint was proposed by (Hoekstra, Chapagain, Aldaya, & Mekonnen, 2011). Table 1 shows the results of each of the seven sub basins in which the Porce River Basin was divided, and Figure 2 presents the location of the sub basins, subjects to this analysis.

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management – Water Week LA 2015

Table 1. Results of quantification per sub basin Sub basin

Blue Footprint Mm3/yr

Green Footprint Mm3/yr

Grey Footprint Mm3/yr

Aburra River basin

47,5

282,6

15404

Rio Grande Basin

19

169

467,1

Mid Ponce stretch

12

71

29,3

Guadalupe River basin

5

54

103,5

Lower Mid Ponce stretch

6

43

20,3

Mata River Basin

1

74

19,1

0,1

5

5,5

Lower Porce stretch

Basin of Aburrá River

Porce Mid Low Section

Basin of Grande River

Porce Mid Section

Basin of Mata River

Basin of Guadalupe River

Porce Low Section

Figure 2: Location of the 7 sub basins

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management – Water Week LA 2015

The results in Table 1 indicate that blue and gray Water Footprint present the highest values in the upper part of the basin; this is explained by the presence of the industrial, agricultural and livestock, domestic and mining sectors. In the middle and lower area of the basin, the presence of these sectors decreases in intensity or there are none (except hydroelectric sector), so that the footprints are not as representative in the Porce River Basin.

Supplementing the Water Footprint estimation, it was decided to compare these values with the water supply offer in the basin, and for this reason hydrological simulations (Polytechnic University of Valencia, 2008) and (Polytechnic University of Valencia, 2008) were performed to determine the water supply offer in each sub basin and analyze whether these have the capacity to supply for water consumption and to assimilate pollutants discharge.

24 weather stations (pluviometric, limnigrphic, and climatic) were used, the information period span was from year 2000 to 2010 with hourly temporal resolution. The model was calibrated and validated in two points in the basin (stations Puente Gabino and PP7 ErmitaĂąo). Asides from the climatologic information, 8 maps (ascii format) were developed for the respective modeling, said maps were: digital elevation model MDE, slopes, drainage network, cumulative area, vegetative coverage, saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil, hydraulic conductivity of saturated soil substrate, and storage capacity.

Figure 3 and Figure 4 show the location of the stations used in the simulation (the points highlighted are where calibration and validation was done) and graph results of the validation in PP7 ErmitaĂąo station.

Figure 3: Location of stations used in modeling

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 4: Results for validation on the PP7 Ermitaño station for the period 2000-2010

In Table 2, the simulated flows for sub-basins that form part of the Aburrá River basin are presented.

These same simulations were made throughout the Porce River basin.

Table 2. Monthly volumes simulated in the Aburrá river basins

RÍO ABURRÁ BASIN (m /yr) 3

Quebrada La García

Quebrada Doña María

Quebrada La Iguaná

Quebrada Piedras Blancas

Quebrada Santa Elena

Quebrada Ovejas

104,728,396 118,403,093

76,768,116

44,958,058

61,059,565

125,237,573

In general terms it was identified that all sub-basins part of the Porce river basin have enough water to meet consumption needs, in Figure 5, the case of Aburrá river basin which is where the larger population and various economic activities is located. It is important to mention that for estimating water supply it was necessary to calculate the ecological flow according to Q95 methodology proposed by the IDEAM (Instituto de Hidrología, Metereología y Estudios Ambientales IDEAM, 2010), said flow was deducted from the flow simulated by the model.

In the case of the gray footprint, the analysis also included whether the sub basins have the ability to absorb the burden of critical pollutant, only Aburrá river basin and the Middle Porce section before the Porce II dam do not have sufficient capacity to assimilate the pollutant load (in this section no high gray footprint is generated, this situation occurs by the sweeping of contaminants coming from the top of the basin), confirming what has been reported by earlier studies (University of Antioquia, National University, University of Medellín and Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, 2011) about the poor quality of water in the river Aburrá basin. In Figure 6, the graphics for these two sub basins are presented:

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 5: Blue Water Footprint vs. water supply, Aburrá River sub basin

Figure 6: Gray Water Footprint vs. water offer, Aburrá River basins and stretches of Mid Porce

In relation to sustainability analysis of Green Footprint, problems were identified in the sub-basins of the Aburrá, Mid Section of Porce, Mid Low Porce Section, Mata River, and Low Porce River, indicating that there is a conflict between areas of current environmental protection and those which are projected on planning studies with the expansion of the agricultural and livestock boundaries (see Figure 7).

Figure 7: Green water footprint vs. availability of green water, Aburrá River basin and Mata River

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management – Water Week LA 2015

To complement the sustainability analysis from a more complex viewpoint, it was decided to include the social and economic components. From the social aspect, it was analyzed whether the 7 sub basins had sufficient water to supply domestic consumption. No basin presented problems in this area, however when analyzing the coverage of aqueducts and sewage, it becomes evident that in rural areas it is where there is lower coverage and these decrease as the municipalities are farther away from the center of the AburrĂĄ Valley. In Figure 8, the coverage is observed in some of the municipalities that are part of the basin.

Figure 8: Coverage of urban and rural sewage, AburrĂĄ River basin and Low Porce Section

In the economic aspect, the indicator applied was for apparent productivity of blue and green water, this indicator analyzes the profitability of economic activity in relation to consumed water (blue and green). With this analysis it was determined that the activities with more Apparent Productivity of Water (see Table 3) are industrial and gold mining, the latter strongly influenced by international prices.

Table 3. Results of apparent productivity indicator of blue water APW

Area

APW blue ( USD/m3)

Industrial

1100

Gold Mining

470

Poultry

56

Porcine

44

Bovine

36

Sand mining

10

Farming

4

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

This data should be properly interpreted, since according to the independent results they give, is the idea that industrial and mining activities should be promoted, however in mining (gold), we must analyze other components such as the environmental impact generated in the profit of gold (use of mercury and cyanide) and social conditions in which this activity is carried, given that the municipalities where it predominates have the most unfavorable social conditions. Figure 9 shows that in municipalities with mining (lower part of the basin), the conditions of ICV and NBI (acronyms for Indexes on Quality of Life and Basic Unmet Needs) are the most critical in the basin, which means that very profitable activities from the Apparent Water Productivity indicator is not reflected in better social conditions for the communities.

.

Quality of Life Index, Unsatisfied Basic Needs 2005 Census Census 2005 Figure 9: Social conditions in the basin of Porce River

After consolidating the environmental, social, and economic components, critical points in the basin were identified and spatialized, resulting in the map below (see Figure 10).

Figure 10: Sub-basins with higher critical points Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Starting from the most critical areas in the basin of the Porce River, a definition of the interventions that would be needed to implement was created, so as to reduce problems in the basin or prevent them from occurring in the future. Figure 11 sets forth the general outline to define guidelines for intervention in the basin.

Figure 11: Model for prioritizing actions at Porce River basin

As a result from the process performed with all actors, 69 actions were considered necessary to reduce the Water Footprint in the basin and then a prioritization exercise was done that resulted in the definition of 8 projects, which arose from the following priority actions performed: • Action 6: Sectorial awareness programs with themes aimed at reduction, the pollution control, and management of associated risks.

• Action 26: Development of a pilot project to implement alternative systems for the treatment of domestic sewage in rural areas in municipalities with high per capita gray footprint.

• Action 18: Pilot project of technological upgrading and cleaner production processes aimed at companies exploiting construction materials.

• Action 33: Implementation of pilot project for better environmental practices for the extraction and benefits of gold in Amalfi.

• Action 11: Develop and design a payment pilot project for watershed services in one of the sub basins prioritized in the Porce River basin.

• Action 12: Develop pilot projects of good environmental and agricultural production practices in sub basins prioritized in the Porce River basin.

• Action 21: Training program and assistance in assessing the Water Footprint for agricultural and livestock economic sectors in the Aburrá Valley.

• Action 13: Sectorial pilot project (industry prioritized subsector) to overcome established reduction goal (reduction of pollutant load discharged).

• Action 27: Development of a pilot project to implement alternative systems for wastewater treatment in livestock activities.

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management – Water Week LA 2015

CONCLUSIONS The Water Footprint indicator is a tool that allows: • Determining impacts on water resources in sectorial terms: studies previously performed did not identify the sectors that are generating the greatest problems in basins; in this case it is possible to identify which sectors they impact and how these in turn, can par ticipate in problem solving.

• Complementing the analysis of supply and demand of water exercises which are performed in the management and watershed exercises, as studies of supply and demand do not delve in consumption, just analyze how much water is used in a particular activity, but have not identified how much of that consumption can return to the basin and under what conditions. These aspects are a very important complement for decision making in the management of water resources for the Environmental Authorities.

• Identifying in which geographic areas there may be competition for water resources between agricultural activities and environmental zoning, leading environmental authorities to establish protection areas defined in the studies.

• Making comparisons between sectors in terms of loss of actual water availability (Quantity and/or Quality), • Complementing the analysis of resource sustainability by involving new indicators such as the apparent productivity of water (APW).

• Facilitating the definition for environmental authorities to target goals aimed at achieving optimum water quality.

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management – Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES Cazcarro, I., Hoekstra, A., & Sánchez, J. (2013). The water footprint of tourism in Spain.Tourism Management, 90 - 101.

Comisión chilena del cobre. (2010). Consumo de agua en la minería del cobre 2009. Santiago de Chile.

Corporación Centro de Ciencia y Tecnología de Antioquia. (29 de Octubre de 2013). Youtube. Obtenido de Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ogesMMOIvfw FAO. (29 de Octubre de 2013) . http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm

Aguastat.

Obtenido

de

Agustat:

Hoekstra, A., Chapagain, A., Aldaya, M., & Mekonnen, M. (2011).The water footprint assessment manual, Setting de global standar. London: Earthscan.

Instituto de Hidrología, Metereología y Estudios Ambientales IDEAM. (2010). Estudio Nacional del Agua .Bogotá.

Universidad de Antioquia, Universidad Nacional, Universidad de Medellín y Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana. (2011). Red de monitoreo ambiental en la cuenca hidrográfica del río Aburrá en la jurisdicción del Área Metropolitana, FASE II. Medellín.

Universidad Politécnica de Valencia. (2008). Descripción del modelo conceptual distribuido de simulación hidrológica TETIS v 7.3. Valencia.

Universidad Politécnica de Valencia. (2008). Manual del Usuario Programa TETIS v. 7.3. Valencia.

Vanham, D., & Bidoglio, G. (2013).A review on the indicator water footprint for the UE 28.Ecological indicators, 61 - 75.

World Wildlife Fund for Nature.(2012). Una mirada a la agricultura de Colombia desde su huella hídrica. Bogotá.

Zeng, Z., Liu, J., Koeneman, P., Zarate, E., & Hoekstra, A. (2012).Assessing water footprint at river basin level: a case study for the Heihe River Basin in northwest China.Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 71 - 81.

Territorial Planning and Water Resources Management – Water Week LA 2015

Hydrological Basins Modeling of River Basins as a Climate Change Assessment and Adaptation Tool.

Case Study: La Vieja and Otun River Basins in the Colombian Coffee Region Gabriel Lozano Sandoval1; Cesar Augusto Rodríguez Mejía1 David Purkey2; Marisa Escobar2; Juan Mauricio Castaño3 Carlos Andrés Sabas Ramirez3; Norma Castro3; Alberto Galvis4 María Fernanda Jaramillo4 1

Investigador Grupo de Investigación, Desarrollo y Estudio del Recurso Hídrico y el Ambiente (CIDERA).

Universidad del Quindío.

2

Investigador Stockholm Environment Institute SEI, Davis USA 3 Investigador Grupo de Investigación Ecología, Ingeniería y Sociedad (EIS). Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira (UTP).

4 Investigador Instituto CINARA. Universidad del Valle.

Email: galozano@uniquindio.edu.co

ABSTRACT In the frame of the “Water Resources Planning through Climate Change Capacity Building – Ríos del Páramo al Valle por Urbes y Campiñas” Project, which seeks the building of capacities for the adaptation to climate change, the analysis of the superficial water demand-supply interaction in the basins of La Vieja and Otún rivers is being conducted. To perform said analysis the WEAP decision support system (DSS) was implemented, with which the hydrologic conditions of the study basins will be modeled, using the rain-runoff of the soil humidity method. The purpose of this modeling is generating a base scenario of water supply and demand, which allows evaluating future scenarios associated to climate variability and implement climate change adaptation strategies for an adequate management of water resources.

The analysis of water supply and demand based on hydrological parameters (precipitation, temperature, evapotranspiration, among others) and supported on a tool that adopts an integrated focus on the planning of water resources, allows to represent the current water conditions in the studied basins, and simultaneously, to explore a wide array of supply and demand options under generating scenarios associated to climate variability; with the WEAP tool, a practical focus to manage adequately water resources is achieved having as a result a support for decision-making on managing and planning said resource by water managers.

For hydrologic modeling in WEAP, the basin scheme is built, identifying the superficial water supply, the water demands, extraction canals, among other interaction elements of water demand and supply. The tributary areas to each of the basic modeling units (catchment) are defined and the hydroclimatological information and soil coverage for the implementation of the hydrological model and the rain-runoff method is entered. Consecutively the execution of the model, in which are done the calculations of the different hydric balances of the amounts of water available in the

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

studied basins, is carried out; the first executions allow identifying possible errors in the model to subsequently make the corresponding adjustments (calibrations) based in historical flow data.

Finally, the implementation is carried out, in which different future scenarios associated to climate variability and climate change adaptation strategies implementation are proposed.

Keywords: Hydrological modeling, DSS WEAP, rain-runoff, climate change, water supply and demand.

INTRODUCTION The challenges in drinking water management are increasingly common. The assignation of water’s limited resources between urban, agricultural and environmental uses, among others, require of a complete integration of supply, demand, water quality and the ecological considerations in the basin in a space, and also temporary scale. The assignation of the limited water resource, the concerns regarding environmental quality, planning in the face of climate’s variability and uncertainty, are increasingly compelling issues for hydric resources planners (SEI, http://www.weap21.org).

Study Area Description La Vieja River Basin The La Vieja river basin is located in the Colombian center-east and is part of the so-called ecoregion of the Colombian coffee-growing axis. Geographically, the basin of La Vieja river is framed between the 4º 04` y 4º 49` northern latitude and 75º 24` y 75º 57` western longitude. La Vieja River is formed by the junction of the Quindío and Barragán rivers, being one of the main tributaries of the watershed of Cauca River in Colombia, since it is a basin shared by three departments. La Vieja river basin has an approximate area of 2880 km 2, which is distributed among the departments of Quindío (68%), Valle del Cauca (22%) and Risaralda (10%), as shown in Figure 1. This political division leads decision-making on the basin to be shared by the environmental authorities within its jurisdiction (CRQ, CVC, CARDER) through the conjoined commission, which is a management form of the basin.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 1: Geographic localization of La Vieja river basin.

Otún River Basin The Otún river basin is located in the occidental flank of the central mountain ridge, in the department of Risaralda, “sub-region1”. It consists of the municipalities of Pereira, Santa Rosa de Cabal, Dosquebradas and Marsella, has a surface of 480,61 km 2 (see Figure 2). In the eastern area presents elevations over 5.200 meters above sea level corresponding to the snowpeaks of Quindío and Santa Isabel and in whose neighboring areas is located Otún lagoon, source of the river of the same name, the relief descends later to the Cauca river stream in a height of 875 meters above sea level in the point known as Estación Pereira.

Figure 2: Otún River basin.

Source: Otún River POMCH.

The local weather is influenced as from the front or intertropical convergence zone that determines the bimodal form of precipitations, as from the general circulation of the Cauca river valley and the altitude and topographic structures of the basin. That is why, due to the relief configuration, the basins present a great variety of local climates with average temperatures over 24°C, in the Cauca plains, to zones with average temperatures of 6°C in the highlands, and even areas in perpetual snow in the summits of the Central mountain ridge.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

METHODOLOGY DSS WEAP Hydrological Model In general, this hydrological model is spatially continuous, with a study area configured as a neighboring sub-basins set that cover all the extent of the analyzed basin. A homogenous set of climate data (precipitation, temperature, relative humidity and wind speed) is used in each of these sub-basins, which are divided by different types of coverage/land use. A one-dimensional, almost physical model, with two water balance receptacles for each coverage/land use type, distributes the water between superficial runoff, infiltration, evaporation, base flow and percolation (see Figure 3). The values of each of these areas sum up to obtain the aggregate values in a sub-basin.

Figure 3: Hydrological model of DSS WEAP (SEI, 2009)

Elements of the hydrological resource system of La Vieja River Basin For the hydrological modeling of La Vieja river basin the rain-runoff of soil moisture method is used, likewise the supply-demand analysis in the main municipalities is carried out; the waters under the different catchments will be considered ecologic stream, some other relevant aspects to consider in the hydrological modeling are listed next.

Model reach: Simulating the hydric resources system of La Vieja river basin and its tributaries.

Implementation of the model: generating and evaluating future scenarios associated to the climate variability and implementation of climate change adaptation strategies (projected to year 2050) Temporary scale: monthly Spatial limits: the closing point is the mouth of Cauca river. Sub- basin modeling is by elevation bands.

Hydroclimatological information: stations of regional and national order institutions such as IDEAM, CENICAFE, CRQ, CVC, CARDER. Basic Modeling Units (Catchment) To define these catchment elements a criteria of elevation bands every 500 meters was applied (see Figure 5a and b), once defined these bands, they are intersected with the basin cartography where the delimitation is presented, including the main sub-basins; in total, for basins of La Vieja and OtĂşn 191 catchment element were obtained.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 5: Elevation bands, integrated model.

Land uses Each the defined catchment in the integrated model of La Vieja and Otún is determined from the maps of sub-basins and land coverages (provided by the POMCH team from La Vieja river – see Figure 7), the area and percentage of land coverage of each of them; the land coverage defined for the basins studied correspond mainly to: moor, forest, pastures, urban zones, agriculture zones, coffee, glaciers, open waters and naked soils.

Climate For the development of the hydrologic model through the decision support system WEAP is necessary to make an analysis of the most important data and climate variables, which are precipitation, temperature and humidity. For the analysis of the parameters aforementioned, it is necessary to collect information of the stations found in the La Vieja and Otún river basins.

Precipitation: the information on precipitation was provided by the Corporación Autónoma Regional del Quindío (CRQ) (Autonomous regional corporation of Quindío), the Centro Nacional de Investigación del Café (CENICAFE) (National Coffee research Center) and the Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales (IDEAM) (Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies), said information corresponds to 87 stations found inside and outside La Vieja and Otún river basins.

For the rain gauge stations the consistency of the registries was verified through the regional vector, with the help of the HYDRACCESS software (IRD, P. Vauchel, 2005) with whichthe group of 87 stations, 19 stations that presented few data registered and did not comply with the homogeneity criterion were discarded.

In Figure 6 are shown the graphics without considering the discarded station for having a low correlation index regarding the regional vector given that these generate contamination, causing a decrease on the indexes. Attached to the graphics, the indexes of CV=0.769 and DED=0.369 are presented respectively.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 6: Results of the Regional Vector Method.

Temperature: An extrapolation of the registries from 184 IDEAM stations was carried out, located in the Colombian mountain region in different elevations above sea level. Just as the precipitation, for the temperature analysis, the time period corresponding from 1985 to 2010 is selected. To generate the temperature series, graphics that relate temperature with height (see Figure 7) were made, from which an equation of temperature in function of height is generated.

Relative Humidity: Related to this variable, the existing information is scarce, and given that and assuming that the relative humidity variation is small compared month by month for the different years of the registry, it was decided to generate a series of multi-annual monthly median.

RESULTS Spatial Distribution of the Regions' Climate From the monthly registries of precipitation, temperature, humidity of each of the stations selected, ArcGIS spatial analysis tools are used, specifically the inverse distance weighing (IDW) interpolation technique to generate series distributed over the area of the basins, which are crossed with the catchment, thus obtaining the particular series for each of the 191 defined catchment defined in the model of Figure 7. As an example, a map of the spatial distribution of the precipitation, temperature and humidity corresponding to the month of July of 2010 is shown.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 7: INPUT Catchment

Model Calibration By calibrating, it is sought the achievement of a set of hydrological and operational parameters which allows to obtain a representation of flows and infrastructure work operations that resembles the historic data in the closest way possible; for the model evaluation will be made through three of the statistical metrics raised in the article of Moriasis et al, 2007, specifically the metrics of Nash Sutcliffe, which determine the relative magnitude of the residual variance (“noise”) in comparison with the measurement data variation (“information”) (Nash and Sutcliffe, 1970), PBIAS that evaluates the bias measuring the median tendency of the simulated data to be higher or lower than its observed counterparts (Gupta et al., 1999), and last RSR, which just like PBIAS evaluates the bias, but in this case observing the relation to the standard deviation, these indexes are respectively calculated the following way: NSE=1-i=1nYi, obs-Yi, sim2i=1nYi, obs-Y, mean2 [2] PBIAS=i=1nYi, obs-Yi, sim*100i=1nYi, obs [3] RSR=i=1nYi, obs-Yi, sim2i=1nYi, obs-Y, mean2 [4] Where Yi, obs: observed flow in month i Yi, sim: simulated flow in month i Yi, mean: average flow observed in the analysis period

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

The set of hydrologic parameters for the calibration of the integrated model of La Vieja and Otún river basins are shown in table 2: Table 2. Set of calibration parameters.

Coverage

Glaciers

Kc

RRF

Ks

Max

Min

Max

Min

3

5

100

90

1

F

Sw

Dw*

Deep Cond*

Z1

0.80

400

30.00

Agriculture

0.95

3,5

6

150

90

0.50

600

30.00

Forest

1,1

4

6,5

190

110

0.30

800

30.00

Coffee

0.93

3,5

6

150

90

0.60

600

30.00

Moors

0.85

4

6

180

110

0.40

750

Urban Zones

0.71

3,3

4,5

125

80

0.70

400

30.00

Pastures

0.80

3,5

5,5

130

100

0.65

500

30.00

1

3,5

4,5

140

100

0.50

700

30.00

0.75

3,3

4,5

130

75

0.70

300

30.00

Bodies of Water Bare Soils

800.00

80.00

30.00

Z2*

30.00

Threshhold

140.00

It is observed the adjustment of the data simulated with the WEAP software regarding the flow data registered through the Alambrado, Cartago and La Española stations. The similarities were verified visually on a first instance and on the second in a numerical way with the help of statistic measures to estimate the precision.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Next, in Figure 8, are shown the graphics of the historic simulated Vs series of the Alambrado, Cartago y La Española stations used in the calibration process.

Figure 8: Measure data versus simulated data.

Climate Change For the basins of La Vieja and Otún rivers were defined a total of 35 scenarios of climate change, these scenarios being the product of the combined work between the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), the Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología, y Estudios Ambientales (IDEAM) (Institute of hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental studies) and the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI).

These climate scenarios are based in the historic climate data from which the average anomaly of the precipitation and temperature for every climate scenario is calculated, thus preserving the tendency around the average and the year-on-year variability, representing this way the historical anomaly in future projections.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

It must be highlighted that these climate scenarios are based on different Global Climate Models or General Circulation Models (GCM), in this case the CMIP.5 models, in the Representative Changes in Carbon Concentration in the Atmosphere (RCP 4.5 and 8.5), in the Reliability Ensemble Averaging (REA) and in the evaluation of the Fifth Assessment Report AR5 of the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change) of 2013,still, the resolution of this models is too low for usage in such small basins. This is the point where emerges the importance of making a downscaling to improve the model resolution, consequently generating a decrease in the uncertainty.

A monthly median and monthly anomaly associated is estimated for the historic registries of precipitation and temperature. In the case of the precipitation is multiplied by the anomaly P'=P*â&#x2C6;&#x2020;P and in the case of temperature the anomaly is addedT'=T+â&#x2C6;&#x2020;T, thus producing the same representation in the time series of historic data.

Robust Decision-Making Analysis (RDM) Once built and calibrated the hydrological model, it is proceeded to use it for the implementation of uncertainties and adaptation strategies to climate change, these were defined through the XLRM methodology, which allows the definition of a problematic and the evaluation of options to solve or adapt said problematic in the context of where the project is taking place. This was implemented during march 2013 in the cities of Armenia and Pereira with the participation of different sectors, as a result of this workshop, for La Vieja basin the uncertainties and strategies were define, shown next in Table 3, which are represented in the modeling and allow evaluating future scenarios.

Table1. Uncertainties and strategies defined, model La Vieja river basin through WEAP

Uncertainties (X)

Strategies (L)

Climate (6 scenarios)

Plants of waste water treatment

Demographic change (4 scenarios)

Reduction of non-registered water

Per capita consumption (3scenarios)

Ecologic flow (ambiental)

Loss reduction (2 scenarios)

Building of multipurpose dam

Agriculture dynamics (3 Scenarios) From the combination of uncertainties and strategies a total of 1728 scenarios are obtained which are executed in the model through a programming routine called scripting. The results of these strategies and uncertainties will be evaluated by decision-makers through visualization tools like Tableau (see Figure 4), which allows to make the most adequate decisions regarding planning and managing water resources.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

b) Water supply and demand analysis a) Water supply analysis Figure 1: Visualization of results under climate change scenarios.

REFERENCES Corporación Autónoma Regional del Quindío CRQ, 2007, Plan de ordenación y manejo ambiental UMC Río Quindío. Armenia, Colombia.

Purkey D. and Sieber J., 2007, User Guide for WEAP21, Stockholm Environment Institute, Somerville – USA. IRD (instituto francés de investigación para el desarrollo), P. Vauchel, 2005, software HYDRACCESS versión 4.6.

Moriasis et al, 2007, Model Evaluation Guidelines For Systematic Quantification Of Accuracy In Watershed Simulations, Vol. 50(3): 885−900 Nash, J. E., and J. V. Sutcliffe. 1970. River flow forecasting through conceptual models: Part 1. A discussion of principles.J. Hydrology 10(3): 282-290.

Gupta, H. V., S. Sorooshian, and P. O. Yapo. 1999. Status of automatic calibration for hydrologic models: Comparison with multilevel expert calibration. J. Hydrologic Eng. 4(2): 135-143.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Territorial Organization and Sustainable Agroforestry Management in Flood Areas: Usage of Geomatic Tools for the Application of Hydrological Principles, Urban Models and Production Sectors Gustavo Moran Savanta Inc.1 gustavomoran@savanta.ca Paul Arp University of New Brunswick arp1@unb.ca

Jae Ogilvie University of New Brunswick jae.ogilvie@unb.ca

ABSTRACT The Colombian-Venezuelan llanos or plains are considered one of the most important wetlands and fresh water systems of the planet. In these floodable savannahs of the plains of the Orinoco River basin the water is the key factor determining the ecosystem and its change. During the floods, the duration and level of water depends to a large extent on the relative height of the ecosystemic unit. To understand the spatial processes in the ecosystem, knowing the dynamic of the water in the area is required (R.H.G. Jongman, et al 2008). The main causes of floods in this region are strong rains and overflowing of rivers. In the state of Apure the basins of many rivers naturally overflow periodically, forming what is known as a flood plain. The urban activity and occupation of this region are usually placed on the lands adjoining the river, channel or stream and urban development constructions mainly use the landfills that do not take into account the complex hydrographic networks of the flood plains, having a negative impact on them.

Henceforth, these Venezuelan flood plains (riparian wetlands) present difficulties in identifying suitable areas for urban occupation and agriculture (agroforestry) due to the periodic floods that entail avoiding the alterations of flow patterns and hydrological systems, crucial for the conservation of wetlands.

Keywords: agroforestry, hydrological principles, conceptual urban master plans, flood area maps.

1

This Project was financed by the regional government of the State of Apure under Governor Jesús Aguilarte Gómez (ƚ).

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

INTRODUCTION This Project was part of a regional territorial management plan (State of Apure) and as a support to the agroforestry development that allows the sustainable development, specially the hydric conservations of the Venezuelan plains, first identifying the non-floodable zones to locate the suitable areas for agroforestry plantations with their respective routes of entry, and second to locate the right areas to build the future developments required for this agroforestry development without the risk of floods and negative impact on wetlands.

Figure 1: Location of the Orinoco plains. The study area is located between the Meta River that is a border between Venezuela and Colombia and the Cinaruco River, both tributaries of the Orinoco River (Adapted from Sarmiento, 1983).

METHODOLOGY To strengthen the land management and a sustainable agroforestry development, three interrelated phases were applied, which were: 1.

The implementation of a hydrological risk analysis system; wet area mappings (WAMs) based in the use of digital elevation model (DEM) of the data obtained by the SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission); 2.

The application of the “central place” theory to design a system of cities, towns and villages linked to an agroforestry productive system.

3.

The use of a computerized platform to develop conceptual urban master plans (CityCad).

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Wet Area Mappings (WAM) The main technology used in this Project were the â&#x20AC;&#x153;wet area mappingsâ&#x20AC;? (WAM), developed by The Forest Watershed Research Centerwithin the Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management at the University of New Brunswick (Canada).

They have used the availability of high-resolution digital elevation models (DEM) and the WAM capacity to show where the water is located, how close it is to the surface, and where the vegetation and type of soil can be sensitive to floods. During this study, it was possible to draft the channel currents, plateaus, lowlands, and the extension of the draining and flood areas in medium and low resolution (scale 10-90 meters).

The use of WAM technology not only works to identify non-floodable areas but also to introduce a sustainable management framework in the forest and riparian wetlands (Reed, et al 2011). This reference framework is based in six hydrological principles. Therefore, the maps produced by WAM inform strategies and practices to implement said hydrological principles. In the specific case of the sustainable management of forest ecosystems, these principles have been identified as: (1) Drafting the borders of the hydrological system; (2) preserving crucial hydrological aspects; (3) Maintaining hydrological connectivity; (4) Respecting the hydrological variety in different seasons; (5) Respecting spatial heterogeneity; and (6) Maintaining the ecosystem redundancy and diversity. Consequently this software allows us incorporating these hydrological principles, which will be essential to elaborate an adequate land management for agroforestry plantations and placement of a system of sustainable towns and cities.

WAM is a cartographic index based in the topographic humidity of the soil, which is calculated through a software specifically developed for this type of geoprocess using its own algorithm, and can assist in the better localization of all types of infrastructure and linear projects (pipelines, railways, electric, etc.).

The process was based in the digital mode elevation data obtained from NASA (SRTM), a Google image was overlapped to this model, and the WAM system was applied, obtaining a low resolution map of flood areas (Figure 1). It is necessary to warn that the quality and precision will be significantly increased if digital model elevation data from Lidar or stereoscopic satellite images are used.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 2: Flood area map of the Meta-Cinaruco axis (WAM), indicating location of towns, plantations, and entry roads.

In general, WAM is an essential tool for the community and town planners, forest rangers, agronomist, and environmental consultants to locate and configure natural drain channels, handling Green areas, and allowing or rejecting development areas. The WAM technology provides a framework for using the land and resource management policies maintaining the ecosystem and basin health (White et al, 2012).

Mathematical Landscape Order (Central Place Theory) linked to an Agroforestry Development Currently most of the settlements in the State of Apure are located on the border of the Apure and Arauca rivers, which are located in the north strip of the State. 85% of the towns and 90% of the population are located in this strip, which leaves almost 60% of the territory desolated. That is the location where land management projects and productive proposals according to their current use and soil potential need to be carried out. The State of Apure is a scale model reflection of the soil usage centralism that occurs in the country, which from parallel 9° to the south is virtually unoccupied and counts with the following potentials: 90% hydraulic resources, 95% hydroelectric potential, 80% forestry potential, and 50% of the soils have farming potential.

The territory integration in the state of Apure and in particular the borderland presents great challenges, first for its vast extension of 76.500 km 2 and its low population. Apure is one of the most unpopulated states in the country, while the country has a population density of 25, 2 inhabitants for km2, Apure has a population density of 4,94 inhabitants/km 2. The study area in the Meta-Cinaruco axis presents vast empty or almost uninhabited areas with a density of barely 0,5 inhabitants/km2.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Management of the Meta-Cinaruco Axis The land management proposal previewed here, occupies the land extension of most of the surface of the Codazzi and Cunaviche parishes, both belonging to the municipality of Pedro Camejo, in the State of Apure.

Before starting any theory model proposal for the land management of a geographic space, it is necessary to stop and evaluate the physical conditions of the relief, with the purpose of achieving a conceptually sustainable proposal in harmony with the natural environment.

At a first glance, we observed a vast surface of flat appearance scored by four great water courses, which will be mentioned from smallest to largest in terms of hierarchy or flow rate: • Cinaruco River, • Capanaparo River , • Meta River, • Orinoco River, final collector basin.

Despite that the average slope calculated on the base cartography does not surpass 3%, there are clear differences in the units of relief conforming the global landscape, marked by its altimetric position and its former and current evolutionary genesis: Summary chart, General Surface of the Relief Units existing in the southwest of the state of Apure, Meta-Cinaruco sub-basin: Plateau

4251,5 km²

Wind plains

5578,7 Km²

Alluvial plain

1454,25Km²

Cinaruco galleys

27,75 Km²

Alluvial valleys and neighboring flood areas to protect

2155,8 Km²

Total

13.468 Km²

In total, there are 1,346,800 hectares to consolidate for the agroforestry and agro-food production in the country.

One of the achievements of the industrialized nations is not centered in the extraordinary technological development they show, but in the aggressive land management that led to an adequate distribution of the population with the purpose of achieving agro-food self-sufficiency.

If we relate the former surface figure of 13,468 km2 with a population of 6,647 inhabitants that currently live in the area to manage, the result is a population density of ½ inhabitants/km 2, an extreme under-occupation situation.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

On its own, the population that nowadays occupies the study area is incapable of achieving productivity; it is necessary the intervention of the Venezuelan State, through land planning and management with the objective to build a town system capable of generating productivity, having as an unchanging goal the generation of an complimentary and useful agro-industry in terms of the current food necessities of the Venezuelan people.

To achieve the aforementioned result, we suggest the implementation of the urban hierarchy model or central place theory, a model that assigns shared productivity responsibilities over specific geographic areas, applied in Europe at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th.

Figure 3: Urban hierarchies used to design the town networks in the Meta Cinaruco axis.

There is a need of population in order to carry out the agroforestry development of this region.

Therefore, there is a proposal of a sustainable occupation plan from an environmental (hydrological) and socioeconomic point of view, based on the necessities of the, workers that the agroforestry would require along its development.

By consolidating a system of basic services and infrastructure, under a policy of returning to the countryside with benefits, creating equipped villages and/or small towns, we would obtain the amount of people needed to develop such an important volume of hectares for production.

Accordingly, to theoretically generate, a broad agroforestry development in only 475.000 hectares of land, the following population volumes are necessary, according to the conclusions of the Central Place Theory:

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

• • •

Total Villages of 5th regional order: 77 villages, each with 1,000 inhabitants – lower peak 77,000 settlers required; Total Towns of 4th regional order: 11 towns, each with 7,000 inhabitants – lower peak 77,000 settlers required; Total Cities of 3rd regional order: 4 cities, each with 20,000 inhabitants – lower peak 80,000 settlers required;

General total of required settlers: 234,000 settlers – lower peak -

Figure 4: Map of town system and units of relief in the Meta-Cinaruco axis, state of Apure.

Agroforestry Development in the Meta-Cinaruco Axis According to the study “Perspectivas de los sistemas agroforestales y silvopastoriles en Venezuela” (Perspectives on the Agroforestry and Sylvopastoral Systems in Venezuela) (Espinoza et al, 1996) Venezuela possesses approximately 45% of its surface covered by forests, but the exploitation of this ecosystem has been null and there is no established criteria for an efficient management, that is, the tendency of growth of agriculture and expanding its frontiers at the cost of forests predominates. There are cultural, economic, and practical reasons for which the agroforestry activity is not widespread in Venezuela.

To change this scenario from the almost non-existent forestry development on the country despite its great potential, the government started (2010) supporting the national institutions that promote forestry development (Proforca) and managed to position the country as a sustainable forestry power, specifically the state of Apure (Meta-Cinaruco Axis) was assigned actively the following actions: • Driving forward the development and strengthening of the forestry chain, with an emphasis on the agricultural, forestry and agroforestry production systems.

• Eliminating importations and becoming exporters of diverse forestry products (paper pulp, sawn timber and boards, etc.)

• Creating a productive and technological circuit with the installation of industrial capabilities for the utilization of forestry products and sub-products.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 5: Urban hierarchies associated to the agroforestry productive sector.

Master Plans at a Conceptual Level (Computerized Models for Designing Urban Planning) Among the architecture design support technologies (CAD) and building information models (BIM) there exists a new development called “City Information Model” (CIM) (Khemlani, 2005; Hisham, 2010), these are urban design models based on computerized platforms. Under this type of system, we have used “CityCAD”, which is a Microsoft Windows tool launched in June 2008, developed by a company named Holistic City. The application of an urban model analysis system that can analyze numerous scenarios, thus being efficiently refined will quickly achieve a product ready for the detailed engineering stage, compressing the conceptual and basic engineering period in a 6:1 ratio, accelerating the urbanization and construction process.

This systems provides varied data, such as population density, urban road planning design, services design (quantification of water consumption, energy, and waste), public transport routes, CO2 emission rates, sustainable green areas, general costs, and the most important, through its 3D visualization helps the local government and the community to understand easily the plan’s proposal, which has a positive supportive inference and a valuable information inclusion to the project.

The conceptualization and design of urbanization and civil works is a task commonly carried out in four stages (visualization, conceptual engineering, detail engineering, and construction), which involves a multidisciplinary period of work in every stage. With the help of the urban model development system, the phases of visualization and conceptual and basic engineering accelerates and improves the number of choices available as well as the final product.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Characteristics of the computerized platform CityCad: 1. Reduction of time in elaborating urban models. The use of advanced software allows to reduce significantly the time of conceptual designing and basic engineering.

2. Enclosed conceptual elements. The same software allows to conceptualize and visualize a broad range of proposals for the development of cities and also: a. Development of a conceptual-level master plan b. Costs and basic engineering c. Sustainability and living standards indicators d. Participative planning e. Urban development control, making follow ups of: f. Road engineering g. Real Estate development 3. Useful and efficient for decision-makers. The decision-maker counts with proposals from which he can choose the one he considers more appropriate, according to the ele ments that should be considered, safely enough not to generate future problems.

The reality of many of this cities that surround production development is that they are spontaneous towns (no planning involved), in which the settlers get established without environmental, risk, or planning precautions. The need of counting with elements that though do not represent a strictly planned alternative, at least represent the beginning of the mitigation of problems that emerge from anarchic settlements and establishments of urban planning that do not obey the basic principles of basic engineering and become future demographic problems.

These urban planning designs must include concepts that go from mono-functionality to a multifunctionality, with densities ranging from medium to high, employment sources neat the residential areas or in some cases, the same place.

Figure 6: CityCad view and urban model overlapped with WAM.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 7: Urban model with agroforestry plantation overlapped in WAM.

RESULTS Each one of these three phases contributed with essential elements to achieve the main objective.

Firstly, the hydrological knowledge is fundamental, since in the floodable savannahs water is the key factor determining the ecosystem and its change. During the flood season, the water level and the flood duration are highly dependent on the relative height of the ecosystem unit. With the adoption of the WAM technology, it was possible to identify the non-floodable areas and propose roads of entry maintaining the integrity of the hydrological systems. By means of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Central Placesâ&#x20AC;? Theory, a concept of spatial planning of the Venezuelan border was developed, to put together a system of productive cities, towns, and villages based mainly in agroforestry development. Once the areas for human settlements and agroforestry plantations were identified, we used a computerized system to make conceptual-level urban master plans.

It is extremely necessary to show a methodology to revert the inadequate handling of the environment and the construction of sustainable urban planning in the floodable plains respecting the natural drainages, through the recognition of flood areas. Nevertheless, an effective planning policy is required, to have full support, starting from the communities that live in that border region, the government institutions, and the private sector. To achieve this task, an implementation stage must be elaborated; the more participative it is, more are the chances of success it will have.

There has to be disclosure and feedback at the same time on this urban development, agroforestry development, and flood areas plans.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Finally, the use of geomatics and other state-of-the-art technologies that allow to locate suitable areas in the surroundings of the city polygon is proposed, hence, mitigating hydrological risks and at the same time focusing a sustainable growth or development of the cities, including the localization of productive projects (agroforestry, sylvoculture) which are essential for the sustainability in the time, of the current and new the villages.

REFERENCES Espinosa, F y Manrique, A (1996) Perspectivas de los sistemas agroforestales y silvopastoriles en Venezuela. FONAIAP N54.

Hisham, A (2010), ‘The new trend of CIM Ahmad’s Findings’, http://ahmadsindings.blogspot.com/2010/05/new-trend-of-cim.html (accessed May 27, 2010).

Creed, I., Gabor Z., Sass, Buttle., and Jones, J (2011) Hydrological principles for sustainable management of forest ecosystems. Hydrological Processes 25, 2152-2160.

Jongman, R., Smith, J., Chacón-Moreno and Loedeman, J. Assessing flooding patterns in llanos of the Apure Region (Venezuela) using radar images. SociedadVenezolana de Ecología.

ECOTRÓPICOS 21(1):34-45 2008.

Khemlani, L (2005), ‘Hurricanes and their Aftermath: How Can Technology Help?’ AECbytes, http://www.aecbytes.com/buildingthefuture/2005/Hurricane-TechHelp_pr.html (accessed May 27, 2010).

White, B, Ogilvie, J, Campbell, D. Hiltz, B. Gauthier, H. Chisholm, K. Wen, H. Murphy, P, Arp, P. (2012). Using the cartographic depth-to-water index to locate small streams and associated wet areas across landscapes.Canadian Water Resource Journal.Volume 37, Issue 4, Pages 333347.10.4296/cwrj2011-909

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Science-Policy Interface in the Management of Drought in Chile.

Paula Noé Scheinwald University College London

paula.noe.13@alumni.ucl.ac.uk ABSTRACT Chile has been strongly affected by severe droughts. Although this natural phenomenon is cyclical, it is related to anthropogenic influences such as over-exploitation of water resources. In this regard, the normative frame for water management is a key element in order to understand the relationship between nature, knowledge and society. This research aims to understand the scientific basis of the decision-making process in drought management and the paradigm of the science-policy interface through the field of STS (Science & Technology Studies) appears to be applicable in the present case. It analyses the 2005 amendment to the Water Code, together with the process by which the specific regulation that defines the criteria for establishing extraordinary drought periods was created. Understanding the processes by which science and policy interact in the configuration of the prevailing regulations and its implications, is particularly relevant in the light of the current national debate about water crises and subsequent eventual changes in the law.

INTRODUCTION There is no one universal definition of drought (NOAA 2012, Mishra and Singh 2010, Núñez et al. 2013), but instead there is a general acceptance that it is a natural, normal and recurrent characteristic of almost all climate zones, related to a deficiency in precipitation that can last months or even years, but it eventually ends. Since droughts are important in the planning and management of water resources (Mishra and Singh 2010: 203), a wider understanding of drought triggers seems to be crucial; droughts are natural but also can be human-made, through the exacerbation of factors such as excessive irrigation and the over exploitation of water resources (Ibid: 205).

Chile is experiencing severe droughts despite the fact that the country can be considered privileged in terms of water resources (World Bank 2011). The situation is given by the sums of both natural and human factors, where human is understood as social, economic and legal variables that make up the case of droughts. According to Fernández (1999: 37 in Vergara et al.

2011: 6), the combination of both the type of flow regime and the form of the demand for water, has an important effect on the occurrence and properties of hydrological drought. Nevertheless, drought is not a new phenomenon in Chile; in a period of 400 years there have been more than 100 dry years, half of which were very dry, say Norero and Bonilla (1999 in Meza et al. 2010: 17). ‘Drought is a phenomenon with which the inhabitants of Chile have lived since its origins’ (Vergara et al. 2011: 5), and it is expected to be worse in the mid-term because the precipitations would be four times less intense until the end of this century (DGF-Universidad de Chile 2006); severe droughts would be not exceptional anymore.

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With regard to the management of water resources in Chile, despite different analyses show to what extent it faces a lack of coordination between different agencies and ministries (World Bank 2013, IING 2011, Núñez et al. 2013), there is one law that defines and determines the use and management of freshwater resources: the Water Code (WC) of 1981, which has been widely studied, both praised and criticised; and influenced water reforms worldwide (Bauer 1997, Dourojeanni and Jouravlev 1999, Budds 2004) due to its exacerbated neoliberal feature, as Bauer says, ‘no other country has gone so far, for so long, in the direction of pro-market water laws’ (1997: 639). The WC was designed during dictatorship by Chilean economists qualified in the University of Chicago known for its neoliberal approach (Bauer 1997, Budds 2004); inspired by ‘technical and scientific’ principles (Silva 1991, 393), they aimed to promote the efficient use of water by allocating water-use rights to high value uses, freely tradable independent of the land by which the water flows, and protected by any legal attempt to forfeiture it for ever, because wateruse rights are property rights protected by the Constitution and do not expire (Bauer 1997, Dourojeanni and Jouravlev 1999, Donoso 2006, Budds 2004). The law brought inequity and water depletion (Bauer 1997), and it was after a long and polarized 13 year parliamentary debate that in 2005 the amendment of this WC was enacted. The current law introduced a patent for nonuse and a minimum environmental flow, and changed the conditions of water use in the context of drought.

The 1981 WC defined the administrative procedure to face the effects that can result from droughts, specifically in the Articles 314 and 315 that refer to the private and public performance in periods of extraordinary drought, when a decree of scarcity is ordered. As the law gave the users all the powers to actually managing the waters through the water user organizations (OUA), the user organizations itself should make an agreement to redistribute their waters in time of drought. In the case that there were no OUAs, or if they could not reach an agreement, the DGA will distribute the waters with the purpose of minimise the general harm produces by the drought.

To understand what is meant by ‘extraordinary drought’, the DGA issued in 1984 the Resolution nº39, which defined the criteria to identify this condition and was used until 2012, when it said that due to the advantage in scientific knowledge, methodologies and technologies, a new resolution was set up (Resolution n°1674). The DGA is responsible for the management of water, but its influence is limited by a technical role defined in the Water Code. As water management can have an impact on resources, it is essential to know the elements that underlie the production of the laws. Relevant scientific knowledge on water from both physical and social fields has been produced, but do these studies reach the room where the policy decisions are made?

In order to understand the science-policy interface in the management of droughts in Chile, the study field of Science and Technology Studies (STS) is appropriate; this challenges the positivist perception of science as an objective method of testable knowledge-production by reincorporating the social dimension of scientific knowledge into its foundation. This approach argue that scientists do science as a form of social practice (Latour, 2004) and it is possible to reveal the factors that lie behind this practice though a sociological and ethnographic approach called Constructivism. The origin of this sceptical perspective can be traced back to works such developed by Thomas Kuhn (1962) and David Bloor (1976). Kuhn’s analysis of scientific practice tells that ‘accepted scientific activity in any period is merely that which conforms to the prevailing paradigm – it is the paradigm, rather than any feature of the natural world, that defines which problems are worth solving and shapes scientists’ expectations of what they are likely to see when they investigate nature’ (Jasanoff 1990, 13). Bloor then calls for the adoption of a ‘symmetry principle’ in which ‘scientific beliefs held to be true should be analysed in the very

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same social constructivist terms as those held to be false’ (Demeritt, 490). It is through an empirical deconstruction of the knowledge-making that is possible to recognise the role of beliefs, values and negotiated consensus in the establishment of particular scientific claims such as ‘truth’ (Jasanoff, Wynne, Demeritt). As Acreman says, any model and any method are a simplification of a reality in which ‘[t]here is a trade-off between accuracy, cost, and consequences’ (2005: 105), considerations that are purely socially grounded.

If knowledge is revealed as a social construction, then scientists cease to hold the absolute authority of claims about the truth. The way in which the ‘facts’ of hydrology and droughts are deployed becomes much more complex if the certainty around those facts is questioned. As scientific activity is neither value-free nor separated from politics, it becomes essential to analyse the interactions and influences of science, paying special attention to the scientific practices (Demeritt 1996) and the processes in which the knowledge has been transferred by the lawmakers, the politicians and the bureaucrats. This is relevant since finally the law, the politics and policies use those facts in some or another way shaping not only human but physical geographies. As Delaney (2011, 489) says ‘law is not simply a discourse among other discourses.

It is also a set of institutions’, what law defines as nature, changes nature itself. So when and how use scientific knowledge to sustain a claim or argument for the construction of a policy that can affect both nature and society?

One of the important social factors that emerges from the relevant literature in STS such as the works developed by Sheila Jasanoff and Brian Wynne is the selection of the experts who will have the job of undertaking research and advising the agencies on policy (Wynne 1989, 34). In the agency practice of commissioning scientific studies ‘from highly credentialed researchers at academic institutions or from private consulting groups with specialized expertise and established reputation’, outside experts can argue that ‘bias related to research perspectives’ exist (Jasanoff 1990, 80-81). Furthermore, ‘[l]egal processes can strip away the value system of a scientific culture, leaving scientists with no control over, nor even participation in, translating expert knowledge into practical knowledge and decisions’, says Wynne (1989, 37). Other factor that shapes the science-policy interface for decisionmaking based on scientific knowledge are the discretionary attributes that the agencies have to seek advice or reject it. ‘In theory, agencies could stack the deck in favour of one or another viewpoint by simply selecting peer reviewers with known opinions on these issues’ (Jasanoff 1990, 81). Special attention should be given to the problem of the deconstruction of the evidence, understood as the inverse process of construction that allows to recognise the social origins of the factual claims (Jasanoff 1990: 13) but also as the process by which some elements of the scientific knowledge are arbitrarily chosen or not considered with the implicit or explicit purpose of construct a new discourse. ‘Legal deconstruction of the general categories in natural scientific knowledge is thus inherently value laden, to the extent that it challenges existing value implications in that ‘natural’ knowledge and in the way it reclassifies’ (Wynne 1989, 53).

Hence the research questions are: How were the scientific criteria that are officially used for managing droughts produced? To what extent do (independent) scientists contest these criteria?

What is the ideology hidden in the legal framework and how has this ideology affected water scarcity? To what extent does the existing legislation for drought achieve the goal of reducing social vulnerability to drought?

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METHODOLOGY This study focuses on the use of qualitative research and follows an interpretative agenda since ‘[q]ualitative research hinges on access and the ability to interpret observations’ (Poteete 2010: 67). These methods, which are in line with the perspectives shown by the proponents of Science and Technology Studies (SST), foster understanding regarding how to think about scientific claims and controversies (Demeritt 1996). Although discourse analysis has been broadly used in different disciplines, it is an umbrella term that means different things (Hajer 1997) and validates different research practices (Butteriss, et al. 2001). Some authors, like Dryzek, and Myerson and Rydin, have developed particular analytical frameworks, but there is not a single ‘recipe’ for practising this method (Idem). This research uses the method of ‘key-words-in-context’ (KWIC), explained by Wutich and Gravlee (2010), to analyse words and codes in the context of the Chilean WC and the long history of its amendment. Using a ‘profile matrix’ in Excel, every word and code that is important in the analysis of droughts is displayed, counted and analysed in its context. In content and discourse analysis, ‘the approach maybe entirely deductive’ say Wutich and Gravlee (2010: 205). The approach used for the analysis of both legal regulations and scientific studies relating to the General Directorate of Water (DGA) in Chile, follows the interpretative analysis proposed by Wesselink et al., which is free in structure but asserts questions about contextual factors and ‘processes by which a policy achieves its meanings’ (2013: 4). Complementary, primary data collection through interviews given by seven key informants were crucial for understanding the context of the science-policy interface for drought management in Chile.

This research adopted the following process: analysis of relevant laws and regulations on the management of water scarcity such as: the ‘Water Code’ (1981), Law N° 20017 that modifies the Water Code and the DGA laws for determining criteria for extraordinary drought (years 1984 and 2012); content and discourse analysis of the Water Code amendment; analysis of one relevant study used in the creation of the law about the criteria for the establishment of extraordinary drought and seven interviews with professionals related to the study mentioned above, and with experts in water research and management.

RESULTS This analysis of the science-policy interface in the management of drought in Chile has revealed that science was absent in both during the elaboration of the 1981 Water Code and its 2005 amendment. The first law established that, in times of extraordinary drought, the relevant authorities can declare shortage areas for a period of up to six months and that water should be distributed or redistributed among the users. However, this time frame is arbitrary and based on the assumption that after a dry season rain will fall; an assumption that has proven to be false in the light of the severe droughts and water scarcity that has affected the country for half a decade.

The amendment went further and established that during the specified period of time the authority may authorize water withdrawal from anywhere without any limitation whatsoever; again, there were no scientists that could give an opinion regarding the potential effects of this decision regarding the long-term sustainability of the resource. The arguments about drought and scarcity during the 13-year parliamentary debate were put forward mainly by politicians who use these concepts to sustain ideological agendas. Furthermore, regarding the representation of different voices during the amendment phase, one of the largest hydroelectric companies, the

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national farming, industrial and mining Societies, and even a right-wing think tank were able to voice their arguments, but not a single scientist was invited to participate in the debate.

Where science played a role and, consequently, where it can be said that a science-policy interface existed, was in the elaboration of Resolution n°1674 that defines the criteria for the establishment of extraordinary drought periods. In 2009 the DGA submitted a study awarded to a research centre from a traditional university (DICTUC), which was directed by a renowned academic. The study suggested the use of a drought index that is internationally used and recommended, and established the indicators that should be considered to evaluate and distinguish an extraordinary drought. The DGA adopted the drought index but changed the indicator for another that can be seen as more conservative. That means that the scarcity decree can be issued more often than if the originally proposed values had been used. This decision could be seen as politically correct, because when scarcity decrees are issued, it is possible to intervene in river channels and allow withdrawals in the face of a social crisis of drought and thus reduce vulnerability. However, the continuous application of this decree can contribute to the aggravation of the crisis in the long-term, therefore intensifying water depletion. Regarding the processes by which the DICTUC study was made, delivery stages were analysed between the centre and the agency, and informative workshops were carried out with other relevant organizations and public services. However, the meetings were merely informative. DGA chose some elements of the study and added other relevant parameters, such as volume of reservoirs and aquifers. The resolution was finally made among the agency´s professionals and no external scientific committee validated it. This does not mean that the resolution should be validated scientifically as if it were a scientific research subject to peer review; but it does illustrate the prevailing paradigm for decision making.

In this case study there are three clearly identifiable main factors shaping the science policyinterface according to the literature: the selection of the experts; the power of agencies to accept or reject scientific findings; and the deconstruction of a scientific discourse by simplification or due to the unavoidable trade-offs between not only time and accuracy, but also accepted approaches and paradigms. Hydrology has been the traditional and validated methodology for understanding droughts, but several voices argue that this approach does not consider the social dimensions in the production of scarcity, such as water demand and over allocation of water-use rights. The elaboration-process of the DGA resolution that describes and determines what should be understood by extraordinary drought in Chile demonstrates to what extents the technocratic approach for decision-making is still the dominant paradigm in the management of drought (although several voices argue that there is no such thing as drought management). But this paradigm is rooted in the current WC, formulated in 1981 and slightly modified in 2005, and that explains the inexorable limitations of the agency, which simply cannot adopt a more holistic and integrated approach for water management, even though it would certainly be positive in the context of drought.

The distinctively neoliberal 1981 water law has been broadly analysed from both the political and economic perspectives for decades. Less attention has been paid to the science behind the law and the extent and processes by which scientific knowledge is considered in water policies, regulations and management; it seems as if water science were disconnected from the decision making process, as if these decisions had no effect in the environment and society. This research may be the first attempt to analyse the science-policy interface in drought management from the SST perspective, and it is particularly interesting in the light of the intense debate taking place

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these days when a new Water Code will be proposed. How will water and the current principles and paradigms regarding its management be conceptualised? Which will be the role of scientific knowledge in the configuration of new criteria for water policy? A new framework needs to be made and both policy and science should interact in order to develop new long-term strategies in view of the current and future challenges, considering uncertainties, and hence incorporating precautionary approaches to water management.

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Vergara, J., Fuster, R., León, A., León, P. (2011) Manual técnico: manejo del riego en condiciones de sequía, Comisión Nacional de Riego, Ministerio de Agricultura.

Watson, R. (2005) ‘Turning Science into Policy: Challenges and Experiences from the SciencePolicy Interface’, Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 360 (1454), 471-477.

Wesselink, A., Buchanan, K., Georgiadou, Y., Turnhout, E. (2013) ‘Technical knowledge, discursive spaces and politics at the science-policy interface’, Environmental Science & Policy, 30, 1-9.

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Wutich, A., and Gravlee, C. (2010) ‘Water decision-makers in a desert city: text analysis and environmental social science’, in: Vaccaro, I., Alden Smith, E., Aswani, S. (Eds) Environmental Social Sciences: Methods and Research Design, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 188211.

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Integrated Management of Water Resources and Water Efficiency in the Proveince of Guanacaste, Costa Rica Marc Reinhard GIZ marc-daniel.reinhard@giz.de Dr. Franz Rojas Ortuste

ABSTRACT The Costa Rican Plan of Climate Change Strategic Action articulates two priority sectors for strengthening the country‘s resilience before climate change: water and agricultural resources.

It was established in studies developed by the Instituto Meteorológico Nacional (National Weather Institute) that climate change will have a significant impact in the availability and quality of water resources, particularly in territories of the Pacific Region of the country. The variability in rainfall patterns and the potential impacts, generate limitations in the economic activities related to strategic activities as power production, which in the case of Costa Rica depend more than 70% in hydroelectric power, the agriculture, and the adaptation to reduce the extreme events, especially in the most vulnerable populations.

The “Water for Guanacaste” Program is a response to the limited availability of water resources in the Guanacaste Province (up to five months a year without precipitations), the high vulnerability to climate change and the increasing demand. Promoting the efficient use of water is one of the efforts of the Costa Rica government.

The “water for Ganacaste” program is a solution for the limited availability of water resources in the Guanacaste Province (up to five months a year without precipitations), the high vulnerability to climate change and the increasing demands. Promoting the efficient use of water is one of the efforts of the Costa Rican government.

The German Federal Enterprise for International Cooperation (GIZ) complements the program of the government of Costa Rica on behalf the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). This integrated water resources management project (IWRM) aims to contribute with the efficient and responsible use of the water resources, the adaptation to climate change, and the sustainable economic development in the Province of Guanacaste.

Unlike other models developed in Latin America which have two complementary structures -one belonging to the national government and the other a non-binding type, this organizational model seeks to decentralize the Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía (MINAE, Ministry of Environment and Energy).

The role of the commission is to implement, create, develop, and monitor the policies on water management. In addition, a funding system has been developed which guarantees the commission's sustainability.

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This presentation's purpose, is to underline the importance in the process of the development an institutional framework for the management of water resources in the basins of Arenal, Tempisque, and Bebedero in the Guanacaste Province. Additionally, it seeks to deepen the understanding of the role of water footprint to determine the measures for the efficient use of the water resource in three pilot projects in the basins subject to this study.

INTRODUCTION

The Costa Rican government program “Water for Guanacaste” is a specific answer to both the lack of availability of water as a resource in the Guanacasteca Province, as to its increasing demand. Complementing the government program, the GIZ, executes on behalf the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) a project called “Integrated Water Resources Management, Water for Guanacaste” by means of which an integrated water management concept arises, so it contributes to the efficient and responsible use of water resources, the adaptation to climate change, and the sustainable economic development of the Province of Guanacaste, which will go together with the development and implementation of a proposal for the establishment of a cooperation model of the actors involved in water management in the basin of Tempisque-Bebedero.

Source: ICE, Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (Costa Rican Institute of Electricity): Basins of Arenal, Tempisque, Bebedero

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Towards the adoption of a IWRM model for Guanacaste There are two models that can be adopted for IWRM purposes (Dourojeanni, Jouravlev and Chávez, 2002) in the case of the Province of Guanacaste.

1. Institutions with water authority functions at basins level.

It may be chosen to decentralize and de-concentrate decision-making functions at the level of the basins that influence the development of Guanacaste, and have them carried out by a Basin Organization in line with the national authority's policies and guidelines. To reconcile the aspirations at the basin level with the national vision it is important not to fully delegate decisions, and have the Central authority retain certain attributions in implementing the regulations that are not enforced by local organizations.

It is not common for the countries of the region that the substantive functions of a water authority are decentralized as basin organizations (such as granting concessions, licenses, authorizations, royalties or licenses for the use of surface and ground waters, set the permissible limits of pollutants discharge, enforce closure areas, and others). The exceptions are the Corporaciones Autónomas Regionales (CARs, Colombian Regional Autonomous Corporations), which are the top most environmental and natural resources authorities in their area of jurisdiction.

2. Entities that perform coordination and fostering participation in water management functions.

In many countries such as Costa Rica, the situation is more complex given that diverse functions related to water are fragmented among multiple organizations. Hence, to avoid conflicts and be more consistent in the action taking, the coordination between all the decision makers concerning water resources, shared and interconnected, thus the optimal territorial unity for coordination happens to be precisely a Basin Council/Agency, even though it should also be anticipated if the agency does not fulfill its functions, for which the national authority must reserve itself the right to intervene and make the requires decisions. In this sense, it is more usual for an administrative decentralization, understood as a legal-administrative process which allows the directing authority of water to delegate in its local offices the responsibility in the exercise of their functions under some circumstances, such as transferring resources for the development of such responsibilities. Its objective is a two-fold purpose: one, to create a favorable atmosphere for decision-making with more proximity to the users, and two, to also decongest the central level.

Latin American experience in IWRM organization models Either with the Colombian model, as with the Mexican and Peruvian, there are two complementary instances: one which represents the State and makes the decisions, and the mixed representation instances of local governments and the organized civil society, which serves as consultative body, generating opportunities of dialogue and interaction, and also for debate and consulting on matters that otherwise would become conflicting. Thus, the Basin councils allow the possibility of negotiation and resolution of conflicts on equal terms. On the other hand, although the opinions of the Councils are not binding for the Authority to make a decision in one or another sense, hardly the latter would make decisions contrary to the first one. Clearly there may be dissenting oppinions within the Basin Council, but the central point is that an Authority should not go against a Council's resolution, as this would denote problems in good governance.

However, in the Peruvian case, it stands out clearly that the link between the Authority and the Council is the plan of water resources management in the basin, which must have the council’s approval and be approved by the headship of the National Water Authority, with the obligation of

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reporting to a Board, constituting a public binding instrument for the management of the water resources in the respective basin.

Indeed, Mexico's Basin Councils mostly have been operating with resources from the National Water Commission (CONAGUA) and similarly in the Councils of Colombia which have resources for the Regional Development Corporations (CARs), and similarly in the Peruvian case with resources of the Autoridad Nacional del Agua (ANA, National Water Authority). However, in all three cases difficulties arise in their sustainable operation because they do not have their own, or allocated resources.

Experiences of IWRM organization models in Costa Rica Commission for the Planning and Management of the Upper Basin of the River Reventazón (COMCURE) It is a fully decentralized body of the Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía (MINAE, Ministry of Environment and Energy), which was legally constituted and has instrumental legal personality. Its overall objective consists in defining, implementing, and monitoring the plan of development and management of the Reventazón River basin.

The programs which are formulated within this plan's framework, are funded through budget that the MINAE allocates. Similarly, centralized institutions and state-owned enterprises are authorized to include in their budgets the items they deem appropriate to contribute with COMCURE’s projects. Besides, the organization is authorized to make cooperation agreements and accept donations from International Cooperation Agencies and other national and international organizations. It is also authorized to manage trusts whose purpose is to provide economic content to the projects executed by COMCURE. The strongholds lie in their creation which is based in legislation and have budget to support their operation although it is aimed at environmental protection and water conservation actions.

Interinstitutional Commission of the Reservoire Tempisque Arenal Basin (CIDECAT) CIDECAT was established through a Decree for the purpose of implementing the management and development plan of the Arenal Lake basin.It is the organization that works with broader scope, not only in the logic of water conservation, but also in the sustainable utilization of water resources and all the interactions that revolve around the basin. However, it faces the challenge of financial sustainability.

Proposal for the Organization of the Arenal-Tempisque-Bebedero Basins In so far as it is sought to promote the decentralized implementation of the management of water resources, with active participation of stakeholders in the basins under this study, the design of models similar to those successfully tested in COMCURE is considered feasible, however with different functions. Based on the above, the Commission for the Management of the ArenalTempisque-Bebedero Basins (COMCATEB) has been established.

Unlike the Latin-American models in which there are two complementary structures: one of the national government and the other a non-mandatory advisory type, the proposed commission is a single entity fully decentralized from the Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía (MINAE), with instrumental legal status (Rojas, F., 2014).

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The overall objective of COMCATEB is to be set up as an inter-sectoral participation body that ensures the use and proper utilization of the water resource and the proper application of sectoral regulations, contributing with the authority in water management matters. Therefore, COMCATEB will have the decision-making capacity over issues they are concerned to know according to the competencies vested in them by the law or by a Presidential Decree.

The following attributions of COMCATEB indicate that the Commission acts as itself as similar entity to COMCURE, however with specific competencies to the management of the water resource: • Approval of the Water Plan of the Arenal-Tempisque-Bebedero Basins- Hereinafter The Basin- according to the guidelines of the National Water Policy and to the National Water Plan. Such approval shall be ratified by the National Water Directorate.

• Approve the prioritization of water use in the basin according to the guidelines of the National Water Policy and National Water Plan with particular focus on national interest projects considering the multiple uses of water; in any case, the use for human consumption is the first priority. Such approval must be ratified by the National Water Directorate.

• Supervisethe compliance of payment of the fee for water use and the fee of discharges into receiving bodies.

• Exercise the functions of assessment, control, and monitoring of water uses; • Approve the studies and works of water use, in natural water sources, according to the Water management Plans of the Arenal-Tempisque-Bebedero.

• Authorize the execution of works of water multi-sectoral infrastructure.

• Monitor compliance of plans and therefore generate a decision-making body, planning, and supervision, for the proper management of the resource.

Funding Development and implementation of an appropriate financing system, based on the principles of "polluter pays" and "user pays", is one of the six principles of the International Network of Basin Organizations, and is a key component of the IWRM approach.

Funding for COMCATEB should seek to ensure three different areas: Water resource stewardship: governance management, mechanisms of accountability and transparency, planning processes and policies development, generation of policies, participation, monitoring, data collection and analysis (hydrological, climatic, soil), research, capacity building, awareness, and communication.

Development and maintenance of infrastructure in riverbeds, rivers, lagoons: construction of dams, protective levees, channeling, gabion walls (defensive), and the prevention of pollution and environmental protection. Not including major works.

COMCATEB operations and activities: administration, human resources and staff training, plus consignment for equipment as computers and field instruments, geographic information systems (GIS) and modeling systems, information programs and vehicles.The provisions for maintenance and replacement of equipment should also be included.

The Possible financing schemes to support the realization of the COMCATEB organizational model are investment trust funds, or those from water rates as well as contributions from the

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same participating institutions, of non-returnable funds from international cooperation agencies, of private companies wishing to support under the guidelines of corporate social responsibility.

Trust Fund An option to finance the entities is constituted by trust funding or trusts. The trust is a legal relationship of three actors, the Trustor, the Trust's agency, and the Trustee. The TRUSTOR (which may be the State) transfers part of its assets (real, current or future funds, rights, among others) to the TRUST AGENCY, for its management, according to a certain purpose or objective, and the product of such heritage be given to a beneficiary or TRUSTEE. The trust is a financing instrument which appeals to all funding parties involved in different forms, due to the specific use of the object for which was created, whether for the use of the investment mandate, credits’ obtaining.

Fee for Water Use and Discharges to the Environment This mechanism is interesting as another important source of funding for COMCATEB, which would also follow the objectives pursued by the collection of such rate. Indeed, the rate for water use is used as an economic instrument for the regulation of water use and management, which allows the water availability for the reliable supply in human consumption and the country socioeconomic development, besides the generation of economic resources to finance a sustainable management of the water resources in Costa Rica. The fee for water use concept considers the use value and the water resource environmental protection service. A 50% of total revenues should be allocated to facilitate an integrated water management at national level, accomplished by the Water Department of de MINAE. The remaining 50% from water rate incomes shall be invested in the generating basin by means of the service of protection of the water resource, in the conservation, maintenance and recovery of ecosystems, both in private areas as in Wildlife Areas protected by the State, such as national parks and biological reserves.

Water Footprint and Efficient Use of the Water Resource The implementation of new forms of measuring the efficiency of water use, as the water footprint, provide users a clear view of the impact generated by the use and their implications on water scarcity. In addition, it seeks to deepen the understanding in the role of water footprint to determine measures for the efficient use of water as a resource in three pilot projects in the basins. In this perspective, we enter into a necessary concept: Demand Management, which involves using the water in a more efficient manner. For this reason, work is being done in the three pilot projects to measure the water footprint and efficient use of Water Resources. The purpose is to achieve that an association of agricultural producers, an Administrative Association of Potable Water and Sanitation (ASADA), and a tourism company of the Guanacaste Province that with intensive water use, they may begin the implementation of measurement methodologies and efficiency measures.

REFERENCES Dourojeanni, A., Jouravlev, A., Chávez, G. (2002), Gestión del agua a nivel de cuencas: Teoría y Práctica, Serie No. 47, CEPAL, Chile.

Rojas, F. (2014), Propuesta de Gestión Integrada del Recurso Hídrico para las cuencas ArenalTempisque-Bebedero.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Social Perceptions and Capacity Building for Disaster Risk Management in Yucatán, México.

Denise Soares Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua (IMTA) denise_soares@tlaloc.imta.mx Rita Vázquez del Mercado Arribas Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua (IMTA) rvazquez@tlaloc.imta.mx

SUMMARY In this work, we present a case study on social perceptions of vulnerability to hurricanes in four localities of Yucatan: San Felipe, Ixil, Sisal and Celestún. The methodology of community livelihoods and capitals is used as a tool to know social perceptions about the strengths and weaknesses of human, social, political, physical, natural and financial capital of the region under study. A communication strategy is developed to provide the studied localities information generated during the diagnosis, and thus strengthen their capabilities to prevent, deal with and recover from the ravages of hurricanes. The communication strategy includes two educational activities (games); a travelling exhibition; printed materials for citizens and for decision makers and a workshop for experience exchange. Analyzing the vulnerabilities of the community capitals and discussing the findings with local stakeholders can offer a more fruitful way for the construction of public policies to reduce disasters, as well as to promote endogenous development processes.

INTRODUCCTION The ravages of hurricanes represent a great menace to the coastal populations of the State of Yucatán, since its impacts are direct cause of life losses and lesions; they generate infrastructure damages, affect the productive activities, and many times, force the temporary deployment f population.

The Programa de Ordenamiento Ecológico del Territorio Costero del estado de Yucatán (POETCY, Program of Environmental Management of the Coastal Territory of the State of Yucatán), states that the state has a coastal line of approximately 350 kilometers and elevation above sea level predominately low. The coastal strip 2 shelters 564 towns and 8% of the total population of the state (SECOL, 2007: 26). The inhabitants of the area have developed knowledge and strategies to deal with the hurricanes, and the authorities have established policies with the purpose to improve the response capacity against those threats. Nevertheless, the urban and touristic growth, the demand of services, and the use and handling of natural resources have modified the landscape and altered the biodiversity, which among other factors, makes the coastal populations more fragile.

2

Comprised of 11 complete municipalities– Celestún, Progreso, Dzemul, Dzidzantún, Ixil, Sinanché, Telchac Puerto, Yobaín,Dzilam de Bravo, Río Lagartos and San Felipe –and the neighboring strips of the coastline of the municipalities of Hunucmá andTizimín (SECOL, 2007).

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Before this scenario, it is mandatory to immediately promote political strategies and strengthen the adaptation capabilities. While the disaster risks in the coast of Yucatán have diverse disruptive agents, the scope of this study is exclusively enclosed to the threat that hurricanes represent, due to the consequences in terms of infrastructure loss and the increasing vulnerability they cause.

The objective is diagnosing the different components of the vulnerability in four localities of Yucatán and generating a communication strategy for the local population, providing them information on how to act, in order to prevent, prepare, and help them recover from hurricanes.

METHODOLOGY The development of the research had as a methodological referent the approach of “means of life and community capitals – MCC (Medios de vida y capitales de la comunidad)”. The idea of sustainable livelihoods was first introduced in the Brundtland Commision on Environment and Development, the concept was later broadened in the United Nations Conference of 1992, in which the attainment of sustainable means of life as a general goal was backed up to eradicate poverty. At the beginning of last century's last decade, Chambers and Conway (1992) proposed that a means of life is sustainable when it can cope and recover from stress and crisis, maintain or improve its capacities and assets, and give opportunities of sustainable subsistence for the next generation, asides from contributing net benefits to other local livelihoods in the short and the long term.

The sustainable livelihoods methodology, states that every community, no matter how poor, can count on resources at its disposal to manage its own development, and said resources are conceptualized as capitals (Flora and Flora, 2004). The capitals are divided in six: social, human, political, natural, financial, and manufactured. The Social Capital refers to the formal and informal relationships formed between people, from which diverse opportunities and benefits can be obtained. The Human Capital is constituted by the skills, knowledge, health, and education of the people in a community. The Political Capital is related to decision-making and the institutions that perform the function of making or facilitating them. The Natural Capital refers to the natural resources available in the community. The Financial Capital is about available resources as cash savings or liquid assets, like cattle, and such as pensions and other financial transactions. Finally, the Physical or Manufacturing Capital, comprises basic infrastructure (housing, services, etc.), and the physical actives or assets that support livelihoods (Flora and Flora, 2004; Gutiérrez and Siles, 2008).

The described methodology was applied developing quantitative (surveys) and qualitative techniques (interviews and workshops). 399 surveys were applied to find the perceptions of the inhabitants of the four Yucatán localities, regarding their community capitals strengths or weaknesses. Additionally, we interviewed 35 key informers, scattered among state public employees (State civil protection personnel), local servants (Municipal President, City Council Secretary, and Director of Municipal Civil Protection), and community leaders: In addition, four workshops were carried out, one for each locality, aiming to diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of the community capitals.

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RESULTS A social vulnerability index (IVS, Ă­ndice de vulnerabilidad social) by locality and gender was drawn up with the results from the surveys. With the information gathered in the interviews and workshops, the variables that make up the indexes were analyzed, with the purpose of diagnosing in detail each one of the aspects that make the localities vulnerable, and identifying those that require addressing as to reduce vulnerability.

Figure 1:Vulnerability index of community capitals, according to locality and gender.

Source: Elaborated by the author.

In general terms, the results indicate that intermediate vulnerability predominates for both men and women in the four localities. Albeit some of the capitals of the region are in the process of construction and consolidation, others are in a process of decline and weakening. Hurricanes like Gilberto and Isidoro meant individual and collective learnings (Cultural Capital), motivated the replacement of housings with cement roofs (Physical Capital), ever since to the present, the coverage of basic services, among them health and education (Human Capital) have increased. It could be said that these capitals are in a consolidation process. On the other hand, the Social, Natural and Financial do not show the same trend. The Natural Capital, for instance, has suffered not only the effects of human intervention, but also the impact of natural events. The Social Capital is weakened and strongly marked by a rise in alcoholism, prostitution, violence against women and family disintegration, and the Financial Capital is the most affected by the onslaught of hurricanes.

In relation to Political Capital, all the municipalities count with a risk management program against hurricanes. Although the actions of the municipalities against extreme meteorological events are well set up and regulated, the daily practice of the municipal managements in terms of preventing and warning the disaster risks does not reflect this organization, which translates in the social perceptions on the authorities' management facing extreme events, where only in San Felipe the population approves of the municipal managements against risks. An important junction for the actions of the Unidad de ProtecciĂłn Civil Municipal (Municipal Civil Protecion Unit) is the rotation of its director. In fact, the Civil Protection Director of three of the municipalities studied, was designated by the current administration; the only Civil Protection Director in its charge since 2003 is the one from San Felipe. Such a critical position for the sustainability of the municipalities is decided on the criteria of personal and political affinities of

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each municipal president in charge. According to the perception of a worker of Protección Civil Estatal (State Civil Protection), the rotation of the municipal civil protection directors is one of the major existing problems to move forward solidly in disaster prevention matters: “That is a big problem.The changes.The biggest problem we have is them. Because when we train the directors and are able to work with them at a higher level, they are replaced. They even have training brought from Mexico City, from CENAPRED, from the General Coordination, but when they are already trained, they leave…”

It seems relevant to us, taking the perception of the very director of municipal civil protection of Ixil regarding the rotation of the civil protection servants, given it reflects the level of commitment with his functions: “…I think everyone should get something, shouldn’t we? The one that comes in places the people. And if we support the campaign it is just fair that we get something…that’s how politics work…”

It is evident some municipal positions of extreme relevance for the sustainability of the municipality, such as civil protection, are given as a payment for the support given and not based on a professional profile of skills, capabilities, or competences. Before every municipal management replacement, state civil protection is forced to strengthen the capabilities of the director through introductory courses and a permanent relation in which they are advised, supervised, trained, and monitored in order to fulfill their functions and responsibilities, among them: elaborating the municipal plan against eventualities, in which the actions to follow for each agent of disturbance: fires, rain, hurricanes, etc.; the installment of the municipal councils for the fire and hurricane seasons, and the preparation of a risk atlas. Once the training is concluded, the time of the trainee in the municipal public management comes to an end and all the efforts and resources invested are lost. The following year a new person will be trained, generating a vicious circle of endless squandering of resources and capabilities.

As a strategy to return the results found in the diagnosis of strengths and weaknesses of the community capitals, a communication strategy was developed, with the purpose of raising awareness in the population of the area of study, about how to deal with and prevent the ravages of hurricanes. Its guiding principle is synthesized in the motto:“When facing hurricanes, make sure to know how to prevent, know how to care not to lose and become united when facing, and with the participation of all equally”. The following material was made throughout the campaign: • Two monumental didactic games.

• An itinerant exhibition.

• Four unfolding brochures that cover the problematic of local vulnerability and establish courses of action in terms of adaptation to climate change (San Felipe; Celestún; Ixil, and Sisal).

• Experiences Exchange Workshop.

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The monumental didactic games like playful dynamics allow to access in a fun and relaxed way harsh subjects, like climate change in general and hurricanes in particular. The monumental format brings people closer in a direct and creative manner, since people interact directly in the recreational dynamics, being them the tokens on the board game. The selected games are adaptations of traditional games like snakes and ladders, and memory games, which people have played with at any given moment of their lives, thus intervening with easily understandable family dynamics.

The exhibition was designed under two concepts: sensory and informative. The first stage of the exhibition consisted in introducing the spectator to a â&#x20AC;&#x153;sensoryâ&#x20AC;? tunnel that goes through two stages: the angst of reviving the emotions of a hurricane and the calm of a sunny and tranquil day in their community. Through these experiences, people can be motivated and become aware about the subject, so later they could access the information in a more open way and willing to know. In the informative tour the general and specific information is shown, the strengths and weaknesses of the communities against climate change, its impacts, and consequences.

The brochures are supporting materials that allow reinforcing the teachings already given; they work as an information reminder. Their design uses the same images and contents used in the whole strategy, in a way people can resort to them as notes, without the reluctance that printed materials generally produce.

The Experiences Exchange Workshop had as objective to reflect on the impact of hurricanes in the productive activities and set up coordination and cooperation networks among productive groups of men and women from the four localities. The workshop allowed the participants to identify the main skills that must be developed or strengthened to be more resilient against the ravages of hurricanes.

We conclude affirming that is imperative to strengthen the risk management processes of the municipalities studied, with the purpose of generating conditions to diminish their vulnerability.

In this regard, it must be highlighted that the investment in the reduction of vulnerability affects in a direct way the investments after a disaster against extreme events, such as hurricanes.

Hurricanes threaten the development of the municipalities: they destroy years of effort and investments, and create new burdens for the society by having to rebuild and deviates the longterm objectives as development priorities, to having to satisfy immediate needs.

Albeit sector policies focused on reducing disasters are important, the great challenge is to increase the political commitment towards fighting the root of disasters. The design of a series of policy guidelines to deal with the devastation of hurricanes is not enough: it is necessary to effectively reduce the roots of disaster risks, and to promote options from the civil society. The governments must seize the political opportunities in order to understand the causes that generate the threats and vulnerabilities, and these, must be addressed if reducing risks is desired.

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REFERENCES Chambers, R., & Conway, G. (mayo de 1992). Sustainable rural livehoods:practical concepts for the 21st century.Obtenido de http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/Dp296.pdf Flora, C. J., & Flora, S. F. (2004). Rural communities: legacy and change.USA: Westview.

Gutiérrez, I., & Siles, J. (2008). Diagnóstico de medios de vida y capitales de la comunidad de Humedales de medio Queso. Los chiles, Costa Rica. San José de Costa Rica: CATIE, UICN. Secretaría de Ecología del Gobierno del Estado de Yucatán-SECOL. (2007). Programa de Ordenamiento Ecológico del Territorio Costero del Estado de Yucatán. Introducción (POETCY).

Recuperado en agosto de 2011, de http://www.bitacoraordenamiento.yucatan.gob.mx/documentos/index.php?IdOrdenamiento=6#

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Regulation and Use of Water in the San Juan River Basin Daniel Coria Jofré, Engineer Universidad Nacional San Juan Civil Engineering Department Av. Libertador 1109 (O), San Juan Argentina telephone number: 00-54-264-4203147 coriajofre@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION In this work, a summary of the evolution of regulation and water use in the San Juan river basin is presented; schemes figures, photos are shown with the purpose of illustrating the presentation and at the same time providing judgment elements to understand the reflections herein made.

It emphasizes the necessity of making a joined use of water resources, conform water management by basins, which implies the participation of the water users in all of its aspects, and in consequence, the need to establish the principles to dictate a State Policy on the rational use of water resources.

Physical Environment Geographic Location The province of San Juan is located in the center-west of the country (Argentina). It limits to the west with the republic of Chile, to the north with La Rioja Province, to the east with San Luis, and to the south with Mendoza.

The provinces have to the west, natural borders formed by the Andes mountain range, whose foothills branch out and penetrate into it, occupying most of the 92.789 km 2 territory that the province has; an 80% is covered by the highlands and mountain ranges. The rest is comprised by the different valleys where human activity takes place, enclosed among mountain ranges. These are the valleys of Tulum, Zonda Ullúm, Jáchal, Bermejo, Valle Fértil, Calingasta, Iglesia, and Hualilán.

Tulum Valley It is the most important of all valleys of the province for its natural resources and for the development it has reached. It has an approximate surface of 1.625 km 2.

It is located just over 600 meters above sea level, and it is a large strip that extends from north to south, enclosed by the foothills of the mountains and the pampeana highlands. Among the first things that are worth mentioning, the Villicum highlands that limit to the north, and the highlands of Zonda and Rinconada to the west. The Pie de Palo hills belong to the latter, and it limits with them from the east; while the valley extends southbound with the Mendoza Province.

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San Juan River passes through it, bestowing its flow for irrigation, however, the suitable lands cover an area that exceeds two or three times with what the natural contribution of this river can allow cultivating.

Other Important Valleys Jáchal It is located north of San Juan, in the foothills of the Andes mountain range, bordered by mountain chains, and 1.200 meters above the sea level. Its lands are suitable for agriculture and cover an extensive surface (272 km) of which only 14% is under cultivation.

The main water course is the Jáchal River, whose flow irrigates most of the cultivated area in the valley. Also, there are other minor resources, such as the Huaco River and Agua Negra Stream, which serve local areas of secondary importance.

Calingasta and Iglesia They are very similar for their relief, since they belong to the so-called “Barreal-Rodeo Depression”, enclosed between the Andes and the mountain ridge foothills, which limit it from the west and east respectively. Both valleys limit to the north and south with the range's mountain chains. Its heights reach 1530 meters above sea level in Calingasta and 1.680 meters in Iglesia.

The valley of Calingasta is crossed by the Castaño, Calingasta, and Los Patos rivers, all tributaries of the San Juan River. It has a surface of 112 km 2 that is distributed along the aforementioned rivers, presenting suitable lands for agriculture, but with limitations imposed by steep slopes.

The Iglesia valley, located north of the province, could be considered to be formed by other valleys, smaller and stepped, as if they were terraces; that is how the areas of Iglesia look like. Las Flores, Rodeo, and Tudcun cover a surface of 80 km 2. All of them have snow origin water courses, being the most important ones, the streams of Iglesia, Colola, Agua Negra, Agua Blanca, Romo, Mondaca, Colangüíl, and other minor ones.

Valle Fértil It is located east of the province, away from the mountain range and the foothills.The group of pampeana highlands, constituted by the valley highlands and the Huerta highlands, which limit with it to the west, while to the north and to the east the lands extend to the limit with La Rioja. To the south, it is limited by the pampas of Las Salinas. It has a median altitude of 900 meters above sea level, and encloses a surface of 2.140 km2. The Chucuma, Astica, Mesada, Las Tumanas, Valle Fértil rivers and small streams, carry a permanent flow of few liters per second, which are barely enough to cover the needs of the population of the area.

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Bermejo It is found north of Tulum valley and west of Valle Fértil and separated by the Pie de Palo hills and Pampean highlands respectively. With its extension of 6.360 km 2 , it stands in second place in the province. It penetrates into the valley by the north, constituting with the Jáchal and Huaco rivers, the main sporadic contributors of superficial waters.

Gualilán It is located 110 km northwest of the city of San Juan; it is and intermountain depression of tectonic origin developed in a mountain foothill environment, and comprises an approximate surface of 250 km2. The drainage network is comprised in its entirety of courses of temporary regime. There are two watersheds and possibilities of subterranean water extraction.

Figure 1: San Juan Hydrographic Basins

The main hydrographic basins of the province of San Juan (Figure 1) are the ones of San Juan and Jáchal. Both have surfaces of 25 thousand km 2. Even though there is quite a difference between the modules of both of them, San Juan carries 60 m 3/second and Jáchal 10m3/second approximately; the matter of the subject here, is the difference in precipitations and the geographic location.

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Figure 2: Diagram of San Juan River Basin.

In figure 2, the upper part is where the snow precipitations occur and where the contribution of glaciers is received. Followed by a middle basin where the river runs enclosed from Las Juntas to the Ullúm Dam, an area where hydroelectric exploitations are being constructed.

The Ullúm Dam, which is the regulator of Caracoles (finished) and Punta Negra (under construction), then comes the irrigation system of Tulum Valley, to finally end in the Guanacahe lagoons and entering the Desaguadero River.

The upper or drainage basin of San Juan River, is where the snow precipitations are measured and from which we should have yearly forecasts the first fortnight of August, with the intention of knowing which water volumes will be available throughout the year, in annual or monthly form.

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Photograph 1.Works on the mountain range.

This information is of vital importance given the San Juan River has its flood, regulated in a certain way, for the necessities of the current crop structure, without taking into account other needs. A 97% of the water is used in agriculture.

Photograph 1 shows the activities that are carried out by the personnel in charge of making the flow forecasts.

Photographs 2, 3, and 4 depict the magnitude of the works under construction, Caracoles and Punta Negra Dams.

Photograph 2. Construction of hydroelectric works.

The analysis of why the UllĂşn Dam was executed first, began with an integral study, which also included the irrigation system planning , beginning in 1962-63, analyzing by department the tracing of the Canals and which should be sealed.

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The necessary infrastructure planning, and the use of water resources is complemented with a very important decision, as is the implementation of the "National Plan of Subterranean Waters for the Argentinian Northwest" (Plan Nacional de Aguas Subterráneas para el Noroeste Argentino), which's mission was to make an inventory of the existing drillings, geophysics studies, control drillings, and basically the training and specialization of professionals and technicians of different areas.

In 1968 there was a great decrease in the flow of the San Juan River that reached a minimum level of 14m3/sec. in January. That year, 50 drillings were executed in a selected place of the department of Zonda.

It has to be noted that the exploration drilling shed a flow of approximately 400.000 l/h. The drillings executed brought a flow of 5m3/sec, then 25 more wells were made with which the production increased to 7,5 m3/sec.

The Ullún Dam was inaugurated in 1980, allowing diminishing the intensive use of subterranean water, which had grown exponentially, practically from 1969, which is closely related to the agriculture and economy.

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Irrigated Area of Tulum Valley The general irrigation diagram of Tulum valley is presented in figures 3 and 4, where the Canals, the free aquifer area, the artificial recharge areas, drilling batteries, and all the necessary elements to plan the joined use of water resources and thus making effective water management, are included.

The well batteries demonstrated the real capacity of the subterranean basin and the importance of making a technical planned exploitation. With the wells executed in Bateria in San MartĂ­n, Av. Benavides, 9 de Julio, MĂŠdano de Oro and Pocito, 200 drillings that were in condition of distributing 20m3/sec were completed. To pour them to the irrigation system, we would be talking about the third part of the module of San Juan River.

It is important to know that the volume collected by the dam, just in the subterranean basin of Tulum valley, considering a depth of 100 meters, is of 5000 hm 3.

Figure 3: General diagram of the irrigation of Tulum valley.

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Figure 4: General irrigation diagram of Tulum valley.

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If the Caracoles Dam has 500 Hm3 , we can say we have 10 more dams. Again, it is appreciated the imperious need of carrying out the joined use of water resources. Spanish professionals that visited us during that time (Sauquillo López, Llamas, Custodio Ph.Ds, among others) said San Juan was a model of hydrological resources exploitation from the joint-use point of view, and it was necessary to make a model to implement rationally the joined use.

As of that date, private drillings were starting to be constructed at an approximate rate of 1000 drillings per year, reaching approximately 8000 drillings in Tulum Valley (photograph 5). These drillings did not meet the current specifications, from the materials, designs, developments, etc. which limited their use life, besides the flows and performances were reduced; the same oscillated between 150.000l/h and 180.000l/h. that is, a great effort and investment was done without obtaining the benefits sought.

Photography 5. Drilling construction

Analyzing the growth and variation of the cultivated surface in San Juan, the most efficient use of water, allowed carrying out a series of actions, once the Ullúm Dam was built.

Another use of the Ullúm Dam is recreational. In the lakeside, there were given use concessions to clubs, mainly devoted to nautical and recreational activities. In the lower income years, it is hard to maintain an adequate level, especially when there are two important works under construction, Caracoles and Punta Negra.

These are the moments where the importance of having a basin organization that takes into account all the needs of the different activities carried out (potable water, irrigation, ranching, industry, mining, public trees, fishing, recreation, etc.) in it.

Photograph 6 shows how weeds and canes grew in the 25 de Mayo Canal; dry seaweed crusts, lack of service roads, lack of maintenance in the joints, trees that grew next to the canal, caused its breakage by pushing the frame structure, leaving the frame bars exposed and rusted (mainly in the crossing under the San Juan River).

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

The work done to repair it concluded successfully. It is important to learn the lesson that we must not wait to make this type of maintenance, given its high costs. It is necessary to make an adequate hydraulic works maintenance plan.

Photographs of the irrigation networks and especially the Canal del Norte, where a delayed maintenance has taken place, are shown.

Photography 6. Irrigation system before maintenance.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Photograph 7. Maintenance works in the irrigation system

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Photograph 8. Aerial view of the Ullúm-Zonda Valley Area

It is worth mentioning the importance that Ullúm-Zonda valley has, which is located between two dams: Punta Negra and Ullúm. In this area we have at our disposal a physical hydraulic model at a natural scale, where all the alternatives that can be materialized can be shown, to achieve joined use and plan an effective use of water, besides constituting one of the most important reserves of good quality water.

We have available a subterranean basin of 600 meters deep, natural wetlands, the possibility of making artificial recharges, study the aquifer-river relationship, analizing the impacts of great floods, the excellent water quality, the contamination possibilites from the borders of the basin due to excess pumping, etc. Thus, San Juan has to pay attention from the point of view of preserving its quality and its volume in function of what this basin is going to be in the future.

That physical space is very important and fundamental for us.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Hydrogeological Basins The hydrogeological basins are shown in Figure 5, the most important ones are the Tulum Valley Basin, Ullúm-Zonda, and the Jáchal Basin, that presents a high salinity problem.

Figure 5: Hydrogeological Basins

The total cultivated surface in the San Juan Province since 1825 -research carried out by a United Nations plan- was of 82.240 ha in the years 1897-89, and the current surface is more or less similar, however having modified the composition of crops., there were 74.000 ha of cereals and forage area in 1897-89, currently there are 7000 ha.

Figure 6: According to crop type.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

A hydrogeological cut, only of the water levels in Tulum valley, allows appreciating their variations in accordance with the increments of crop, the extraction carried out, the flow of the San Juan River.

Figure 7: Hydrogeological Cut

The contamination of the subterranean basin is a delicate matter. In 1985, the Centro Regional de Aguas Subterráneas (CRAS, Regional Subterranean Water Center) conducted a research on the contents of nitrate, obtaining values of 75 to 100 mg/l.

In 1983 we had serious waterlogging problems (Figure 8) because the basin was saturated, especially in Médano de Oro in the area of Rawson, where the pressure is from down the bottom to the top. The last data is from 2011, where it can be appreciated that the most affected area is the area of San Martín, where the water levels have dropped considerably. Again, it can be appreciated how important is to maintain updated statistics. Sadly, the information does not exist, not even with measurement continuity, nor the relationship between the stations’ owners.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 8: Evolution of the state of the subterranean basin

In the years 1972-73 and 1978 between the province and the CRAS a research on artificial recharges of San Juan River was carried out. The goal was to gather the necessary information to implement the joined use of water resources.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Information of my own, prepared in the organizations in which I worked: Secretaría de Recursos Hídricos de la Provincia (Secretariat of Water Resources of the Province), Centro Regional de Aguas Subterráneas (Regional Center of Subterranean Waters), PROSAP, Consejo Consultivo Minero (Consulting Mining Council), Private Water Consultant, UNSJ.

Territorial Planning and Management of Water Resources – Water Week LA 2015

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation

The Everyone Forever Model: Seeking Equity.

Edgar Oliverio Fajardo Oliva Water For People efajardo@waterforpeople.org

SUMMARY Everyone Forever (EF) is the model of providing water and sanitation services (W & S) to all families, schools and public Clinique promoted in QuichĂŠ, Guatemala and eight other countries globally. It includes coverage of 100% of people, the physical and financial sustainability of services. It addresses the involvement of users, authorities and other actors of civil society informed, transparent and participatory manner.

Managing information to make decisions, can reach the people who do not yet access to W&S services in a given geographic area, this process is being developed with a tool called Field Level Operation Watching (FLOW). With the information processes are generated in advocacy for authorities and community empowerment to develop a joint planning process that allows co-finance and optimize various resources and activities in the resource mobilization strategy and then initiate the implementation and development of basic infrastructure to provide the service.

The model includes knowledge management, good practice based on research and development in technology and methodologies that promotes the development of skills in people considering their own context. Moreover, the sustainability strategy of the services including processes such as integrated water resources management (IWRM), capacity building on Management, Operation and Maintenance (MOM) of the water services that addresses the financial sustainability of the systems by setting fair rates through measurement of water consumption with micro and macro meters. It also includes training in health and hygiene to different existing organizational audiences whether community or civil society. To transcend generationally, is worthy to work with the School Water and Sanitation program, since childhood, to engage in the sustainability of services. In addition to this, to link sanitation programs there is a business development services (BDS) as sanitation marketing, financial loans organizations, market research and technologies and manufacturing products for sanitation.

The monitoring and control of resources is essential to drive the model, so that strategies of transparency and social audit are conducted through communication with stakeholders and conducting the annual session of Reimagined Report (RIR). It lets see progress in coverage, sustainability and financial participation of the different actors in each of the municipalities in which each one work.

These reports are available online for anyone to access and manifest on the page.

The complementarity of various resources and will are essential in achieving the EF model; but is so important to scale a model that shows the equity in access to water and sanitation services, which enhances the overall development of the society in which it operates.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

INTRODUCTION This document shows the work that is being done in four municipalities in the Department of QuichĂŠ in Guatemala, through the implementation of the Everyone Forever model. It is oriented to generate reflection and discussion related to the implementation of water systems and sanitation concerns. The model which is being implemented seeks to provide access to water and sanitation services and includes the entire population, without distinguishing people for different reasons.

It is a model that has been boosting and changing with the passage of time, changes according to the context and presents as a vision that promotes that no one suffers or dies from water or sanitation related disease. For this it seeks to create the conditions to bring to scale and replicate some factors that can trigger a movement of Everyone Forever.

The results are promising, since alternate empowerment of users, the sensitivity in the authorities and the involvement of actors who have been on the sidelines as the private sector and academia.

METHODOLGY This model has required constant review in accordance with the context and lessons learned in the implementation of EF. Figure 1 shows the management model summary. The process will be explained since the community demand as a starting point.

Information management It is to use the of monitoring and evaluationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s results of the communities to advocate on municipal and governmental authorities to the allocation of budget to increase sustainability and coverage of the water and sanitation services. Besides to that, provide this information to the populations, gives argument for enforcing their rights to access the lacking W&S services. Here converge community approaches and the political will of the municipal authorities to act to solve the difficulties of access to the people who need it. In such way, the agreement is reached to determine whether it can or not to initiate the process of joint work between the actors who want to participate.

Jointly Planning In this phase, meetings are held with municipal authorities, members of community boards and other organizations or stakeholders in complement efforts, to determine the physical & financial resources and technology that will be applied in the development of the system. On the other hand, there are times of preparation and activities that each actor will have in the course of the timetable of actions.

This process serves to demonstrate the necessary components of the service and sensitizes the parties, mostly to users in terms of the value of the project and strengthens the responsibility of the system to be implemented.

Resources Mobilization It works in two action lines: Activities co-financing and Resources use & optimization. Two situations are generated with this strategy: while on the one hand the municipality allocates financial resources for the partial development of the provision of the service, on the other hand users define the use of resources to develop their project. In this case not only arises from the perspective of the contribution Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

of local labor and in-kind, but also from the partial provision of financial resources to meet the cost of the initial investment of the service. The sum of municipal contributions with the community, are complemented by funds of Water For People and other organizations with the same interest.

Optimization is the result of planning and mobilization of resources that guide different capacities and contributions to the system development. I.e., prevents duplication of efforts and resources on the part of those involved in the project to be carried out. In addition, the lessons learned have specialized technical personnel and administrative efficiency in the development of projects.

Figure 1: Integrated Management Model used for Water For People in Guatemala

Implementation It consists of applying the planned schedule. That is, each responsible for activity, with planned resources and at certain times performs the actions at Community level. Lessons learned from previous interventions that are put into context and apply them in different circumstances are applied in the development of this process. Activities include training on topics targeted to different audiences, infrastructure construction of water or sanitation, among others.

Knowledge Management This strategy addresses two lines of action that are community and municipal capacity-building and research & technologies development. In terms of strengthening seeks to provide municipal officials and users of systems elements that can add value in sustainability to services based on information of the strengths and weaknesses that have each leader group of services. In addition, workshops, exchange visits and other activities that allow interact with other groups are made.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The research and technology development focuses on the generation of options, which consider the wishes of consumers, affordable, appropriate to the context and which is easy to manufacture.

Methodologies are developed and tested in order to share them with other organizations to try and apply according their interest.

Services Sustainability It is based on several factors that apply jointly or separately and are: water and sanitation, as business, which focuses on providing business development services (BDS) to increase the coverage and quality of services. The BDS includes credit for provision of water and sanitation in collaboration with Micro financial Institutions. Development of partnerships with manufacturers of supplies needed to promote water and sanitation and to motivate the purchase through the marketing.

The Management, Operation and Maintenance of the systems is through trainings and workshops which are addressed to the fixing of rates, management and systems repairs. The Health and Hygiene education are performed with different audiences so accordingly become key messages and reduce health problems related to water and sanitation.

The Integrated Water Resource Management is coordinating with other organizations to complement the studies and activities development in watersheds of work.

The School Water, Sanitation and Hygiene program (SWASH) implements infrastructure and training to teachers and students jointly with the Ministry of education, under the strategy of healthy schools in the municipalities intervened.

Monitoring and Resourceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Control In this Phase is used the Field Level Operations Watching tool (Akvo - FLOW), which checks annually how is the progress in coverage and sustainability of W&S in communities.

In this context, technological resources, including a database developed to collect the information of W&S systems, and other required surveys for decision making in the districts and municipalities are used. Information includes: surveys with the criteria and indicators of quality, quantity consistency of water and sanitation services, also includes photographs of the systems evaluated and geo-referenced data. These surveys were uploaded to phones with OS Android ÂŽ, which are those used for the taking of information in field and send the information to the database on the network.

Trained staff of partner organizations collects information to reduce problems of interpretation by the local language and also allows them to be an active part of the process. Medium-term municipalities may assume the monitoring of their communities.

Collected information into five types services is categorised and are listed in table 3. With that information interpreted from various perspectives of analysis, are returned to institutional and community actors to make the corresponding analysis.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Accountability and Transparency The reimagined report (RIR) is the process of reflection which are annually performed exercises that are shared and discussed the results with: donors, governmental, municipal and local authorities among other players. The results of the audited accounts, the coverage and sustainability of water and sanitation services are published online: https://reporting.waterforpeople.org/guatemala.

This information and process are used for decision-making for new interventions and generate empowerment among stakeholders.

RESULTS The Water Services Coverage According to the information listed in Table 1, since the beginning of the program increased coverage in three of the four municipalities of intervention. In this perspective, the merit is shared between the authorities, communities and the organizations that have participated in the EF movement.

During the 2014 were criteria which were not in the previous years (water quality tests) and which consequently affected the trend of improvement that was brought, although in itself same the evaluation of the quality of the systems is more accurate, because the parameters are fine-tuned and is now included among the evaluated criteria metering, fees, water quality, organization and consistency of service, among others. These indicators are reviewed and suited every year since it is expected that the service is better quality for the users of the systems. It is important to mention that the results shows coverage within intermediate and high service’s categories only, are not considered basic and inappropriate service categories or if that do not have a water system as shown in Table 3.

Table 1. Monitoring results of water coverage (service levels) throughout the EF process in communities. (Water For People, 2012)

Reference Evaluation 2011*

2012-13

2014

Total change to date

Gap to reach EF

Santa Cruz del Quiché

50.7%

70.6%

63.9%

+13.2%

36.1%

San Bartolomé Jocotenango

52.2%

40.6%

48.6%

-3.6%

51.4%

San Andrés Sajcabajá

51.3%

79.4%

78.6%

+27.3%

21.4%

San Antonio Ilotenango

25.0%

41.6%

47.2%

+22.2%

52.8%

Municipality

*First data group from the region

In relation to the results obtained in which corresponds to Public Institutions, as shown in Table 2, began to be evaluated in 2012-2013 period, despite initiating activities from 2010. As it can be seen, there is a significant increase since it began to work with public institutions , with the exception of San Andrés Sajcabajá where there was maintenance of the water quality issues during the final evaluation process.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

Table 2. Results of the Monitoring of service and sustainability levels in schools and health centers within the EF process.

(Water For People, 2012)

Reference Evaluation 2012-13 *

2014

Total change to date

Gap to reach EF

Santa Cruz del Quiché

71.1%

80.6%

+9.5%

19.4%

San Bartolomé Jocotenango

77.7%

83.9%

+6.2%

16.1%

San Andrés Sajcabajá

83.3%

81.5%

-1.8%

18.5%

San Antonio Ilotenango

68.6%

92.1%

+23.5%

7.9%

Municipality

* First data group from the region

Perspective of Service Type In coverage, only considered the categories intermediate and high service level, this allocation seeks that all systems are sustainable in the future and do not depend on investment of third instances in the established systems, but financial and technically dependent on installed local resources and capabilities for the operation and maintenance of systems.

Table 3 shows the values obtained during the implementation of the model and although there are variations between categories, the overall trend is to improve in terms of the category in which are found.

Table 3. Percentage comparison of trends in the level of water in four municipalities of the program in Guatemala Guatemala: Trends in level of service

Frequency

Evaluated Water Points

Category

2011

2012-2013

2014

2011

2012- 2013

2014

No Improved System

8.5%

9.7%

4.7%

22

17

14

Inadequate Level of Service Basic Level of Service Intermediate Level of Service High Level of Service Total Water Points

9.3% 38.% 43.% 1.2% 100%

0.0% 25.7% 53.7% 10.9% 100%

0.3% 32.1% 61.8% 1.0% 100%

24 98 111 3 258

0 45 94 19 175

1 95 183 3 296

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

The evaluation of the sustainability levels, found that it increased from 19.4% to 53%, whereas the two higher categories in Table 4. These results indicate that these providers of services will be less depending on than the intervention of third parties to keep their systems running.

Table 4. Trends in levels of sustainability of water services in four municipalities of Water For Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work.

Trends in Sustainability/ Service Provider Category No Service Provider Unlikely to Provide Sustainable Service Somewhat Likely to Provide Sustainable Service Likely to Provide Sustainable Service Highly Likely to Provide Sustainable Service Total

Frequency

Number of Water Points

2011 8.5%

2012 - 2013 9.7%

2014 4.3%

2011 22

2012- 2013 17

2014 10

13.6%

0.0%

11.7%

35

0

27

58.5%

62.3%

30.9%

151

109

71

18.6%

27.4%

53.0%

48

48

122

0.8%

0.6%

0.0%

2

1

0

100%

100%

100%

258

175

230

The Sanitation evaluation was launched in 2012, since previously began with the strategy of providing credit and other BDS aimed at improving coverage and sustainability of sanitation. These actions are considered as starting point to which must be added various strategies with an emphasis on the rural population to so that the rates of morbidity and mortality due to sanitation problems are decreased. The progress is evident according to the results in the Table 5.

Table 5: Sanitation Services Levels 2012-2014 Guatemala Trends In Household Sanitation Level of Service Category

Frequency

Number of Households

2012 -2013

2014

2012-2013

2014

No Sanitation Service (Open Defecation)

46.0%

32.9%

536

466

Inadequate Level of Sanitation Services

0.3%

1.7%

4

24

Basic Level of Sanitation Services

36.2%

11.1%

422

157

Intermediate Level of Sanitation Services

17.5%

44.5%

204

630

High Level of Sanitation Services

0.0%

9.8%

0

138

100.0%

100.0%

1166

1415

Total

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The collected information showed that people have different degrees of satisfaction, as shown in Figure 2, in terms of sanitation which have. And, it is important to consider this aspect as to future there arise answers for questions to implement programs.

Figure 2: Users satisfaction according to sanitation type used.

Financial Perspective In terms of the contributions made by stakeholders, Figure 3 shows the comparison between the two years of work: Water For People, fell 16% in their contribution.

The community, municipal, and Governmental and other agencies co-financing has been an important factor in order to scale the process, which shows the interest of these actors to participate and generate changes.

Figure 3: Comparison of contributions (2012-2013) of Guatemalaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s program.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

BIBLIOGRAPHY Water For People. (2012). Reporting Reimaginar. Retrieved October 1-3, 2014, from Reporting Reimaginar:https://reporting.waterforpeople.org/guatemala Water For People. (2012). Water For People. Retrieved September 25- 30, 2014, from https://reporting.waterforpeople.org/

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Services Levels Provided By Rainwater Harvesting Systems in the Context of Multiple Water Sources: a Case Study in Nicaragua.

Daniel W. Smith Millennium Water Alliance daniel.smith@mwawater.org Barbara Evans University of Leeds B.E.Evans@leeds.ac.uk Joshua Briemberg WaterAid Nicaragua nicaragua@wateraidamerica.org

ABSTRACT This research investigates the performance of household rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems as they are used simultaneously with other water sources. The first phase of research was a case study in Kuahkuil, a rural indigenous Miskitu community in Nicaragua.

The RWH systems studied were implemented by WaterAid as part of the Lazos de Agua WASH program, which is coordinated by Millennium Water Alliance across five Latin American countries.

FEMSA Foundation and Coca-Cola Latin America fund Lazos de Agua; Fons CatalĂ also funds WaterAid in Nicaragua.

The principal aim of the study was to generate empirical data that would describe how rooftop RWH performed in practice while accounting for all water sources households used. This aim responds to a global deficiency of information describing RWH performance once implemented and how multiple water sources are used.

The methodology used technical and social data to assess the performance of water supplies and their acceptability to users. Technical performance data were collected following a Service Level Ladder used in the Lazos de Agua M&E system. Data logging of water levels in 4000L capacity RWH tanks, mapping, water sampling, RWH system modeling, and water diaries were used to quantify water source usage, quality, accessibility, and reliability. Social data included household surveys and interviews in which respondents ranked different water sources. Data was collected in the dry and rainy seasons.

Kuahkuil residents used 29 water sources in addition to 57 household RWH systems. Most households used multiple water sources in both seasons.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Average water use from all sources was 37 and 41 liters per capita per day (lpcd) during dry and rainy season monitoring periods, respectively. RWH was the preferred rainy season source, providing 92% of water at 37 lpcd. RWH provided 11% of total dry season water. Water use would have been underestimated by 27-40% in the rainy season and 10% in the dry season if only sources considered “primary” were counted.

RWH systems provided significant quality and accessibility benefits. RWH water had lower E. coli concentrations than 28 of 29 other sources. Families would have to walk an average of 1.5 km/day to collect the same volume of water of inferior microbial quality as their RWH systems supply. This accessibility benefit is significant despite RWH systems providing water 73-79% of the time.

Perceptions of RWH were generally good. Respondents particularly valued individually owning RWH systems. Some respondents had concerns of RWH water quality, but only during the dry season.

The main conclusions are: 1. Accounting for multiple water sources significantly affects measurements of service levels in Kuahkuil; and 2. RWH is advantageous for achieving Lazos de Agua water supply objectives in the context of Kuahkuil, as long as the use of other water sources is recognized.

The headline recommendation is that the extent of multiple water source use be better characterized. If multiple water source usage is widely significant then WASH M&E systems should expressly account for multiple sources.

The study will expand in Nicaragua and Mexico by 2015.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

INTRODUCTION This research investigates the performance of household rooftop rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems as they are used simultaneously with other sources of water. It responds to a need for better characterization of RWH system performance when implemented as part of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) development programs. This paper reports on the first of a series of case studies on the topic planned in rural indigenous areas of Nicaragua and Mexico. The first study was conducted with a Miskitu community of 450 people called Kuahkuil in the Caribbean region of Nicaragua from March to June 2014 (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Map of Nicaragua showing the location of Kuahkuil.

The RWH systems researched in Nicaragua were implemented by the non-profit WaterAid as part of the Lazos de Agua WASH program. Lazos de Agua is coordinated by the non-profit Millennium Water Alliance (MWA) across five Latin American countries. Its work is funded by FEMSA Foundation and Coca-Cola Latin America; Fons Català also funds WaterAid in Nicaragua. This study is part of the program’s applied research initiative that aims to improve evidence-based decision making for the program and the WASH sector.

The study was conceived to address two gaps identified in the literature on RWH and rural water supply important to the Lazos de Agua program. First, although rooftop RWH systems have been extensively documented and are gaining recognition worldwide (Thomas and Martinson, 2007; Thomas, 2014; USAID, 2013), the quantity of water they provide once implemented has been inadequately measured (Batchelor et al., 2011). Furthermore, the computational model commonly used to design RWH systems has been shown to underestimate volumetric yields (Coombes and Barry, 2007; Coombes et al., 2003). These deficiencies are critical to Lazos de Agua because they make predicting the performance and cost-effectiveness of RWH systems highly uncertain. Comparing the Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

levels of service and value-for-money provided by RWH with those of other water supply options thus becomes inconclusive.

Second, documentation of RWH systems often discusses them as if they were used in isolation. In reality, many households in developing countries regularly use more than one water source. However, little information exists describing how multiple sources are used (Evans et al., 2013). The few data include Lazos de Agua baseline surveys, which indicate that 37% of households in the program work areas in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Colombia use more than one water source (MWA, 2014). An important implication of the use of multiple sources is that it may affect how access to water is measured. As such, it is important for Lazos de Agua to assess its monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system where multiple water sources are used to ensure that it accurately portrays the program’s impact in those situations.

In response to these gaps, the principal aim of the study was to generate empirical data that would describe how rooftop RWH performed in practice while accounting for all additional water sources households used for domestic supply. Water supply performance was assessed using a “Service Level Ladder” framework adopted from the Lazos de Agua M&E system. This framework was derived from one originally proposed by Moriarty et al. (2011). The Service Level Ladder defines water service in terms of four aspects: quantity, quality, accessibility, and reliability. In addition to technical performance, water users’ perceptions were investigated as contributing to the levels of service provided.

The study aimed to produce three outputs relevant to Lazos de Agua and the WASH sector: 1. Evidence describing RWH system technical performance and acceptability to users; 2. A critical assessment of how water supply service levels are measured where multiple sources are used; and 3. An assessment of the suitability of rooftop RWH in the context of the study.

Figure 2: Summary of research structure.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

METHODOLOGY Two types of data were collected in the case study community: 1) Technical data describing the performance of RWH systems and other water sources; and 2) Social data describing socioeconomic conditions and water user perceptions.

Technical Data Technical data describing the four dimensions recognized in the Service Level Ladder were collected (Table 1). Data were collected in the dry season (April) and the rainy season (June) to capture seasonal differences.

Table 1. Service Level Ladder framework used.

Service Level

Quantity (lpcd)

Quality

Accessibility (distance-to-source)

High

>100

Exceeds Guidelines

WHO

Intermediate

>50

Basic (normative)

WHO

>20

Meets Guidelines

Sub-standard

>5

Problematic

No service

<5

Significant problems

Multiple taps flowing continuously Less than 100m 100-1000m Greater than 1000m

The quantity of water households used from different water sources was measured in a representative subset of randomly selected households. 13 households were asked to record the number of standardsized containers of water they collected from all water sources over a period of four days in each season. Residents recorded the number of water containers collected in a tool called the “simplified water diary” created specifically for this study. The tool was inspired by more complex water diaries such as that described by Harriden (2013). It consisted of a matrix drawn on a poster with the days of the week in the rows and two or more water sources in the columns (Figure 3). Respondents marked how many containers they collected from each source in the corresponding cell. Each household was visited twice on each day of monitoring to ensure the tool was used as designed. The data were analyzed in units of liters used per capita per day (lpcd).

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 3: A research participant uses the simplified water diary.

Microbial water quality was measured as E. coli using the Aquagenx procedure (Aquagenx, 2014). 20 samples were taken from the taps of RWH systems. 24 samples were taken from wells. Two duplicate samples and two trip blanks were analyzed for quality assurance. All samples were incubated for 48 hours at >25°C per Aquagenx (2014) instructions. The Aquagenx procedure yielded E. coli data in units of Most Probable Number (MPN) per 100mL. The locations of each household and water source were recorded with GPS. Each was assigned an identification number. The routes travelled from each household to its water sources were measured using Google Earth (2014).

The reliability of RWH systems was assessed in two ways: empirically and with modeling. Empirical measurement consisted of installing digital water level sensors (In-situ RuggedTROLL 100) in the storage tanks of seven RWH systems (Figure 4). The sensors were programmed to record water depth every 30 minutes. Data for 77 days from April 6 to June 21 were downloaded and analyzed for this paper. The sensors will continue to record data until May 2015. The data were analyzed in Excel to determine how many days the RWH systems provided water.

A daily water balance Excel spreadsheet such as that used by Martin (2009) was used to model RWH system reliability. The model expanded the reliability analysis beyond the scope of the available empirical data. The average water demand from RWH systems measured with the simplified water diaries was input into the model to project the number of days the systems would provide water for an average family.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 4: Drawing of a RWH system in a typical house in Kuahkuil showing its five components: 1) roof rainfall capture area of 34m2, 2) gutters, 3) down-pipe, 4) 4000L tank, and 5) tap. The water level sensors were installed inside the tank.

WaterAid values each system at $1,400 USD. (Drawing courtesy of WaterAid).

Social Data Demographic and income data were collected in a survey of 20 households.

Residents of 13 households were interviewed about their perceptions of their water sources in each season. Respondents were asked to rank the water sources their families used from best to worst for 11 characteristics: quality, quantity, taste, color, odor, health, personal security, cost, level of conflict, reliability, and ease of use. These characteristics were identified as potentially influential to how people use water sources in a review of previous studies by White et al. (1972), Briscoe et al. (1981), Mu et al.

(1990), Doria (2010), and Prouty (2013). Respondents were then asked why they gave each ranking in open-ended questions.

Ethical considerations Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Leeds research ethics committee and the communal government of Kuahkuil. Verbal and written permission for data collection was obtained from a representative of each participating household.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

RESULTS Socioeconomic conditions Surveyed households represented 25% of the village population. Average household size was 5.6 people. Self-reported household income was $882 USD/year, or $0.44 per person per day. The cost of each RWH system was thus 159% of the average annual household income.

Water sources Other than 57 household RWH systems installed by WaterAid, 29 water sources were identified. These sources were categorized as shown in Table 2. A map is provided in Figure 5.

Type

Table 2. Non-RWH water sources by type Number

Drilled well with hand-pump

1

Concrete-lined dug well (no cover)

6

Unlined dug well protected only with a cover

9

Unprotected dug well

6

Surface water

7

Total

29

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 5: Map of Kuahkuil showing 20 households and all but five of the 29 water sources identified other than RWH systems. Five surface water sources are located beyond the extent of the map.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Use of Multiple Water Sources The simplified water diary data revealed that most households used more than one water source for domestic water-related tasks (Figure 6). This was true even excluding the use of RWH systems.

6

5

Number of households

4

Including RWH systems 3

Not including RWH systems 2

1

0 1

2

3

4

5

Total number of water sources used

Figure 6: Total number of water sources used over both seasons in 13 households.

Water Quantity Provided Total household per capita water use from all sources ranged from 16 to 55 lpcd in the dry season and 23 to 67 lpcd in the rainy season. Averages were 37 lpcd (sd=12) in the dry season and 41 lpcd (sd=6) in the rainy season.

RWH systems were the dominant water source type during rainy season monitoring, providing 92% of the population’s water at a rate of 37 lpcd (Figure 7). In the dry season, RWH systems provided 11% of total water used or 4 lpcd. Because the rainy season in the Nicaraguan Caribbean lasts nine months from June to February, these results indicate that RWH systems will provide the most water of any type of source available in Kuahkuil on an annual basis. They also show that users preferred to use water from RWH systems to the extent it was available.

The simplified water diary data also revealed the significance of accounting for the use of more than one source. During the dry season, households’ primary sources by volume supplied 73% of water used, with 27% coming from other sources. Non-primary sources by volume supplied 10% of water during the rainy season. If the primary water source is defined as that most used for drinking, other sources supplied 40% of water in the dry season and 10% in the rainy season. These results demonstrate that if water usage in Kuahkuil were only measured from “primary sources”, water Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

quantity would have been underestimated by 27-40% in the rainy season and 10% in the dry season.

Such discrepancies could be significant for WASH M&E.

Figure 7: Water use by source type by season. Data are presented in units of lpcd and percent of total daily per capita use.

Water Quality RWH systems tended to have lower concentrations of E. coli than all other sources except one drilled well. This result is identical to the global experience with water quality from RWH in lower-income settings (WHO, 2011; Thomas and Martinson, 2007). The quality control samples indicated that the sampling procedure was valid.

The results indicate that RWH systems provided water of superior microbial quality than the sources used by the majority of the village population. Combining this with the finding that RWH systems provide the most water of any type of source, it follows that Kuahkuil residents now consume water of superior microbial quality than before the RWH systems were built.

Accessibility One-way distances from households to their primary water sources (as defined by volume) ranged from 50 to 550m in the dry season and 32 to 202m in the rainy season.

Although the metric of distance-to-source is the only one stipulated in the Service Level Ladder (Table 1), it understates the accessibility impact of the RWH systems. In the Ladder, any water source located less than 100m from a household that does not have multiple taps is considered in the “Intermediate” service level. Thus, even unprotected wells located less than 100m from households would be rated at the same level as the single-tap RWH systems.

A metric called “equivalent distance” was created to better quantify the impact of RWH systems on accessibility. “Equivalent distance” was defined as the distance households would have had to travel to obtain the same volume of water as their RWH systems provided. This metric combines distance-tosource with the quantity results from the simplified water diaries. It was calculated that the average household in Kuahkuil would have had to walk on average 707 m/day in the dry season and 1823 m/day in the rainy season to make up for the water provided by RWH. The annual equivalent distance benefit was estimated as a weighted average of the two seasons, taking the nine-month rainy season as Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

276 days and the dry season as 89 days. The annual average was calculated as 1.5 km/household/day.

This result quantifies a significant labor reduction provided by the RWH systems not apparent when accessibility is expressed using distance-to-source.

Reliability The water level sensors showed that the RWH systems provided water an average of 73% of the time during 77 days of monitoring. It is expected that the empirically measured reliability will increase as monitoring continues over the upcoming year since the monitoring period included more of the dry season than the rainy season.

The quantity results suggested that a realistic water demand in both seasons in Kuahkuil was approximately 40 lpcd. Using this demand for an average household of six people, the daily water balance model showed that the RWH systems would provide at least enough water for drinking (5 lpcd) (Gleick, 1996) 79% of the time.

User Perceptions Respondents most frequently ranked RWH better than other water sources in both seasons for characteristics related to quality, health, personal security, level of conflict, and ease of use. However, fewer respondents ranked RWH best in the dry season for quality, taste, odor, and health. RWH was ranked best less frequently than other sources for quantity, cost, and reliability. These results are consistent with global documentation showing that RWH is generally perceived to provide good water quality but that it is expensive (Thomas and Martinson, 2007).

The perceptions results indicate that the quality and accessibility aspects of the service provided by RWH systems were generally acceptable to people in Kuahkuil. The qualitative sections of the perception interviews strongly suggested that respondents highly valued personally owning the RWH systems. The respondents related their ownership of RWH systems to reduced conflict with neighbors over water and positive perceptions of RWH water safety. However, some residents did not use RWH for drinking in the dry season due to negative perceptions of quality. RWH was also perceived to be expensive due to the need for manufactured materials, which would likely be a barrier to households investing in them without subsidy.

Service Level Synthesis As an annual average, the RWH systems in Kuahkuil provide 29 lpcd, 0.7 MPN E. coli/100mL, were located at households, and are reliable 73-79% of the time. These results correspond with service levels of “Basic” quantity, “Sub-standard” quality (WHO, 2011), “Intermediate” accessibility, and “Substandard” reliability per the Lazos de Agua Service Level Ladder (Table 1).

However, the Service Level Ladder does not adequately describe the water supply situation in Kuahkuil without accounting for the use of multiple water sources. The average quantity used from all sources is approximately 40 lpcd; this would be significantly underestimated if only water from RWH systems or other “primary sources” were measured. Additionally, the water quality of most sources is inferior to that of RWH, RWH systems decrease travel needed for obtaining water by 1.5 km/household/day, and the service level for reliability increases to “Basic” for all households when accounting for multiple sources.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

These findings suggest that, in the context of Kuahkuil, WASH M&E systems need to account for all water sources used to accurately report service levels. Evans et al. (2013) make a similar recommendation based on research in Vietnam, South Africa, and Ghana.

The study’s findings are limited primarily by the small scope of the case study. More data would be needed to make regionally valid conclusions. An additional limitation is that calculations of seasonal variables assumed, possibly erroneously, that the water use behavior observed during research was consistent throughout the seasons.

CONCLUSIONS Two main conclusions emerge from the study: 1. Accounting for the use of multiple water sources significantly affects measurements of water supply service levels in the case study community; and 2. Rooftop RWH is advantageous for achieving the Lazos de Agua program water supply objectives in the context of Kuahkuil, as long as the use of other water sources is also recognized. The RWH systems significantly enhance accessibility, the quality of water collected, the service they provide is generally acceptable to users, and users value RWH system ownership. Their main disadvantages are high cost compared with incomes and some users’ concerns regarding water quality in the dry season.

The headline recommendation of the study is that the extent of multiple water source use for domestic supply be better characterized in Lazos de Agua work areas and globally. If the effects of accounting for multiple water sources are as significant elsewhere as they are in Kuahkuil, then WASH program M&E systems such as that used in Lazos de Agua should be updated to better account for multiple sources.

MWA and WaterAid plan to expand the research in the Nicaraguan Caribbean and Mexico by 2015.

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REFERENCES Aquagenx. 2014. Compartment Bag Test: Instructions for Use. [Online]. [Accessed 24 July 2014].

Available from: http://www.aquagenx.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Aquagenx-CBT-Instructionsv3.pdf Batchelor, C. et al. 2011. Life-cycle costs of rainwater harvesting systems (Occasional Paper 46). The Hague: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre.

Briscoe, J. et al. 1981. How Bengali Villagers Choose Sources of Domestic Water. Water Supply and Management. 5(2), pp.165-181.

Coombes, P. and Barry, M. 2007. The effect of selection of time steps and average assumptions on the continuous simulation of rainwater harvesting strategies. Water Science and Technology. 55(4), pp.125133.

Coombes, P. et al. 2003. Economic, water quantity and quality results from a house with a rainwater tank in the inner city. [Online]. [Accessed 9 August 2014]. Available from: www.researchgate.net Doria, M. 2010. Factors influencing public perception of drinking water quality. Water Policy. 12(1), pp.1-19.

Evans, B. et al. 2013. Public Health and Social Benefits of at-house Water Supplies. Leeds: University of Leeds, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, and University of East Anglia.

Gleick, P. 1996. Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities: Meeting Basic Needs. Water International. 21(2), pp.83-92.

Google Earth. 2014. Google Earth. [Online]. [Accessed 8 July 2014]. Available from: https://www.google.com/earth/ Harriden, K. 2013. Water Diaries: generate intra-household water use data – generate water use behaviour change. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development. 3(1), pp.70-80.

Martin, T. 2009. An Analysis of Household Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Falelima, Samoa.

Master’s thesis, Michigan Technological University.

Millennium Water Alliance (MWA). 2014. Lazos de Agua Baseline Evaluation Report. Washington, DC: MWA. Moriarty, P. et al. 2011. Ladders for assessing and costing water service delivery. 2nd ed. [Online]. The Hague: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. [Accessed 8 July 2014]. Available from: http://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Moriarty-2011-Ladders.pdf3

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Mu, X. et al. 1990. Modeling Village Water Demand Behavior: A Discrete Choice Approach. Water Resources Research. 26(4), pp.521-529.

Prouty, C. 2013. Socioeconomic Factors' and Water Source Features’ Effect on Household Water Supply Choices in Uganda and the Associated Environmental Impacts. Master’s thesis, University of South Florida.

Thomas, T. 2014. The limitations of roofwater harvesting in developing countries. Waterlines. 33(2), pp.139-145.

Thomas, T. and Martinson, D. 2007. Roofwater Harvesting: A Handbook for Practitioners (Technical Paper Series No. 49). Delft: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre United States Agency for International Development (USAID). 2013. Roof-Top Rainwater Harvesting Best Practices Guide. [Online]. Washington, DC: USAID and International Relief and Development.

[Accessed 8 August 2014]. Available from: http://www.ird.org/uploads/IRD_RWH_Guide_10June13.pdf White, G. et al. 1972. Drawers of Water: Domestic Water Use in East Africa. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.

World Health Organization (WHO). 2011. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 4th ed. Geneva: WHO.

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Urban Side Water Reuse Innovation and Technology Development Review and Future Needs.

David J. Smith Water, Environment and Business for Development (WE&B) Avd Presidente Masaryk 350, Polanco, DF, Mexico david.smith@weandb.org T. Wintgens School of Life Sciences, Institute for Ecopreneurship University of Applied Sciences NorthWestern Switzerland. GrĂźndenstrasse 40, 4132 Muttenz thomas.wintgens@fhnw.ch WssTP Water supply and sanitation and Technology Platform Avenue Edmond van Nieuwenhuyse 6 1160 Brussels, Belgium E-mail: wsstp@wsstp.eu

ABSTRACT The ability of the worlds communities to respond to increasing water stress by taking advantage of water reuse opportunities is restricted by low public confidence in solutions, inconsistent approaches to evaluating costs and benefits of reuse schemes, and poor coordination of the professionals and organisations who design, implement and manage them. This paper at its core has three main objectives: (1) Identify research needs, (2) Identify the bottlenecks to implementation, and (3) Identify major opportunities and benefits for the urban side water reuse sector. In order to achieve these three main objectives the following has been undertaken: To summarise the most relevant projects which have been carried out to provide a better understanding of how and where Water Reuse currently fits into the overall concept of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). Communicating the market potential for water reuse, by analysing barriers (legislative, social and market) and the uptake of existing technologies. To highlight the need for technology and the benefits of innovation. Develop thinking which focuses on developing discourse on the subject to improve opportunity for greater public acceptance. Ultimately the outcomes of this paper will increase the ability to profit from the resource security and economic benefits of water reuse schemes without compromising human health and environmental integrity.

Keywords: Water Reuse, innovation, demonstration, Urban side, Barriers to implementation, technology, monitoring, environmental and human health risk, access to financing, public and political engagement.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

INTRODUCTION The worlds ability to respond to increasing water stress by utilising the potential of water reuse is restricted by low public confidence in available solutions, inconsistent approaches to evaluating costs and benefits of reuse schemes, and poor coordination of the professionals and organisations who design, implement and manage them (WssTP, 2013). This paper presents a review of current global practices and trends in water reuse before detailing the principle innovation and technology requirements for Water Reuse from a European Union standpoint. The research priorities proposed in this paper and example demonstration areas are presented as a way to increase the level of knowledge required to develop safe TWW reuse schemes and pilot projects. The European project DEMOWARE (www.demoware.eu) is a recent example of how this information can spawn research, innovation and demonstration in the water reuse sector.

Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture Nowadays, agricultural irrigation constitutes the largest use of freshwater, accounting for almost 70% of the worldwide water withdrawals, increasing to 85% in developing countries (Pedrero et al., 2010; UNW-DPC's, 2012). Therefore, (treated) wastewater becomes a valuable resource for agricultural irrigation, reducing the amount of water that needs to be extracted from natural water sources as well as reducing discharge of wastewater to the environment, which results in the preservation of water quality downstream. Therefore, it can be stated that the use of wastewater for irrigation purposes has the advantage of “closing the loop”.

Figure 1: Freshwater withdrawal worldwide by agricultural sector in 2000 (Kretschmer et al., 2002).

The total amount of land irrigated with untreated, treated or partially treated wastewater, both intentionally or unintentionally, is uncertain. In developed nations, better records do exist and about 41% of recycled water in Japan, 60% in California (USA) and 15% in Tunisia is used for agricultural irrigation. In China at least 1.33 million hectares of agricultural land are irrigated with untreated or partially treated wastewaters from cities. In Mexico City (Mexico) more than 70,000 hectares of Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

cropland outside the city are irrigated with reclaimed wastewater. Furthermore, it must be noted that Israel is the world’s leader in this area, with over 70% of collected and TWW reused for agricultural purposes (Vigenswara and Sundaravadivel, 2004). Estimates from the World Bank show that currently more than 40 Mm3 of municipal wastewater is recycled daily and is expected to increase to approximately 55 Mm3 by 2015 (WaterWorld, 2012).

The demand for reclaimed water in agriculture may be seasonal (e.g. in Southern Europe), and thus storage of treated wastewater in the winter months by aquifer recharge may be a sound solution.

However, the practice of groundwater recharge is severely frowned up and, until now, no major agriculture reuse project including a groundwater recharge option for storage have been performed.

Numerous authors have investigated the effects of using treated wastewater for irrigation purposes.

Klay et al. (2010) evaluated the impact of the long-term use of treated wastewater in irrigation on geochemical properties of isohumic soils from Zouit Sousse perimeter (Tunisia). Their results showed that irrigation with treated wastewater could increase the salinity and heavy metals contents of the soil.

However, it was observed that metals’ migration essentially depend on the soil nature. So, in their particular case study, it was concluded that there was no problem in using treated wastewater but they also noticed the importance of following the evolution to be able to foresee, in time, possible exploitation problems.

Wastewater Reuse in Industry Under an average economic growth scenario, global industrial water requirements would increase from 800 billion m3 in 2009 to 1,500 billion m 3 by 2030. Industrial withdrawals account for 16% of today’s global demand, and are expected to grow to a projected 22% in 2030. This growth will come primarily from China (The 2030 Water Resources Group, 2009). In Europe, the industry and energy sectors account for 40% of the overall water consumption. The largest water user among the European industries is the manufacturing sector.

It is possible to identify two main types of reuse depending on whether the water comes into contact with food product(s) or not. Typical reuse applications, where the water usually has no such contact, include the use in cooling and for the generation of steam, not meant for direct contact with the food.

Water that does have contact with food may do so at the raw product stage (e.g. washing or transport), at intermediate stages (e.g. cleaning of equipment) or in the final product (e.g. residual water) (ILSI, 2008)., Water can be reused in some cases without pre-treatment, e.g. the use of condensates as washing water or the extraction water in the sugar production process. However, in most cases, water that is recycled or reused will need to be treated to improve its quality, particularly when it comes into contact with food or beverage products or is used to clean surfaces that will come in contact with products.

There are few manufacturing industries that use reclaimed treated wastewater in its processes, however the Spanish paper mill “Holmen”, is one of these that completely covers its water usage by reclaimed effluent from the Madrid municipal WWTP. Even in drinking water production a few examples can be mentioned of the reuse of effluent from a municipal WWTP for the production of drinking water (NEWater, Singapore) (PUB 2011).

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

Wastewater Reuse in Urban Areas Urban water reuse schemes reflect a wide range of source – treatment – supply options and are becoming a major component of urban water security strategies (Rygaard et al., 2011). Source waters include reclaimed wastewater from domestic and / or commercial and industrial sources as well as storm water and greywater. Treatment of the reclaimed water ranges from none (e.g. for some storm water reuse schemes) to intense use of membranes and chemicals. The recycled water can finally be delivered for uses as diverse as domestic toilet flushing through fire-fighting supply to urban green space irrigation. Planned indirect potable reuse applications are also slowly increasing in number with early adopters in the USA and Japan being joined by projects in Australia and Europe. Non potable schemes are particularly prevalent in Japan where thousands of commercial and public buildings benefit from recycled water for toilet flushing, saving about 30% of potable water use. China is also an area of significant growth in water reclamation and reuse (Yi et al. (2011)) and, in Europe, Spain is the country which has the greater reuse potential, forecasting values of 1,300 hm 3/yr by 2025 (Hochstrat et al., 2005; 2006). There are now thousands of water reclamation projects running across the world and their number is increasing. Although relatively few of these reclamation projects are in the EU, the significant potential for development reuse projects was usefully quantified by Hochstrat et al. In 2006.

A recent report by Global Water Intelligence (2009) strongly argued that the greatest market growth for water reuse in the coming years will come in the highest grade of urban water reuse using the threestage process of microfiltration, reverse osmosis and ultra-violet disinfection (or similar advancedoxidation technology). This water can be used in higher-value urban applications, reducing urban water stress and, despite being a more expensive process, providing better returns on investment. For example, in India and Mexico, the impetus for water reuse is coming from urban infrastructure investment programs in cities with minimal natural water resources.

The most well established such scheme in Europe is at Wulpen in Belgium. This initiative enables a 70% saving in abstraction of rainfed water from the supply aquifer (Van Houtte and Verbauwhede, 2008). A useful overview of indirect potable reuse projects together with a description of relevant epidemiological studies evaluating human health impacts and suggested operational measures to protect human health is provided in Rodriguez et al. (2009).

Direct planned reclamation for urban uses is relatively uncommon compared with other types of reuse.

However, in Windhoek, Namibia, there is a large scale example of direct potable wastewater reclamation where wastewater from households is treated by flocculation, sand filtration, ozonation, activated carbon filter, and ultrafiltration, before re-entering the city’s water supply (Dillan, 2005).

Although there are few operational direct potable reuse projects, trends in R&D will pave the way to its further implementation since it is considered a future imperative (Leverenz et al., 2011).

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

METHODS The Water Reuse Task Force (of the European Water Supply and Sanitation Technology Platform) was formed out of the need to identify research needs and opportunities of water reuse in Europe. Therefore in order to summarise the most relevant projects and initiatives to obtain an understanding of the market potential for water reuse, and by analysing barriers (legislative, social and market) and the uptake of existing technologies, a state of the art review was firstly undertaken before gathering European SMEs, large water production enterprises (Veoila, Suez, Abengoa Water, Acciona Agua, Dow amongst others), influential universities and research centres and public authorities in a series of workshops.

The first workshop was held at Suez Environment in Paris on the 9th of December, 2011. The second workshop was hosted by CTM at the Technical University of Catalunya (UPC) on the 23rd of March 2012.

The Objectives, Strategy & Schedule of the two workshops were run according to the following objectives: (1) To identify research needs, (2) To identify the bottlenecks to implementation, and (3) To identify major opportunities and benefits. In order to achieve these three main objectives the task force undertook the following tasks: • Summarised the most relevant projects which have been carried out to provide a better understanding of how and where water reuse currently fits into the overall concept of IWRM. • Justified to the European Commission the market potential of water reuse including the barriers (legislative, social and market) and the uptake of existing technologies (innovation) so there is clear justification for a dedicated topic on water reuse both in the context of EU member states and EU international collaboration.

• Integration of industrial involvement in water reuse and in the demonstration of technologies.

• Increased communication and dissemination regarding existing successful schemes both in EU and internationally to help increase public acceptance of water reuse concepts.

Operational demonstration sites were used as examples of current water reuse schemes being practiced in Europe as part of the workshops.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Although it has been widely demonstrated that the reuse of treated wastewater has significant potential as a resource, with positive implications for sustainable development in Europe (in particular in the southern countries and the Mediterranean region), a number of issues, barriers and impediments to the widespread implementation of water reuse have been identified. Addressing these barriers and utilizing the potential benefits requires research and innovation taking place in several areas. Many research and innovation aspects are also cross-cutting through the different water reuse sectors urban, agriculture, and industry but a number of specific needs are also depicted. Key research needs is an update on the current status of water reuse in Europe and a thorough analysis of the main drivers and barriers for water reuse development in different regions and sectors.

• Urban reuse schemes can be coupled with cross-cutting issues from other sectors. Therefore the urban research and innovation needs is included in the following cross-cutting research and innovation requirements at European level.

Innovation Required in Water ReuseRegulation Adequate regulations or at least guidelines are required at European level not only for agricultural irrigation, but also for urban irrigation and other urban uses. It is important to conduct research to develop and validate best reuse practices and health protection measures adapted to European conditions (based on the WHO guidelines for example).

Risk Management and Guidelines for a Risk Assessment Based Framework Historically, one of the most important challenges related to water reclamation and reuse has been the control of the environmental and health risks. While national regulations on water reuse in Europe set quality limits and monitoring protocols required to control these risks, it is still necessary to develop new methods to control and minimize the associated risk. The establishment of a framework for management of recycled water quality and use is the crucial element for health protection and needs to be developed and adapted in Europe.

There are research and innovation needs in the different categories of treatment technologies but membrane technology can be taken as an example. Membrane technologies are currently among those promising processes presenting higher energy demand and should be optimized to achieve the following specific consumptions for low pressure microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF); • <0.1 kWh/m3 for tertiary filtration systems, • <0.2 kWh/m3 for filtration systems in membrane bioreactors (MBRs) (including filtration and backwash).

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

In order to achieve the above mentioned challenges, it is necessary to explore new technologies for water reclamation and/or energy recovery. The efficiency and feasibility of these technologies should be assessed from the standpoint of technical, economic, environmental and social aspects. As core technologies that should be assessed in R&D or innovation projects are: • Membrane technology: new membranes (fouling resistant, low energy, high selectivity), application of nanotechnology in membranes, pressure retarded osmosis (PRO), etc.

• Hybrid technology treatment: advanced oxidation processes coupled with membrane technology (MBR, UF, RO), integration of membrane technologies and electro-oxidation processes, photo-catalysis coupled to membrane, selective nanostructures for trace elements removal, etc.

• Hybrid technology / natural Treatment: disinfection / oxidation processes coupled with infiltration ponds / constructed wetlands, low-pressure membranes combined with infiltration ponds, etc. Especially the complementarity of these treatment steps should be evaluated.

Economic Aspects and Real Value of Recycled Water To evaluate the real value of the use of recycled water as an alternative to a conventional water resource, there is a need to develop a methodology to quantify in monetary terms both the direct and indirect benefits to the economy (whether through tourism, agriculture or country development); society and to the environment. This would facilitate rational analysis of the cost effectiveness and the financial feasibility of a reuse project. The socio-economic aspects of water reuse require a set of further research actions, Social aspects and community acceptance.

One of the main challenges of water reclamation and reuse projects is to address the potential social rejection. Public nervousness about water reuse may not be related to a particular scheme as the very concept is often cited as objectionable. A more positive attitude to water reuse can come from wider understanding of the challenge (water security) as well as of the costs and benefits of the solution options. In many senses a paradigm shift is required; one which drives acceptance of the fact that "water is reusable". Community confidence in reuse schemes can be improved by providing independent and scientifically robust information that is free from political or commercial associations.

Dedicated autonomous research centres may be the answer and this level of specialism could usefully be extended to the regulatory bodies charged with overseeing reuse schemes.

Design of community engagement and participative planning actions which provide transparency regarding the risks to water supplies opportunities for communities to make informed contributions to urban water planning (including reuse components).

The following are the summarized water reuse needs identified in each sector in Europe: Agriculture: • Agricultural irrigation systems with a decreased carbon as well as water footprint, considering as a whole food production, food consumption, waste management etc.

• There is a need for better understanding of water buffering and storage components including their respective water quality impact.

• Improved interactions between different actors in the agricultural sector have to be developed.

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Industry: • Selective separation technologies for different industrial waters, energy efficient hybrid membrane technology for targeted removal of components and solving the problems of scaling, biofouling, concentrates and brines are important within this framework. Demonstration of these technologies, but also of combinations of new and existing biological and chemo-physical treatment technologies (treatment trains) are important steps in these innovations.

• Evaluation/modelling tools for identifying the most efficient focus for water recycling in the production chain, from raw material supply to packaging are required.

• Applying water reuse closer to the different process steps and make it a more integrated part of the process can contribute to a faster innovation towards a more sustainable process industry.

Urban: • Research should seek innovations which drive forward knowledge and understanding of urban water reuse system processes and management, thereby reducing both the actual and perceived risks of such schemes.

• Risk governance frameworks which integrate risk analysis across the various elements of water reuse schemes are urgently needed, as are studies which expose the risks for reuse scheme investors and develop tools to analyse and present these in a balanced way.

• Identify attractive business models for those wishing to invest in reuse initiatives, charging / pricing arrangements such that full cost pricing is consistent regardless of source.

CONCLUSION Water reuse can provide significant benefits in integrated management of stressed water resources as a dependable alternative water source. There are a number of barriers to a more widespread development of water reuse in Europe and a huge eco-innovation potential in terms of technologies and services around water recycling in industry, agriculture and urban water systems. The work of the Water Reuse Task Force has resulted in the successful submission of the European Project DEMOWARE (www.demoware.eu)

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Leverenz, H.L., Tchobanoglous, G., Asano, T., 2011. Direct potable reuse: a future imperative. Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination, 1, 2-10.

Pedrero, F., Kalavrouziotis, I., Jose Alarcon, J., Koukoulakis, P., Asano, T., 2010. Use of treated municipal wastewater in irrigated agriculture-Review of some practices in Spain and Greece.

Agricultural Water Management, 97, 1233-1241 PCC, 2007. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden P.J., Hanson C.E. (Eds) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Chapter 12.

PUB, 2011. NEWater The Third National Tap. Singapore.

Rodriguez, C., Van Buynder, P., Lugg, R., Blair, P., Devine, B., Cook, A., Weinstein, P., 2009. Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 6, 1174-1209.

Rygaard, M., Binning, P.J., Albrechtsen, H.J., 2011. Increasing urban water self-sufficiency New era, new challenges. Journal of Environmental Management, 92, 185-194.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The 2030 Water Resources Group, 2009. Charting Our Water Future.

UNW-DPC's, 2012. Safe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture. Capacity pool No. 14.

Van Houtte, E., Verbauwhede, J., 2008. Operational experience with indirect potable reuse at the Flemish Coast. Desalination, 218, 198-207.

Vigenswara, S., Sundaravadivel, M., 2004. Wastewater recycle, reuse and reclamation. In: Recycle and reuse of domestic wastewater. In: "Encyclopedia of life support systems (EOLSS)". Developed under the auspices of UNESCO, EOLSS Publishers Oxford, UK. WaterWorld, 2012. Wastewater (http://www.waterworld.com)

reuse

relieves

agricultural

irrigation

drought

in

Israel

WssTP (Water Supply and Sanitation Technology Platform) 2013. Water Reuse: Research and Technology Development Needs. Brussels.

Yi, L., Jiao, W., Chen, X., Chen, W., 2011. An overview of reclaimed water reuse in China. Journal of Environmental Sciences-China, 23, 1585-1593.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The Earth Auger – Development and Marketing of a New Descentralized Sanitary Technology Marcos Fioravanti Basombrío Fundación In Terris mfioravanti@fundacioninterris.org David Pereira Meza Fundación In Terris dpereira@fundacioninterris.org Juan Pablo Arguello Ambiente Creativo jarguello@ambientecreativo.com.ec

ABSTRACT Fundación In Terris (In Terris Foundation, Ecuador) and Critical Practices (USA) are working in the development, evaluation, and marketing of a new ecologic, decentralized sanitary technology, “The Earth Auger”. It is an ecologic composting toilet (with urine separator) that works with a pedal that activates a dry dragging mechanism that promotes composting and transformation of waste. It does not use nor pollutes water; it does not require electricity, it reduces the dispersion of diseases, and produces plant fertilizer. In a world where 2.5 billion people do not have access to safe sanitation (120 million in Latin America and almost 3 million in Ecuador), less than 20% of residual waters in Latin America are treated, and the projections estimate a water deficit over 40% for 2030, the Earth Auger comes out as an excellent alternative for the rural and suburban areas where there is no central sanitary infrastructure (piped water and sewages). Currently more than 50 experimental units have been installed in Ecuador and the project contemplates installing 300 before the end of 2014, with the purpose of evaluating acceptability, functionality, and sanitation of the sub-products; simultaneously the Ecuadorian and Latin American markets are being identified, sizing and characterized, and a competitive and solidary value chain that allows to offer a cost-effective, sustainable sanitary solution is being developed, generating at the same time employment and other social and environmental benefits. The current phase of the project has a 2-year schedule, from July 2013 to July 2015, which for by March 2015, its level of progress is expected to be around 75-90%. It is a multidisciplinary project that contemplates contributing by presenting results in the matters of sanitation (pathogen inactivation), functionality, and acceptability of the technology, marketing analysis, and commercialization channels.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

INTRODUCCTION

Currently in the world there are 2,5 billion people without access to safe sanitation; in Latin America, it is estimated that there are 120 million people in that situation. The consequences of lack of sanitation manifest in all activities and dimensions, by being an elemental need of human beings, and being linked directly to the transmission of our main gastrointestinal diseases, which cause the death of a child every 20 minutes. Besides high mortality, the lack of sanitation truncates the development of societies for countless reasons, for instance low work performance and poor school attendance, or water, soil, and environment pollution.

Hydraulic sanitary systems (toilet with a water dragging system) that are mainly deployed nowadays cannot be considered the only alternative nor the most sustainable solution, since they are associated to high consumption and pollution of water, to a high infrastructure investment that is only cost-effective in high density population communities (cities), demand a high consumption of electric energy and require expensive residual water treatment systems. The consequences of these disadvantages are clear; in most cases, when there is sewage there is no residual water treatment (less than 20% of residual waters in Latin America is treated) and, on the other hand, the lack of access to sanitation is concentrated in rural areas (33% of the rural population does not have access to basic sanitation, versus 13% in urban areas). In contrast to the lack of sanitation, 1 billion in the world do not have safe access to potable water and the projections, estimate a water deficit of 40% for 2030.

That is why solving the lack of sanitation implies the search of different alternatives, beyond replicating the traditional hydraulic systems. To solve this problem, the development of a range of alternatives that adjust to the different contexts, where the decentralized sanitary systems have a leading role, is a key factor. Likewise, it is necessary to establish the possible solutions in the framework of a conceptualization of sanitation as a business, with the goal to achieve sustainability and promote the creation of employments.

Fundación In Terris (Ecuador) and Critical Practices (USA) are working in the development, evaluation, and marketing of a new ecologic and decentralized sanitary technology, the “Earth Auger”.

It is the prototype of an ecologic composting toilet (with urine separation) that works with a pedal that activates a dry dragging mechanism that promotes composting and waste transformation. It does not use nor pollutes water; it does not require electricity, reduces the dispersion of diseases and produces plant fertilizer. The Earth Auger presents itself as an excellent alternative for the rural and suburban areas where there is no centralized sanitary infrastructure (sewages and piped water).

Specific Goals: • Evaluating in a large scale the functioning, acceptability, and sanitation of the “Earth Auger” technology.

• Developing large scale production logistics for the “Earth Auger” that allows reducing its cost, thus making it accessible to the poorest.

• Designing and implementing a marketing strategy for the commercialization of the “Earth Auger” in the framework of a solidary value chain that generates employment and microbusiness.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

•

Designing and implementing a micro financing diagram that increases the demand of the “Earth Auger” among the poorest.

METHODOLOGY The development, evaluation and marketing technology of the “Earth Auger” implies a multidisciplinary and multidimensional work that can be synthesized in four main axes: Technology Development It presents the improvement of the technology through the improvement of disadvantages or limitations detected at the beginning date of this phase, July 2013. Simultaneously, it presents the development of higher scale production mechanisms that allow to improve the quality of components, the appearance of the technology and that allow reducing the final retail price. This work was carried out with the cooperation of Critical Practices LLC. Strategic Stakeholder Management This axis can be divided in two sub-axes: the first one is of socialization of technology before the corresponding authorities, with the purpose of having this decentralized sanitation device being technically endorsed by the main decision-makers of the country and the region; the second corresponds to the involvement of research organizations, with the purpose of generating further knowledge on the technical and legal frameworks on this technology and general decentralized sanitation technologies.

Large Scale Demonstrations This axis presents the installment of at least 300 units in rural and suburban communities located in three regions of Ecuador (Costa, Sierra and Oriente), with the purpose of evaluating acceptability, functionality and sanitization of sub products, in different climatic and cultural contexts. During this phase the prototypes are donated, in exchange, the beneficiary or the counterpart entity covers the installation costs (shed or infrastructure, basic accessories; equivalents to 60-70% of the total investment) and assures the immediate and permanent use of the Earth Auger.

Market Research and Business Plan Market research, with the purpose of identifying, scaling, and characterizing the Ecuadorian market (in some aspect to Latin American level). Through information analysis of second hand sources, with the goal of better understanding the problem distribution and the potential market, through the convergence between lack of sanitation and water supply, and associated diseases. Also, through first source research with the purpose of knowing the behavior, habits and/or attitudes of Ecuadorian rural and suburban homes in sanitation matters; knowing the current sanitation supply for rural and suburban areas, among others.

Design and development of a competitive and solidary chain value that allows offering a cost-effective and sustainable sanitary solution, generating at the same time employment and other social and environmental benefits. Also through the analysis of access channels to potential clients, analysis of production, assembly, and distribution logistics, among others.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 1: Work axis of the project

RESULTS Currently, the Project is in a 55% advance. Most of the results obtained to date are registered in function of “technology development” and “key actors handling”. From November the installation and evaluation of 2014 prototypes begins, accompanied the market research with first source information.

Prototype Development and Production Logistics At the present time new mechanisms and components have been evaluated in the 2013 prototype and a new 2014 version has been developed, manufactured almost completely with the injection plastic technology, with first class finishes and a CIF cost of $150 before accessorizing and assembly. In this new version metallic components are reduced with the purpose of prolonging the service life and reduce the damage frequency.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

Image 1. 3D illustration of the 2014 prototype made by Critical Practices LLC.

Image 2. Images of the first prototype assembled by Critical Practices LLC for the component evaluation and mold corrections.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Image 3. Toilet of the new prototype, final version in injection molded plastic.

Photo:Critical Practices LLC.

Key Actor Handling The Project and technology has been socialized with the main corresponding authorities in relation to the water, environment and health subjects. The technology counts nowadays with the endorsement of the Quality Control Department of the Ministry of Environment (Departamento de Control de Calidad del Ministerio de Ambiente) and the co-financing for a large scale demonstration from the public company Ecuador EstratĂŠgico. Additionally,cooperation processes arebeing implemented with some Universities and technical authorities.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 2: Flow diagram for approaching key actors. Yellow indicates initiatedapproaches; green indicates successful approaches and red means unsuccessful approaches in function of the goal settled.

Demonstrations Currently 29 units of the 2013 functioning prototypes have been installed and 30 will be installed during November 2014 using 2014 prototypes. Between January and March 2015 250 new units will be installed in different cultural and climatic contexts of the country.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Graphic1. Satisfaction levels among the permanent users of the 2013 prototype. Very satisfied, Satisfied, Low satisfied, Unsatisfied. Answer to the question “How satisfied are you with the Earth Auger?”

Market Studies and Business Plan To the date georeferenced maps of the issues in Ecuador have been built and Latin America level data has been extrapolated. Simultaneously a substitute products analysis was developed and its cost (sanitary alternatives in Ecuador). There is also a decentralized toilet demand projection in Ecuador and a micro-financing alternatives analysis for future clients.

Image 4. Total of housings without access to improved sanitation in Ecuador by parroquia (district). Intense red, 9 thousand to 22 thousand houses; light yellow, 0 to 55 houses.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES Banco Mundial. 2013. Comunicado de prensa No. 2013/004/PA, 30 de mayo de 2013. http://www.bancomundial.org/es/news/press-release/2013/05/30/latinosan Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2012. http://www.gatesfoundation.org/Pages/home.aspx Henry, Chuck, and Fioravanti, Marcos. 2012. “Taladro de la Tierra”, innovation in waterless sanitation (project supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation). Second International Fecal Sludge Management Conference. Durban, South Africa.

Montalvo, Gustavo, and De Silva, Leonardo. 2012. Conversion of faecal sludge to liquid fuels. AI3D (Alianza para la Innovación en Integridad de Infraestructura y Ductos A.C.) (project supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation). Second International Fecal Sludge Management Conference.

Durban, South Africa. Contact info: teycafe@yahoo.com / lmm@corrosionyproteccion.com.

Tilley, Elizabeth et al. 2008. Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag). Dübendorf, Switzerland) UNICEF. 2012.

UNICEF press release, http://www.unicef.org/media/media_66390.html

New

York,

19

November

2012.

UNAM (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México). 2012. Boletín UNAM-DGCS-750, 4/Dic/2012.

Instituto de Ingeniería de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. http://www.dgcs.unam.mx/boletin/bdboletin/2012_750.html Wikipedia. 2012. Wikipedia in Spanish (http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratización) World Health Organization. 2012. UN-Water webpage: http://www.unwater.org/statistics_san.html World Health Organization and UNICEF. 2010. Progress in Sanitation and Drinking-Water, 2010 Update. Printed in France. 55p.

2030 Water Resources Group. 2009. Charting Our Water Future, Economic frameworks to inform decision-making. 198 p. http://www.2030waterresourcesgroup.com

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

Study of a new Technological Configuration Waste Water Treatment, Activated Sludge Plus (La+): Combination os a Membrane Bioreactor and Ozonation Developed to Reduce the Production of Sludge Purge and Improve the Quality of Treated Waters.

Cecilia Vidal, Fundación Chile Cecilia.vidal@fch.cl Ulrike Broschek, Fundación Chile Ulrike.broschek@fch.cl Josué Lagos, Fundación Chile Josue.lagos@fch.cl Carol Rivera Helbig, Fundación Chile carol.rivera@fch.cl

SUMMARY Reduce the production of sludge purge and generate potentially reusable water in the treatment of sewage water plants is crucial in a scenario of water scarcity. In this context, the purpose of this study is to assess the effect that the combination of lysis and cryptic growth (ozonation) strategies and maintenance metabolism (membrane bioreactor) generate, which defines the technology LA+, in terms of efficiency in minimizing sludge production and improving the quality of the obtained treated water. The baseline was set with a conventional activated sludge system (LAC) and effects of each metabolic technique were assessed separately by ozonation (LAO 3) and a bioreactor (MBR).

Results show that with an average dose of 0.04 gO 3/gSSTo or 0.01 gO3/h* [SSVo] the LA+ system was superior to the LAC, LAO 3 and BRM systems, complying with the limits set by the DS90 in all parameters evaluated for the quality of the treated water generated and also obtaining a production of sludge purge 75% inferior than LAC, yielding 0.22 gSSV/d v/s 0.88 gSSV/d.

Keywords: reduced sludge purge, water quality, ozonation, membrane bioreactor, wastewater treatment.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

INTRODUCTION The conventional activated sludge process (LAC for its initials in Spanish, lodos activados convencional) is the secondary treatment alternative most widely used to treat both domestic and industrial wastewater in the world, despite the high production of sludge purge it generates. Their final discharge accounts for up to 60% of the total cost of water treatment, and it is mainly performed through transfers [of sludge] to sanitary landfills, digestion, used as fertilizer or incineration. All these must be performed subject to restrictions due to the risk that high concentrations of persistent heavy metals, pathogens and organic contaminants mean for health (Wei et al., 2003; Guangming et al., 2009).

In Chile, there are more than 260 sewage water treatment systems (PTAS) operating and authorized by the Superintendencia de Servicios Sanitarios (SISS or Superintendency of Sanitary Services), which serve over eleven million people across the country. SISS holds that excess generation of sludge in treatment plants is a major problem, as there are permanent complaints from the community, it being a very sensitive issue.

METHODOLOGY In a first stage, degradation kinetics of O3 activated sludge were conducted to establish the best reaction conditions in terms of dosage, ozone power (continuous or intermittent) and pH (7 and 11). These were conducted in a batch ozonation system which uses a contact column-of sludge-O 3-, an O3 generator, a KI trap and a recirculation pump, as is shown in Figure 1a. Simultaneously, two reactor systems where built: LAC and BRM, see Figures 1b and 1c respectively. These were operated continuously both keeping the same hydraulic residence time and organic load until taking them to a stable state. Finally the ozonation process was incorporated in both reactors within the recirculation line. In turn, in both systems different parameters were monitored at three points of sampling which frequency and methodology are detailed in Table 1.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 1: a) Ozonation batch System, b) LAC System, c) BRM System.

Parameter

Affluent

Effluent

Bio-reactor

Frequency

x

x

x

Daily

Standard Methods, 1999

Volatile Suspended Solids, SSV

x

Daily

APPA, 1999

Soluble Microbial Products, PMS

x

Weekly

Raunkjaer et al., 1994; Rodríguez, 1987

Respiratory Active Rate, OUR

x

Before and after O3 period

Metcalf, 1998

Before and after O3 period

LaMotte analysis kit

Chemical Oxygen Demand, DQOs

Total Nitrogen, NT

x

x

Methodology

Table 1. Analysis methodologies and continuous system’ monitoring

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Results of Batch Stage We chose to work with a measuring unit of O 3 dose independent from volume and time of reaction gO3/h*[SSVo]. Figure 2 shows that both- with continuous and with intermittent feed the dosage has a degradation effect more significant than pH. However, when higher doses are combined with a basic pH, the effects are additive. Furthermore, intermittent feed degrades 3 times more than the continuous. This could be explained by the radical reaction of O 3 (OH*), given it can continue cyclically as long as it does not encounter inhibitors and also, without having a constant input of O 3, radicals would have competition for substrates and could continue their cyclic reaction. On the other hand, applying O3 continuously, saturates the system and part of the O 3 leaves the column without reacting, an effect that is minimized by doing so intermittently. To go on to continuous systems, it is decided to work with the highest dose, neutral pH, and continuous supply of O 3 because the dose effect was more significant than the pH and because continuous feeding is more scalable than intermittent.

Continuous Phase Results Systems’ Health Indicators Regarding the results shown in Table 2a, OUR values of LAC and BRM in the pre-ozonation stage (26 and 22 mgO2/L*h, respectively) are very close to those shown by most conventional activated sludge processes (30 mgO 2/L*h) (Van Haandel et al., 2007) and in the post- ozonation stage LAO 3 rises to 38 and LA+ 27 to mgO 2/L*h. Since the rate of respiratory activity is an indirect measure of the toxicity of environment, it can be said that the application of ozone had no detrimental effect on the reactors and, on the contrary, biomass present in them responded well to the excess organic load received.

PMS values had no significant changes caused by the effect of ozonation since before incorporating the oxidation of sludge their average value was 192±75 mgO 2DQO/L and subsequently it was 259±56 mgO2DQO/L. However, these were higher than those reported in previous studies (100-150 mgO2DQO/L) (Barrientos, 2009). It is worth mentioning that under these conditions the ultrafiltration membrane saturated quickly, however its backwash cycle with the same generated treated water, was optimized resulting in a savings of provisions given it replaces the use of chemicals.

Table 2. a) Indicators of Health of the System; b) Indicators of Treated Water Quality a) Parameter OUR (mgO2/L*h) PMS (mgO2DQO/L)

Normal Values

Pre O3

Post O3 BRM 22.32

LAO3

30

LAC 25.04

38.34

LA+ 25.82

100-150

-

191±74.8

-

258±55.7

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

b) Parameter DQO (mgO2/L) NT (mg/L)

DS90

Feeding Medium

35(DBO5) 50

Pre O3

Post O3

Effluent LAC

Effluent BRM

Effluent LAO3

Effluent LA+

550

39.0

31.,4

34,8

31.4

30

17.5

20.0

42.0

20.0

Treated Water Quality Table 2b shows that the total quantified nitrogen in the treated water increased as a result of ozonation in both systems, from 17mg/L to 42 mg/L in LAO 3 and 20 mg/L to 25 mg/L in LA+. That is, LA+ was more efficient removing nitrogen.

DQOs values remained almost constant in both systems with almost 30 mgO 2/L, and regardless of the incorporation of the ozonation process, which implies a removal of 95% of the organic load.

Micro Fauna as Bioindicators The parameters indicating the health of the systems and quality of treated water showed that reactors responded in good way to incorporating O3, however when observing the micro fauna present before and after adding this variable, it is possible to perceive a change in the microorganisms constituents of activated sludge. In other words, there was an evolution in the micro fauna where organisms capable of adapting to the new conditions of stress and organic load developed, evidencing the rapid response capacity of activated sludge (Vilaseca 2001, RodrĂ­guez 2009) were developed.

a) LAC

b) BRM Figure 3: Bio-indicators.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Reduction of Sludge Purge Table 3 shows that the same average dose used in LA+ always had higher percentages of degradation than LAO3. In addition, the applied dose is in the lower range of the doses reported in literature (0.1 gO3/gSST (Kyung et al., 2003) and 0.16 gO3/gSST (Sheng et al., 2006) for BRM and 0.05 gO3/gSST (Guangming et al., 2009) for a LAC). This is due mainly to two reasons: 1) [SSVo] and 2) the size of sludge floccule (flocks) of both reactors. In the first case, the initial concentration of the LAO 3 SSV system was 9.2 g/L, while that of the LA+ system was 5.5 g/L. These values are considered in the dosage unit gO3/h*[SSVo], where both types of sludge were 0.01 gO 3/ h*[SSVo] on average during the time of ozonation. However, ozone access to each floccules may be more difficult if the sludge is more concentrated. In the second case, it was microscopically found that the size of the sludge floccules of LA+ is approximately 5 times smaller compared to the LAO 3 sludge, which would allow a faster access for ozone or radicals. These two reasons surpass the LA+ sludge to be degraded. LA+ spends less ozone than LAO3.

Table 3. LAC and BRM Ozonation month gO3/gSSTo

Week

SSV Obtained degradations (%) LA+

1

LAO3 0.02

2

0.02

3 4

0.06

Average

LA+

0.01

LAO3 18

0.01

11

61

0.07

10 12

15 20

12.8%

30.5%

0.09 0.12 .04 gO /gSSTo Ăł 0.01 gO 0 3 3/h*[SSVo]

43

Analyzing each metabolic technique separately from the established baseline (Table 4), and considering the 1:2 ratio between LAC and BRM, cryptic lysis-growth strategy caused by ozonation in LAO3 obtained almost 40% of reduction in the sludge purge versus 35% of BRM maintenance metabolism technique, so they are fairly even. However, when comparing the respective Px, BRM is better than LAO3 because it decreases twice as much [sludge]. With these results, the final decision to choose one technique or the other lies primarily in an economic balance between investment and savings due to a reduced sludge production, in addition to the quality of the treated water to be obtained. Combining both metabolic techniques in LA+ technology indeed a better sludge reduction was generated by achieving 61.2% less [sludge] and also 75% reduction in Px, thus verifying efficiency.

Table 4. Sludge purge reduction by application each metabolic strategy Base line, LAC

Lyses-growth Lysis-growth % change Maintenance % change % change cryptic cryptic and regarding the metabolism, regarding base regarding base (ozonation), maintenance base line BRM line line LAO3 metabolism, LA+

Purge, (mL/d)

100

60.22

-40%

65

-35%

38.8

-61%

Px, (g/d)

0.88

0.6

-32%

0,37

-58%

0.22

-75%

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

CONCLUSIONS Taking into account the O3 expense, the percentage of degradation of sludge and sludge reduction obtained in LAO3 and LA+, with average doses of 0.04 gO3/gSSTo or 0.01 gO3/h*[SSVo], the LAO3 system had a degradation average of 12.8% which resulted in a 39.8% reduction in sludge purge while the LA+ system had a degradation average of 30.5% and 61.2% reduction in sludge purge. This implies that the same amount of ozone produces a greater reduction in the generation of purge in LA+ than in LAO3. If, to this, the considerably better quality of treated water generated by the LA+ technology over LAO3 is added, Activated Sludge Plus represents a real solution for Chile's future that is statutory more rigorous regarding the requirements to be met by treated waters that will be returned to natural causes.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES APPA (1999) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. Washington: American public health association, 20a ed.

Barrientos Díaz Rodrigo (2009) Tesis: Cinética de síntesis de Productos Microbianos Solubles (PMS) utilizando mezclas de sustratos simples en cultivos tipo lodos activos. Universidad de Santiago de Chile.

Standard Methods of The Examination of Water and Wastewater (1999). Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), 20a ed..

Dziurla M.A., M. Salhi, P. Leroy, E. Paul, Ph. Ginestet, J.C. Block. (2005) Variations of respiratory activity and glutathione in activated sludges exposed to low ozone doses. Water Research(39)2591– 2598.

Guangming Zhang, Jing Yang, Huanzhi Liu, Jie Zhang. Sludge ozonation (2009) Disintegration, supernatant changes and mechanisms. Bioresource Technology (100)1505-1509.

Kyung-Guen Song, Youn-Kyoo Choung, Kyu-Hong Ahn, Jinwoo Cho, Hojoon Yun. (2003) Performance of membrane bioreactor system with sludge ozonation process for minimization of excess sludge production. Desalination(157)353-359.

Metcalf y Eddy Inc. (1998). Ingeniería de Aguas Residuales: Tratamiento, Vertido y Reutilización. 3a Ed. Editorial McGraw-Hill, Raunkjaer K., Hvitved - Jacobsen T. and Nielsen P. H. (1994). Measurement of pools of protein, carbohydrate and lipid in domestic wastewater. Wat. Res.(28)251-262.

Rodríguez Juan Antonio (1987). Manual de prácticas de bioquímica. 4ª ed.

Rodríguez Eva María (2009). Microbiología de Fangos Activos, Grupo Bioindicación Sevilla.

Sheng-bing Hea, Gang Xueb, Bao-zhen Wang (2006). Activated sludge ozonation to reduce sludge production in membrane bioreactor (MBR). Journal of Hazardous Materials 406–411.

SuperIntendencia de Servicios Sanitarios, Gobierno de Chile. www.siss.gob.cl Van Haandel Adrianus, Jeroen van der Lubbe (2007). Handbook Biological Waste Water Treatment Design and Optimisation of Activated Sludge Systems. Apendice 1: Determination of the Oxygen Uptake Rate.501.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

Vilaseca M. (2001). Observación microscópica de fangos activados en los tratamientos de depuración biológica. Boletín Intexter (U.P.C) (119) 67-72.

Wei Yuansong, Renze T. Van Houten, Arjan R. Borger, Dick H. Eikelboom, Yaobo Fan (2003). Minimization of excess sludge production for biological wastewater treatment. Water Research (37)4453–4467.

Potable Water Supply and Sanitation – Water Week LA 2015

Sustainable Hydrological Areas

Discovering Different Values of the Protected Water Resource in a Natural Space, Through Analisys and Visualization of Social Preferences.

Claudia Cerda Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Conservación de la Naturaleza Universidad de Chile claudcerda@gmail.com Gabriel Mancilla Centro del Agua para Zonas Áridas y Semiáridas de América Latina y El Caribe gmancill@gmail.com Carmen Luz de la Maza Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Conservación de la Naturaleza Universidad de Chile cdlamaza@gmail.com

ABSTRACT In this study, a socioeconomic assessment of the protected water resource at the Altos de Lircay National Reserve in the Maule Region was carried out, from the perspective of Chilean visitors that enter the reserve. Specifically, the desire of the visitors’ to pay (DAP, Disposición a Pagar) to ensure the benefits of the water resource in the long term. The benefits assessed through social preferences were the following: water for agricultural irrigation in San Clemente, potable water in San Clemente, tourism and recreation inside the reserve, conservation of the biodiversity and the ecosystem’s processes, and potential uses such as hydroelectricity. Additionally, some protected species, the growing levels of touristic development, and protection of the soil quality, were also considered. By directly applying a choice experiment on the visitors, a statistically significant DAP for the different water uses (p<0,05) was obtained. A random sampling of 570 Chilean visitors were interviewed. The econometric calibration was carried out taking as base the Random Utility Theory. The results indicate that, from the visitors’ perspective, the most appreciated water value is related with the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem processes, followed by the two uses in San Clemente, as well as the touristic use. Nevertheless, the DAP for guaranteeing uses regarding hydroelectricity is visibly meaningful (p<0,05), but negative, therefore indicating that the group of actors that were interviewed related to the reserve, does not visualize in a good way this potential use. The results allow evincing that the visitors are capable of appreciating different uses of the protected water resource in a natural area. Their preferences are essentially motivated by non-use values, however also, by direct use values, which indicates that they conceive natural areas as important in giving direct benefits to society (in this case, potable and water for irrigation). Future research will give enlightenment on how the preferences hereby obtained from a group of actors related to a protected natural space, can differ from the point of view of other relevant actors, such as the human communities outside the areas.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

KeyWords: Altos de Lircay National Reserve, water uses, choice experiment, will to pay.

INTRODUCTION Bodies of water are relevant to generate diverse services such as potable water, irrigation water, hydroelectricity, tourism, as well as sustaining biodiversity and biologic cycles (Doherty et al. 2014).

All these services are part of the human well-being (Doherty et al. 2014). For the same reason, knowing preferences and social visions regarding the different water uses is relevant (Martín-López et al. 2012).

Nevertheless, there are only a few studies in Chile that cover the social relevance water resources offer, given most of them focus on the existing markets for these resources. In this context, protected areas can contain bodies of water whose benefits transcend their own boundaries benefitting consequently neighboring communities (De la Maza et al. 2014).

In this study, different benefits from the water resources present in the Altos de Lircay National Reserve, in the Maule Region, were valued socioeconomically from the perspective of the Chilean visitors over 18 years of age that access the area. Following the logic of the concept of economic value of a natural resource or environmental attribute (for further details see Kanninen 2010; Martín-López et al. 2012), the economic values hereby obtained are not absolute, and are subjective to the user that valued the environmentally protected attributes. In this context, it is fundamental to emphasize that there is not an unique economic value for a service or nature attribute that generates benefits, since economic values underlie human demands and interests, these differ depending on the different users or social actors that benefit from a service, and the environment in which the service manifests (Hensher et al. 2005; Kanninen 2010). Thus, a tourist that visits nature, will not value the same way the water resources in a natural area as a neighboring farmer that can potentially use it for his own productive activities. Thusly, the economic value of a service or natural attribute is inherent to the user (Cerda et al. 2013), which is essential to understand in order to make good use of the information gathered, and to have into account the necessary precautions at the moment of using the information.

Capturing different values associated to water resources, is critical to conduct adequate analyses that inform how different projects or policies can affect the well-being of the different users of this resource. This study provides enlightenment in this sense.

METHODOLOGY Area of Study: Altos de Lircay National Reserve The research was conducted in the Altos de Lircay National reserve, located in the Andean foothills of the Maule Region, in the commune of San Clemente. The surface of the reserve is 12.163 hectares approximately.

Even though the Maule Region counts with dams and a vast irrigation crops culture, there are not many studies linked to the water resources of the region, specially referring to the ecosystem services they provide. The Maule Region consists of five basins, named by the MOP (2011) as: Maule, Mataquito, Regional limit of Mataquito River, Coastal Mataquito Maule and Coastal Maule on the limit with the Biobio Region (Figure1). The first two (Maule and Mataquito) are of utmost importance. The Altos de Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

Lircay National Reserve is inserted in the Maule basin. The Claro River, one of the major tributaries of the Maule, flows into the reserve; while the Blanquillo and the Lircay rivers, which flow into the reserve, are tributaries of the Claro River.

Most part of the water resources used in the region comes from superficial sources. Nevertheless, subterranean sources are also used, though it is estimated that they are in a lesser rate than its refill (MOP 2011).

There are 25 water catchment systems for rural purification in the commune of San Clemente (MOP 2011), which would depend directly from the water sources of the National Reserve Altos de Lircay. In the broader spectrum of which the hydrologic system of the National Reserve is part of, that is the Maule basin, in 2017 it would produce more potable water than demanded (1667 L/s produced, versus 1210 L/s demanded). By year 2006, there were in the basin 212 rural potable water services, supplying more than 228.000 people (DGA-MOP-Luis Arrau del Canto Consultants 2008).

On the other hand, the Maule basin has 2.107.495 hectares of surface, of which a 21,9% (461.305 ha) are assigned to agricultural lands and irrigation farming, employing the Maule River as a water resource, or the aquifers that are located on the basin (DGA-MOP-CADEPE_IDEPE 2004).

The water resources of the Lircay National Reserve are also essential to maintain the biodiversity (DGA-MOP- CADEPE-IDEPE 2004). Nevertheless, they also gain relevance for other uses such as potable water and agriculture as it was formerly stated.

Figure 1: Basins in the Maule Region. The magnitude of the Maule basin, from which Altos de Lircay encloses all its water courses (adapted from DGA, in MOP 2011).

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Valuation Tool: Choice Experiment The methodology of socioeconomic value assessment, consisted in a choice experiment (CE), that shed light over the necessity of counting on information on the economic value of environmental services (Hensher et al. 2005).

The CE is based on Lancaster’s theory of attribute-based consumer demand (Lancaster, 1966) which proposes that consumers do not have preferences for goods or services per se, but do have them for the attributes or characteristics of the given goods/services. The CE “decomposes” preferences for a complex good/service (in this case the good or service corresponds to conservation management alternatives for the Lircay Reserve), in a small number of components, each one of them referring to specific characteristics (attributes) of the alternatives. This way, the crucial stage of the choice experiment is the selection of attributes that will be valued and its variation levels. Considering the characteristics of the area and the vision of the professionals of the National Forestry Corporation Maule (Corporación Nacional Forestal Maule), involved in the management of protected areas, in this study the attributes were essentially referred to: a) guaranteeing different uses of the water resources present in the Altos de Lircay Reserve; b) the conservation of animal and vegetal species of interest; c) protecting the soil in camping and trekking areas; and d) the touristic development of the area. These attributes were quantified through different variation levels. In Table 1 the environmental attributes valued were presented (ecosystemic services), as well as its variation level

Table 1.Valued attributes, related ecosystemic service and variation levels of the attributes. The grey row shows the construction of the attribute regarding the benefits of the water resource that were valued.

VARIATION LEVELS OF THE RELATED TYPE OF ATTRIBUTE REGARDING THE ATTRIBUTES DESCRIPTION ECOSYSTEMIC VALUE CURRENT SITUATION SERVICE (VET) N°

Regulation (maintenance of ecologic functions) WATER PROTECCTIO N ON THE RESERVE

Has to do with the different current or potential water usages in and from the Reserve

Cultural: ecotourism and aesthetic values

Indirect Use

Consumptive Benefits: Potable water Irrigation water Hydroelectricity (potential)

Direct Use

5

STATUS QUO: Very incipient research regarding the different uses of water LEVEL 1: Irrigation in San Clemente LEVEL 2: Potable water in San Clemente LEVEL 3: Tourism and recreation (water flows contribute to the scenic beauty and enjoyment of tourists) LEVEL 4: Conservation of protected biodiversity in the Reserve (variety of ecosystems, species and genes) +Manifestation of relevant ecosystemic processes in the reserve such as water, nutrients, and energy flows LEVEL 5: Other future potential uses: hydroelectricity

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SOIL QUALITY IN CAMPING AND TREKKING AREAS

Operationalized through levels that reflect compaction, formation of trenches and damages on the vegetation of slopes and trails

RESEARCH FOCUSED ON THE RESERVE WILDLIFE FOR AN EFFICIENT PROTECTION

Research actions towards wildlife allow making a better conservation management of species and its habitats

TOURISMAND INFRASTRUC TURE

Has to do with the impact tourism and infrastructure could generate in the Reserve

ENTRANCE FEE ($/ADULT/ VISITOR)

Paid vehicle

Regulation (maintenance of ecologic functions) Cultural: ecotourism and aesthetic values

Regulation: habitat for species Direct use: Attractive species

Indirect Use 1 Direct Use

Indirect use Direct use

7

Non-use Non-use (existence)

Direct use: tourism

-

Direct use

-

3

8

STATUS QUO: Camping: compactation and loss of vegetation, exposed roots Trails: exposed roots, vegetation loss in slopes LEVEL 1: Improvement: Camping: enclosure of vegetation areas+ continuous visual supervision Trails: trench control, works for reducing exposed roots + continuous visual supervision STATUS QUO: there is stillresearch to be done in many relevant groups LEVEL 1: Reptiles LEVEL 2: Birds LEVEL 3: Insects LEVEL 4: Rodents LEVEL 5: Nothofagus LEVEL 6: Sclerophyllous LEVEL 7: Herbaceous plants STATUS QUO: Camping: 30 sites (180 people) Picnic (30 sites) It has been projected a growing tourist demand LEVEL 1: Small increment: Camping: 37 sites (222 people) Picnic (37 sites) NIVEL 2: Medium increment Camping: 45 sites (270 people) Picnic (45 sites) LEVEL 3: Large increment Camping: 60 sites (360 people) Picnic: 60 sites $2.000 (Status Quo); $3.000; $4.000; $5.000; $6.000; $7.000; $8.000; $9.000

The attributes and levels presented in Table 1 were combined through an experimental design in such a way that constructing the hypothetic alternatives of “conservation management for the reserve”, that the participants of the study had to face. As a product of the combination of attributes and levels, the participants had to face 8 sets of choices. In each set people had to compare three scenarios through which different versions of the management alternatives for the reserve were presented (Hensher et al.

2005). Two of the alternatives were generated according to the rules of experimental design (Hensher et al. 2005). The third alternative implied that none of the other additional conservation strategies is im plemented and represents the current situation (Status quo).

To obtain economic values for the incorporated attributes, a monetary attribute was included to each scenario, "operationalized" as an additional cost for the individual, to be paid when the alternative is implemented (DAP; Tab.1). The scenario that the Status Quo represents does not include additional costs. In the case of the Altos de Lircay National Reserve, a raise was considered in the admission fee

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to the area. Elasser (1999) indicates that in the context of protected areas, a raise in the admission fee turns out to be a realistic mechanism that makes possible DAP estimates for environmental services.

Thus, the valuation assessment questionnaire comprises the following sections: a) Introduction: characteristics and goals of the study. Information confidentiality details. b) Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perceptions regarding the role of the area, as well as activities that take place, motifs of

visitation, among others. c) Choice experiment: explanation of attributes and levels and choice sets. The attributes and levels were thoroughly explained to the visitors. For this purpose images and photographs of the assessed attributes sustained the presentation. The participants chose then the alternative they would like to see implemented, subject to budget restrictions. d) Socio-demographic characteristics of the interviewees.

The questionnaire application had a duration of 20-30 minutes and the answer rate was quite positive.The questionnaire was applied during January and February of 2013 by properly trained Universidad de Chile's Forestry Engineering senior-year-students.

The choice of the chosen alternative is explained by the levels of the attributes incorporated, the socioeconomic features of the individual, and an error factor that captures those agents that affect the choice but cannot be observed directly by the researcher (Hensher et al. 2005). Finally, the attributes that influenced the choice of a specific alternative, and the implicit ranking of the attributes were estimated. The Random Utility Theory (McFadden 1973) was used to explain the probability of a picking and alternative. A logistic model for the econometric calibration was used (Hensher et al.

2005).

The marginal will to pay for the considered attributes can be obtained dividing the statistic coefficient of each environmental attribute by the statistic coefficient of the monetary attribute (Hensher et al.

2005).

Sustainable Hydrological Areas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

RESULTS The assessment interviews were answered by 570 Chilean visitors. No person protested against the conservation scenarios presented.

In Table 2 the output of the multinomial logistic model and the DAP for the levels of the attributes considered are presented. The model also shows socio-demographic and attitudinal variables that had statistical significance, and therefore influenced the preferences of people.

Table 2. Multinomial Logistic Model (n=570). Economic Value Assessment. Altos de Lircay National Reserve.

STATISTIC WILL TO PAY(DAP) ATTRIBUTES AND LEVELS COEFFICIENT MARGINAL/PERSON/VISITOR Protection of water in the Reserve for different uses: Irrigation in San Clemente 0.215*** 1.535 Potable Water in San Clemente 0.487*** 3.000 Tourism and Recreation 0.427*** 3.005 Conservation of Biodiversity 0.754*** 5.385 Other Potential Future Uses: Mining, Hy-0.232* dropower -1.657 Soil: Protection of soil quality in campings and 0.52*** 3.714 trails.

Wildlife protection: Reptiles 0.08(ns) Birds 0.893*** 6.379 Insects 0.341*** 2.435 Rodents 0.274*** 2.000 Nothofagus 0.501*** 3.579 Sclerophyllous 0.506*** 3.614 Herbaceous plants 0.205** 1.464 Progressive changes to the touristic infrastructure: Small Increment 0.17** 1.214 Medium Increment -0.01(ns) Large increment -0.291*** -2.078 Admission Fee Raise (1000PCH) -0.14*** INCXAEC 0.10*** GENXAEC 0.25*** TAXXAEC 0.09** Log likelihood -4335 P (Chi2) <0.0001 Pseudo-R2 0.30 *:p<0.10; **: p<0.05;***:p<0.001; ns: not meaningful; INC: Income; GEN: Gender; TAX: perception on how the government uses the citizens’ taxes (attitudinal variable). AEC: Specific constant alternative (Alternativa Específica Constante) that detects the effect of the Status Quo(Bateman et al. 2012; Henscher et al. 2005).

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

The former model (Table 2), is statistically meaningful (P<0,0001). The second column shows the statistic coefficients of the valued attributes and the third one show the marginal/person/visitor will to pay for each attribute. In the second column are also shown socio-demographic variables (RENTA: INC y GENERO: GEN) that resulted being statistically meaningful. It is also shown the effect of the attitudinal variable TAX, referred to the perception of people about how they consider the government uses the citizensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; taxes. This was included since in other studies have shown that a bad perception could affect the DAP negatively for preserving nature. The coefficients indicates the magnitude of the importance the person gives to each attribute.

Regarding the different water uses, people definitively reject potential uses such as hydroelectricity, which is reflected in the negative sign of this coefficient, which is quite significant at the same time. In this same context, the use of water for preserving biodiversity in the reserve is the most important for the participants of the study. The results also indicate that consumptive uses as irrigation and potable water are also well valued by the visitors, as well as the non-consumptive uses related to tourism inside the area.

The monetary attribute coefficient is statistically meaningful and with negative sign, as expected.

In the scope of the other attributes valued, it is observed that all the levels of the attributes, with the exception of reptiles, and the medium increase of the tourism infrastructure of the area, emerge as determinants of choice (p<0.10).

Additionally, people with higher income have a positive effect in the choice of a determinate conservation alternative different from the status quo. On the other hand, males have a higher will to pay than women participants in the study. Finally, if people believe the government uses the taxes that people pay adequately, it influences positively in moving from the status quo to a conservation alternative whose implementation requires a fee.

Application of Results The results allow to evidence that the visitors are capable of appreciating different uses of the protected water resource in a natural area. Its preferences are essentially motivated by non-use values, but also by direct use values , which allows to indicate that the participants of the study conceive that natural areas are important in giving direct benefits to society (in this case drinking and irrigation water). Further research will allow enlightenment regarding how the preferences hereby obtained from a group of actors related to a protected natural space can differ from other relevant actors, as the human communities that are found outside the areas. In this context the study will be carried out by the National Forestry Corporation (CorporaciĂłn Nacional Forestal), the institution funding the project, for the update of ecosystemic services assessment strategies given by protected areas and allows connecting the area with the demands of the commune of San Clemente. The results and experience will be turned into a book that will be spread in a way to give input for public policies.

The study represents one of the few intents of using choice experiments for the socioeconomic value assessment of benefits given by water resources in Latin America and provides a structured context in which public preferences for different water benefits can be evaluated quantitatively. In the national context, the study is unique, and the economic values obtained can be used as inputs to design environmentalmanagement strategies inside as well as outside the reserve.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES Cerda C., Ponce A. and Zappi, M. (2013) ʻUsing choice experiments to understand public demand for the conservation of nature: a case study in a protected area of Chileʼ, Journal for Nature Conservation 21:143–153.

DGA-MOP, CADEPE-IDEPE. (2004) Diagnóstico y clasificación de los cursos y cuerpos de agua según objetivos de calidad. Cuenca del Río Maule. 146 p. más anexos.

DGA-MOP, Luis Arrau del Canto Consultores. (2008) Plan Director para la Gestión de los Recursos Hídricos Cuenca del Río Maule. Fase II: Actualización del Modelo de Operación del Sistema y Formulación del Plan. Resumen Ejecutivo. 167 p.

De La Maza, C.L., Cerda, C., Aliste, E. and Ángel, P. (2014) Manual para aplicar indicadores de sustentabilidad en áreas protegidas: Ámbito Sociocultural. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Gráfica Metropolitana. 48 pp.

Doherty, E., Murphy, G., Hynes, S. and Buckley, C. (2014) ʻValuing ecosystem services across water bodies: Results from a discrete choice experimentʼ, Ecosystem Services 7: 89-97.

Elsasser, P. (1999) ʻRecreational benefits of forests in Germanyʼ, In The Living Forest. Non-Market Benefits of Forestr, ed. Roper, C.S. and Park, A., pp. 175–183. London, UK: The Stationery Office.

Hensher, D., Rose, J. and Greene, W. (2005) Applied choice methods: a primer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kanninen, B. (2010) Valuing environmental amenities using stated choice studies. The Netherlands: Springer.

Lancaster, K. (1966) A New Approach to Consumer Theory. The Journal of Political Economy, 74(2):132-157.

Martín-López, B., Iniesta-Arandia, I., García-Llorente, M., Palomo, I., Casado-Arzuaga, I. et al. (2012) ʻUncovering Ecosystem Service Bundles through Social Preferencesʼ, PLoS ONE 7(6): e38970. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038970.

McFadden, D. (1973) ʻConditional logit analysis of qualitative choice behaviorʼ, In Frontiers in econometric, ed. Zarembka, P., pp. 105-142. New York: Academic Press.

MOP. (2011) Plan Regional de Infraestructura y Gestión del Recurso Hídrico al 2021. Región del Maule. 303 p.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Native Forest Research Fund (Fondo de Investigación del Bosque Nativo). CONAF. Project 029/2012.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

São Francisco River Basin; Conflict of Interest?

Reginaldo G Souza Professor/ researcher SMEB, Belo Horizonte, MG-Brasil

pemux@ig.com.br Norma Angélica Hernández-Bernal Independent Consultant/researcher, México h2o.norma@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Water conflicts are, most of the times, expressed as social, economic, cultural and even ethnic problems. Conflicts can be localized, but they always have a broader context that involves social and economic stability and therefore it implies a matter of social stability, peace and justice. However, in many cases it is not water scarcity what triggers conflict, but the lack of infrastructure to supply water, institutional and policy problems, such as corruption, inequity in water decision, lack of transparency and of democracy in water management, but above all it is social and economic inequity that define the decisions related to water access and its distribution. In Latin America, water conflicts are related with land tenure and with the spatial economic arrangements. The productive uses of the land need water to produce and in arid or semiarid regions, available water limits agriculture more than the soil itself. In these cases, water allocation and water use decisions will have an impact over the decisions taken on land use. Therefore, it is important to consider the land tenure system or land property rights as well as the groups that are affected by the decisions taken in relation with water allocation between neighboring basins and how this affects water rights of the different stakeholders. In Brazil, the case of the São Francisco River is highlighted because land tenure system, which interferes with legal policies and reforms, has not been considered and it can be a triggering element in the outbreak of conflicts among intra-national basins.

INTRODUCTION Basins are the spatial unit where water have variations of volume and quality in a natural way, but as well by the impacts originated by human activities: water supply, wastewater, agriculture, power generation, recreation, etc. Superficial waters are used in a very intensive manner and frequently are under pressure. To satisfy the increasing demand of goods and the basic needs of population as well as of the needs of all economic sectors have caused an increase in the use of water around the world. This situation can put in risk the availability of water in regions with important climate variability and Brazil does not escape from this situation in spite of possessing 43% of superficial water resources in the South American region (FAO, 2003). The pressure caused by the diversity in use of water is increasing and in regions where there is no balance among social, economic and environmental variables, the sustainable use of water has gone beyond its limits.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

Never the less, in spite that the demand and pressure over water is increasing, globally it does not seem to be a water crisis, though rain irregularity and distribution around the world, and specially in midlatitudes, favors chronic water scarcity conditions, affecting economic, politic and social development of these regions in the next years (Bigas, 2012; World Water Organization, 2014).

In Latin America, water conflicts are strongly related with land tenure and spatial economic arrangements, but the attention has focused in land aspects without any link with the water available in it (Castro, 2006). The productive uses of land need water and in arid and semiarid regions, water limits agriculture even more than land. In these cases, the decisions related with the use and allocation of water resources will have a repercussion in the decisions of the land creating conflicts among the stakeholders within the basins.

METHODOLOGY This paper is part of a study that analyses conflict situations cause by the multiple use of water in several countries in Latin America. Extensive bibliographic and periodical publications research is being performed on the disputes over water resources happening in the basin of the São Francisco River, among other basins. Hydrological data as well as environmental and socioeconomic information of the sub-regions of the São Francisco River and of the northeastern semiarid region of Brazil were obtained through the consulting systems available in governmental Brazilian institutes.

Water and Natural Resources: a Theoric Perspective If we consider the article written by Garrett Hardin in 1968, The tragedy of the commons, to contextualize the problem of access to water and land, it can be said that individual rationality can lead to collective irrationality. The parable which Hardin re-created, tells how in an open grass field in which some herds were being fed, the constant tribal wars, natural predators and diseases would eliminate constantly a variable number of animals each year. This would keep the situation in stable condition.

In this way, there was a balanced relation between herds and grassland. The stability was evident for the herders and as the grasses belonged to “everyone”, they thought that it would be fine to add more animals of their own. Each one of them would try to do it as fast as they could since the other herders would increase the number of animals in their own herds. Consequently, the herds grow so much that they overpass the grassland capacity to recover and, in the end, everybody is dealing with a tragedy.

Hardin emphasized that if there would be a society in which each individual chase rationally just its own interests, this society will be doomed to failure. In essence, men tend to use their energy and ingenious to satisfy their own longings and if everyone does that, there will be a fight involving everybody and the tragedy will be inevitable.

Harding reaches conclusions quite similar to those elaborated by Aristoteles in IV B.C.: that, that what is common to the majority of the men, probably will not be taken care of by none of them. Or, if some individuals can obtain a benefit of something that belongs to, or was obtained with a collective effort without any contribution to its maintenance, then the other individuals will have the intuition to do the same and there will be a moment in which there will be nothing to get usufruct for none of them (Ostrom, 1990).

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Elinor Ostrom (1990) proposes that all these schemes to think the access to common goods have, potentially, an extraordinary capacity for the scrutiny of several problems in different knowledge fields.

The problem lays in the extrapolation that every metaphor encloses, compromising the real world and all its infinite particularities in just one archetype. From a theoretical review and from the study of an important number of empiric cases on auto-organized collective actions (the government of the commons), Ostrom rejects the inevitability of the tragedy leaving the door open to the possibility of avoiding conflicts through cooperation, through direct participation of those involved and the reach of common agreements.

The appropriation of a defined space, considering the use of its resources for life support and, at certain moment, for the establishment of economic relations with other groups, is a fact inherent to the most primitive human social groups. Far beyond the fact that the surface of earth is finite â&#x20AC;&#x201C; which in itself it is capable of generating scarcity or expectation of scarcity â&#x20AC;&#x201C;, the places of this surface which have any natural resource which can be used to facilitate the social productive or reproductive work, always have been object of property (private or collective).

In this way the soil and its fertility, the strategic localization, the abundance of fish, water springs, the fuels (charcoal, gas, oil, hydroelectricity), the forests products (wood, hunting, biological resources), the minerals (precious or not), the navigability of a river, etc. are natural resources not ubiquitous.

Therefore, in the virtue of easing to production/reproduction to the places in which these resources are located, they belong strategically to someone and their value of use could not be used without giving something in exchange to their owners.

It is important to underline that the property regime over certain good and which use of collective importance can have broad variations in time and space, going from the particular right of use to the collective one and from the untrammeled right of use (free) to the State right of use (UN-Interagency FT, 2012). The broad variation of property regimes and of the respective property rights gives a great complexity to the matters of the land and of the natural resources, especially to those related to water, due to the fact of being a fugitive resource but also to the fact of being intrinsically related to the land.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Basin of the Säo Francisco River The São Francisco River is considered is one of the more important rivers in Brazil since it has 70% of the superficial water available for the northeastern region of the country, which is the most arid and poor in Brazilian territory (ANA 2004). It is known as the National Integration River because its basin is within part of the territory of seven states, with a drainage area of 634.781km 2 and that is about 8% of the national territory.

Its course is divided in four sections: Alto São Francisco, from the beginning to the confluence with the Jequitaí River, in the State of Minas Gerais; the Meio São Francisco, where the navigable part begins down to the Sobradinho dam, in the State of Bahía, the Submeio and Baixo São Francisco, between Sobradinho and the mouth of the river (ANA, 2004). The northern region of the State of Minas Gerais is a transition semiarid zone between the climatic humid zone and the semiarid Northeastern region, known as the Drought Polygon (Polígono das Secas). This is the region named “Sertão” because its population is scattered due to their economic activities, based in subsistence agriculture and livestock practice (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Localization of the São Francisco Basin and the Polígono das Secas (Source: Tucci, 2005)

The São Francisco River has suffered a sequence of interventions, mainly during the last century, with the construction of hydraulic infrastructure to benefit the population with services of water supply and electric energy. Nowadays, the flow of the river holds the 70% of the water in the Northeastern region and 16 hydroelectric dams have been built along its course, within the same region.

The middle and lower parts of the São Francisco Basin are within the semiarid region with limited water availability because its tributaries have, most of them, an intermittent regime. (Figura 2). This part of the basin suffers long periods of drought and has a wide spatial and time rain variability which Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

concentrates in four months period and the other eight have almost no precipitation at all. The problem of the dry periods in the basin is related with the irregularity of rain distribution in the middle and lower parts. Another factor, which accentuates the dryness of the region, is the low capacity of the soils to retain water, besides having a high evaporation rate.

Figure 2: Permanent and intermittent rivers in the basin of the São Francisco River.

(Source: Plan Decenal, 2004)

Bring Water to the “Sertäo” The São Francisco River allocation Project has have several attempts to become a reality along the history of Brazil. The main idea has always been to keep hydric security for the population living in the semiarid northeastern region, which today is of approximately 12 million inhabitants. With the water allocation of the São Francisco the volume of water transferred to the flow of several rivers in the states of Río Grande do Norte, Ceará, Paraíba and Pernambuco. This is why the Brazilian government has given to the project the name of Integration of the São Francisco Basin to the Northeastern basinsProjeto de Integração da Bacia do São Francisco ás Bacias do Nordeste Septentrional (Sarmento, 2008).

The current project, which cost is valuated in $8.5 billion Reales (US$3.6 billion, approximately) has been displayed as the way to increase agriculture production. Lands located north of the main course of the river will be irrigated along 720 km of artificial channels where the water will be pumped to supply water to the lands of the states of Ceará, Paraíba, Rio Grande do Norte and Pernambuco. It has been stated that 70% of the water will be allocated for irrigation, 2.6% for urban-industrial uses and 4% for human consumption (Andrade, 2002; Heringer, 2007). On the other hand, the National Integration Ministry (2001) says that the main objective of the allocation of the São Francisco River is to make water available to the population of the semiarid region, to satisfy their basic needs and to let the people work and obtain an income that will allow them to have a decent way of life.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

According to the Sao Francisco River Basin Water Resources Ten year-Plan –PBHSF for its abbreviation in Portuguese –, (2004), there are conflicts already installed and focal points with potentiality to become conflicts (Figure 3). The PBHSF states that the majority of the conflicts are incipient. However, all of them involve conflicts over water volumes used by agriculture, energy production and water supply for big urban centers, besides the problems created by industrial pollutants and mining activities.

Figure 3: Level of conflict by the multiple use of water (Source:ANA, 2004)

To define the amount of water that will be used by different sectors is a problem in itself, but also the distribution of the resource among the states that will benefit from the allocation and the states that are within the basin. The state of Pernambuco is the state with the most severe water deficit in the NE region and 70% of its territory is inside the basin’s area. However, it will get, along with the states of Paraíba and Bahía, 20% of water allocated while Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte, which are located outside the basin will get 80% of the water to benefit urban industries and the agribusiness sector (Martins & Mendonça, 2007).

The basin is a mosaic of contrasts in its cultural, social and economic development. In Brazil, as in most countries in Latin America, power relations are directly connected to land access, mainly in rural areas. The concentration of land has been a fundamental factor to define power differences and at the same time, access to water.

The semiarid region in the northeastern part of Brazil is characterized by local power structures that derive from the historical process of land occupation based in the exchange of politic favors and in social exclusion. Even though in 1964 the first Agrarian Reform Law was declared (Brasil, 1964), there was no important change in land distribution because it favored the economic aspect over the social Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

one, and therefore, the benefit was for the big properties because they had more resources and it could be easier to get farming credits and get modernized (Filho & Fonte, 2009).

With the creation of the Development Company of the Sao Francisco Valley (CODEVASF), in June of 1974, it was given priority to big scale farming projects, mainly to produce fruit in the Sub-middle region of the river. Credit and financial incentives were implemented and this favored the big rural owners and entrepreneurs or enterprise groups from outside of the region. Agriculture activity developed in such a way that propelled the Sao Francisco Valley into international markets but at the same time obstructed a change over land tenure regime. The inclusion of peasants to have access to land did not happened in any of the development stages in the basin (Vieira, 2005; Olalde et al., 2007) even though there were initiatives of social movements and of some governmental programs that considered to give access to land to groups of farmers that did not had any property and to consider, legally, communitarian forms of land property (Olalde et al. 2007).

In any moment or place, the land is the mean of production par excellence as well as of the reproduction of existence. When this happens (the appropriation and use of a defined fraction of territory by a defined social group), the land is not just land. It becomes what the geographers conceptualize as space, an area where the environment and its potentialities (resources) intersects with the culture produced by that social group. It is from there that the productive forces organize historically in one way or another so that this mean of production and its resources can subsist and extract a surplus for that society.

CONCLUSIONS The main objective of the allocation of the river is to assure the offer of water for the population in a region where there is water scarcity. However, the central points of the problem have not been reached; water availability and distribution will be conditioned to the interests that will â&#x20AC;&#x153;boostâ&#x20AC;? the economic development of the region.

Without considering the energetic and economic expenses that will cause to take water out of the basin, the allocation project has not considered to supply rural population with water and sanitation services.

The simple fact that the population in the region is scattered makes it difficult to attend effectively this social right. To allocate water for irrigated agriculture activities implies more than a simple investment because speculation and land valuation are involved.

It is known that inequity is a characteristic in the formation of Brazilian society and this is shown in the land occupation processes. In this way, the data that give form to the rural property structure in Brazil maintains almost the same levels all through its history, expressing an uneven distribution of land and, in consequence, of the other natural resources.

The data from the last Agriculture Censes of Brazil(1985, 1996 y 2006), confirm the previous statements when they reveal this inequity though the information that land parcels of up to 10 hectares and that occupy 2.7% of the total occupied area, represent 47% of the rural properties. While parcels of

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1000 or more hectares represent only 1% of the rural properties and occupy more than 43% of the whole area. The intermediate layers kept the same levels (IBGE, Censos 2007).

According to this, it is not hard to perceive that the real objective of “integration of basins” is not exactly to bring water to the population in the Brazilian semiarid region but to give subsidized water to investment projects of irrigated crops (mainly fruit production) and in the shrimp production in the region. This is not necessarily wrong; the mistake lays in the lack of democratic processes that can allow the participation of all the sectors of society in the management of their natural resources. Water and land should not be think of in a disassociated manner. This is why, conveying water over an uneven and excessively concentrated rural property structure, such as the Brazilian, without considering the democratization of access to land, can be quite counterproductive. It is provable that the allocation will not solve the drought problem (for the majority of the population) and it could amplify the land concentration levels verified in the region.

REFERENCES ANA – Agencia Nacional de Águas (2004) Plano Decenal de Recursos Hídricos da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio São Francisco – PBHSF (2004-2013) – Resumo Executivo. Fundo Mundial para o Meio Ambiente – GEF, Programa das Nações Unidas para o Meio Ambiente – PNUMA e Organização dos Estados Americanos – OEA ANDRADE, R. (2002) Águas para a vida!” Assim gritam as vozes que vivem na bacia do velho chico.

Fórum permanente de defesa do São Francisco /International rivers network / Coalizão Rios Vivos BIGAS, H. (Ed.), (2012) The Global Water Crisis: Addressing an Urgent Security Issue. Papers for the InterAction Council, 2011-2012. Hamilton, Canada: UNU-INWEH BRASIL, (1964) Lei LEI Nº 4.504, DE 30 DE NOVEMBRO DE 1964. Presidência da República. Casa Civil Subchefia para Assuntos Jurídicos.

CASTRO, José Esteban. (1998) Water, power, and citizenship : social struggle in the Basin of Mexico.

(St. Antony’s series) Revision of the author’s thesis (doctoral)–Oxford, FAO- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2003) Review of world water resources by country. Water Reports, no.23, Rome.

FILHO, José Vieira. (2005) A dinâmica política, econômica e social do rio São Francisco e do seu vale.

Revista do Departamento de Geografia, no. 17.

FILHO & FONTES, (2009) A formação da propriedade e a concentração de terras no Brasil Revista de História Econômica & Economia Regional Aplicada – Vol. 4 Nº 7 HERINGER L., Apolo. (2007) A Caravana em defesa do São Francisco e do Semi -árido contra a Transposição. Available in http://www.manuelzao.ufmg.br/assets/files/Biblioteca_Virtual/A-Caravanaem-defesa-do-Sao-Francisco-e-do-Semi.pdf

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HARDIN, Garrett. (1968) The Tragedy of the Commons. Science, New Series, Vol. 162, No. 3859.

(Dec. 13, 1968), pp. 1243-1248 IBGE – Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. (2007) Censos de População. http://downloads.ibge.gov.br/ MARTINS, M & MENDONÇA, M. (2004) Caravana em defesa do São Francisco passa pelo Nordeste.

Rede Social de Justiça e Direitos Humanos. Available in: http://www.social.org.br/artigos/artigo041.htm MIN – Ministério da Integração Nacional. (2001) Da transposição do rio São Francisco. Estudos de inserção regional. VBA Consultores.

OLALDE, A., OLIVEIRA,G.; GERMANI, I. (2007) A terra e desenvolvimento territorial no médio São Francisco. XLV CONGRESSO DA SOBER. "Conhecimentos para Agricultura do Futuro" OSTROM, Elinor. (1990) Governing the Commons. New York: Cambridge University Press.

SARMENTO, Francisco. (2008) Otimização de custos de adução na transposição do rio São Francisco ABRH IX Simpósio de Recursos Hídricos do Nordeste. Salvador-BA TUCCI, C. (2005) “Integrated management of land-based activities in the São Francisco river basin”.

Terminal evaluation report of GEF project no GF/1100-99-14 UN - INTERAGENCY FRAMEWORK TEAM FOR PREVENTIVE ACTION. (2012) Land and Conflict. v.13, n.3.

WORLD WATER ORGANIZATION. Water Facts available in February 2014 http://www.theworldwater.org/water_facts.php

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Establishing a Participatory Approach to Integrated Resource Management in the Copiapó Basin, Chile.

Neil Lazarow*, Mike Trefry Anna Littleboy, Glen Walker, Ian Overton and David A. Fleming Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia Neil.Lazarow@CSIRO.au

ABSTRACT Water extraction from the Copiapó River Basin, in the Atacama Region of Chile, supports three primary water and energy users - mining, agriculture and urbanisation. Current extraction rates have stressed the system and there is now widespread recognition and support across public and private stakeholders for an integrated long-term solution. Following on from previous successful collaborative scoping studies for Copiapó Basin in 2012-13, CSIRO was contracted by DGA in 2014 to advise and assist Copiapó stakeholders to come together in a participatory process to map out future sustainable management options for the Basin. This working paper expands the platform used to envision and structure the integrated management plan for the Copiapo Basin, and provides further description of the key elements of the project and deliverables for Phase 1 of the project (August 2014 – March 2015).

INTRODUCTION The Copiapó River Basin is in the Atacama Region in the north of Chile, a region characterized by being a geographic transition between the driest desert of the world (the Atacama Desert) and the productive agricultural land in Chile. There has been a significant increase in economic development in the region over the past 20 years, centred around an expansion and modernisation of agricultural production and a boom in the mining industry in the lower reaches of the basin. Best estimates suggest that the rapid increase in water demand has resulted in a situation where extraction rates are well in excess of estimated natural recharge rates (see figure 1). Further, lowering of the water table has also led to a reduction in water quality, which is particularly problematic for human consumption.

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Figure 1: Water demand and recharge in the Copiapo river basin and main consumers.

In recent years, the Direccion General de Aguas of Chile (DGA) as well as a range of other regional and national organisations have undertaken a range of activities ranging from physical studies through to strategic planning and governance reviews, all with the aim of making water management in the basin more sustainable. Table 1 summarizes some of the challenges and approaches that the three key sectors in Copiapo have proposed or used to address them.

Table 1. Summary of current challenges and existing responses for key sectors Sector

Agriculture

Mining

Urban consumption

Challenges

Water, including degraded water quality, labour, costs e.g. increases in supply costs due to greater pumping, energy, competitors (Peru), root zone salt

Future decline in ore grades may increase water use, workforce is increasing domestic water demand and wage costs, high elevation mines cannot afford desalination of seawater, reputational (social licence to operate under pressure)

Bores dry or of poor quality forcing supply from further away â&#x20AC;&#x201C; unsustainable in the longer-term without fresh recharge, Impact of desalinated water on tariffs, demand growth

Responses

Control water distribution in Basin through Vigilance Group, CASUB

Saw the water shortage coming and invested in reuse, desalination, increased efficiency It is possible that the new mines are worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s best practice in terms of water efficiency Saltwater use possible for some processes

Possible wastewater reuse options, move to desalination to improve supplies, reliability and quality through mixing has been proposed

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From 2012-14, with support from the DGA and Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, CSIRO undertook a study in the Copiapo Basin to better understand the natural, social and legal contexts, constraints and opportunities for improved basin management. A key component of the study included a sub-project to learn more about stakeholder perspectives. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with approximately 100 stakeholders in Santiago and Copiapó, during 2012. The interviews gathered perspectives on the key water issues facing the Basin, on relevant information sources, and on experiences with previous governance initiatives to address key challenges. Stakeholders involved in the study included government bodies (national and regional), industry (mining / agriculture / sanitation associations and companies), research providers and community groups (local community and indigenous groups). A number of key barriers to change were identified: 1. Knowledge and values around water, specifically, technical integration, trustworthiness of data such as consumption volumes; 2. Legislation, specifically, frustration with the current regulatory system that limits the development of creative and flexible solutions; 3. Capacity to collaborate, specifically, variable across the range of stakeholders and also criticism from many of the limitations of the previous stakeholder roundtable process, known as the Water Table; and 4. Power differences, specifically, the ability of those who are well-connected to be heard, which may limit the range of potential solutions under consideration.

We reported widespread recognition of the need for substantive change in water management in the Copiapó Basin supported through a consultative approach. Importantly, stakeholders supported the need for a clear governance structure to ensure that any changes would endure through the medium to long term.1 Building on the positive momentum from this work, the development of an ‘integrated basin management project for the Copiapó basin’ was conceived, and DGA has partnered with CSIRO to deliver Phase 1 of the ‘integrated management plan for Copiapo Basin’. Key outcomes for the overall project are: 1. An agreed basin development strategy for Copiapó, involving mining, agriculture, environment and social values; and 2. A framework and methodology for integrated basin planning suitable for application throughout Chile that is completely aligned to the National Water Strategy.

This working paper expands the platform used to envision and structure the integrated management plan for the Copiapo Basin, and provides further description of the key elements of the project and deliverables for Phase 1 of the project (August 2014 – March 2015).

1

The specific outcomes obtained from the CSIRO-DGA scoping study can be seen in a set of documents prepared by the CSIRO (McFarlane et al., 2012; McFarlane and Norgate, 2012; Moffat and Lacey, 2012; Trefry et al., 2012).

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A Framework for Sustainable Basin Management The basis for sustainable basin management requires ongoing dialogue between government, industry and community, who must seek to balance individual/group needs with a broader set of interests (see figure 2). In this regard, three key issues were identified for Copiapo: 1. The need for a shared, long-term vision for the Basin; 2. The establishment of a modern water information system; and 3. Revision of existing governance processes for the management and shared use of the basinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resources.

Figure 2: Sustainable basin management balance. Source: CSIRO

Additionally, it must be noted that since the early 1980s there has been a strengthening of private ownership rights in water with a diminished role of government. Removing or reducing rights has proven to be extremely difficult, and this is particularly problematic in relation to Copiapo where there are over four times more annual water rights issued than there is water available to meet them. There is an increasing reliance on the courts to adjudicate disputes, which can be both expensive and slo 2

2

The reader is referred to McFarlane et al., 2012 for more information.

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Overall Project Structure The collaborative approach for the project brings together key stakeholders and research partners around four inter-related programs of work: 1. Growing participation - This programme will implement a participatory process to develop a shared vision for the future of the Copiapó Basin. By combining analysis and deliberation, the programme will both involve and empower stakeholders in a process of engagement and also recommend governance structures and education to embed ongoing collaboration in the basin.

2. Copiapo Heritage – This programme will run a number of parallel activities to collect, synthesise and quality assure past and current information to serve as authoritative reference sources about the state of the Basin. Key areas of investigation include geography, environment, society and culture, and hydrology.

3. Basin at work – This programme will establish a common information platform to house and publish project data and information; and will also support a range of information analysis and dissemination methods.

4. Enabling the future – This programme will establish a collaborative process, and using the Basin information platform, develop options and scenarios for the future sustainable management of the Basin.

The strong participatory process is required to be consistent with the Chilean water governance and regulatory framework and respects the rights, needs and aspirations of a rapidly expanding community in the basin. To this end, the broader focus of the project is on improving regional development outcomes.

Current Activities An initial (inception) phase of the project is underway, which includes key elements and deliverables as follows: • Overall project establishment, which focuses on development of the project governance structures, establishment of the Steering Committee, communication protocols and the official project launch.

• Engagement with key stakeholders and increasing participation, which focuses on a process to identify key stakeholders and to development a shared vision for the project.

• Project diffusion, which focuses on opportunities to extend the project across the full set of relevant stakeholders; and • Project specification, which focuses on the development of detailed subproject activities to be undertaken in Phase 2.

Key elements: • Instituting an information gathering and dissemination process to inform the identification of future integrated management options for the Basin • Building the capacity for dialogue between all stakeholders, from the national to the local scale • Stimulating collaboration between government, industry and community to generate sustainable resource use and investment strategies for the Basin

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The historic approach that stakeholders have developed in Copiapo to solve water conflicts has been based on a ‘growth and strain’ rationale across economic agents: water goes first to community, then agriculture (‘grapes’) and then to mining. Generally speaking there has been limited interaction across groups and solutions have been developed in a non systematic and somewhat piecemeal manner, for instance, agriculture  drip feed irrigation; mining  desalination; lower irrigators  Water Bank; some community groups  centralised resource management; utility  more bores.

The development of a sustainable strategy for the basin, through the creation of an integrated basin management system, seeks to reduce the use of a ‘growth and strain’ rationale and individualistic approach to solve water scarcity problems.

Through a collaborative process, drawing on the Australian experience alongside other relevant information, CSIRO aims to assist the Chilean government to develop a knowledge-based integrated basin management plan for Copiapo that has the support of key stakeholders through a triple bottom line approach to sustainability; and a supporting framework that is nationally applicable.

REFERENCES McFarlane, D., Trefy, M., Moffat, K. and Lacey, J. (2012) Summary Report on the Current Water Rights Framework in Chile. Unpublished report to AusAID as part of the study ‘Copiapó River Basin, Chile – analysis study of shortfalls in water rights, industrial usage and social requirements’. Minerals Down Under Flagship, CSIRO. McFarlane, D. and Norgate, T. (2012). Summary report on Copiapó water yields and demands.

Unpublished report to AusAID as part of the study ‘Copiapó River Basin, Chile – analysis study of shortfalls in water rights, industrial usage and social requirements’. Minerals Down Under Flagship, CSIRO. Moffat, K. and Lacey, J. (2012). Summary report on stakeholder perspectives on Copiapó water management issues. A report submitted to AusAID as part of the study ‘Copiapó River Basin – Analysis study of shortfalls in water rights, industrial usage and social requirements’. Minerals Down Under Flagship, CSIRO. Trefry, M. , McFarlane, D., Moffat, K., Littleboy, A. and Norgate, T. (2012). Copiapó River Basin Water Management: Terms of Reference for Future Governance and Research Activities. ‘Report to AusAID and Chilean stakeholders’. Minerals Down Under Flagship, CSIRO.

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Socio-Economic and Environmental Costs and Benefits of Development measures in Transboundary River Basins. A Methodological Assessment Framework for Developing Countries: The Case of Merkrou River Basin in West Africa.

Vasileios Markantonis, Joint Research Center of the European Commission (JRC)

vasileios.markantonis@jrc.ec.europa.eu Arnaud Reynaud Joint Research Center of the European Commission (JRC)

arnaud.reynaud@jrc.ec.europa.eu

ABSTRACT Transboundary river basins support a range of economic, social and ecological services that are of fundamental importance to people in developing countries. A more efficient use of river basin water resources streamlined with development policies and specific measures are important for the economic development and poverty alleviation of such countries. This paper provides an evaluation framework of techniques for assessing the socioeconomic and ecological impacts of transboundary river basin development policies in developing countries. An empirical application of this framework is proposed for the Mekrou river basin in West Africa (Benin, Niger, Burkina Faso). Within this framework, achieving sustainable development in the Mekrou river basin requires a balance between securing the conservation of the river ecosystems, promoting sustainable economic activities (e.g. more efficient agricultural crops) and adapting to the social and cultural characteristics of the local population.

Specifically, our research questions include: 1) What is the state of the art for valuing the socioeconomic and ecological impacts of development measures in transboundary river basins? 2) Which are the priorities per sector of activity in the Mekrou river basin? At this step of the analysis, we define the priorities for each sector (household, agriculture, ecosystem services, tourism) following a participatory process and consultation with the relevant local stakeholders and partners. Defining the development priorities for each sector is important for addressing and implementing the relevant methods and tools towards local development. 3) What are the most appropriate techniques and tools to value costs and benefits of policies dedicated to each identifies priority? Our work reviews a wide range of methods and tools including hydro-economic modelling for the estimation of direct agricultural and household values as well as stated and revealed preference methods (e.g. choice modeling, travel cost method). Additionally, our framework takes into account the data needs and analyses the methodological, practical and policy challenges.

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INTRODUCTION Cross-border Rivers have further implications for regional security and development, particularly in Africa where water resources availability is crucial for economic development. The Mékrou River, a tributary of the Niger River, begins in Benin and forms part of the border between Benin and Burkina Faso and between Benin and Niger. It is characterised by the underdevelopment of its water infrastructure and the presence of social, economic, environmental and political risks. As water becomes scarcer compared to its rising demand, there are emerging fears due to potential transboundary water conflicts, which will likely constrain the region’s growth. Nonetheless, the region is also experiencing emerging practices of transboundary waters cooperation, supporting regional integration as a driver of growth. In the Mekrou river basin important land areas are used mainly for food production. Agriculture is the key motor of the economy in the three riparian countries and it is critical to poverty alleviation and food security.

Figure 1: The Mekrou transboundary sub-basin

The selected basin (Mekrou) also includes a very important natural park the “W park” (RAMSAR site) which is also a transboundary park. It is known for its large mammals, including baboons, buffaloes, elephants, hippopotamuses, leopards, lions, etc. The park provides a home for some of West Africa's last wild African Elephants. Because of the big floods occurred in the last years due to climate change, important land areas used for agriculture have been flooded and several mammal species have been at risk. Consequently, the environmental dimension to be taken in consideration will consist of four categories: water quality, ecosystem vitality, water stress and climate change impacts.

To address the issue of growth and poverty reduction in the Mekrou transboundary river basin (Burkina Faso, Benin and Niger), a cooperation project has been set involving the Joint Research Centre Institute for Environment and Sustainability of the European Commission and Global Water Partnership West Africa. Within the framework of an integrated river basin management, the Mekrou project takes into Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

account all factors relevant to quality and availability of water resources (hydrological, ecological, and socio-economic) in order to achieve sustainability for the case-study area.

Achieving sustainable development in the Mekrou river basin are prerequisites that we will conclude with economic development scenarios by using the water resources in such a way that it secures the conservation of the river ecosystems, promotes sustainable economic activities (e.g. more efficient agricultural crops) and adapts to the social and cultural characteristics of the local population.

In this context, the present article describes the baseline socioeconomic data and methods and provides the basis of the socioeconomic analysis we develop within this cooperation project. The underlying overall objective of the suggested actions is to evaluate and promote welfare in the Mekrou river basin, in relation to water use and to water conservation. The latter is further analyzed regarding some more specific objectives: • • •

Development of a framework in the Mekrou river basin where water resources and waterrelated ecosystem services can contribute to growth and sustainability in the three countries.

Understanding the values of the Mekrou water resources and estimate how they contribute to regional economic sectors of great importance.

Identification and presentation of the state of the art regarding the available socioeconomic data and methods/tools for analysis.

In order to achieve the above-mentioned objectives, this article is organized in three sections.

The first section is the basis of our analysis, providing the priorities of the socioeconomic analysis, as being defined under cooperation with local partners and presenting the available up-to-date socioeconomic data.

The second section is the core of our methodological framework, where we present the theoretical foundations and we analyze the specific methods and tools for estimating the economic values of the Mekrou water resources for various economic sectors.

In the last section, possible implementation strategies are presented. More specifically, we present the different options for the application of the methodological framework depending on availability of relevant data, availability of resources and feasibility of the methods/tools. In regards to these issues, potential outcome is analyzed as well as the limitations and challenges of the methodology.

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Research Priorities and Existing Data Definition of the Socioeconomic Sectors Under Analysis It is essential as a starting point of the socioeconomic analysis to define which sectors will be investigated. The analysis of these sectors describes the current socioeconomic status that is impacted from the water resources of the Mekrou river basin. The main idea of this inventory of socioeconomic sectors is to provide a clear view of the socio-economic conditions of populations, of the different economic sectors and of the environmental conditions of the area.

The inventory is organized by the following sectors: 1. Households 2. Agriculture and livestock 3. Fishing, hunting, forest residues collection 4. Industry/Transport/services 5. Energy 6. Ecosystem services / environment 7. Tourism The current socioeconomic status, organized into the afore-mentioned sectors, will be evaluated based on available data and reports of the three countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Niger). This classification of the inventory is essential for the socioeconomic analysis since priorities as well as the collection of data and the applied methods/tools are organized for these sectors. The current socioeconomic status relies first on existing official publication data for the three countries: population census data, agricultural census data, business surveys, etc. These official data may be complemented by data provided by the partners.

Priorities per Sectors For each of the predefined socioeconomic sectors specific priorities are further assigned. These priorities of socioeconomic analysis have been assessed and validated by local partners. The socioeconomic analysis will focus on these priorities, depending also on data availability and feasibility of the particular methods. It is important to stress that the priorities for each sector have been defined and set up following a participatory process and consultation with the relevant local stakeholders and partners, serving this way the needs of the local communities.

Defining the development priorities for each sector is crucial for addressing and implementing the relevant methods and tools towards local development. In what follows, we provide a list of indicative priorities for each sector. This list is not exhaustive and order of appearance does not reflect any kind of ranking. In the last column, references are additionally indicated for the data sources as specified by the local partners.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Table 1. Assessment priorities per socioeconomic sector 1. Households 1) Safe minimum level of drinking water 2) Securing a minimum household income 3) Vulnerability and resilience to extreme events (floods, droughts) 4) Access to water services of the poor population / water infrastructure 5) Securing safe nutrition standards 6) Reduction of diseases / securing a safe minimum health status 7) Resilience of the local societies and economies to extreme weather events 2. Agriculture and livestock 1) Adaptation to climate change 2) Access to land and water for poor populations 3) Improvement of water efficiency 4) Collective management of agricultural water use 5) Role of livestock system (sedentary vs transhumant) 6) Sustainable agriculture (new crops, water management) 7) Increase of yield productivity 8) Eco labelling – Organic production – Fair trade 9) Sustainable consumption and local production 3. Fishing, hunting, raw material collecting 1) Impacts of hunting in tourism and environment 2) Food security 4. Industry/Transport/services 1) Water provision for industrial production 2) Compliance with environmental norms 5. Energy 1) Securing energy production in a context of increased needs 2) Potential to develop renewable energy (biofuels, hydropower) 6. Ecosystem services / environment 1) Identification, classification and assessment of the Mekrou river basin ecosystem services.

2) Evaluation of anthropogenic activities with negative impacts (pollution, sedimentation) 3) Valuation of the ecosystem services provided by the Mekrou river 4) Securing safe minimum river water level for the ecosystem services 5) Assessment of the recreation value of WPark 6) Valuation of reducing risk of extreme events 7. Tourism 1) Sustainable tourism activities 2) Contribution to economic growth 3) Exploring the conditions for developing tourism in a sustainable way: water resources protection, security, promotion of the tourism product

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Methods and Tools Based on the priorities mentioned in the previous section, we present the methods and tools that can be applied to address the development assessment framework in each sector. The purpose of the economic tools we propose is twofold: 1) Predict water use by sector under current and future conditions; 2) Predict economic value of water use by sector under current and future conditions.

Our approach relies on a combination of biophysical models (to describe for instance water availability) and economical models (to describe for instance the economic value generated by water use in a given sector). One modelling issue that needs to be carefully addressed is the relationships between the biophysical models (Lisflood, EPIC) and the economic models. Our view is that the economic models constitute one component of the Mekrou river basin hydro-economic modeling framework (see the following section on state of the art). In the following figure the possible interactions between the biophysical and the economic components are illustrated.

Figure 2: Integrated approach for water management at the river basin

Sustainable Hydrological Areas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

State of the Art The existing literature with a specific focus on modeling approaches at river basin in developing countries is reviewed at this part.

Hydro-economic models represent regional scale hydrologic, engineering, environmental and economic aspects of water resources systems within a coherent framework. A distinction is usually made between modular models (hydrological and economic modules are interconnected but operate independently of each other) and holistic models (hydrological and economic modules are fully integrated), see Brouwer and Hofkes (2008).

Cai et al. (2003) presents a holistic hydrologic-agronomic-economic model in the context of a river basin in which irrigation is the dominant water use and irrigation-induced salinity presents a major environmental problem. The model is applied to a case study of water management in the Syr Darya River basin in Central Asia Ringler et al.

(2006) presents the development, application, and results from an holistic economic-hydrologic river basin model for the Dong Nai River Basin in southern Vietnam. The model framework takes into account the sectoral structure of water users (agriculture, industry, hydropower, households, and the environment), the location of water-using regions, and the institutions for water allocation in the basin.

Giertz et al. (2006) presents an interdisciplinary scenario analysis to assess the influence of global and regional change on future water availability and water consumption in the Upper Ouémé catchment in central Benin. Since there is no industry in the Upper Ouémé catchment, this paper considers two types of water users, namely household and agricultural water user (crop production and cattle).

Nakamura (2006) established a set of indicators for the purpose of making an effective decision within an ecosystem-based approach to river basin management. The selected indicators included hydrological, geochemical, ecological and socio-economic functions, which were defined and then weighted depending on the river basin management objectives.

Christie et al. (2012) provides an evaluation framework of monetary and non-monetary techniques for assessing the value of biodiversity in least developed countries (LDCs).

Kenter et al. (2011) introduces a new participatory, deliberative choice experiment approach conducted in the Solomon Islands. Such an application contributes to the monetary valuation of ecosystem services, which are rarely assessed in developing countries.

Lange et al. (2010) developed an integrated hydro-economic approach to overcome spatial incompatibilities between socio-economic and biophysical data; based on a meta-modelling approach using Geographical Information Systems and an application of a water-use simulation model. Such method was applied to the irrigation agriculture sector in the Inkomati Water Management Area in South Africa.

Chaminuka et al. (2012) applied a choice experiment survey to estimate the marginal willingness to pay (MWTP) for three ecotourism attributes: village accommodation, village tours and visits to crafts markets. They used this method in order to analyse the potential for development of ecotourism in rural communities adjacent to Kruger National Park (KNP) in South Africa. In another application of choice Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

experiment in least developed countries Ndunda and Mungatana (2013) estimated the individual level of willingness to pay for the wastewater treatment before reuse in irrigation as a way to mitigate the impacts of water pollution in Nairobi, Kenya. Furthermore, Agimass and Mekonnen (2011) applied a choice experiment for the valuation of Lake Tana's (Ethiopia) fishery and watershed. The interested reader may refer to Harou et al. (2009) for a recent survey of techniques to characterize the economic value of water use in hydro-economic model at river basin scale.

Methods and Tools by Sector We explain here the various economic tools which can be used to feed the integrated approach described in Figure 2. We present these tools sector by sector, and we explain the type of priorities which are adressed by each of them.

Table 3. Suggested assessment tools per priority category Tools / Methods Priorities adressed Tool 1. System of indicators Households / Agriculture and livestock, Tool 2. Household survey / contingent valuation / Households / Ecosystem services, environment choice experiment Tool 3. Travel cost survey Ecosystem services, environment / Tourism Tool 4. “TEEB-style” analysis Ecosystem services, environment

Tool 1. System of Indicators A system of indicators based on available data can be used for assessing household water related socioeconomic issues as well as agricultural water uses. Potential socioeconomic indicators could be related to societal well-being, vulnerability to natural hazards, household income and per capita GDP and economic dependence to water use. Based on published data and statistics regional indicators can be established to measure agricultural issues (per crop or per farming activity) gross revenue (required data: output price, crop yield, farm production), added value (required data: cost of variables inputs), net revenue (required data: labor expenses and capital depreciation).

Tool 2. Household survey – Household Water use and Access.

Data on household socioeconomic condition and water demand analysis should be incorporated into the household survey to be conducted in the Mekrou RB. The collected data should allow us to estimate in particular: • Water consumption per household; • Water and sanitation need per household; • Sensitivity of the demand to price mechanisms (if relevant) • Sensitivity of the demand due to climate change

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Specific Issues • Defining the sample of the survey: It should be representative of the local population (men, women, all socioeconomic household categories, including the poorest.

• At this initial stage it is recommended to send an additional survey specifically to « macro agents » (municipalities, local authorities in charge of water and environment, associations) in order to identify and evaluate the work that they have already elaborated in the field of water management.

Tool 2. Household Survey – Contingent Valuation.

A specific contingent valuation part could be included into the household survey. The objective of this part could be to provide some economic values for access to different type of water resources by households (tap water, public fountain, river, etc.). The collected data should allow us to estimate in particular: • Willingness to pay for water services (depending upon the source of water, well, public fountain, public network); Tool 2. Household Survey – Contingent Valuation.

A specific contingent valuation part could be included into the household survey. The objective of this part could be to provide some economic freshwater ecosystem. The collected data should allow us to estimate in particular: • Valuation of household for freshwater ecosystem services; Tool 2. Household survey – choice experiment.

The Choice Experiment (CE) method estimates economic values for virtually any ecosystem or environmental service by asking people to make trade-offs among sets of ecosystem or environmental services or characteristics. It does not directly ask for willingness to pay (i.e. this is inferred from tradeoffs that include cost as an attribute). The CE is a highly ‘structured method of data generation’, relying on carefully designed tasks or “experiments” to reveal the factors that influence choice. The non-market goods or services (including mainly ecological and health ones) are defined in terms of its attributes and levels these attributes would take with and without sustainable management of the resource. One of the attributes is a monetary one, which enables estimation of willingness to pay.

Profiles of the resource in terms of its attributes and attribute levels is constructed using experimental design theory, a statistical design theory which combines the level of attributes into different scenarios to be presented to respondents. Two or three alternative profiles are then assembled in choice sets and presented to respondents, who are asked to state their preference. By choosing the respondents a choice set, they are also choosing a payment amount, defining in this way their willingness to pay. CE can estimate economic values for any environmental resource or any other non-market resource.

In such survey data have to be collected at household level (Minimum 600 questionnaires - 200 for each country) under close cooperation with the local partners and local personnel assigned to elaborate the survey.

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Tool 3. Travel Cost Survey The Travel Cost Method estimates economic values associated with ecosystems or sites that are used for recreation. The basic principle of the travel cost method (TCM) is the estimation of the consumer surplus based on the Marshallian demand curve. The consumer surplus estimate is considered as a good approximation of a welfare measure (Shresta et al., 2002). In the context of TCM the consumer surplus is the difference between the price visitors are willing to pay and the actual price paid to visit the recreational site (Lansdell and Gangadharan, 2003). The travel cost method (TCM) is used to estimate use values associated with ecosystems or sites (such as forests, wetlands, parks, and beaches) that are used for recreation to which people travel for hunting, fishing, hiking, or watching wildlife (Birol et al 2006). The basic premise of the TCM is that the time and travel cost expenses that people incur to visit a site represent the “price” of access to the site. Thus, peoples' WTP to visit the site can be estimated based on the number of trips that they make at different travel costs.

In this context, TCM can be used to value the environmental benefits of preserving the Mekrou River W-Park or the environmental degradation benefits or costs of the Mekrou River W-Park based on the different development scenarios. Moreover the travel cost method could provide the benefits posed by the development of sustainable tourism in WPark, where the preserved ecosystem is the main touristic product. Tourism data for the visitors of the WPark including length of stays, expenses (lodging, travel cost, other accommodation costs) have to be collected in-site in order to elaborate such tool.

Tool 4. “TEEB-style” Analysis The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) provides particularly a framework for the valuation of the ecosystems services (TEEB, 2010). It is the framework used in this case to estimate socioeconomic and environmental non market values of the ecosystems services contributing in decision making. It is using already developed methods that are already used to value ecosystem services and goods (eg travel cost method, Production function, contingent valuation, choice modeling etc). In this context, TEEB will be our framework to evaluate the economic costs and benefits that the different development scenarios of the Mekrou River imply into the ecosystem services and functions of the river.

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Implementation Strategy In this last section, based on the data and methods availability as described in the previous sections, the implementation strategy and the potential outcome are analyzed. The criteria we are using for the feasibility of the applied methods/tools relate to a) the different categories of available data b) the availability of resources and c) the participation and active involvement of the local stakeholders and actors. Table 4 summarizes the various outcomes of the socioeconomic analysis in regards to the various implementation criteria.

Table 4. Potential outcome of the socioeconomic analysis Criteria/Outcome 1st Outcome scenario: minimum outcome 2nd Outcome scenario: Data plus survey 3rd Outcome scenario: Data plus travel cost 4th Outcome scenario: maximum outcome

Current data

Additional Data

Survey Data

(YES)

(?)

(YES)

(YES)

(?)

(YES)

(YES)

Travel cost Data

Resources

Local actors participation

(YES) (YES) (YES) (YES)

(YES)

(YES) (YES)

(YES)

Each of the outcome scenario of the socioeconomic analysis is now briefly described: 1st Outcome Scenario: Minimum Outcome This scenario is the least productive hypothesis in terms of outcome, assuming that further to the existing data, the local stakeholders and actors do not provide further data and there is limited financial and human resources available to elaborate the surveys. The existing data for the Mekrou basin mostly include household demographic, health, population census and general statistics data as well as aggregated data related to the agricultural production. In such case the basis outcome will include the establishment of an indicators system (Tool 1) as well as additional agricultural value estimations based on the EPIC and LisFlood models. Additionally, for the estimation of the ecological and water use values a Benefit Transfer method will be applied using values estimated in relevant studies in other regions, adjusted to the local characteristics of the Mekrou river basin.

2nd Outcome Scenario: Data Plus Survey This outcome scenario foresees that the necessary resources and cooperation with the local stakeholders will be available in order to elaborate a household and contingent valuation survey (Tool 2). That would be the main added value of the socioeconomic analysis output, providing additional primary socioeconomic data and estimations for water use and ecological attributes values.

Furthermore, enough outcome will be produced from the survey in order to apply as well a TEEB-style analysis (Tool 4).

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3rd Outcome Scenario: Data plus Travel Cost In the context of this scenario, besides the basis outcome, there is support and collaboration with the W-Park authorities for the application of a Travel Cost survey (Tool 3), promoting the estimation of economic values related to the tourism activity and the ecological services of the Mekrou river basin.

4th Outcome Scenario: Maximum Outcome This is the optimum outcome scenario of the socioeconomic analysis where all the possible data and resources are available, while there is an establishment of active involvement and cooperation with the local authorities and stakeholders. In this case the majority of the methods and tools described in the previous sector will be applied providing the maximum output.

DISCUSSION We have presented a framework based on a set of methods to assess of the socioeconomics and environmental aspects of transboundary river basins of developing countries. The importance of such framework regards its various policy implications. Such a framework can be applied within an integrated approach of hydro-economic modeling. The estimated socioeconomic and environmental values can be used by policy makers in order to evaluate development plans taking into account the use of river basin resources.

This approach relies on a combination of economic modelling and participatory approaches. The strongly participatory approach is highly relevant for an efficient river basin management and governance. National and local stakeholders as well as citizens are actively involved in several steps including decision making, data collection and editing surveys. In any case it is a flexible approach for policy makers who have to decide upon which tools they will use depending on the needs and the specific conditions concerning financial and human resources, emerging problems, data availability etc.

Such a framework, however, has considerable shortcomings that should be considered. The application of the tools requires available and accurate data, as well financial and human resources, which are often limited in developing countries. In parallel considerable challenges and further developments of this approach should be demonstrated. The cost or benefits estimations should be periodically repeated, which prerequisites stable river basin regimes and transboundary cooperation. This framework will initially be applied in the Mekrou river basin, while a higher impact will occur from its application into larger scale river basins. Its inclusion into policy making processes is also of high importance, establishing at the same time the conditions for stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and citizensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation.

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REFERENCES Agimass, F., and Mekonnen, A. (2011) ‘Low-income fishermen's willingness-to-pay for fisheries and watershed management: An application of choice experiment to Lake Tana, Ethiopia’, Ecological Economics 71: 162-170.

Birol, E., Karousakis, K. and Koundouri, P. (2006) ‘Using economic valuation techniques to inform water resources management: A survey and critical appraisal of available techniques and an application’, Science of the Total Environment 365: 105–122.

Cai, X., McKinney, D.C., and L.S. Lasdon. (2003) ‘Integrated Hydrologic-Agronomic-Economic Model for River Basin Management’, J. Water Resour. Plann. Manage., 129(1): 4–17.

Chaminuka, P., Groeneveld, R.A., Selomane, A.O. and van Ierland, E.C. (2012,) ‘Tourist preferences for ecotourism in rural communities adjacent to Kruger National Park: A choice experiment approach’, Tourism Management 33: 168-175.

Christie, M., Fazey, I., Cooper, R., Hyde, T. and Kenter O.J. (2012) ‘An evaluation of monetary and non-monetary techniques for assessing the importance of biodiversity and ecosystem services to people in countries with developing economies’, Ecological Economics, 83: 67-78.

Giertz, S., Diekkruger, B., Jaeger, A., Schopp, M. (2006) ‘An interdisciplinary scenario analysis to assess the water availability and water consumption in the upper Oueme catchment in Benin’, Adv. Geosci. 9: 3–13.

Harou J.J., Pulido-Velazquez M., Rosenberg D.E., Medellín-Azuara J., Lund R., Howitt R.E. (2009) ‘Hydro-economic models: concepts, design, applications, and future prospects’, J Hydrol 375: 627– 643.

Kenter, J.O.,1, Hyde, T., Christie, M. and Fazey, I. (2011) ‘The importance of deliberation in valuing ecosystem services in developing Countries - Evidence from the Solomon Islands’, Global Environmental Change, 21: 505-521.

Landsdell, N. and Gangadharan, L. (2003) ‘Comparing travel cost models and the precision of their consumer surplus estimates: Albert Park and Maroondah Reservoir’, Australian Economic Papers 2003: 399–417.

Lange, de W.J., Wise, R.M., Forsyth, G.G. and Nahman, A. (2010) ‘Integrating socio-economic and biophysical data to support water allocations within river basins: An example from the Inkomati Water Management Area in South Africa’, Environmental Modelling & Software, 25: 43–50.

Nakamura, T. (2006) ‘Development of decision-making indicators for ecosystem-based river basin management’, Hydrol. Process. 20: 1293–1308.

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Ndunda, E.N. and Mungatana, E.D. (2013), ‘Evaluating the welfare effects of improved wastewater treatment using a discrete choice experiment’, Journal of Environmental Management 123: 49-57.

Ringler, C., N.V. Huy, and S. Msangi. (2006.) ‘Water Allocation Policy Modeling for the Dong Nai River Basin: An Integrated Perspective’, Journal of the American Water Resources Association 42(6): 1465-1482.

Rosegrant, M., Ringler, C., McKinney, D.C., Cai, X., Keller, A., Donoso, G. (2000) ‘Integrated economic–hydrologic water modelling at the basin scale: the Maipo River Basin’, Journal of Agricultural Economics 24 (1): 33–46.

Shresta, R. K., Seidl, A. F. and Moraes, A. S. (2002) ‘Value of recreational fishing in the Brazilian Pantanal: a travel cost analysis using count data models’. Ecological Economics 42: 289–299.

TEEB (2010) ‘The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature: A synthesis of the approach, conclusions and recommendations of TEEB’

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Conservation and Valuation of Glacier Ecosystemic Services: Case Study El Morado Natural Monument Alexis Andrés Segovia Rocha Geographer, Universidad de Chile Masters in Wildlife and Nature Conservation

alexsego@gmail.com ABSTRACT An economic valuation was conducted on Ecosystemic services in tourism and recreation, water storage and continuous water flow provided by the glaciers of El Morado Natural Monument, a protected site that is located in the Metropolitan Area's cordillera (mountain range).

The valuation of Ecosystemic services was carried out based on real markets, determining the Ecosystemic service of tourism and recreation using the admission fee price to the protected site, the water storage through investment costs in water infrastructure (dams/reservoirs), and the continuous water flow using the water markets.

The results of the economic valuation yielded a total present value (PV) of CLP $ 65.091.150.895.-, and an annual economic benefit of CLP $ 3.905.469.054.-. This is equivalent to 30.1% of the annual investment budget for the entire National System of Wild Areas Protected by the State (SNAPSE, Sistema Nacional de Áreas Silvestres Protegidas por el Estado) in 2014, and exceeds in 173.5 times the total budget for 2013.

Keywords: Chile, Glaciers, Ecosystemic Services, Economic Valuation, Natural Monument El Morado.

INTRODUCTION Glaciers play an essential role in the natural dynamics and general welfare of the population, as they provide many Ecosystemic services, among which may be mentioned: they are strategic reservoirs of fresh water, they regulate the water regime of river basins, they generate microclimates allowing the development of biodiversity and endemism, they are objects of admiration and contribute to the scenic beauty of the landscapes. The provision and maintenance of these Ecosystemic services, due to the accelerated environmental decline that glaciers have suffered in the last decades, the growing demands for water of the population, and economic activities.

In Chile, 63.8% (477,671 km2) of mainland correspond to mountain areas (FAO, 2012), making Chile a mountain-dependent country in terms of water supply country. Peña and Nazarala in 1987 estimated at about 67% the contribution of glaciers to the average monthly flow for years1968-1969 in the Maipo River Basin.

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In this regard, it is important to bring up management tools to keep these strategic reserves of water, and keep them free from impacts that could affect the water supply for the population, agriculture, wetlands, groundwater recharge, and water flows that maintain biodiversity of downstream ecosystems. That is why the valuation of Ecosystemic services turns out to be a management tool in an effort to link the decision-makers with the general public, on the tight relationship between Ecosystemic health and human welfare.

This study aims to get closer to a base value of Ecosystemic services of the Natural Monument El Morado's glaciers.

OBJETIVE Determining the base economic value of "Tourism and Recreation", "Water Storage" and "Continuous Water Flow" Ecosystemic services for the Natural Monument El Morado's glaciers.

METHODOLOGY The monetary value based on real markets for Ecosystemic services of "Tourism and Recreation" "Water Storage" and "Continuous Water Flow " for the El Morado Natural Monument's glaciers was estimated. Annual values (annual economic benefits) and present values projected to infinity (total profit) were calculated assuming that since the Monument is inside a protected site, the valued Ecosystemic services, will maintain said services for an indefinite period of time. A discount rate of 6% was used, which is the rate the Ministry of Social Development considers for social projects.

The formula used to determine the total economic benefit (present value):

Where: VPi = Present value of flows, stock service value i. (Total economic profit) Fi = Initial value of said service flow i. r = Entire period constant discount rate (6%).

Valuation of the "Tourism and Recreation" Ecosystemic Service The "Personal Preferences Method Based on Real Prices" (Segovia, 2014) was used. A field survey was designed and implemented, in which the consulted visitors made a division of the admission price (CLP $2.000), between different natural units demarcated on the path of the protected site. Also, as an on-site form of response validation, the survey asked about choosing of priorities in pairs of units, with this, it was verified whether the division of the referential price of the first part of the survey, was consistent with the priorities of choices (Figure 1).

To determine the size of the survey sample , the Suarez (2012) formula was used, which gave an outcome of 117 survey respondents based on a total population of 9.251.

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The formula of the economic value of the Tourism and Recreation(VES T) ecosystemic service is:

II: Valuation question of the units of El Morado Natural Monument

This is an exercise that seeks detecting the preferences of people for certain natural and/or environmental elements within this Protected Wildlife Area. Therefore: Besides the three abovementioned units, would you add another landscape unit, natural or environmental element that interests you that is located within the Monument?

If you had to distribute the $2.000 you paid as an admission fee to this place, among the following points of interest according to your perception, how much would you give each one?

Nº

Landscape Unit

1

Aguas Panimávidas

2

Laguna Morales

3

San Francisco Glacier

4

Other:

Value ($)

Total

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III: Validation of valuation question of the units of El Morado Natural Monument

Choose your Favorite Landscape Unit Others

Aguas Panimavidas

Laguna Morales

San Francisco Glacier

Others

San Francisco Glacier

Aguas Panimavidas

Laguna Morales

Laguna Morales

Others

San Francisco Glacier

Aguas Panimavidas

Unit

Points

Others Aguas Panimavidas Laguna Morales San Francisco Glacier

Figure 1: Model of survey. Source: Author.

Valuation of "Water Storage" Ecosystemic Services The water storage was assimilated into water infrastructure investments (dams/reservoirs), a method known as "avoided costs".

The dammed m3 price was estimated according to the MOP (2010).

Also, the amount of m3 equivalent to water contained in the glaciers of the NM El Morado was estimated with data from DGA-CECs (2012) and DGA-UChile (2012) for the San Francisco glacier, and the Chen and Ohmura (1990) formula for the rest of the glaciers. The ice density defined in 0.9 gr cm-3 (Paterson, 1994).

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The formula for calculating the economic value of "Water Storage" ecosystemic services (VSE aa) is:

Where: VSEaa = Value of Water Storage Ecosystemic Service Pe = Price of dammed m3 EQag= Equivalent to water stored in glaciers (m 3) Valuation of "Continuous Water Flow "Ecosystemic Services The "continuous water flow" was estimated based on the annual average flow rate expressed in liters per second (L/S) that the glaciers of the NM El Morado contribute, and the market price of water use rights (DAA) for non-consumptive and consumptive Metropolitan Region according to CNR-AyCDL (2013).

The continuous water flow contributed by the glaciers of the NM El Morado, was estimated based on the mass balance of the San Francisco glacier, carried out by the DGA between 2009 and 2013.

The formula for calculating the economic value of the "Continuous Water Flow" Ecosystemic Service (VSEFHC) is: Where: VSEFHC = Value of the Continuous Water Flow Ecosystemic Service PDAANC = Price non-consumptive DAA PDAAC = Price consumptive DAA QMAAG = Annual average contribution glacier flow (L/S) Definitions "Operational definition of glacier" stipulated by the 2009 National Glaciers' Strategy, is used for this study, and it stipulates that a glacier is: "All surfaces of ice and snow permanently generated on the ground, visible for periods of at least 2 years and of an area less or equal to 0.01 km2 (one hectare). Or any rocky surface with surface evidence of viscous flow, product high current or past ice content on the subsurface (DGA-CECs, 2009)".

The concept of "Ecosystemic Service" can be defined as "Those benefits people obtain from ecosystems, these include provisioning services such as food, water, wood; regulating services such as climate regulation and flood control cycles; cultural services, recreational, aesthetic and spiritual types; and supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling "(Millennium Ecosystemic Assessment, 2005).

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Traditional methodologies for environmental assessment based on real markets are usually classified into two main types (Labandeira et al., 2007): a) Direct Marketing Methods: based on the use of prices and quantities in the markets. b) Indirect methods of market or "revealed preferences" where market prices are used indirectly, that is through an asset that is related to an environmental asset under analysis.

RESULTS Description of Area of Study The Natural Monument El Morado is located in the locality of Baños Morales, commune of San José de Maipo about 93 km from Santiago, in the Metropolitan Region. Corresponds to a wild area protected by the State, belongs to the Estero Morales water basin, has an area of approximately 28.3 km2, and is under the custody and administration of CONAF (Figure 2).

Valuation of Tourism and Recreation Ecosystemic Service The three landscape units demarcated within the path of NM El Morado are: Aguas Panimávidas (Panimavidas Waters), Laguna Morales (Morales Lake) and the San Francisco Glacier (Figure 3): a) Aguas Panimávidas: Formed by upwellings of iron-rich mineral waters which give the landscape a peculiar reddish brown color variation (CONAF, 1994). b) Laguna Morales: Body of water from the melting of San Francisco glacier. It is also a common site for watching migratory birds (CONAF, 1994). c) San Francisco Glacier: Located on the west side of Cerro El Morado and consists of a set of blocks hanging snowfields and attractive landscape (CONAF, 1994).

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Figure 2: Location of NM El Morado in the Metropolitan Region. Source: Author.

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Figure 3: Scenic Units demarcated within the NM El Morado. Source: Author

The results showed that the total CLP $ 2,000 of the cost of adult admission to the protected site, on average CLP $ 947,4.-, that is, 47.4% corresponded to glaciers (Table 1 and Figure 4).

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Table 1. Division of the admission price to NM El Morado between landscape units

Average Price ($/admission/adult) Percentage of the price of each admission ticket

Aguas Panimavidas

Morales Lake

San Francisco Glacier

Other

Total

362.1

480.6

947.4

210.0

2,000

18.1%

24.0%

47.4%

10.5%

100%

Source: Author.

Division of Admission Fee of the Personal Preferences Method División del costo de entrada del método de preferencias personales $210 (10,5%)

$362,1 (18,1%)

Aguas Panimávidas Laguna Morales Glaciar San Francisco Otro

$480,6 (24%)

$947,4 (47,4%)

Figure 4: Division of the admission price to the Natural Monument El Morado among its landscape Source: Author.

According to the above, and assimilating the results detailed above, average adult visitors between 2004-2013 (9,251 tourists), it can be determined that the annual total monetary value of the ecosystemic service of tourism and recreation of the MN El Morado glaciers is CLP $ 8.763.958.-, corresponding to 47.4%. Thus, the actual value (AV) that corresponds to the glaciers, assuming the ecosystemic service of tourism and recreation remains constant in perpetuity is CLP $146.065.969.(Table 2).

Table 2. Yearly Monetary Value and Actual Value of the Tourism and Recreation Ecosystemic Service Total Total Annual Protected Area Actual Value (AV) 2004 - 2013 Monetary Monetary Admission Infinity of the Type of Visitors Average Value of the Value of Price Glaciers Visitors NM El Glaciers (CLP) (CLP) Morado (CLP) (CLP)

Adults

9.251

2.000

18.502.000

8.763.958

146.065.969

Source: Author.

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Valuation of Water Storage Ecosystemic Services The equivalent water contained in the Natural Monument El Morado's glaciers was estimated at 59,635,620 m3, and the average value of the dammed m 3 resulted in CLP $ 1.050.-, so that the Actual Value (AV) of the Water Storage Ecosystemic Service corresponds to CLP $62.617.401.000.-. And the annual value is CLP $3.757.044.060.- (Table 3).

Table 3. Monetary value of water storage ecosystemic service

Discount Rate (%) Value of Dammed m3 (CLP) Total Equivalent to NM El Morado Glacier Waters (m3) Actual Value (AV) of the Ecosystemic Service (CLP) Annual Monetary Value of the Ecosystemic Service (CLP)

6 1.050 59.635.620

62.617.401.000

3.757.044.060 Source: Author.

Valuation of Continuous Water Flow Ecosystemic Services Water intake from the glaciers of the NM El Morado, resulted in 5,702,400 m 3 per year, equivalent to an average continuous flow of 180.8 L/S. In spite that based on this estimate, we could think of a finite term for the glaciers of the NM El Morado, it must be taken into consideration that glaciers respond to annual and inter-annual dynamics so it is possible that in some years the glacier is stable (equilibrium), or even gains glacier mass (positive balance), therefore, the estimates of continuous water flow for glacier water supply, correspond to a photograph of when variables are measured and for this case, need to be projected to infinity, given the nature of the property rights for water use and comparability with other ecosystemic services valued in this study.

The average price of the DAA for the Metropolitan Region resulted in CLP $63,402 L/S for nonconsumptive DAA, and CLP $12,810,956 L/S for consumptive DAA. As a result, the Actual Value of the continuous water flow ecosystemic service of NM El Morado glaciers, is CLP $2.327.683.926.-, and the annual value of this service reaches CLP $139.661.036.(Table 4).

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Type of right of water use

Non consumptive Law Consumptive Law

Table 4. Monetary valuation of continuous water flow ecosystemic service Average yearly flow of Actual Value Yearly Value glacier Total Actual Price of the (AV) of the of the contribut Value (AV) of right to use ecosystemic ecosystemic ion to the the water service (CLP) service the basin ecosystemic (CLP/L/S) for type of (CLP) for of the service DAA type of DAA NM El Morado (L/S) 63,402

11,463,082

180.8

687.785 2.327.683.926

12.810.956

Total Yearly Value of the ecosystemic service (CLP)

2.316.220.845

139.661.036 138973251

Source: Author.

Sum of the Tourism and Recreation, Water Storage, and Continuous Water Flow Ecosystemic Services It may be established that the sum of the values of the analyzed ecosystemic services, deliver an actual value of CLP $65.091.150.895.-, and an annual profit of CLP $3.905.469.054.- (Table 5).

Table 5. Sum of the values of the analyzed ecosystemic services Total Annual Total Actual Value Ecosystemic Value of the % for Valued Service (AV) of the Service Ecosystemic Value Over the Total Sum Ecosystemic Service (CLP) Tourism and 146.065.969 8.763.958 0,2% Recreation Water Storage 62.617.401.000 3.757.044.060 96,2% Continuous 2.327.683.926 139.661.036 3,6% Water flow TOTAL 65.091.150.895 3.905.469.054 100% Source: Author.

The total values shown above (annual profit), are equivalent to 30.1% of the annual investment budget for all SNASPE 2014 (CLP $ 12.974.363.000.- BCN, 2013). Finally, the annual economic benefit of Ecosystemic services valued (CLP $ 3.905.469.054.-), exceeds 173.5 times the total budget of the same Natural Monument El Morado 2013 (CLP $ 22.505.000.-)

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CONCLUSIONS The valuation based on actual markets is somewhat conservative, given it only detects the value based on market prices. However, it is highly relevant, since they deliver a first approximation or a minimum value of the ecosystemic service to be valued, therefore, constituting a starting point for obtaining a total economic valuation (VET, valoración económica total).

For the Tourism and Recreation Service, the glaciers gained a relevance of 47.4%, managing to establish with certainty that tourists in their majority, perceived glaciers as the main attraction. In connection with this, for case studies, and to gain finesse assessing specific units, it is appropriate to apply methodologies that can separate the tourist experience generated by different landscapesenvironmental, in an effort to determine the actual weight of each unit.

Regarding the valuation of the water storage ecosystemic service, the avoided cost method by water infrastructure (dams), was fairly simple and effective in its application, hence it is considered to be advisable in obtaining baseline economic values.

Regarding the valuation of Continuous Water Flow ecosystemic services, the method used was somewhat complex, since water rights markets are highly speculative and poorly regulated, therefore sometimes reflect extremely low or high prices regarding an average transaction. Notwithstanding the foregoing, it still is a recommended methodology, given it is an efficient mechanism to estimate the value of raw water in continuous flow units per unit time.

The total sum of the values of ecosystemic services analyzed, results in an economic benefit in present value (PV) of CLP $65.091.150.895.-, and an annual economic benefit of CLP $3.905.469.054.-, equivalent to 30.1 % of the annual budget for the entire SNASPE for year 2014 (established in CLP $12,974,363,000), and surpasses 173.5 times the total budget of the same Natural Monument El Morado for year 2013 (estimated at CLP $22,505,000).

This makes it clear that an assessment with conservative methods of a part of ecosystemic services provided by glaciers in a protected site, results in economic benefits that far outweigh the investment made for the conservation of natural units complete. Therefore, however complex it is to capture the values in terms of economic benefits provided by ecosystems, they meet essential roles for life and development of societies, so investing in conservation of natural heritage, is economically profitable before all benefits perceived from nature.

REFERENCES BCN, 2013. Historia de la ley N°20.713. Ley de Presupuestos del Sector Público para el año 2014.

Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile. 1990p.

CHEN, J. y OHMURA, A. 1990. Estimation of Alpine glacier water resources and their change since the 1870s. In Hydrology in Mountainous Regions, I – Hydrological Measurements; the Water Cycle, Proceedings of two Lausanne Symposia, August 1990, Lang H, Musy A (eds). 10p.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

CNR-AyCDL, 2013. Análisis Estimación del Precio Privado de los Derechos de Aprovechamiento de Aguas. Comisión Nacional de Riego, Gobierno de Chile. 129p CONAF, 1994. Documento de Trabajo N°256, Plan de Manejo Monumento Natural El Morado.

Unidad de Gestión y Patrimonio Silvestre. 105p.

DGA-CECs, 2009. Estrategia Nacional de Glaciares, Fundamentos. Realizado por Centro de Estudios Científicos (CECs). 290p.

DGA-CECs, 2012. Estimación de Volúmenes de Hielo Mediante Radio Eco Sondaje en Chile Central.

Realizado por el Centro de Estudios Científicos. 173p.

DGA-UCHILE, 2012. Modelación del Balance de Masa y Descarga de Agua en Glaciares de Chile Central. Realizado por Universidad de Chile, Departamento de Ingeniería Civil, División de Recursos Hídricos y Medio Ambiente. 90p FAO, 2012. Diagnóstico Nacional de Montaña, fortalecimiento de la gestión participativa para el desarrollo sostenible de los Andes. Informe Chile. Realizado por Juan Pablo Flores. 64p.

LABANDEIRA, X., LEÓN, C. y VÁZQUEZ M. 2007. Economía ambiental. Pearson Prentice Hall.

356p.

MILLENIUM ECOSYSTEMIC ASSESSMENT, 2005. Ecosystemics and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC. 155p.

MOP, 2010. Chile 2020, Obras Públicas para el Desarrollo. Gobierno de Chile. 238p PATERSON, W.S.B, 1994. The Physics of Glaciers. Third Edition. 481p.

PEÑA, H. y NAZARALA, B. 1987. Snowmelt-runoff simulation model of a central Chile Andean basin with relevant orographic effects. Large Scle effects of Seasonal Snow cover (Proceedings of the Vancouver Symposium, August 1987). IAHSPubl. no. 166. 12p.

SEGOVIA, A. 2014. Caracterización Glaciológica de Chile y Valoración de Servicios Ecosistémicos de Glaciares en Base a Mercados Reales (Estudio de Caso del Monumento Natural el Morado). Tesis de grado para optar el grado de magíster en Áreas Silvestres y Conservación de la Naturaleza. 168p.

SUAREZ, M. 2012. Interaprendizaje de Probabilidades y Estadística Inferencial con Excel, Winstats y Graph. 228p.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

Water Decontamination Management Through a Hydro-Economic Model in Hydrographic Basins Gabriel Lozano Sandoval Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (España) Universidad del Quindío (Colombia) galozano@uniquindio.edu.co Manuel Pulido Velázquez Universidad Politécnica de Valencia mapuve@hma.upv.es Joaquín Andreu Álvarez Universidad Politécnica de Valencia ximoand@upvnet.upv.es

ABSTRACT A methodology is developed as well as a series of hydro-economical tools necessary to facilitate decision-makers the selection and combination of measures that allow reaching OMAs (Objetivos Medioambientales, Environmental Goals) in a hydrographic basin. The research focus includes integrated water resources management (IWRM) considering the amount, quality and economic optimization of non-conservative parameters such as biological oxygen demand (BOD) and conservative parameters like phosphorus. Before hydro-economic modeling, a detailed study on the pressures and impacts of the water masses on the basin is carried out, where the most polluted masses are identified and not only Basic Measures of Water Framework Directive (Medidas Básicas de la Directiva Marco del Agua, MBDMA) have to be applied, but also other Complementary Measurements (Medidas Complementarias, MC) as it is the case of reuse, this with the goal of said masses reach OMAs settled by the DMA. For the management of quantity and quality of hydrologic resources, simultaneously to the hydroeconomical models, the Decision Support System (DSS) SIMGES of AQUATOOL® (UPV) are used, which allow knowing in detail the behavior of flows and concentrations of water masses in a basin in any measure combination, and serve specially to validate the quality and quantity results obtained in the hydro-economic model applied to a determinate basin.

In the hydro-economic models non-linear mathematical programming (NLP) is used to optimize the BOD parameters, incorporating the temporal variability for a given period; while to optimize the phosphorus parameter mixed integer mathematical programming (MIP) is used and “semi-soft” mixed integer non-linear mathematical programming (MINLP), using activation and clearance variables for optimal selection of measurements combination. The mathematical programming tools used have been GAMS® (General Algebraic Modeling System), and EXCEL® spreadsheet. The integrated ACE with multiple objectives includes localized pollution control measures (Purifiers), system management (flows, supply guarantees, control demand (irrigation updating) and reuse of regenerated water.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

INTRODUCTION During the last years, awareness raising and concern for water pollution worldwide has increased, and new approaches towards achieving sustained exploitation of water resources have been developed at an international level. Despite the governmental and non-governmental efforts for decontaminating waste water in hydrographic basins, and given the real world interactions between economy and environment, these form the main barrier facing the integral management of water resources on a basin.

The approach of water quality based in pollution control gives a mechanism through which the amount of pollution that enters in the water mass is controlled in function of the water mass conditions and the environmental goals for its recovery and protection, established by the environmental authority. In this sense, the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) establishes a communitarian performance framework in the field of water policies in the member countries of the European Union. Their main purpose is to reach a good state of the continental water masses, transition, and coastal ones. In the superficial waters case, a “good state” entails reaching a good chemical state, as well as a good ecological state.

The results obtained are gathered when applying an economic optimization methodology to reach the quality goals for the organic matter removal parameters (BOD) and nutrient removal (phosphorus, P) in the exploitation systems of the Serpis and Júcar rivers, to meet the measures program. Models developed in GAMS have been applied, supported by Excel spreadsheets. Mixed integer programming (MIP) and non-linear programming (NLP) have been used for the mathematical programming in GAMS. Additionally, sensitivity analyses, hypothetical scenarios of pollution or circling flow reduction in the exploitation system, probabilistic restriction, and shadow prices analyses have been carried out.

METHODOLOGY The development of the research comprises the knowledge fields related to Hydraulic, Environmental and Economic Engineering, which are related with the purpose of studying the different measures to achieve the improvement of the ecologic state of a hydrographic basin at the lowest cost. In this sense, the Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) constitutes the most adequate methodological tool in such a way that allows finding a combination or package of measures to the lowest cost to reach environmental goals in a basin. The work plan includes: state-of-the-art review, developing a methodology for the calculation of “transport coefficients”, analysis of a case study, a catalog of local measures and cost-effectiveness characterization, mathematical programming of hydro-economic models of CEA prototypes for some study cases in basins of the River Basin of Júcar in Spain (optimization model with economic objective function and quality-quantity resource restrictions), detailed analysis of solutions, measure program proposal and writing of a document that reflects the achieved in the research field.

This methodology with a focus on integral analysis that includes hydro-economic models, CEA and DSSs, has been implemented un different basins and sub-basins of the Júcar River Basin (Serpis, Albaida, Arquillo, Magro), and the results allow to reach mathematically the environmental goals of the different water masses in a hydrographic basin at the lowest cost possible. It also allows economic analyses that may include the study of shadow prices, multiple objectives, kindness analysis of the Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

quality restrictions, uncertainty analysis with multiple hydrological equiprobable scenarios, and studying the downstream externalities that present in the different masses in a basin, among others; strengthening the focus of a methodology of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), contributing to the implementation of European Water Framework Directive (WFD). This methodology and its tools can be applied potentially in other countries different from the European Union, being especially useful in developing countries where the financial resources are very limited and at the same time it is required to recover the good ecological state of the hydrographic basins.

RESULTS Hydro-Economic Model for BOD in the Basin of Júcar River In this case, annual median values have been taken of flows in the masses analyzed, which will be reflected on the different Figures, as punctual values of circling flows, which will be receive their corresponding sensitivity and synthetic scenarios analyses that allow knowing utilities in the implementation of said hydro-economic models.

Flow Modeling Result Analysis Next, from Figure 1 through 3 the circlingflow in each of the main sub-basins of the Júcar River (Albaida, Arquillo, Magro) is shown. These flows correspond to the initial flow in each of the different control nodes located along the water current, these flows have been obtained from Júcar Hydrographic Confederation.

Figure 1: Circling flow in the nodes of Albaida Sub-basin. Source: Author.

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Figure 2: Circling flow in the nodes of Arquillo Sub-basin. Source: Author.

Figure 3: Circling flow in the nodes of Magro Sub-basin. Source: Author.

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Water Quality Modeling Result Analysis (Base and Synthetic Scenarios) In figure 4 the activation cost variations or the measures for the base scenario and the different supposed synthetic scenarios are shown, with the purpose of analyzing the fulfillment of the OMA in BOD for the Júcar river basin. These synthetic scenarios correspond mainly to the variation of the circling flows, as in increase as in decrease of the same, related to the OMA, and therefore with the water quality on the basin.

Figure 4: Synthetic scenario analysis to reach the BOD OMA in the Júcar river basin (activation variables vs. costs)

In Figure 4 can be observed that for the base scenario conditions the md2 and md3 are activated, whose joint cost ascends to € 77.160 Euro. Executing the synthetic scenarios it can be appreciated that if the circling flow is reduced 20%, the hydro-economic modeled does not obtain an optimal solution to fulfill the BOD OMA. Conversely, if an increase of 20% of the circling flow is posed, it can be seen that only the md3 activates and its activation cost is € 51.320 Euro. Finally, by simulating a 30% flow increase it can be observed that none of the measures is activated and therefore the costs are null.

Sensitivity Analysis In this section a sensitivity analysis of the implementation of the hydro-economic model for the BOD parameter in the Júcar river basin is performed. This analysis consists of the OMA variation in a range that is comprised between 5mg/l and 8mg/l of BOD (OMA= 5mg/l,6 mg/l, 7 mg/l y 8 mg/l), in the sensitivity analysis the total of the activation cost ofthe necessary measures to comply with the OMA. In Figure 5 can be appreciated how by relaxing the OMA (lowering the pre-established value), the activation cost of the measures reduces meaningfully. If the extreme values are analyzed, it can be noted that when the OMA equals to 8mg/l, the measure cost is null (zero), this indicates that to comply with OMA’s 8mg/l it is not necessary the activation of sanitation measures on the Júcar river basin, highlighting that this would be only in a hydro-economic model-level, without pretending not meeting the current environmental norms in terms of purification of waste water.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 5: Sensitivity analysis for the BOD parameter in the JĂşcar river basin (OMA vs. costs)

This way, it is observed how these hydro-economic models allow to serve as a support to water policies decisions in different basins, managed by environmental authorities (e.g., CHJ), or managers of water resources.

Hydro-Economic Model for Removing Phosphorus (P) of the Serpis River Basin In this case, values have been taken from the temporal scale for the period analyzed of 120 months comprised between October 1995 and September 2004. The spatial scale includes the main basin or stream of the Serpis River and four sub-basins (Valleseta River, Bco. La encantada, Agres River and Bernisa River). This spatial analysis in sub-basin scale allows a higher degree of detail in the hydroeconomic models proposed, where all the associated discharges to the water masses in the basin are included.

The result analysis that allows applying the proposed methodology and the kindness of said HEM in a hydrographic basin level are presented next.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Result Analysis of Water Quality Modeling (Equi-probable Hydrological Scenarios) In Figure 6 is shown the final concentration of the phosphorus parameter (P) and the OMA of masses and sections of the main stream of Serpis river, in a time scale like the monthly median of the different Equiprobable Hydrological Scenarios (Escenarios HidrolĂłgicos Equiprobables, EHE), just as the BOD a period of 120 EHE has been analyzed, between the years 1995 and 2005.

Figure 6: Final concentration of phosphorus (P), OMA in masses and sections of the Serpis river main stream (19952005).

Sustainable Hydrological Areas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

In Figure 7 the concentration of the phosphorus parameter (P) is presented for each of the months of the year, represented as the multiannual monthly median for the main stream of Serpis river, detailed in sections and water masses level.

Figure 7: Final phosphorus concentration, OMA in masses and sections of the main stream of Serpis River. Multiannual monthly median (1995-2005).

Synthetic Scenarios Analysis Due to the low pollution levels in phosphorus (P) for the Serpis river hydrographic basin, and with the purpose of evaluating the kindness of the hydro-economic model developed, synthetic scenarios have been developed where conditions that hypothetically increase the pollution produced by the phosphorus (P) parameter in the basin have been supposed.

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Increase of Phosphorus (P) (30% Effluents) In this hypothetical scenario was proposed to simulate a 30% increase in the phosphorus parameter (P) in the EDARs effluents, starting from the base scenario (current basin conditions), having into account 120 equiprobable hydrological scenarios (Escenarios Hidrológicos Equiprobables, EHE); the results of this hypothesis are shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Base scenario and hypothetical scenario cost curve (30% increases in phosphorus concentration) EDAR effluent, Serpis river.

On the Júcar River Basin Case Study The first MHE implemented in the sub-basins of Júcar river is a general model for removing organic matter (BOD). In this, the results where the measures that have to be activated are presented and the minimal measure activation cost represented in the Annual equivalent cost (Coste Annual Equivalente, CAE) are obtained, to reach the environmental goal (Objetivo Medioambiental, OMA) for BOD = 6.0 mg/l, fixed for the different masses on the basin. The second implemented MHE is centered in nutrient removal, specifically phosphorus (P), similarly reaching the OMA of P=0.4 mg/l, established by the environmental authority. Likewise, these MHE allow validating the OMAs established by the Environmental Authorities or water resources managers.

In this case study has also been proven the kindness of the spatial scalehydro-economical models for removing organic matter (BOD) and nutrient removal (Phosphorus) applied to the Júcar river sub-basin (Albaida, Arquillo, Magro), including sensitivity analysis, syhtetic scenarios of pollution increase analysis; these analyses contribute to decision making from Environmental authorities or water resources managers.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

On the Serpis River Basin Case Study The first implemented MHE in the basin of Serpis river is a general model for removing organic matter (BOD), in it, the Equiprobable Hydrologic Scenarios (Escenarios Hidrológicos Equiprobables, EHE) results are obtained,where the measures that have to be activated and the minimum for measure activation represented in the Annual Equivalent Cost (Coste Anual Equivalente, CAE) are presented, in order to reach the environmental objective (OMA). The second MHE allows making a postoptimization, for which a MHE with reuse of regenerated water for removing organic matter (BOD) is used, which guarantees meeting the OMA in BOD= 6.0mg/l , established for the different masses in the basin. The third MHA implemented is centered in nutrient removal, specifically phosphorus (P), reaching the same way the OMA of P= 0.4 mg/L, established by the environmental authorities (CHJ) or water resources managers.

The kindness of the hydro-economical models has been proven in spatial and temporary scale for removing organic matter (BOD) and nutrient removal (phosphorus) applied to the Serpis river basin and sub-basins, including sensitivity analysis, synthetic analysis with pollution increase, probabilistic restrictions and shadow prices; all these analyses contribute to decision-making by the environmental authorities (CHJ) or water resources managers.

To know the complete results of this research you can find the Doctorate Thesis: Hydro-economical Modeling and Cost-Efficiency Analysis of Measures to Reach Environmental Goals in a Hydrographic Basin (MODELACIÓN HIDROECONOMICA Y ANÁLISIS COSTE EFICACIA DE MEDIDAS PARA ALCANZAR OBJETIVOS MEDIOAMBIENTALES EN UNA CUENCA HIDROGRÁFICA).Contribution to the European Water Framework Directive (Lozano, 2014).

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES CHJ, 1999. Plan Hidrológico de cuenca del Júcar. Disponible en www.chj.es. Confederación Hidrográfica Júcar.

CHJ, 1999. Plan Hidrológico del Júcar, Anexo IV Sistemas de Explotación.

CHJ, 2005. Informe para la Comisión Europea sobre artículos 5 y 6 de la Directiva Marco del Agua.

Disponible en www.chj.es. Confederación Hidrográfica Júcar.

CHJ, 2007. Taller de GEOIMPRESS. Confederación Hidrográfica Júcar.

CHJ, 2009. Esquemas de Temas Importantes. Disponible en www.chj.es. Confederación Hidrográfica Júcar.

CHJ, 2009. Identificación y delimitación de masas de aguas superficial y subterránea. Disponible en www.chj.es. Confederación Hidrográfica Júcar.

CHJ-UPV, 2008. Elaboración de una metodología y herramientas para la determinación de un programa de medidas destinadas al cumplimiento de la DMA. Estudio Piloto de la Cuenca del río Serpis. Confederación Hidrográfica Júcar-Universidad Politécnica de Valencia.

CHJ, 2004. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente España. La Directiva Marco Europea del Agua. Una nueva perspectiva en política de aguas. Cuenca Piloto del Júcar. Valencia.

CHJ, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia UPV y Universidad de Valencia UV, 2008. Convenio para la elaboración de una metodología y herramientas para la determinación de un programa de medidas destinadas al cumplimiento de la Directiva Marco del Agua. Estudio Piloto de la cuenca del río Serpis.

Valencia.

MARM, 2008. Instrucción de Planificación Hidrológica. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino.

MARM, 2009. Guía Técnica para la caracterización de medidas (versión 3.0). Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino.

Unión Europea, 2000. Directiva Marco del Agua, 2000/60/CE Parlamento Europeo. Luxemburgo.

Informe para la Comisión Europea sobre los artículos 5 y 6 de la Directiva Marco del Agua. 2005 Informe sobre los artículos 5 y 6 de la Directiva Marco del Agua. Demarcación hidrográfica del Júcar.

España: Confederación Hidrográfica del Júcar.

Sustainable Hydrological Areas – Water Week LA 2015

Food and Water Security

Analysis of Agricultural Reuse of Wastewater.

Latin America and the Caribbean.

Pilar RomĂĄn FAO Pilar.Roman@fao.org

ABSTRACT The use of wastewater in agriculture, treated or untreated, is an option that starts to take weight in several parts of the planet, as an alternative response to the growing water shortage and, especially, to the strong competition for freshwater between urban and peri-urban areas.

It is estimated that worldwide, 20 million hectares (7% of irrigated land) are supplied with untreated or partially treated wastewater (UN-Water, 2013), in Latin America it is estimated to be about 500,000 hectares.

Often farmers are not aware that they are using contaminated water, and even if they do know, they rarely take measures to avoid the risks it entails. The region is working towards greater water coverage and sanitation but currently, 162 million people do not have adequate excreta disposal system.

This highlights the need to address the challenge of improper use of wastewater in farmland endangering workers and consumers. Analyzing the most frequent and common problems of the region, we found that generally there is low monitoring of wastewater discharges, poor control of the actual use of wastewater in agriculture in an unsafe manner, a considerable dispersion of responsibilities in this matter since the Ministries of Agriculture should be involved in sanitation projects and in particular, in the ignorance in the region of WHO Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater that does not have a negative impact on health and the environment.

Tackling these problems is possible through training and inter-institutional cooperation of the different actors involved in reuse projects, developing water strategies involving integrated management.

INTRODUCTION This paper analyzes the situation of agricultural reuse of treated or untreated wastewater, in the context of Latin America and the Caribbean. Water recycling, performed safely, is one of the key factors in the solution for addressing the issues of shortage of water and sanitation in arid regions, particularly in urban centers.

Safe reusing or recycling, is the handling of wastewater, treated or untreated, following the WHOFAO-UNEP Guidelines (2006).

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 1: OMS-FAO-PNUMA Guidelines of wastewater, excreta, and greywater. 2006.

The purpose of these guidelines is to maximize the human health protection and the beneficial use of human waste.

It is estimated that worldwide, 20 million hectares (7% of irrigated land) are supplied with untreated or partially treated wastewater (UN-Water, 2013).

To the extent that there is a search to avoid this environmental and health problem, residual water is proposed as a solution, instead of the problem. Residual water can generate added value for urban users, farmers and the environment.

The potential benefits to each stakeholder would be: Farmers would have an available source of water throughout the year. The farmer would receive water that is rich in organic matter and nutrients so fertilizer costs would be reduced, it could be harvested more times per year because the volume of irrigation water would no longer be a seasonal limitation. It could be grown closer to the cities thus decreasing transportation costs.

Cities would have possibility to treat water at lower costs, and fresh water could be used for purposes of greater economic value (industrial and urban). Thereby, reducing competition with agriculture.

Environmentally, the benefits are the conservation of freshwater bodies as there would be a lower withdrawal of the same, and prevention of pollution of surface waters. It contributes to soil conservation due to the accumulation of organic matter and by preventing erosion. And also to the reduction of industrial fertilizers (which are precursors GHG).

Depending on local circumstances, the benefits of recycling water can be greater for the farmer since there can be a cost savings of the withdrawal of fresh water from wells and aquifers.

In no case, can the risks and damages to health be forgotten which may involve the use of wastewater in an unsafe manner. It is for this reason that, although the water generated is considered a valuable alternative resource for agriculture, still it has not been reflected in public policies worldwide as a legislated source of water for agriculture.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Water Scarcity in Latin America Latin America is a region rich in water resources; 15% of the surface of Earth receives almost 30% of the rain, and generated 33% of run-off. The region is home to less than 10% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population, thus water allocations are close to 28 000 m 3 per person per year, well above the world average.

However, the distribution of water resources is extremely uneven, given there is a wide variety of climates in the region that generate a large spatial range of hydrological regimes (Figure 2). These climatic characteristics also generate large inter-seasonal and inter-annual variations.

Figure 2: Annual precipitation

Within regional figures, there are countries with a high variability of water availability. A clear example is Chile, where the northernmost regions, with desert characteristics, have a water availability of 63 000 m3/inhab./year, while the southernmost regions, such as Magallanes, have an availability of 2 million m3/inhab./year.

In the continent, water resources are mainly towards the interior of the continent and the areas experiencing greater water stress are on the Pacific coast (Figure 3), being Mexico, El Salvador, and Peru, the countries with greater water stress.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 3: Physical scarcity of water per river basin. SOLAW (2011)

There is also an increasing pressure on existing water resources such as rapid population growth, rapid urbanization and a competition for water resources with other sectors such as mining and industry (El Salvador, Brazil and Chile).

It has been estimated that at a regional level, 73% of the extracted water is used for agriculture. In the Southern Sub-region this percentage rises up to 91%, excluding Brazil that uses 61% of its withdrawals for agricultural purposes. As an indicator of the current pressure, the withdrawal of water is considered relative to TRWR (Total Renewable Water Resources).

Figure 4: Percentage of water extracted used for agriculture. AQUASTAT (2012)

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

METHODOLOGY An analysis on water resources was conducted, water destined to irrigation and the wastewater produced and processed, in order to determine the potential of a country to spend its wastewater to agriculture. These data were obtained through AQUASTAT, a global information system on water, developed by FAO. First the pressure of agriculture on the withdrawal of fresh water in the country was analyzed. Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico and Nicaragua were well above the world average of agricultural water withdrawal (70%), which indicates that the agricultural sector puts great pressure on water resources, and in which case using municipal wastewater would be justified, since the use thereof could relieve this pressure.

Table 1. Analysis of agricultural pressure on water withdrawals nationwide.

Total renewable water resources (actual)

Total water extraction (agriculture, municipal, industrial)

Agriculture water extraction

Total water extraction per capita (m3/inhab./yrs)

% of agriculture water extraction vs. total extraction

0,1

0,0

0,0

100,0

15%

Argentina

876,2

37,8

27,9

919,5

74%

Barbados

0,1

0,1

0,1

365,9

54%

Belice

21,7

0,1

0,1

400,8

68%

Bolivia

574,0

2,1

2,1

198,9

92%

Brazil

8.647,0

74,8

74,8

376,7

60%

Chile

923,1

35,4

35,4

2126,0

83%

Colombia

2.360,0

14,3

14,3

306,9

41%

Costa Rica

113,0

2,4

2,4

482,3

57%

Cuba

38,1

5,5

5,5

391,4

65%

Ecuador

457,4

9,9

9,9

695,1

81%

El Salvador

26,3

2,1

2,1

345,9

68%

Guatemala

127,9

3,3

3,3

249,6

57%

Guyana

271,0

1,4

1,4

2184,0

94%

Haiti

14,0

1,5

1,5

135,4

80%

Honduras

92,2

1,6

1,6

223,9

73%

Mexico

461,9

80,3

80,3

664,5

77%

Nicaragua

164,5

1,5

1,5

257,8

77%

Panama

139,3

1,0

1,0

272,8

43%

Antigua y Barbuda

Paraguay Peru Puerto Rico

138,8

0,5

0,5

88,0

71%

1.894,0

20,0

20,0

273,5

82%

7,1

1,0

1,0

266,1

7%

All data in km3 1 km3 = 109m3

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Definitions, according Aquastat Glossary.

Total Actual Renewable Water Resources (TRWR_actual): The sum of internal renewable water resources (IRWR) and external actual renewable water resources (ERWR_actual). It corresponds to the maximum theoretical yearly amount of water actually available for a country at a given moment.

Total water withdrawal: Annual quantity of water withdrawn for agricultural, industrial and municipal purposes. It includes renewable freshwater resources as well as potential over-abstraction of renewable groundwater or withdrawal of fossil groundwater and potential use of desalinated water or treated wastewater.

Agricultural water withdrawal: Annual quantity of self-supplied water withdrawn for irrigation, livestock and aquaculture purposes. It includes water from primary renewable and secondary freshwater resources, as well as water from over-abstraction of renewable groundwater or withdrawal of fossil groundwater, direct use of agricultural drainage water and (treated) wastewater, and desalinated water. Water for the dairy and meat industries and industrial processing of harvested agricultural products is included under industrial water withdrawal.

Total water withdrawal per capita: Total annual amount of water withdrawn per capita.

Aquastat has a database on wastewater. This database is still under construction and there is incomplete data. Regarding the production of wastewater, there is disparity in the region, as between Panama (279 liters/ per capita/day) and Bolivia (34 liters/per capita/day), although in general there is an average production of about 150 liters/ per capita/day, or 55 m 3/per capita /year. Agricultural water withdrawal per capita.

The ratio of wastewater produced with respect to agricultural water withdrawn shows great importance in countries like Panama, Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, where a significant portion of the withdrawal pressure could be alleviated by the exchange of water.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Table 2. Analysis of the importance of waste water produced regarding Agricultural water withdrawn .

Total population (1000 inhab.)

Antigua y Barbuda

Produced municipal wastewater (km3/yr.)

% wastewater vs. agricultural water withdrawal

Produced wastewater per capita (liter/inhab./day)

Produced wastewater per capita (m3/inhab./yr.)

2,5

9%

162,5

59,3

0,0

3%

16,5

6,0

90

Argentina

41.446

Barbados

285

Belice

332

Bolivia

10.671

0,1

7%

16,5

6,0

Brazil

200.362

10,3

23%

140,8

51,4

Chile

17.620

Colombia

48.321

2,4

41%

135,9

49,6

Costa Rica

4.872

0,3

24%

176,6

64,4

Cuba

11.266

0,5

14%

122,1

44,6

Ecuador

15.738

0,6

8%

109,8

40,1

El Salvador

6.340

0,1

7%

41,9

15,3

Guatemala

15.468

0,7

35%

118,3

43,2

7,5

12%

167,0

61,0

Guyana Haiti Honduras Mexico

63,1

800 10.317 8.098 122.322

Nicaragua

6.080

0,3

26%

137,0

50,0

Panama

3.864

0,39

88%

279,4

102,0

1,0

6%

89,7

32,8

Paraguay

6.802

Peru

30.376

Puerto Rico

3.688

Definitions: Produced Municipal Wastewater: Annual volume of domestic, commercial and industrial effluents, and storm water runoff, generated within urban areas Wastewater produced per capita: Volume of municipal wastewater generated per person, whether per day or per year.

In a national level, an analysis was conducted on the collection, disposal and treatment of produced municipal wastewater. From existing data, Chile, Mexico and Peru are the countries with the better system for collecting and treating produced municipal water is rarely greater than 50%. The treatment of collected water remains low, with Chile, Brazil and Nicaragua being the countries with better treatment capacity at the end of the municipal wastewater collector.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Table 3. Analysis of the municipal wastewater collection and treatment ability .

Collected Municipal Wastewater

Treated Municipal Wastewater 0,0002

1,6

0,3

Antigua y Barbuda Argentina

% collected wastewater vs. % treated wastewater produced vs. produced 65%

18%

% treated wastewater vs. collected 18%

Barbados Belice Bolivia

0,03

25%

Brazil

5,4

3,1

54%

30%

58%

Chile

1,1

0,8

96%

69%

72%

4%

14%

Colombia Costa Rica

23% 0,1

Cuba

0,0

27%

0,1

22%

Ecuador

0,2

25%

El Salvador

0,0

1%

Guatemala

0,0

1%

Dominica

Guyana Haiti Honduras

0,4

0,0

10%

Mexico

6,6

3,1

89%

41%

46%

Nicaragua

0,2

0,1

59%

37%

62%

0,8

0,3

80%

28%

34,00%

Panama Paraguay Peru Puerto Rico

All data in km3 1 km3 = 109m3

Definitions: Collected Municipal Wastewater: wastewater collected by municipal wastewater sewers or other formal collection systems.

Treated municipal wastewater: Treated wastewater (primary, secondary and tertiary) annually produced by municipal wastewater treatment facilities in the country.

Currently, no data is validated for most countries in the region regarding the discharge and use of wastewater. Countries like Brazil, Chile, Peru and Mexico carry on some monitoring on the direct use of treated water in agriculture. In the case of Chile and Peru, the direct use of treated municipal wastewater for agriculture is 10-12%.

Bolivia and Mexico monitor irrigation with untreated wastewater. In the case of Mexico, the direct use of not treated wastewaters in agriculture is about 60% of produced municipal wastewater.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Table 4. Data dumping and use of municipal wastewater Treated municipal wastewater discharged (secondary water)

Not treated municipal wastewater discharged (secondary water)

Direct use of treated municipal wastewater

Direct use of treated municipal wastewater for irrigation purposes

Direct use of not treated municipal wastewater for irrigation purposes

Antigua y Barbuda Argentina

0,0

0,9

Barbados Belice Bolivia

0,2

Brazil Chile

0,1 0,8

0,21

Mexico

2,3

6,80

Nicaragua

0,0

0,1 0,14

Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras 0,80

0,40

4,33

0,0011

Panama Paraguay Peru

0,2

0,09

0,09

0,11

Puerto Rico

Definitions: Treated municipal wastewater discharged: Treated municipal wastewater directly discharged to water bodies (inland or coastal) without any specific use. It then is considered secondary water.

Not treated municipal wastewater discharged: Municipal wastewater discharged directly to water bodies (inland or coastal) without any prior treatment. It then is considered secondary water.

Direct use of treated municipal wastewater: Treated municipal wastewater treated (primary, secondary and tertiary effluents) used directly, with little or no dilution with freshwater for most of the year.

Direct use of treated municipal wastewater for irrigation purposes: Treated municipal wastewater applied artificially (irrigation) and directly (i.e. with no or little prior dilution with freshwater during most of the year) on land to assist the growth of crops and fruit trees. Treated municipal wastewater applied artificially and directly for landscaping and forestry also falls under this category.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Direct use of not treated municipal wastewater for irrigation purposes: Municipal wastewater applied artificially (irrigation) and directly (i.e. with no or little prior dilution with fresh water during most of the year) on land to assist the growth of crops and fruit trees.

RESULTS The results show that the region is working towards greater coverage of water and sanitation (Figure 5, Goal 7) although currently, 42 million people have no access to water and some 162 million people do not have an adequate excreta disposal system. It is also estimated that there are 500,000 ha irrigated with wastewater, mostly untreated. It is estimated that Mexico has 350,000 ha, Chile has 16.000 ha, Peru has 6.600 ha and Argentina with 3700 ha.

LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN: SYNTHESIS OF THE PROGRESS TOWARDS THE ACHIEVEMENT OF THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Figure 5: MG 7. Water and sanitation. CEPAL (2013)

In Latin America and the Caribbean, there are seven countries with coverage of over 90% (Figure 6).

Ecuador, Honduras and Paraguay stand out for having a relative improvement, since they have increased coverage by more than 25 percentage points. The lowest level of coverage is in Haiti and Bolivia, WHO (2014).

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 6: Proportion of population with access to improved sanitation.

Globally, 2,500 million people lack access to improved sanitation facilities, which means 37% of the world population. There are still 46 countries where less than half of the population has access to improved sanitation (Figure 6). More than half of the world population lives in cities and urban areas are being supplied with better water and sanitation than rural, and so this is also reflected in the Latin American region (Figure 7).

Lack of sanitation and contaminated water are connected to the transmission of diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A and typhoid fever. Moreover, inadequate or non existing water and sanitation services in health centers expose vulnerable patients to an additional risk of infection and disease. In the Region, infectious diseases are a major cause of mortality and morbidity, especially in children under five. CEPIS (2004).

In countries of the Region, although there is legislation to protect the environment, countries often do not have the technical standards to apply the law to a particular case or, lack of technical capacities for monitoring and supervision in matters of water quality.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 7: Urban and rural sanitation coverage, 1990 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2011

At a national level, countries that have a great agricultural water pressure, thus they could alleviate this freshwater withdrawal pressure with an integral water management that contemplates water exchange, are: Panama, Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Costa Rica Countries with a better collection system (according to existing data), are Chile, Mexico and Peru. Thus water exchange would be more feasible because they have infrastructure that would support the project.

Regarding treatment of produced municipal water is rarely greater than 50%, so the incorporation of the WHO Guidelines (2006) would be benefits for the safe reuse of this partially treated water.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

REFERENCES AQUAREC. Salgot, M; Huertas, E. (eds). 2006. “Integrated concepts for reuse of upgraded wastewater”.

AQUASTAT database http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/indexesp.stm AQUASTAT glossary http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/glossary/search.html CEPAL (2013). “Desarrollo sostenible en América Latina y el Caribe: Seguimiento de la agenda de las Naciones Unidas para el desarrollo post-2045 y Río+20” CEPIS. http://www.bvsde.ops-oms.org/bvsacep/e/servi.html FAO (2012). “Wealth of waste”. FAO Water Report 35. Rome, Italy.

FAO (2010). “Experiencias en prácticas de manejo de aguas servidas para la producción agrícola a pequeña escala”. Santiago, Chile.

OMS (2006). “WHO Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater” http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuww/en/ OMS (2014). “Progress on sanitation and drinking water 2014”http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112727/1/9789241507240_eng.pdf?ua=1

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

The Use of the Water Complexities Methodology as a Tool in the Disaster Response Cycle.

Swathi Veeravalli Geospatial Research Laboratory, Engineer Research and Development Center, US Army Corps of Engineers swathi.veeravalli@usace.army.mil Rich Curran Geospatial Research Laboratory, Engineer Research and Development Center, US Army Corps of Engineers richard.w.curran@usace.army.mil Charles Ehlschlaeger Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Engineer Research and Development Center, US Army Corps of Engineers charles.r.ehlschlaeger@usace.army.mil Jeffrey Burkhalter Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Engineer Research and Development Center, US Army Corps of Engineers jeffrey.a.burkhalter@usace.army.mil Hany Zaghloul Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Engineer Research and Development Center, US Army Corps of Engineers hany.h.zaghloul@usace.army.mil

ABSTRACT The frequency, intensity, spatial extent, duration and timing of natural disasters is concerning.

Combined with increased populations, we see a simultaneous pressure on water goods and services.

Water security plays a significant role in mediating the potential shocks of natural disasters. This paper argues that the risk level of communities that have existing water insecurity increases with the threat of natural disasters since they have less resilience to cope with and recover from the loss of assets. This has long-term implications on security, stability and development. Thus, in order to explore the short, medium and long term temporal challenges of water and society, we propose that more accurate and holistic vulnerability assessments are needed to identify these urban communities that are at risk and to fully take into account both the population and their current water security in the context of accelerated climate change. The SMART Water Questions methodology allows the ability to gather pertinent quantitative and qualitative data relevant to water security through observation of, and interaction with, the community. This paper will provide a tiered methodology to understand the geographic and temporal variations of vulnerabilities related to water security that can be deployed prior to, during and post disaster.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

INTRODUCTION The connection between humans and water is perhaps one of the most fundamental relationships: the security of humans is dependent upon water. As water security is a state of adequate, reliable, consistent, safe, and convenient water resources over time and space (Veeravalli et al. 2011), human security becomes contingent on the maintenance of this state. The significance of water security becomes increasingly important as the rate of climate induced disasters continues to increase. Bruins (2000) emphasizes that events such as earthquakes, floods and droughts can be considered unpredictable contingencies but that achieving water security is critical in disaster crisis management.

In this manner, water security can be used as a framework to mitigate negative impacts of such unpredictable contingencies.

The risk of more complex, frequent, intense or unpredictable extreme weather events associated with global temperature increases, changing precipitation patterns and sea-level rise, suggests the need to reevaluate the ways that disaster risk reduction and adaptation can influence the context in which climate change occurs. And instead of creating or perpetuating contexts for disaster, it becomes possible to use disaster risk reduction and adaptation strategies to create a context that promotes human well-being and security (O’Brien et al. 2008). As the world’s climate system continues to evolve, this change manifests itself most dramatically through the hydrological cycle. The increasing frequency and intensity of droughts, floods, extreme weather events, and sea level rise will have innumerable impacts on the water sector (Field et al. 2012).

Water security plays a significant role in mediating the potential shocks of natural disasters. The risk level to communities with existing water insecurity increases with the threat of natural disasters since they have less resilience to cope with and recover from the loss of assets. This has long-term implications on security, stability and development. But because the human–water relationship is dynamic and complex, it is imperative to institute processes and procedures in a manner that is cognizant of the fact that the dynamics of water are interwoven with several physical, cultural, political, and economic circumstances (Grey and Sadoff 2007). It is therefore essential to provide access to water system data from an interdisciplinary perspective that becomes part of critical information requirements during a disaster. This is most effectively accomplished by a set of vulnerability assessments to determine water security challenges prior to, during and post disaster. In the following section, we detail an approach that yields reliable water security information from a holistic and systemic perspective.

METHODOLOGY To assess water security in an area of interest and provide analysis for decision support prior, during and post disaster, we propose a systems approach be utilized to most effectively and efficiently understand the relationship between water and humans. Because water is complex, it becomes important to simplify the human-water interaction into an easy-to-understand and systemic manner without losing the inherent complexities. As secure and stable environments are founded by sufficient water quantity, acceptable water quality, easy accessibility to water, and free availability of water (CMO-HEI 2011), we anticipate that utilizing this interdisciplinary approach can provide indications of vulnerability prior to, during and post disaster. This approach is entitled the Specific Measurable Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Accountable Reasonable and Time based (SMART) Water Complexities System.

The SMART Water Complexities approach can be considered a tool whereby civil and military agencies can gain an understanding of how water security can be achieved. This interdisciplinary and systems approach allows an individual or institution with little or no background in water science, policy or practice to: a) examine the movements and interrelationships between people and water; b) understand the links between past, present, and future land and water practices; and finally c) analyze the conditions and the consequences of those conditions.

The Water Complexities Matrix is detailed below in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Water Complexities Matrix (Veeravalli et al. 2011)

The matrix is sorted into three human-water system compartments: Point of Source: involves the supply, distribution and other various delivery mechanisms.

Point of Use: concerns all competing uses of water within particular areas (e.g., drinking, cooking, bathing, irrigation, industry, agriculture, energy etc.)

Point of Impact: identifies the various effects and externalities of water (e.g., waterborne diseases, migration, and inequity).

Within each component, it is imperative to interrogate the four essential characteristics of water: quantity, quality, availability, and accessibility: Quantity: the amount of water within the system for the variety of uses and needs.

Quality: the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water usually in respect to its suitability for the variety of uses.

Availability: the capability of the water source to meet the variety of uses.

Accessibility: the socio-cultural and transaction cost (e.g., time, distance, money) of acquiring water.

The SMART Water Complexities system is based upon a survey of approximately 176 questions. These questions capture the complexities of water within the surrounding landscape. By obtaining answers to a majority of the questions, the user should be able to understand and identify waterâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;related problems, as well as begin to see potential solutions. The questions can be used in a variety of ways during the disaster cycle. As the SMART Water Complexities methodology utilizes a survey approach, it is Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

understandable that all questions may not be able to be answered. The number and detail of questions that can be addressed will depend upon the atmospherics as well as time and staffing considerations.

Because of this, it is imperative to utilize the methodology in a tiered approach that coincides neatly with the disaster planning cycle outline below in Figure II.

Figure 2: The Disaster Cycle (Global Energy Network Institute 2014)

Prior to Disasters As it is impossible to accurately predict the timing of a disaster, it is imperative to identify existing structural water security risks. The more questions answered over time, the more detailed a user’s understanding of water–related issues will be for a given area of operations. That is, a more detailed and nuanced understanding of the relationship between human security and water complexities will be achieved. Data generated from utilizing the SMART Water Complexities Matrix, will greatly depend on the permissiveness of the surrounding environment. With increasing time, users can ask additional questions and therefore enhance their understanding of water’s role during a disaster.

Peru has a national interagency disaster management system in place called the National System for Disaster Risk Management (SINAGERD), which aims to help identify and reduce risks to hazards (IFRC 2012). The SMART Water Complexities Matrix would support efforts such as the SINAGERD, where the pre-assessment will identify areas where risk and vulnerability is the highest. In the case of Peru’s SINAGERD, the National Institute of Civil Defense (INDECI) could use the SMART Matrix to guide efforts during the Prevention and Mitigation stage of the disaster cycle within the environment.

For example, use of the SMART Water Complexities Matrix yielded water security information about Peru. As a global net exporter of asparagus, it was determined that Peru remains highly water insecure because of huge increases in water demand to support the crop. Utilizing this approach, it is possible to decrease risk by not only identifying it but also producing longer-term mitigation strategies that would lessen and mitigate a disaster’s impact as described in Figure 1 above.

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

During Disasters The disaster recovery stage is very dynamic and a time where first responders are trying to gather as much information as possible to determine necessary courses of action. By knowing the vulnerabilities before-hand, when a disaster strikes, the SMART Water Complexities Matrix could be used to inform first response efforts. In Peru, for example, the INDECI could use the matrix to help determine locations of initial focus, as well as help estimate if humanitarian aid will be needed from international organizations and partner nations, such as the United States.

Depending upon the magnitude of the disaster, users will have to rely upon observables and proxy indicators of water security based upon the Water Complexities Matrix. Although not all of the questions can be answered from one source of information, users will have to be creative in acquiring answers––whether from remotely sensed imagery, patrol debriefs, meetings with community leaders, personal observation, etc. Creating a prioritized list of questions may be possible after input from these key informants. Short-term yet holistic water security interventions can be created that help towards the path of recovery.

Post Disasters As outlined in Figure 1 above, attention post disasters immediately shift towards rehabilitation, reconstruction and rescue. Again by utilizing principles of the Water Complexities approach, it becomes possible to achieve more sustainable reconstruction through water security. Understanding the intra-household dynamics around how age and gender influence resource access and time expenditure, and anticipated impacts of shocks, is critical for addressing future adaptation needs (Davies et al. 2009).

•

Table 1. Sample SMART Water Questions (CMO-HEI 2011) What is the primary/secondary/tertiary water source (e.g. wells, rainwater storage, seasonal catchments, treatment plants, desalination plant, local water vendor/distributor, rain-fed cisterns, surface waters, wells, indirect piped water from communal buildings or from neighbors, hydrants and standpipes, and vendors and kiosks)?

•

For each water source, does the quantity vary in an expected way per time of day/week/month/seasonally?

•

Does the quantity change temporally?

•

Does the quantity change spatially? (upstream, downstream, with depth, with aquifer). If yes, describe why.

•

What is the reliability of the primary/secondary/tertiary source?

Are there solid wastes contributing to surface and groundwater contamination (i.e. garbage dumped in the streets, unmanaged local government trash dumps, etc.)? If yes, describe how and where?

•

•

Is there knowledge of how to treat the source water to improve quality?

•

Are there water management groups/organizations to manage the variety of sources?

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

•

Are these informal or formal (e.g., an individual who manages a water point, collects fees from users, dispenses water or manages water point])

•

Are they considered politicized, corrupt, criminal, well-respected?

•

How do the approaches conform or conflict with each other and/or national government authorities and policies?

• • • •

If there is conflict, is there the possibility that water could be used by the ‘enemy’?

As a tactical consideration in gaining territory or support?

As a strategic consideration in gaining territory or support?

As a national consideration in gaining territory or support?

Throughout all phases of the disaster cycle, the ability to represent the geographic and temporal variability of water security information will greatly enhance knowledge of the system. The information developed from the SMART Water Complexities Matrix can be mapped both geographically and temporally using ongoing research from USACE ERDC’s Urban Security project.

The Urban Security research is currently only available for portions of Bangladesh, but the technique is applicable anywhere surveys of households is performed. Urban Security output maps can locate some of the variables brought out in SMART, allowing the mapping of where a SMART analysis would be applicable. The analysis tools generate representations of population down to household level using a combination of census, survey, and land use data. This enables the attribution of household characteristics from surveys to be represented in their proper proportions by neighborhood or urban zone. Further, the uncertainty in the source data is retained so the end user can appreciate the utility of the data as it is applied to finer geographic scales. For example, the output maps would indicate the proportion of households in a given area that have access to water resources or related infrastructure that would inform an assessment of their vulnerabilities. This is important since a complex urban area’s neighborhoods could have dramatically different water vulnerabilities. An in-depth SMART report would then be mapped on the unique characteristics found in that report. That would provide a mechanism for understanding the water security coverage, both geographically and of subpopulations, of each report completed.

DISCUSSION Coupled with the rate of urbanization and increase in population movements, we see the emergence of vulnerable urban communities. As the effects of climate change become more pronounced in these urban landscapes (Nijenhuis and Wahlstrom 2014) with increased populations, we see a simultaneous pressure on water goods and services. It is imperative to understand water security from a holistic and seamless manner. Water’s complexity in the operational environment does not lend itself to being easily described or quickly understood. Use of Water Complexities variables as previously described above in Table 1 during the disaster cycle can be an effective methodology to identify pre-existing water security vulnerability prior to a disaster so that more appropriate and targeted disaster response measures can be taken during and after the disaster has occurred.

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

The Department of the Army (2009) describes that “during any period of instability, people’s primary interest is physical security for themselves and their families.” But numerous problems persist in determining and identifying these vulnerable groups during a disaster. To mitigate this, we propose that the SMART Water Complexities methodology can become part of a tiered approach. The risk level of communities that have existing water insecurity increases with the threat of natural disasters since they have less resilience to cope with and recover from the loss of assets. This has implications on security, stability and development. By creating an iterative process linking water security throughout the disaster cycle, this methodology helps yield critical information that can become actionable prior to, during and post disaster. Borrowing principles from the Flash Environmental Assessment Tool which was originally designed to identify vulnerabilities stemming from technological accidents, these types of assessments do not prioritize water security at the forefront.

Mapping water security is a highly dynamic process that varies per spatio-temporal context; the SMART Water Complexities approach allows the dynamic considerations of water security both seamlessly and iteratively. In the case of disaster response, the main objective is to identify what has been impacted and where, so the right resources can be sent to the right areas of need. In this manner, disaster management and water security planning both fundamentally seek to reduce the trauma inflicted by natural hazards and facilitate a smooth recovery from various perturbations (Hultman and Bozmoski 2006). Planning for disasters is a complex enterprise, but we anticipate that the SMART Water Complexities approach will help users in the field conduct more effective and efficient disaster risk reductions.

REFERENCES Bruins, Hendrik J. (2000) ‘Proactive Contingency Planning vis-a-vis Declining Water Security in the 21st Century’, Proactive Contingency Planning 8 (2): 63-72.

Civil Military Operations Human-Environment Interaction (2011) ‘Human Water Complexities: SMART Water Questions to Discern Water’s Role in COIN Operations.

Davies, Mark and Katy Oswald and Tom Mitchell (2009) ‘Climate Change Adaptation, Disaster Risk Reduction and Social Protection’, Promoting Pro-Poor Growth: Social Protection.

Department of the Army (2009) ‘Counterinsurgency Field Manual’ Field Manual 3-24.

Field, Christopher, and Vincente Barros, Thomas F. Stocker, Qin Dahe, David Jon Dokken, Kristie L. Ebi, Michael D. Mastrandrea, Katharine J. Mach, Gian-Kasper Plattner, Simon K. Allen, Melinda Tignor, and Pauline M. Midgley (2012) ‘Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation’ Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Cambridge University Press.

Grey, David and Claudia W. Sadoff (2007) ‘Sink or Swim? Water security for growth and development’, Water Policy 9:545-571

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Global Energy Network Institute (2014) ‘The Disaster Cycle’ World Resource Simulation Center http://www.wrsc.org/attach_image/disaster-cycle accessed on October 2014 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Cresent (2012) ‘Report to strengthen legal preparations in cases of international aid for disasters in Peru’ IFRC, Geneva, Switzerland.

Nijenhuis, Rene and Emilia Wahlstrom (2014) ‘The Use Of The Flash Environmental Assessment Tool in Developing Countries for Environmental Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response”, Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management 16 (3): 1-17.

O’Brien, Karen and Linda Sygna, Robin Leichenko, W. Neil Adger, Jon Barnett, Tom Mitchell, Lisa Schipper, Thomas Tanner, Coleen Vogel and Colette Mortreux. (2008) ‘Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change Adaptation and Human Security’ Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs GECHS Veeravalli, Swathi and Brian Graff, Randall Karalus and Demetra Voyadgis (2012) ‘From Water Security to Water Complexities’, Journal of Military Geography 1 (1): 1-14.

Hultman NE, and Bozmoski AS. (2006) ‘The Changing Face of Normal Disaster: Risk, Resilience, and Natural Security in a Changing Climate’, Journal of International Affairs 59(2):25-41.

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Technical and Economic Evaluation of Pressurized Piping of Two Irrigation Canals in Alto del Carmen, Atacama Region, Chile.

Haberland, J.1, Márquez, R., Kremer, C., Santibáñez, M.P. y Márquez, D. 1 Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Chile La Pintana, Región Metropolitana, Chile. jhaberla@gmail.com

ABSTRACT The Atacama Region has a higher water demand than what is available; the major users are Agriculture and Mining. In the case of small-scale agriculture, the efficient use of water is limited by the costs related to implementation and operation of high-frequency irrigation systems. The area under study has 43.5% of irrigation water losses due to conveyance inefficiencies.

The objectives of this study were 1) Select two irrigation canals representative of the high lands in the Huasco Valley, 2) Design piped pressured canals, 3) Determine implementation costs, and 4) Analyze economic viability of the project when funded by privates. The canals Cortadera and Mal Paso, from section I and II of Huasco River, were selected. The topography shows a high potential of available energy to provide pressure to high-frequency irrigation systems (245.3 kPa). The irrigated surface would increase from 48.3 ha to 98 ha by the Mal Paso Canal and from 18.4 to 60 ha by the Cortadera Canal, both with no-cost energy. The investment in Cortadera Canal would result in annual energy and water savings of USD$30,914.831 (CLP$14,737,720) and USD $351,845.02 (CLP $167,731,560), respectively, whereas the annual energy and water savings in Canal Mal Paso would be equal to USD $50,199.1 (CLP $23,930,914) and USD $ 221,336.34 (CLP $105,515,460), respectively. The Cortadera Canal investment net present value (NPV) is USD $ 169,608.54 (CLP $80,855,782) and the internal rate of return (IRR) is 32%; Canal Mal Paso investment NPV is USD $129,101.58 (CLP $61,545,307) and the IRR is 21%. Both projects can stand less favorable conditions regarding energy, water and initial investment prices.

Keywords: Piped irrigation canal, conveyance efficiency, Huasco River, irrigation costs, water savings.

INTRODUCTION Water resources in the Huasco River watershed are used mainly in agriculture (63%) and mining (23%) (Martínez, 2012). When competing for the resource, agriculture is often the most compromised (Vildósola, 2005). At the same time, the unbalance between the water supply and demand throughout the year particularly affects agriculture. These conditions call the agricultural activity in the Huasco River watershed to use water more efficiently.

Exchange rate of CLP$ 476,72 a dollar by March, 1st 2012. Fuente: Banco Central. http://www.bcentral.cl/estadisticaseconomicas/series-indicadores/ 1

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

The pursuit for efficient water use in agriculture has led to a high penetration of high-frequency irrigation. However, water conveyance is still highly inefficient, and it has privileged the canal lining with concrete tiles (Valenzuela, 2008) that show losses of 42 % (CIREN, 2007) to 45 % (Guzmán, 2008). In the Atacama Region, irrigation water is primarily transported in unlined or partially lined canals with concrete tiles.

Figure 1: Water demand and supply balance in the Huasco River watershed. Author elaboration based on data from DGA (1995).

Under conditions of water scarcity, piping to convey irrigation water is recommended over the open canal ( Martinez et al., 2008 ) as there are no evapotranspiration and infiltration losses, allows a controlled delivery to users, reduces maintenance costs and pressurized water delivery is possible (Valenzuela, 2008; Guzmán , 2008). The transverse valleys of the upper Rio Huasco have a longitudinal gradient that allows canals’ flow above the elevation of the irrigated areas, a condition feasible for a pressurized piping project.

According to Nakamura (2000), the implementing costs of piped systems are relatively high compared to the open conveyance systems, which would explain why this solution is still not widespread in the private sector. However, the investment on a pressurized piping project could be completely or partially recovered when considering the energy and water savings involved, due to the potential energy given by the elevation difference between the input and each output of the pipe.

This study evaluated the recovery of the initial investment of two pressurized piped canals in the upper Huasco River, when discounting the operation energy item in irrigated systems feasible to install or already available among the beneficial users of the canals and considering water savings at market value.

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

METHODOLOGY The study was conducted in Alto del Carmen in the Atacama Region, Chile; in two locations in sections I and II of the Huasco River. The irrigation canals Mal Paso and Cortadera were selected because of their greater number of users involved in agriculture and greater energy potential. The design includes a water flow delivery that covers the demand of most demanding crop in the month with the highest potential evapotranspiration. In addition, the irrigated land to consider included the adjacent area to the project with a slope less than 45%.

The ASTER GDEM v2 project (NASA) was used to obtain the contour lines of the sections under study. The base map was generated with satellite photographs of 50 cm per pixel resolution (DigitalGlobe, by 2010). The altimetry profiles of the canals were generated from field data gathered with a built-in barometric altimeter of a GPS (Garmin eTrex Legend HCx) with resolution of vertical 0.3 m. Data were corrected with a high-correlation mathematical regression between the barometric elevation (Y axis) and the linear distance covered in the canal (X axis) . These equations were considered as a topographic continuum.

The maximum water demand was obtained considering: the potential evapotranspiration (ETo, average values according to CNR, 1997), recommended crops for the agro-climatic zone corresponding to each canal by Osorio et al. (2009), including recommended planting dates or physiological stage in the case of fruit crops, and the crop index (kc) for each stage of development according to FAO (2006) .

Additionally, each crop was assigned with a type of irrigation, considering crop management and water requirements. The delivery pressure considered for drip irrigation was 196.2 kPa (20wc) and 245.3 kPa (25wc) for micro-sprinkler irrigation2.

Given the high sun radiation in the study area, susceptibility to damage from landslides and sinuous valleys and canals, the piping was considered in high density polyethylene (HDPE), recommended material over polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in outdoor conditions (FAO, 2007).

The selection of the pipe "class" (SDR, standard dimension ratio) 3 depended on the maximum static load plus the calculated water hammer, which overpressure would be caused by the simultaneous closure of all start-ups and a normal flow rate of 1.5 m s -1 that stops in 1 second. The inner diameter of the pipes was determined to keep a flow rate up to 1.5 m s -1; diameters available in the market were considered. By iterating diameters, flow rates and pressures, a design model that meets the criteria of resistance to pressure and flow rate limit was obtained.

For drip irrigation, an emitter operating pressure of 114.4 kPa was considered, plus 20% of losses in the distribution system and 58.9 kPa of losses in the filtering system. For micro-sprinkler, an emitter operating pressure of 155.3 kPa was considered, plus 20% of losses in the distribution system and 58.9 kPa of losses in the filtering system (FAO, 2007).

3 SDR, the standard dimensión ratio, is a measure equivalent to the ration between the pipe’s external and the wall thickness, and reflects the ability to support internal pressure.

2

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Economic Analysis The cost of project materials was determined in Chilean pesos based on quotes from irrigation companies from August 2012. Operating costs of irrigation systems in the area under study were determined based on water demand and conventional energy sources that would be used to operate those systems in the case the project were not be present.

The economic analysis followed of the project followed guidelines from Sapag and Sapag (1991), with an evaluation horizon of 10 years in Chilean pesos. The discount rate used considered the bond performance in Chilean pesos for 10 years, from the Central Bank of Chile (5.38% at October 23, 2012)4 , multiplied by a factor of 2 in response to the risk posed by the investment in this type of infrastructure (10.76 %)5.

Reclaimed water because of the change to a piped irrigation canal and the new irrigation systems benefits mainly irrigated agriculture by increasing the area under irrigation in situ or recovering water in Santa Juana reservoir. The potential energy savings in the area adjacent to the canals considered was estimated by weighting the surface distribution of the different groups of crops, the energy cost to water each crop, the available energy sources, and the surface to be irrigated.

The tax rate on the capital gain is set at 17%, the tax of 1st category in Chile. Labor was considered zero for the whole period, because there are no costs associated to the operation of the infrastructure.

The duration of the infrastructure was estimated at 50 years for the calculation of investment depreciation, given the characteristics of the building materials, the foresights in the hydraulic design, and protection from UV radiation as the main deteriorative agent.

The amortization is applied on nominal assets, which are the engineering study and freight costs of material needed to build each project. The initial investment comprises the costs f of all building materials and those directly related to their installation. Annual maintenance are the fixed costs, valued at $ 620,000 year-1 and year-1 $ 800,000 for the Cortadera and Mal Paso project, respectively.

A net present value (NPV) analysis was performed, considering the design and implementation of the initial investment as spending, and energy and water savings as annual income as a way to amortize the invested capital. The sensitivity analysis of the project considered potential variations in the major costs.

The water price was $ 900 m -3 per year, which is the average between the value of the consumptive water right specified per share and the water volume a year in Sections I and II of the Huasco River ($ 893 m-3, given the value of up to $ 9,330,000 per share (Soto, 2013) and 0.33 L s-1 or 10,407 m3 yr-1 per share) and the value paid by mining companies in the Atacama region, according Skoknic (2009) ($ 913 per year per m3, given a value of up to US$ 60,000 or $ 28,603,1506 for each L s-1 of flow).

Banco Central. http://www.bcentral.cl/estadisticas-economicas/series-indicadores/ Economist Ricardo Marchant S., Ing. Ag. M.Sc. 2012. Personal communication.

6 Exchange rate of CLP$ 476.72 a dollar by March, 1st 2012. Fuente: Banco Central. http://www.bcentral.cl/estadisticaseconomicas/series-indicadores/ 4 5

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

RESULTS The Cortadera project is located in the Section II of the Huasco River, El Transito Valley. The project considered to unify the Cortadera canal, 1840 m long, the MartĂ­nez canal, 1130m long, the Alamos canal, 860 m long, and the Ventura canal, 870 m long, all supplied directly or indirectly by the Chollay river and that run parallel to each other along the valley. Together these canals have 45 users and irrigate an area of 18.4 hectares (DGA, 1995).

The Mal Paso project is located in Section I, El Carmen Valley. The design considered to unify the Mal Paso canal, 3916 m long, and the old canal Hornitos now merged as an arm of the canal Mal Paso.

Together these canals have 26 users and irrigate 48.3 acres (DGA, 1995).

Base Map In the Cortadera project, the elevation difference observed between the beginning and the end of the Cortadera, Martinez, Alamo and Ventura canals was 70 m, 70 m, 10 m and 5 m, respectively. With the unification of the canals, a total elevation difference of 135 m is obtained with a length of about 4500 m. The geospatial analysis identified a potential irrigation area of 72.0 hectares.

In the Mal Paso project, the elevation difference observed between the beginning and the end of the canals Mal Paso Superior and Hornitos was 42 m and 74 m, respectively. With the unification, a total elevation difference of 84 m is obtained with a length of about 5000 m. The geospatial analysis revealed a potential irrigation area of 140.0 hectares.

Water Demand The highest net water demand in the Cortadera area occurs in January in nectarine irrigated by microsprinkler, reaching 9.73 mm day-1. Analyzed by groups, the average is 7,02mm day-1 for fruit crops, 7.80mm day-1 for vegetables and 9.61 mm day-1 for alfalfa, all in January.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 2: Monthly water demand of different crops with agroclimate potential in the Cortadera project area. Author elabo ration based on data from CNR (1997), FAO (2006), FAO (2007) and Osorio et al. (2009)

The highest net water demand in the Mal Paso area occurs in January in nectarine with micro-sprinkler, reaching 8.63 mm day-1. Analyzed by groups, the average is 6,94mm day -1 for fruit crops, 6.94mm day-1 for vegetables and 8.13 mm day-1 for alfalfa, all in January.

The design flow for the Cortadera and Mal Paso projects considered the maximum net demand shown before, which is supplied in a period of 18 hours. This results in a flow of 1.5 L s -1 ha-1 y 1.3 L s-1 ha-1, for each canal.

Canal Design The Cortadera project design is 4496 m long, 36 hydrants of dual delivery points, and a telescopic pipe starting with 350mm and ending in 150mm. The area to irrigate is 72.0 ha. The design flow was 108.0 L s- 1 (3 L s- 1 per hydrant).

The average flow rate is 1.20 ms -1 and the maximum speed 1.52 m s -1. The dynamic pressure at the first delivery point is 254.2 kPa and 1167.4 kPa at the farthest point. The total loss throughout the pipe under dynamic flow is 219.4 kPa. The water hammer overpressure is 99.1 kPa. Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

The Mal Paso project design is 5534 m long, 70 hydrants of dual delivery points, and a telescopic pipe starting with 450mm and ending in 80mm. The area to irrigate is 140.0 ha and provides 2.6 L s -1 per hydrant or 182.0 L s- 1 total.

The average flow rate is 1.20 ms -1 and the maximum speed 1.45 m s -1. The dynamic pressure at the first delivery point is 12.6 kPa and 621.8 kPa at the farthest point. The total loss throughout the pipe under dynamic flow is 209.2 kPa. The water hammer overpressure is 146.4 kPa.

Figure 3: Monthly water demand of different crops with agroclimate potential in the Mal Paso project area. Author elabo ration based on data from CNR (1997), FAO (2006), FAO (2007) and Osorio et al. (2009)

Energy Savings Crop groups in the Alto del Carmen district according to INE ( 2007) are distributed in fruit trees 71.2 %, winegrapes (Pisco grapes) 15.1%, fodder 8.5% and vegetables 4.1%. The annual energy costs calculated for each crop in each project are detailed in Tables 3 and 4.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Table 1. Annual cost per hectare of main crops recommended for the Cortadera project area under different pressurized irrigation systems.

Crop

Eggplant Onion Bean Lettuce Melon Cucumber Pepper Tomato Zuchinni Citrus trees Nectarines Table grape Pisco grape Alfalfa

Max. Net Dem. (mm mo-1)

Water demand (mm season-1)

Design pressur e (kPa)

Design flow (L s-1 ha-1)

Annual irrigation period (h)

Required Power (kW)

Annual Cost (Chilean pesos ha-1)

297,6 204,1 292,8 264,3 223,3 264,4 223,4 173,2 232,9

889,2 899,4 623,2 652,1 644,8 758,3 1139,0 622,8 535,1

215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82

1,481 1,016 1,457 1,316 1,112 1,316 1,112 0,862 1,159

1667,5 2458,9 1187,8 1376,6 1611,0 1600,1 2844,4 2006,2 1282,1

Elect.

0,9128 0,6262 0,8982 0,8109 0,6851 0,8112 0,6855 0,5314 0,7144

Diésel 2,1299 1,4610 2,0957 1,8921 1,5986 1,8929 1,5994 1,2399 1,6670

Elect.

116459,0 117297,9 82056,3 85643,2 84483,8 99372,0 148358,0 81382,0 70359,8

Diésel 161598,7 162290,1 114272,5 119063,7 117266,9 137940,9 205092,3 112754,1 97894,0

184,1

1478,8

264,87

0,917

4481,8

0,6932

1,6175

235727,2

325234,6

301,5

1492,5

264,87

1,501

2761,9

1,1352

2,6489

238635,4

329945,7

223,1

1172,7

264,87

1,110

2933,6

0,8398

1,9595

187419,5

259049,3

162,2

765,6

264,87

0,808

2633,4

0,6108

1,4252

122469,3

169375,8

297,9 2370,3 353,16 1,483 4440,4 1,4952 3,4889 503793,9 695110,2 Source: Author based on CNR (1997), FAO (2006), FAO (2007) and Osorio et al. (2009).

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Table 2. Annual cost per hectare of main crops recommended for the Mal Paso project area under different pressurized

Crop

Eggplant Onion Bean Lettuce Melon Cucumber Pepper Tomato Zuchinni Citrus trees Nectarines Table grape Pisco grape Alfalfa

Max. Net Dem. (mm mo-1)

Water demand (mm season-1)

Design pressure (kPa)

irrigation systems.

Annual Design irrigation flow period (L s-1 ha-1) (h)

Required Power (kW)

Annual Cost (Chilean pesos ha-1)

264,6 159,9 259,5 236,2 199,0 240,1 218,2 153,5 206,4

794,8 805,8 551,8 596,2 580,8 695,8 1091,7 557,9 488,2

215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82 215,82

1,317 0,796 1,292 1,176 0,991 1,195 1,086 0,764 1,027

1676,0 2812,1 1186,3 1408,5 1628,6 1616,9 2792,3 2028,6 1319,8

Elect.

0,8118 0,4905 0,7962 0,7246 0,6104 0,7366 0,6693 0,4708 0,6331

Diésel 1,8942 1,1445 1,8578 1,6907 1,4244 1,7188 1,5617 1,0985 1,4773

Elect.

104085,8 104964,2 72649,0 78271,4 76085,1 91163,5 142220,8 72895,4 64155,0

Diésel 144423,2 145113,0 101173,4 108788,6 105598,5 126534,2 196627,8 100987,7 89231,6

163,2

1313,0

264,87

0,813

4488,7

0,6145

1,4339

209290,4

288758,0

267,5

1336,9

264,87

1,331

2789,1

1,0070

2,3496

213740,1

295508,9

197,7

1042,0

264,87

0,984

2940,5

0,7444

1,7370

166520,6

230160,3

232,6

708,3

264,87

1,158

1699,0

0,8758

2,0435

113811,7

157899,0

252,1 2097,4 353,16 1,255 4641,7 1,2657 2,9534 445702,8 614866,9 Source: Author based on CNR (1997), FAO (2006), FAO (2007) and Osorio et al. (2009).

With these data and crop area, estimated costs were $ 199,553 ha -1 with electricity (including installed capacity) and $ 413,882 ha-1 with diesel for the Cortadera project, and $ 199,263 ha-1 with electricity and $ 413,216 ha-1 with diesel in the Mal Paso project. Since there is 79% of electricity supply in rural households in the region of Atacama (CNE, 2005), it was assumed the remaining 21% with diesel fuel.

This means estimate total energy costs of $ 244,562 ha -1 and $ 244,193 ha-1 for the Cortadera and Mal Paso project, respectively.

The irrigated area –with available delivery pressure higher than 245.3 kPa (minimum pressure indicated above for micro-sprinkler)—in the Cortadera project is 60.0 ha with potential energy savings of $ 14,737,720 yr-1. That area in the Mal Paso project equals to 98.0 hectares, with potential energy savings of $ 23,930,914 yr-1.

Water Savings Considering the actual water flow of the canals and average conveyance losses in open canals in 43.5% (CIREN, 2007; Guzmán, 2008), water conveyance losses estimated are 186,368.4 m 3yr-1 in Cortadera and 117,239.4 m3yr-1 in Mal Paso. This equals to $ 167,731,560 and $ 105,515,460 in losses in Cortadera and Mal Paso, respectively, given the estimated average water price in the area ($ 900 m -3)

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Economic Analysis The building costs for the Cortadera project are estimated in $ 220,125,963 and $ 267,426,812 for the Mal Paso project, of which $ 48,068,400 and $ 61,184,000 are nominal assets, respectively. The Cortadera project showed an NPV of $ 80,855,782 and 32% of IRR. The Mal Paso project had an NPV of $ 61,545,307 and IRR of 21 %. The initial investment of the project Cortadera is recovered after the second period, and after the fourth period in the Mal Paso project.

Sensitivity Analysis In the case of Mal Paso, the sensitivity to the decrease in the price of energy (Figure 4) directly influences the NPV at a rate of $ 437 for each Chilean peso of irrigation cost variation; the NPV equals zero when the energy reaches a value of $ 103 319 ha-1yr-1. The sensitivity to the price of water (Figure 5) influences the NPV at a rate of $ 79,320 for each Chilean peso of the water price variation of 1 m 3; it equals zero when a prices of $ 124 m -3 is reached. Regarding initial costs (Figure 6), the NPV has an inverse variation rate of about $ 0.63 for every Chilean peso in variation of initial costs; it equals zero when the costs rise to $ 364,556,912.

In percentage terms, this is equivalent to say that for each percentage point of variation in energy price, water price or initial costs relative to the initial cash flow, the NPV varies 1.73 %, 1.16 % and 1.83 %, respectively. Thus, this project is particularly sensitive to changes in initial costs and ultimately the price of water.

Figure 4: NPV sensitivity in the Mal Paso Project to a decrease of energy prices.

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Figure 5: NPV sensitivity in the Mal Paso Project to a decrease of water prices.

Figure 6: NPV Sensitivity in the Mal Paso Project to an increase of fixed and nominal costs.

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In the case of Cortadera, the sensitivity to the decrease in the price of energy directly influences the NPV at a rate of $ 268 for each Chilean peso of irrigation cost variation; the NPV is positive even if the energy reaches a value of $ 0. The sensitivity to the price of water influences the NPV at a rate of $ 126,091 for each Chilean peso of the water price variation of 1 m 3; it equals zero when a prices of $ 259 m-3 is reached. Regarding building costs, the NPV has an inverse variation rate of about $ 0.43 for every Chilean peso in variation of initial costs; it equals zero when the costs rise to $ 410,275,260.

In percentage terms, this is equivalent to say that for each percentage point of variation in energy price, water price or initial costs relative to the initial cash flow, the NPV varies 0.81%, 1.40% and 1.18%, respectively. The Cortadera project is particularly sensitive to changes in water prices and ultimately to the price of energy.

Figure 7: Sensitivity of NPV in the Cortadera Project to a decrease in the price of energy.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 8: Sensitivity of NPV in the Cortadera Project to a decrease in the price of water.

Figure 9: Sensitivity of NPV in the Cortadera Project to an increase of fixed and nominal costs .

The sensitivity of both projects is different to each evaluated item, which rules out that there is a more or less relevant item, in terms of its effects on the NPV, in this kind of projects.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

CONCLUSIONS The topography of the assessed area promotes the development of conveyance projects with great potential for energy gain, allowing the establishment of gravitational irrigation technology. Considering the current conveyance system, highly inefficient, there is a significant room for water savings with high commercial value.

The initial investment is recovered and even positive balances are generated by the tenth period in both projects, considering cash flows that include potential energy savings and recovery of water resources – now wasted in productive terms—as income.

The projects differ in their sensitiveness to variations in the price of energy, water and initial investment. Both projects support conditions of initial investment, energy costs and water price 100% less favorable than those initially considered in this evaluation.

REFERENCES CIREN, CHILE. 2007. Detalle de proyecto en ejecución: Optimización de Sistemas de riego en las cuencas Copiapó y Huasco. Available at http://www.ciren.cl/cirenxml/proyectos/default.asp? a=5&idproyecto=2&n=1&d=. Accessed to in June 30, 2009.

CNE, CHILE. 2005. Informe final del programa de electrificación rural. Available at http://www.dipres.gob.cl/574/articles-14943_doc_pdf.pdf. Accessed to in November 20, 2012.

CNR, CHILE. 1997. Cálculo y Cartografía de la Evapotranspiración Potencial en Chile. Santiago, Chile. 55p.

DGA, CHILE. 1995. Análisis de la oferta y demanda de recursos hídricos en cuencas críticas Huasco y Elqui, Informe final cuenca del río Huasco. Santiago, Chile. 603p.

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO). 2007. Handbook on pressurized irrigation techniques. Second Edition. United Nations. 282p.

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO). 2006. Evapotranspiración de cultivo, guías para la determinación de los requerimientos de agua de los cultivos. Roma, Italia. 322p.

Guzmán, C. 2008. Entubamiento y tarjeta de prepago en Lliu Lliu. Revista Chileriego 33(abril): 22-23.

INE, CHILE. 2007. VII Censo Nacional Agropecuario. Available at http://www.ine.cl. Leído el 29 de junio 2009.

Martínez, L. 2012. Análisis hidrológico de la cuenca del Río Huasco, Región de Atacama. Available at http://www.cazalac.org/ Martínez, L., A. Osorio, L. Rojas, A. Ibacache y R. Meneses. 2008. Manejo productivo agropecuario en condiciones de escasez de precipitaciones. Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias. Centro Regional de Investigación Intihuasi. Boletín INIA N°177, La Serena, Chile. 70p.

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Sapag, N. y R. Sapag, 1991. Preparación y Evaluación de Proyectos. Segunda Edición. McGraw-Hill Latinoamericana de México, México D.F, México. 390p.

Soto, J. 2013. Estimación del valor económico total de los recursos hídricos en la Cuenca del Río Huasco. Master Thesis in “Manejo de Suelos y Aguas”, Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Chile.

Skoknic, F. 2009. Se muere el Río Copiapó (I): Consumo humano, agrícola y minero están en riesgo.

Available at http://ciperchile.cl/2009/07/09/se-muere-el-rio-copiapo-i-consumo-humano-agricola-yminero-estan-en-riesgo/. Accessed to in November 20, 2012.

Osorio, A., F. Tapia, y R. Salinas, 2009. Suelos y Climas del Valle del Huasco y sus Alternativas de Cultivo. Centro Regional de Investigación Intihuasi. Cartilla Divulgativa N°1, La Serena, Chile. 12p.

Valenzuela, G. 2008. Análisis comparado entre conducción abierta y entubada. Revista Chileriego 35(octubre): 50-51.

Vildósola, P. 2005. El impacto agrícola del Proyecto Pascua Lama: El Huasco, un vergel a medio camino. Disponible en http://diario.elmercurio.cl/detalle/index.asp?id={66e62a3c-6af3-4a0a-9d449ee36b450f0c}. Accessed to in November 20, 2009.

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Physiological Tools to Manage Irrigation in Table Grapes-Flame Seedless and Red Globe, in the Copiapo Valley.

Haberland, J. Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago GEA, Grupo de Estudios del Agua of Universidad de Chile E-mail: jhaberla@uchile.cl Gálvez, R. Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago GEA, Grupo de Estudios del Agua of Universidad de Chile E-mail: rogalvez@uchile.cl Rudolffi, Y. Universidad de Wageningen, Países Bajos.

E-mail: yrudolffi@gmail.com

ABSTRACT There are several physiological indicators that can determine water status in grapes, which involve soil water content and atmospheric water demand, such as the stem water potential and sap flow. The plant water potential has been recommended to manage irrigation in grapevines. Similarly, sap flow evaluations are considered a precise method to determine transpiration rate in grapevines (and provide a permanent record of plant water losses.

The objective of this study was to validate the cycle of seasonal water absorption by grapevines during two seasons (2011-2012 and 2012-2013), using sap flow sensors (Tranzflo, NZ) and determining the relationship between vapor pressure deficit (VPD) and stem water potential (ψ). SAP flow meters were installed in 4 plants of each variety to determine the seasonal sap flow. Results showed that sap flow was detected between 8:00AM and 9:00PM from bloom to harvest and from 11:00AM to 7:00PM in the remaining phenologic stages. SAP flow decreased between 2:00PM and 3:00PM, which was related to water stress due to high atmospheric water demand. The seasonal water absorption cycle of selfrooted Red Glove followed the ETo pattern, whereas Flame Seedless/Harmony showed a different pattern, with a change in rate of 50% between anthesis and fruit set.

Regardless of vineyard location, a strong correlation (R2=0.83 and 0.82, in Flame and Red Globe, respectively) was found between ψ and VPD in plants that were irrigated at 100% ETo from anthesis to harvest in both seasons. These results confirm that variation in VPD can be used to predict ψ in wellirrigated vines and this relationship employed to manage irrigation in commercial table grape production.

Keywords: water use efficiency, irrigation management, water stem potential, sap flow

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

INTRODUCTION Most methods used to estimate crop water requirements are based on soil water content and weather factors, particularly in the evapotranspiration method (ET) (Howell y Meron, 2007). This way, the irrigation goal is to replenish the ET losses (Schakel, 2011). However, irrigation scheduling and management based on plant response are adding a new focus when looking precision to face water scarcity and rising irrigation costs (Jones, 2004).

The plant water status could be used as a tool for irrigation scheduling due to its dinamism directly related to weather, soil and plant productivity (Goldhamer et al., 2003; Remorini and Massai, 2003).

Choné et al. (2001), Naor (2000) and Shackel (1997) showed that the xilematic water status (ψxm) is a significant and trustworthy indicator of plant water status to be used in irrigation management of wood crops.

However, plant water status is affected by environmental conditions such as light, temperature and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) (Van Zyl, 1987). McCuthan and Shackel (1992) found a strong relationship between the ψxm and VPD in plum trees irrigated with 100% ET. This relationship has been called "Base Line" (BL). Values of ψxm that are higher than the BL indicate that the plant is free of water stress, and values under the BL indicate insufficient irrigation. This tool is useful to schedule irrigation.

Sap flow evaluation is widely used in research to determinate plant water consumption. The systems measuring for sap flow are easily automated, and have proved reliability to be operated in the field for long periods of time (Cohen et al, 2001; Fernández et al, 2001; Goldhamer and Fereres, 2001; Moreno et al, 1996). Comparisons between sap flow and other plant water status indicators have already been made to be used in irrigation scheduling in crops such as apple trees (Nadezhdina, 1999), vines (Escalona et al., 2002), lemon trees (Ortuño et al., 2006) and plum trees (Intrigliolo and Castel 2006), among other species.

The objectives of this study were to obtain the relationship between ψxm and VPD in table grapes cv Flame Seedless and Red Globe, both with no restriction in water availability (100% ET), and determine their seasonal cycle of water consumption in the Valley of Copiapó, Atacama Region.

METHODOLOGY Field trial 1 was carried out in the seasons 2011-2012 and 2012-2013, from bloom to harvest, in 11 table grape commercial orchards, located along the Copiapó Valley, Atacama Region, Chile. Two table grape varieties were used: Flame Seedless and Red Globe, no grafting, following the Spanish grapevine system, with drip irrigation (1 line per row, emitters of 4L h-1, spaced out every 0.5m, with 3 emitters per plant). Seven plants were selected in each orchard to follow their stem water potential.

Field trial 2 was conducted during seasons 2011-2012 and 2012-2013, in 2 table grapes commercial orchards, in the Copiapó Valley, Atacama Region, Chile. Two variety table grapes were used: Flame Seedless grafted into Harmony and Red Globe without grafting. Both were in the Spanish grapevine Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

system, with drip irrigation (1 line per row, emitters of 4L h-1, spaced out every 0.5m, with 3 emitters per plant). The sap flow was measured in 4 plants of each variety.

Both field trials were irrigated to satisfy 100% of the crop evapotranspiration (ETc), which was determined based on potential evapotranspiration (ET0) –estimated following the Penman-Monteith equation (Allen et al., 1998), considering ambient temperature, solar radiation, wind speed and relative humidity based on data from a Davis weather station (Vantage Pro2, Davis Instruments Corp., USA)— corrected by a crop coefficient (Kc) established by Selles et al. (2001) for each table grape variety.

Evaluations Field Trial 1 Stem water potential (ψxm; MPa). Plants were evaluated once a week using 1 leaf per plant at noon, in the peak hours of water demand (1-3pm in the area). The leaves evaluated had to be those shaded and near the crown of the plant. Leaves were covered with plastic bags and wrapped in aluminium foil for a period of 60 minutes. Subsequently, leaves were removed from the plant still in the bag, to evaluate ψx (MPa) within the first minute with Scholander Camera, Pump-up model (PMS Instrument Company, Oregon, USA).

Ambient temperature (AT, ° C) and relative humidity (RH, %). AT and RH were recorded at the moment of evaluating stem water potential. Both of them were obtained from the weather station network in Copiapó Valley, managed by the Water Research Group (GEA) de Universidad de Chile.

Saturated air vapour pressure (es) was obtained from temperature and relative humidity with the Murray equation (1967) (Equation 1). On the other hand, the partial vapour pressure of the air (e) was obtained from the relative humidity (Equation 2). The VPD was calculated by difference between e s and e (kPa).

Where: es = Saturated air vapour pressure (kPa) e = partial vapour pressure of the air (kPa) T = Temperature (ºC) RH = Relative humidity

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Field Trial 2 Sap flow (Fs; cm h-1). It was obtained through Tz heat pulse method (Green et al. 2003). Four plants were selected, and a set of probes was installed in the trunk of each plant (at 1 m from the ground).

Each set was composed of 2 temperature sensors positioned at a distance of x u = 5 mm upstream and xd = 10 mm downstream in a straight line from a heater. Each temperature sensor consists in 3 thermocouples, installed 5, 12 and 21 mm from the cambium. The heat pulse was applied every 30 min.

A datalogger (model CR1000, Campbell Sci, Logan UT) was used to control the heaters and record the changes in heat pulse.

In order to get the sap flow rate (cm h -1) from the pulse heat, the equation informed by Swanson (1962) was used. Next, the result was corrected by the size of the wound of the trunk due to probe installation (1.6 mm) using the correction equation by Swanson and Whitfield (1981).

Statistical Analysis A regression analysis was performed between stem water potential and vapour pressure deficit. A descriptive analysis was carried out for the sap flow, with the average sap flow from each plant, and the average of the 4 plants of each variety. The Minitab statistical software was used (Minitab Inc, Pennsylvania, USA).

RESULTS Field Trial 1 There is a close relationship between stem water potential (ψxm) and vapour pressure deficit (VPD), adjusted to a decreasing linear function for both varieties. In the case of Flame Seedless, the relationship is y = 0,057x - 0.236, while for Red Globe is y = 0,055x - 0.265. Both of them showed a high coefficient of determination 0.8 (p <0.01), and low RMSE 0.025. These two functions are called "base lines", because of its use in irrigation scheduling.

The close relationship between the stem water potential (ψxm) and vapour pressure deficit (VPD), under the wide range of VPd found in the study for both varieties (1.5 to 6 kPa, Figures 1 and 2) is mainly due to the variation of relative humidity and temperature of the Copiapo Valley.

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 1: Relationship between ψxm y el VPD in table grape, variety Flame Seedless with no water restriction (100%ET).

Figure 2: Relationship between ψxm y el VPD in table grape, variety Red Globe with no water restriction (100%ET).

The relationship shows that ψxm decreases when VPD increases, demonstrating the influence of the weather on the plant when the plant water requirement are fully satisfied. These results agree with those found in the literature for grapevine (Williams and Baeza 2007) and other fruit trees, such as peach (Garnier and Berger, 1987), walnut (Cohen, 1994) and avocado (Ferreira et al., 2007).

When comparing the relationship between ψxm and VPD in both varieties (Figure 3), it can be seen that both lines are nearly identical; the slope varies in only 2 thousandths and the coefficient position just in three hundredths. Because of this, it is possible to manage both varieties with either one or the Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

other base lines in the irrigation schedule. However, when comparing the decreasing linear relationship found by Williams and Baeza (2007) for ψxm and VPD in three grape cultivars in California irrigated with 100% ETc, it shows that the slope of this study was 20% smaller. This may indicate that there are varietal differences within the species and/or soil and weather conditions that could change the plant response. Previous work in the region in the variety Thompson Seedless ratifies the result, when Galvez (2010) found a logistic relationship for these parameters.

Figure 3: Comparison between the relationship between ψxm and VPD in table grape, variety Flame Seedless and Red Globe, with no water limitations (100% of ET).

Further research has used base lines in irrigation scheduling generated from the ratio of VPD and ψxm in table grapes. Those works improved water use efficiency from 4.4 to 9 8 kg m -3 without reducing productivity or fruit quality (Gálvez, 2011). Therefore, the use of these base lines in irrigation management in the Copiapó Valley would increase efficiency in water use.

The seasonal pattern of water consumption of Red Globe, irrigated at 100% ETc, shows that water consumption started in the phonological stage of 20-cm branch. The sap flow rate was 5 cm h -1, with the water consumption peak of 17cm h-1 at veraison. After commercial harvest point is reached, water consumption begins to fall down, following the pattern of reference evapotranspiration (ET0). Note that because in Copiapó Valley has mild temperature, the leaves do not fall; therefore, plants transpire till pruning (Figure 4).

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Figure 4: Seasonal cycle of water consumption in table grapes variety Red Globe, with no water restrictions (100% ETc).

On the other hand, Flame Seedless grafted on Harmony showed a different pattern of water consumption, which did not follow the reference evapotranspiration trend. This indicates that water consumption starts late in bloom, it reaches sap flow rates of 6 cm h -1, getting to a water consumption peak in veraison (30cm h-1). At this time, the reduction of water consumption follows the ET0 pattern, decreasing to just above zero after pruning, just like observed in Red Globe (Figure 5).

The delay in plant water absorption causes problems with grape cluster quality, which does not reach the size for exporting. This problem can be related to the soil and weather conditions, added to the pattern-variety combination. Other commercial orchards in the province of CopiapĂł with similar conditions also have the same problem described.

The sap flow rate does not reach zero between developmental stages of pruning and 20-cm branches in both varieties (Figures 4 and 5), but the values shown in both figures for this period (<2 cm h -1) are assumed to be zero because of the program used to estimate the sap flow rate.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 5: Seasonal cycle of water consumption in table grapes variety Flame Seedless grafted on Harmony, with no water restrictions (100% of ETc).

Daily water consumption in Red Globe variety during veraison (the stage of maximum demand), begins at 8:00 am, getting at peak flow at 13:00 with 15.5 cm h -1. After that, a depression is generated in sap flow rate, between 14:30 and 17:30, decreasing in 62% the rate of flow. Sap flow rate increases again at 18:00, but does not reach the maximum flow. Finally, it decreases up to zero at 22:00 (Figure 6).

Given the above, it is advised to supply water when the plants are actively consuming water to achieve an optimal irrigation management, that is, between 8:00 and 17:30. This becomes critical in soils with little water storage capacity.

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Figure 6: Daily cycle of water consumption in table grapes variety Red Globe in veraison.

Regarding the variety Flame Seedless grafted on Harmony, the daily pattern shown during veraison was similar to Red Globe. However, Flame Seedless did not present flow depression at noon as Red Globe (Figure 7).

Figure 6: Daily cycle of water consumption in table grapes variety Flame Seedless grafted on Harmony at the veraison.

Based on these results, it has been reduced by an average of 25% the water consumption in table grapes commercial orchards the province of CopiapĂł.

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REFERENCES Choné, X., Van Leeuwen, C., Dubourdieu, D. and Pierre, J. (2001). Stem water potential is a sensitive indicator of grapevine water status. Annals of Botany 87: 477-483.

Cohen M., Goldhamer, D., Fereres, E., Girona, J. and Mata, M. (2001) Assessment of peach tree responses to irrigation water deficits by continuous monitoring of trunk diameter changes. J. Hort. Sci. Biotech. 76, 55–60.

Cohen, M. (1994) Funcionamiento hídrico y producción frutal del nogal en zonas semiáridas: aplicación al manejo del riego. Tesis Dr. Ing. Agr. Lleida. Universitat de Lleida. Escola técnica superior D’enginyeria agraria. 298 p.

Escalona, J., Flexas, J. and Medrano, H. (2002). Drought effects on water flow, photosynthesis and growth of potted grapevines. Vitis 41(2), 57–62.

Fernández, J., Palomo, M., Díaz-Espejo, A., Clothier, B., Green, S., Girón, I. and Moreno, F. (2001) Heat-pulse measurements of sap flow in olives for automating irrigation: Tests, root flow and diagnostics of water stress. Agric. Water Manage. 51, 99–123.

Ferreira, R., Sellés, G., Maldonado, P., Celedón, J. y Gil, P. (2007) Efecto del clima, de las características de la hoja y de la metodología de medición del potencial hídrico xilemático en palto (Persea americana Mill.). Agricultura Técnica 67 (2):182.188.

Goldhamer, D., Fereres, E. and Salinas, M. (.2003) Can almond trees directly dictate their irrigations needs?. Calif. Agric. 57, 138–144.

Goldhamer, D., and Fereres, E. (2001) Irrigation scheduling protocols using continuously recorded trunk diameter measurements. Irrig. Sci. 20, 115–125.

Garnier, E. and Berger, A. (1985) Testing water potential en peach trees as an indicator of water stress.

J Hort Sci 60:47-56.

Howell, T. and Meron, M. (2007) Irrigation scheduling. In: Lamm, F., J. Ayars and F. Nakayama (eds.).

Microirrigation for crop production. Elsevier.

Intrigliolo, D., and Castel, J. (2006) Performance of various wáter stress indicators for prediction of fruit size response to deficit irrigation in plum. Agric Water Manag 83:173–180.

Jones, H. (2004) Irrigation scheduling: advantages and pitfalls of plant-based methods. Journal of experimental botany 55 (407):2427-2436.

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McCutchan, H. and Schackel, K. (1992) Stem water potential as a sensitive indicator of water stress in prune trees. Journal of American Society Horticultural Science 117: 607-611.

Moreno, F., Fernández, J., Clothier, B. and Green. S. (1996) Transpiration and root water uptake by olive trees. Plant Soil 184:85–96.

Nadezhdina, N. (1999) Sap flow index as an indicator of plant water status. Tree Physiol 19:885–891.

Naor, A. (2000) Midday stem water potential as a plant water stress indicator for irrigation scheduling in fruit trees. Acta Horticulturae. 537: 447-454.

Ortuño, M., García-Orellana, Y., Conejero, W., Ruiz-Sánchez, M., Alarcón, J. and Torrecillas, A. (2006) Stem and leaf water potentials, gas exchange, sap flow, and trunk diameter fluctuations for detecting water stress in lemon trees. Trees 20:1–8 Remorini, D. and Massai, R. (2003) Comparison of water status indicators for young peach trees. Irrig.

Sci. 22, 39–46.

Schakel, K. (2011) A Plant-based approach to deficit irrigation in trees and vines. Hortscience 42(2):173-177.

Shackel, K., Ahmadi, H., Biasi, W., Buchner, R., Godhamer, D., Gurusinghe, S., Hasey, J., Kester, D., Krueger, B., Lampinen, G., McGourty, W., Micke, W., Mitcham, E., Olson, B., Pelletrau, K., Philips, H., Ramos, D., Schwankl, L., Sibebett, S., Southwick, S., Stevenson, M., Thorpe, M., Weinbaum S., and Yeager, J. (1997) Plant water status as an index of irrigation need in deciduous fruit trees.

Horttechnology 7:23–29.

Van Zyl, J. (1987) Diurnal variation in grapevine water stress as a function of changing soil water status and meteorological conditions. South African Journal Enology and Viticulture 8: 45-52.

Williams, L. and Baeza, P. (2007) Relations among ambient temperature and vapor pressure deficit and leaf and stem water potentials of fully irrigated, field-grown grapevines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 58 (2): 173-181.

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Spatial Distribution of Available Water Capacity of Chilean Soils.

J. Padarian Faculty of Agriculture and Environment Department of Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney New South Wales, Australia jose.padarian@sydney.edu.au B. Minasny Faculty of Agriculture and Environment Department of Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney New South Wales, Australia budiman.minasny@sydney.edu.au A. McBratney Faculty of Agriculture and Environment Department of Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney New South Wales, Australia alex.mcbratney@sydney.edu.au

ABSTRACT Soil available water capacity (AWC) is the main source of water for vegetation and it is the potential amount of water available for atmospheric exchange. The area between Valpara´ıso and Los R´ıos regions is the main agricultural area in Chile and information on its soil water holding capacity distribution is crucial for agricultural planning and management to secure food production. The aim of this work is to obtain a continuous spatial prediction of AWC between Valpara´ıso and Los R´ıos regions (32-40◦S) up to 100 cm deep. We use 440 soil profiles compiled from CIREN’s agrologic studies to model field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) at five depth intervals (0-5, 5-15, 15-30, 30-60 and 60-100 cm) using digital soil mapping techniques. Combining the observed soil data and environmental information (topographic, climatic, Landsat imagery), we derive soil prediction functions for the soil water holding capacity parameters. We use these prediction functions to obtain water holding capacity of the area at a resolution of 500 m. We also calculated the confidence interval of the prediction. Such information can help better water management, and thus increase water use efficiency.

Keywords: Green water, Google Earth Engine

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

INTRODUCTION Soil moisture is an important factor as it affects plant growth and yield directly through its availability and supply to plants. Thus the characterisation of soil’s available water capacity (AWC) is important, recognising the soil’s physical status and quality. Available water capacity is a component of the water and energy balances of terrestrial biosphere (Milly and Shmakin, 2002), thus controls the rates of evaporation and transpiration, and has a ma jor impact on climate. It also controls hydrologic processes such as groundwater recharge, infiltration and overland flow. Soil water holding capacity is one of the most important soil factors for plant growth, influencing carbon allocation, nutrient cycling, and the rate of photosynthesis.

In agricultural production irrigation is an important support, recharging the water-depleted soil with a periodicity that makes AWC an almost irrelevant property. Nevertheless, rainfed agriculture heavily depends on AWC because it might be the only water available for the crop in the growing season. As stated by Falkenmark and Rockstro¨m (2004), in order to generate a new agricultural revolution and assure food security, is necessary to focus in rainfed agriculture, hence the importance of territorial planning to avoid competition with other productive sectors.

The aim of this work is to obtain a continuous spatial prediction of AWC between Valparaíso and Los Ríos regions (32-40◦S), using digital soil mapping techniques, to help as a guideline for territorial planning at regional scale.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Data sets and study area The data set used correspond to a compilation of 362 soil profiles collected and published (CIREN., 1996a,b, 1997a,b, 1999, 2002, 2003) by the Natural Resources Information Centre (CIREN, Centro de Informacio´n de Recursos Naturales). The observations are mainly distributed along the central valleys and coastal areas of Chile, between 32 and 40◦ S, excluding the soils located in the Andes or the associated coastal ranges (Fig. 1).

We limited the study area, selecting the administrative regions which contained observations of the CIREN data set. This selection is represented as the grey area in Fig. 1 and it is equivalent to about 165,200 km2 .

Digital soil mapping model In this study we used the scorpan approach (McBratney et al., 2003) as an empirical quantitative descriptions of relationships between soil and other spatially referenced factors. It is represented as S = f (s, c, o, r, p, a, n) + ǫ, where S: is the variable of interest (field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP)), s: stands for soil (other properties of the soil at a point), c: climate (climatic properties of the environment at a point), o: organisms Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

(vegetation or fauna or human activity), r: topography (landscape attributes), p: parent material (lithology); a: age (the time factor); n: space (spatial position); and ÇŤ correspond to the spatially modelled residuals (usually by kriging).

Soil attribute: S We predicted soil properties related with water holding capacity of a soil. FC represents the volumetric water content an initially saturated soil holds after draining for 2-3 days (Veihmeyer and Hendrickson, 1949). On the other hand, PWP corresponds to the volumetric soil water remaining in the soil after a healthy crop, with uninterrupted root development, has reached maturity under soil water-limited conditions (Hochman et al., 2001). Both properties are governed by different processes, hence different sources of error, thus we decided to model them separately.

F i g u r e 1 : Location of soil profiles from CIREN database. Grey area represents the administrative region subset where predictions were made.

AWC is defined as the range of available water that can be stored in soil and be available for growing crops. The concept was put forward by Veihmeyer and Hendrickson (1927) which assumed that the water readily available to plants is the difference between water content at FC and PWP. In this study, FC is measured in the laboratory as volumetric water content at -33 kPa, and PWP is water content at -1500 kPa. We used the equal-area spline function (Bishop et al., 1999) to convert the soil profile data into standard depths (0-5, 5-15, 15-30, 30-60, and 60-100 cm)

Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

Factors: s, c, o, r, p, a, n Environmental covariates are intended to explain scorpan factors and for each factor there is an extensive list of possible covariates to use. The covariates used in this work include: a) digital elevation model (DEM) and associated derivatives: slope (percentage), and topographic wetness index (TWI) to try to explain factor r, as these attributes were found to explain variation in soil moisture and texture (Malone et al., 2011); and b) air maximum temperature and rainfall (summer and winter means) to try to explain factor c; Function: f The function f represents the connection between the soil attribute S and the scorpan factors. In this study we used a implementation of a Classification and Regression Trees algorithm (Breiman et al., 1984) by Google in their platform Earth Engine.

We trained the model using a bootstrap sampling, originally proposed by Efron and Tibshirani (1994). The algorithm iteratively takes a sample (with replacement) of the training data before training the model. The final prediction corresponds to the mean of the bootstrap iterations. This approach has the advantage of also provide a measure of uncertainty, which corresponds to a deviation measure of the iterations. In this study we performed 50 iterations and the uncertainty was estimated as the 5 and 95% quantiles, corresponding to the lower and upper prediction interval respectively.

Residuals: Ďľ The scorpan approach implies the addition of the spatial correlation structure of the model residuals to the predictions. At local scale, data density is usually high and the distribution is more-or-less homogeneous, so kriging of the residuals does not present further complications.

This is not necessarily true for a national scale using legacy data. Data is usually clustered in space leaving extensive areas without information. When the kriging method is applied to clustered data, the resulting map usually presents artefacts due to interpolation between distant clusters or extrapolation. We decided to omit this step, which could be addressed in future studies.

Validation In each iteration of the bootstrap sampling a subset of observations is not selected for training purposes. These data were used to estimate the root mean square error (RMSE) of the prediction for each property (FC and PWP) and depth interval.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Validation Table 1 shows model validation errors in depth. As expected, the performance of the models generally decreased with depth. This has also been observed by Malone et al. (2011) who predicted AWC in the agricultural district Edgeroi, NSW, Australia (30.32S, 149.78E), Padarian et al. (2014) who predicted AWC at regional scale (Australian wheatbelt), and for other soil properties predictions like organic carbon (Minasny et al., 2006; Jobba´gy and Jackson, 2000). Deeper layers of soil are not as exposed to weathering factors as the top layers, therefore the correlation with climatic and remote sensing data (that mainly reflect the surface condition) tends to be lower.

Table 1. RMSE values of FC and PWP in depth. Mean of 50 bootstrap iterations. RMSE range between brackets. Units in mm.

0-5 cm 5-15 cm 15-30 cm 30-60 cm 60-100 cm

FC

PWP

129.44 (108.64-227.3) 139.25 (106.01-342.95)

96.35 (78.45-262.41) 117.96 (82.88-493.25) 100.16 (74.97-555.5) 105.56 (74.61-681.5) 105.56 (74.61-681.5) 166.48 (77.34-1974.98)

208.26 (110.2-2429.9) 143.46 (117.55-346.82) 146.27 (108.55-309.96)

AWC map AWC for each layer is calculated as the difference in volumetric water content (θ) between field capacity and wilting point: AW C (mm) = (F C − P W P ) × Thickness of layer (mm) (1) The PAWC (profile available water capacity in mm) is calculated as the sum for all the layers: (2)

Using Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 it was possible to estimate AWC up to 1000 mm in the study area (Fig. 2a). We also present the total uncertainty of the predictions (Fig. 2b), considering the maximum uncertainty of all the layers, in a pixel-per-pixel base. This method generates a wider prediction interval compared with a estimation of the uncertainty considering the dependency of both water contents (93.78% correlation in the dataset). This is a cautionary measure that will be adjusted in a future work considering the complexity of uncertainty propagation in a spatial context.

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

It is possible to observe a general north-to-south pattern in AWC, were the main driver is the rainfall and temperature gradient. Also, the southernmost area presents an abrupt increase in AWC mainly because the change from a xeric to an udic moisture regime and the presence of the first Andisols (Luzio, 2010). These humid conditions promote above-ground biomass generation and consequently soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation. Due to the close relationship between SOC and AWC, both properties present a similar spatial distribution, as shown by Padarian et al. (2012).

Figure 2: (a) Available water content (mm m

â&#x2C6;&#x2019;1

) and (b) prediction interval width to 1 m depth.

The uncertainty map (Fig. 2b) clearly shows the effect of sampling quality on digital soil mapping. Most of the soil samples collected by CIREN (Fig.1) are distributed in agricultural lands, therefore the uncertainty levels are within an acceptable range. In poorly sampled areas, specially the ones with complex topography (i.e. Andes) the modelling technique is incapable of capture the relationship between the soil attributes and the scorpan factors.

As a consequence, the uncertainty levels are hight, making the predictions in these areas unreliable.

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CONCLUSIONS We were able to predict the spatial distribution of the soil available water content (AWC) using digital soil mapping techniques. We presented maps for AWC predictions and its associated uncertainty levels, which is an essential quality assessment.

These maps are referential and they do not take in account the changes in time of the soil properties involved. AWC could be negatively affected by deficient management leading to compaction or soil organic carbon losses.

REFERENCES Bishop, T., McBratney, A., Laslett, G., 1999. Modelling soil attribute depth functions with equal-area quadratic smoothing splines. Geoderma 91 (1), 27–45.

Breiman, L., Friedman, J., Stone, C. J., Olshen, R. A., 1984. Classification and regression trees. CRC press.

CIREN., 1996a. Estudio Agrológico VI Región. Descripciones de suelos, materiales y símbolos. Publicación No114. Centro de Información de Recursos Naturales (CIREN), Santiago, Chile.

CIREN., 1996b. Estudio Agrológico Región Metropolitana. Descripciones de suelos, materiales y símbolos. Publicación No115. Centro de Información de Recursos Naturales (CIREN), Santiago, Chile.

CIREN., 1997a. Estudio Agrológico V Región. Descripciones de suelos, materiales y símbolos. Publicación No116. Centro de Información de Recursos Naturales (CIREN), Santiago, Chile.

CIREN., 1997b. Estudio Agrológico VII Región. Descripciones de suelos, materiales y símbolos. Publicación No117. Centro de Información de Recursos Naturales (CIREN), Santiago, Chile.

CIREN., 1999. Estudio Agrológico VIII Región. Descripciones de suelos, materiales y símbolos. Publicación No121. Centro de Información de Recursos Naturales (CIREN), Santiago, Chile.

CIREN., 2002. Estudio Agrológico IX Región. Descripciones de suelos, materiales y símbolos. Publicación No122. Centro de Información de Recursos Naturales (CIREN), Santiago, Chile.

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CIREN., 2003. Estudio Agrológico X Región. Descripciones de suelos, materiales y símbolos. Publicación No123. Centro de Información de Recursos Naturales (CIREN), Santiago, Chile.

Efron, B., Tibshirani, R. J., 1994. An introduction to the bootstrap. Vol. 57. CRC press.

Falkenmark, M., Rockstr¨om, J., 2004. Balancing water for humans and nature: the new approach in ecohydrology. Earthscan. Hochman, Z., Dalgliesh, N., Bell, K., 2001.

Contributions of soil and crop factors to plant available soil water capacity of annual crops on Black and Grey Vertosols. Crop and Pasture Science 52 (10), 955–961.

Jobb´agy, E. G., Jackson, R. B., 2000. The vertical distribution of soil organic carbon and its relation to climate and vegetation. Ecological applications 10 (2), 423–436.

Luzio, W. (Ed.), 2010. Suelos de Chile. Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.

Malone, B., McBratney, A., Minasny, B., 2011. Empirical estimates ofuncertainty for mapping continuous depth functions of soil attributes. Geoderma 160 (3), 614–626.

McBratney, A., Mendon¸ca Santos, M. d. L., Minasny, B., 2003. On digital soil mapping.

Geoderma 117 (1), 3–52.

Milly, P., Shmakin, A., 2002. Global modeling of land water and energy balances.

Part I: The land dynamics (LaD) model. Journal of Hydrometeorology 3 (3), 283–299.

Minasny, B., McBratney, A. B., Mendonca-Santos, M., Odeh, I., Guyon, B., 2006.

Prediction and digital mapping of soil carbon storage in the Lower Namoi Valley. Soil Research 44 (3), 233–244.

Padarian, J., Minasny, B., McBratney, A., Dalgliesh, N., 2014. Predicting and mapping the soil available water capacity of Australian wheatbelt. Geoderma Regional.

Padarian, J., Pérez-Quezada, J., Seguel, O., 2012. Modelling the distribution of organic carbon in the soils of Chile. In : Minasny, B., Malone, B., McBratney, A. (Eds.), Digital Soil Assessments and Beyond. Taylor and Francis Group, London, UK, pp. 329–333.

Veihmeyer, F., Hendrickson, A., 1949. Methods of measuring field capacity and permanent wilting percentage of soils. Soil science 68 (1), 75–94.

Veihmeyer, F. J., Hendrickson, A., 1927. Soil-moisture conditions in relation to plant growth. Plant physiology 2 (1), 71.

Food and Water Securite – Water Week 2015

A Safe Space for Humanity: Water Nexus in Food Security in the South Atlantic Corridor.

Peter Rogers Samuel Daines

Five Global Transitions The world is undergoing major physical, social, and economic transitions from earlier periods when populations roughly matched then available resources and is now moving toward new conditions which require new thinking about the nexus of food, water, energy, and climate. The transitions are happening so fast that the training and mindset of most senior planners and managers have long since been overtaken by these equilibrium shifts; and well-tried solutions to food, water, and energy management of the past are no longer viable. Moreover, since these transitions involve long-term commitments of land, water, and mineral resources, and investment in long- life railway, dam, highway, and canal infrastructure required to access these resources, they are essentially irreversible.

The global implications of these problems are explored and clearly articulated by the reports of the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change (Beddington et al. 2012) and the World Resources Institute’s recent “Creating a Sustainable Food Future: A menu of solutions to sustainably feed more than 9 billion people by 2050” (Searchinger et al. 2013).

There are five major global transitions that make historically-based thinking obsolete. The first is the “urban population transition”: the majority of the global population now residing in cities and having increased purchasing power; the second is the “nutrition transition”: demands for a new basket of foodstuffs with a shift in consumption preferences from low value staple grains, vegetable oils and sugar to animal products and other high-value foods (Monteiro et al 1995); the third is the “climate transition”: increasing temperatures and increasing variability in water supplies and growing conditions for plants; the fourth is the “energy transition” from cheap fossil fuels to renewable energy resources; and the fifth is the “agricultural transition” from small-scale and subsistence farming to large-scale commercial operations. All of these challenges are exacerbated by a growing world population and the deterioration of the quality of water and land. Coping with any one of these alone would be a major problem, but the transitions are actually happening simultaneously with differing rates of change in different countries.

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

An “Infrastructure” Corridor View of the Nexus of Water in the Food Supply-Chain of the Poor One useful view, that taken by the case studies and subsequent proof-of-concept pilot projects of our Food-Water-Energy Consortium (p4), is that water impacts the food supply chain largely through water infrastructure of five types in a waterway transport corridor (Schiller Institute 2014). Positive change therefore must largely come through changing the efficiency, structure and reach of water infrastructure: • Irrigation infrastructure (water footprint and food cost minimization) • Post harvest spoilage avoidance infrastructure (water footprint and food cost minimization) • Waterway transport infrastructure (energy and food cost minimization) • Hydropower infrastructure (farm & processing mini-hydro energy for food cost minimization) • Sanitary water supply, sewer conveyance and treatment infrastructure (intestinal nutrition absorption and waterborne disease and parasite interactions – food “loss” after consumption) Our hypothesis is that recent technological and cooperative organizational innovations for each of these “water” infrastructures makes it feasible to reduce the price to poor consumers of key perishable products to bring prices inside their budget and enable a “middle class diet on a lower income budget”.

The Nexus of Food, Water, Energy, and Climate Because of the nonlinear synergistic interactions among water, energy, climate, and other inputs into food production, it can be quite misleading if we treat them as separate inputs to the production process. Since almost all of the cultivable land is currently in use (Ausubel, Wernick, and Waggoner 2013), producing more food requires increases in yields, and/or intensification in crop patterns. This will require intensified use of chemical fertilizers, which would need huge additional energy inputs, or extensive multiple cropping, which would mean large additional quantities of irrigation water and energy. However, we are increasingly approaching limits to water available for conventional agriculture (Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture 2007). For mechanization of irrigation, the technologies, such as drip or pivot, may dictate much larger scales of operation than can be achieved by small farmers acting alone.

Furthermore, since 1962, the use of chemical fossil fuel-based fertilizers began to surpass the amount of globally available natural organic fertilizers. Today, they exceed organic fertilizer over 100% (Conway 2012). The production of chemical fertilizers, however, requires large amounts of fossil fuels, which exacerbate greenhouse gas production. Current estimates for the footprint of agriculture, including its fertilizer production and use, lies between 17% and 32% of total greenhouse gases (Bellarby et al. 2008). Additionally, the development of bioenergy from crops such as corn (about 20% of the corn crop in the United States is now diverted to biofuel production) also creates a conflict between food and energy supplies.

Despite globally declining human fertility, by 2050, an additional 2 billion people will need to be fed; moreover, one half of the total 9 billion population (United Nations 2012) is expected to be urban, and wealthier, with demands for foods that require much more water and other inputs than the traditional grains, as well as demands for more grains to feed the bourgeoning livestock. An almost doubling of the global food production will be required to meet these additional needs, including the effects of improved diets as well as just the number of people. The extensive arable plains of Brazil and Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Argentina are already major world bread-baskets and have vast remaining potential for exporting to the nearby African side of the South Atlantic corridor in meeting its growing food demand.

Without increasing scale, access to markets and crop diversification into higher value crops, efficiency gains (sustainability), and food security gains would not be achieved. For instance, food chain and marketing improvements have to be expanded to make access for all easier.

Food Consumption Population size by itself is not the whole problem. The current total world food production is capable of providing everyone with an adequate low quality diet. The real problems are the distribution of food and meeting the growing demands for higher quality diets and averting the undesirable result of obesity for the poor. With increased incomes, the poor in the South Atlantic Corridor are likely to spend on increased volumes of cheap starches and cheaper high fat animal products resulting in increased incidence of obesity among the poor (Monteiro et al 2007, Popkin et al 2013).

Major innovation and change must also be focused on food spoilage in the food chain, as much as 50% of the food production is lost in the post-harvest inefficient infrastructure from “farm to fork” (Lundqvist, Fraiture, and Molden 2008). This is the largest single change with potential for reducing the water and energy footprint of expanded food supply.

Sustainable Agriculture in the South Atlantic Corridor Production Technology and Scale In the most vulnerable food security countries in the South Atlantic Corridor, Bolivia and Paraguay, a large proportion of food production is still on small farms. Unfortunately, traditional flood irrigation for small plots is expensive and inherently inefficient in the use of water, energy, and land. Irrigation in North America is now increasingly being provided on large plots of land irrigated by machinery that economizes on energy, land, and water. Unfortunately even in Argentina, Brazil and Chile where these modern techniques are most common they have not yet become widespread.

The challenge for smaller farmers is how to re-organize to take advantage of the efficient mechanized irrigation techniques on their fragmented landholding patterns. If a center pivot efficiently covers 70 ha, how is it possible to irrigate land of several smallholders each with less than 10 ha? What cooperative and financial arrangements would have to be negotiated to realize the efficiency gains usually associated with such systems? More importantly, what is the potential for integrating highvalue crops into these small farm mechanized systems?

Employment A major problem is the need to create employment, in particular rural employment to stem the tide of migration to cities. This can be done in part by modernizing agriculture and integrating high-value horticultural crops, and by intensifying multi-season cropping in rural areas in response to new nongrain food demands (Collier 2013). For example, the number of days of labor needed for grain production in traditional agriculture is about 40 days per ha; these are in stark contrast with labor inputs of 8-12 hours per ha in modern mechanized grain farming in the United States. However, changing from grain to modern horticulture crops could generate more than 200–600 days of labor per ha.. In this Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

way, contrary to popular belief, intensifying agriculture by labor complementing mechanization in horticulture can increase rural farm and nonfarm employment. Essentially, this implies a reallocation of human resources from low-value, low labor traditional cropping patterns to high labor-intensive crops.

Dealing with an Uncertain Future Water supplies and food production are becoming increasingly uncertain due to climate change and changes in demographic patterns and economic growth. In the past, the assessment of climate variations and fluctuations of floods as well as droughts was largely predictable by steady state statistical models. However, due to the interaction of the other four global transitions, the current approaches to risk assessment have become increasingly unreliable. The failure of predictive models of the future water demands and supplies leads to a return to earlier approaches to decision making under conditions of uncertainty, and to looking for simpler, more intuitively convincing models. This is when concepts such as “safety” and “surprise” need to be invoked (Shackle 1949). These essentially are based on the “negligible possibility of ruin”—a path into the future that will maximize the expected gain while minimizing the possibility of ruin to the point that it can be neglected (Boussard and Petit1967). We do not want any nasty “surprises.” We need a conservative and risk-adverse strategy to identify the boundaries of a “safe space” for humanity.

Achieving the Goals Recent research (Collier 2013) indicates that the best way to achieve these goals is by integration of high-value products into efficient food-producing systems. In most cases, these would be based on large-scale commercial farming integrated into the global food system. This is particularly relevant given the widespread charges of “land grabbing” by multinational corporations in developing countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The global nongovernment organization community is unanimous in calling for boycotting attempts by corporations or national entities to introduce large-scale mechanized agriculture which displace small farmers with subsequent unemployment by labor-saving mechanization. These are all acknowledged problems and the conundrum is how to make the shift to modern agriculture while avoiding the worst excesses. This does not have to be an irrevocable outcome if new crops are are aimed at domestic and international markets for high-value crops. Aggregation of small farms (backed by equitable cooperative institutional arrangements) and mechanization and modernization of agriculture not only maximize efficiency in the use of land, water, and energy but also enable many smallholder farmers to access and benefit from emerging business opportunities in urban markets, including the vast new food demands of the migrated poor.

Exploiting the recent expansion of food demand in the urban poor is crucial for many poor farmers to improve their own state of food security. Strong employment generation arising from the crop diversification into higher value crops would include the poor in the nutrition transition. Policy and adoption of the “right” technology could build the basis and support such an inclusive growth pathway.

In order to achieve this, we need to look beyond conventional participatory agricultural management skill transfer recipes. Expanding capacity and knowledge are always good, but the emphasis should be to bring in, where possible, modern commercial and corporate actors who can best transfer these skills.

Finally, investments in transportation and marketing infrastructure have the potential to greatly facilitate the agricultural transition to modern practices and production efficiencies and at the same time reduce the costs of improved diets of the poor. We are not searching for optimal strategies which Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

may be risky, but looking for strategies for a safe transition to a sustainable food supply. In other words, can we identify a “safe place for humanity?” Food, energy, and water are at the top of Maslow’s needs hierarchy (1943). Meeting those needs does not mean that conflicts, wars, and disease will be resolved, but that humanity will be more resilient to deal with these issues in a safer space than where it is currently located.

The Food-Water-Energy Consortium and its Case Study and Proof-of-Concept Pilot Project Approach Starting in early 2010 the authors began the development of a Food-Water-Energy consortium based on a case study and pilot proof of concept approach to the nexus. In 2012 the Asian Development Bank began support, complementing private sector standby infrastructure funding, for Asian case studies: “Our proposal is to create a consortium of like-minded academic and research institutions along with similarly interested and competent private individuals and corporations. The consortium is envisaged as a “community of practice’ which would coordinate and share their intellectual resources. Initially, the founding group (Harvard, NUS, AIT) in collaboration with our private sector partners (Valmont, and SRD) would initiate case studies that would demonstrate the practical usefulness of considering the Nexus as integrated whole. These would be in the nature of desk studies relying on existing, or readily available, data. We envisage major field scale pilot projects to provide the proof of concept for the approaches outlined in the academic research” (Rogers, 2012) Nine initial consortium case studies in South and Southeast Asia started in 2012 with preliminary results reported in 2014 (Daines, and Rogers 2014). Case studies were initiated by SRD in the South Atlantic Corridor (Neuquen 2008, Pernambuco 2009, Bermejo Valley 2011, Congo 2013). In mid 2014 four additional ConoSur case study sites were added with Consortium support. This paper contains preliminary results of the seven South American ongoing Consortium case studies. Updated case study results will be added biannually as annexes to this preliminary results paper.

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CONCLUSIONS The stakes involved in not adapting to the great global transitions are enormous. A misguided choice of technology or policy in the near future could set in train a whole set of circumstances that may be difficult to change later. For example, relying on small farm agriculture to provide for the future food supply of many heavily populated developing countries may lead to exhaustion of water and land resources due to inefficiencies in the production process and food chains under traditional agriculture, to increasing the already huge rural to urban migration, and to food importation strategies to sustain the feeding of large cities which would further impoverish the rural populations.

Taking an integrated view of the value chain would allow individuals and companies assess which links in the chain would do most to promote efficiency throughout the chain. It also allows estimation of the various labor requirements, energy inputs, and legal and social adjustments that would have to be made. Depending on how this is viewed, it could reduce the costs of higher value diets to the urban poor, or it could improve the margins of rent-seeking individuals higher up the chain. The key to our hypothesis is that the gains from the cost reduction due to efficiency gains in the food supply-chain can and should be passed on to poor consumers through consumer owned marketing cooperatives so that poor consumers can access diversified food baskets.

The redistribution of margins to smallholder farmers, however, has to ensure that marketing margins will have to be substantially decreased. This can be achieved by ingenious methods of bifurcating the urban markets between wealthy consumers who shop in the now expanding supermarkets and convenience shops, with the urban poor buying largely on the street. The case study designs propose cost and price reduction to poor consumers via marketing cooperatives and innovative street-marketing cold-chain infrastructure located in the parts of the city where most of the urban poor live.

None of these concepts are especially new and innovative, but they are hard to finance, organize and execute in practice. However, the successful world cooperative movement itself began exactly this way with poor rural urban migrants in the 1840’s crowded into the slums of industrializing midlands in England. These poor families could not afford food at prices the urban food market system charged. so they vertically integrated “backward” and their gave birth to the world cooperative movement. The success of thousands of small farmers in the Gujarat Amul dairy cooperatives (Heredia 1997) and in horticulture (Birthal et al 2007 MSGGA) give additional evidence supporting the feasibility of creating similar models in the South Atlantic corridor.

In the current context of the “favelas” in the megacities of the South Atlantic, the case studies and proof-of-concept pilot project designs harness the proven viability of slum community water-sewer associations (Leal 2013) at one end with the historical inner strength of water users coops at the other (Rohith 2011). The urban cooperative designs combine food consumer wholesale club cooperatives with water-sewer cooperatives in a hybrid community organization.

At the production end of the food supply chain, the case study and proof-of-concept pilot project designs are for center pivot irrigation circles, and the tubewells or canals that supply them, to be owned and operated by a water users cooperative, but the multi-plot cooperative will also own the innovative small scale in-field cooling packing infrastructure that will aggregate planting area and allow for scale efficiencies in harvest, post harvest, processing and transport.

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REFERENCES Beddington, J., M. Asaduzzaman, A. Fernandez, M. Clark, M. Guillou, M. Jahn, L. Erda L., T. Mamo, N. Van Bo, C. A. Nobre, R. Scholes, R. Sharma, and J. Wakhungu. 2012. Achieving Food Security in the Face of Climate Change: Final Report from the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Searchinger, Tim, Craig Hanson, Janet Ranganathan, Brian Lipinski, Richard Waite, Robert Winterbottom, Ayesha Dinshaw, and Ralph Heimlich. 2013. Creating a Sustainable Food Future: A Menu of Solutions to Sustainably Feed More than 9 Billion People by 2050. World Resources Report 2013–14: Interim Findings.Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.

C.A. Monteiro, L. Mondini, A.L. de Souza, & B.M. Popkin, The Nutritional Transition in Brazil, Center for Epidemiological Studies in Health and Nutrition, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 1995 7p, in European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1995, 49(2):105-113 Schiller Institute, Infrastructure Development Corridor, Washington D.C., 2014. Larouche and Lincoln pioneered the concepts of an infrastructure corridor built around transport.

Ausubel, Jesse H., Iddo K. Wernick, and Paul E. Waggoner. 2013. Peak Farmland and the Prospect for Land Sparing. Population and Development Review 38 (Supplement): 221–242 Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. 2007. Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. London: Earthscan, and Colombo: International Water Management Institute.

Gordon Conway. 2012. One Billion Hungry: Can We Feed the World. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Bellarby, Jessica, Bente Foereid, Astley Hastings, and Pete Smith. 2008. Cool Farming: Climate Impacts of Agriculture and Mitigation Potential. Amsterdam: Greenpeace International.

United Nations. 2012. World Water Development Report 4: Managing Water under Uncertainty and Risk. Paris: UNESCO. C.A. Monteiro, W.L. Conde, B.M. Conde, Income Specific Trends in Obesity in Brazil: 1975-2003, Am J Public Health, 2007 Oct; 97 (10):1808; and B.M. Popkin, and M.M. Slining, New Dynamics in Global Obesity Facing Low – and Middle-Income Countries, Obes Rev 2013 Nov 14 Supply 2:11-20; Lunqvist, Jan., Charlotte de Fraiture, and David Molden, 2008, Saving Water from Field to Fork— Curbing Losses and Wastage in the Food Chain, SIWI Policy Brief, SIWI. Collier, Paul. 2013. Africa’s Food Systems in 2030. Global Food Policy and Food Security Symposium Series, FSI Stanford, FSE Series. 5 February Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Shackle, George. 1949. Expectation in Economics. Cambridge: Cambridge at the University Press.

Boussard, Jean-Marc, and Michel Petit. 1967. Representation of Farmers’ Behavior under Uncertainty with a Focus-Loss Constraint. Journal of Farm Economics 49 (4): 869–880.

Collier, Paul. 2013. Africa’s Food Systems in 2030. Global Food Policy and Food Security Symposium Series, FSI Stanford, FSE Series. 5 February Maslow, Abraham. 1943. A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review 50 (4): 370–96.

Rogers, Peter, Unpublished Memorandum, Draft Proposal for a Water/Energy/Climate in Food Security Consortium, Manila November 2011 4p.

Daines S., and P. Rogers, Food Supply-Chain Infrastructure Design, The Nexus Approach to Water and Energy in Food Security: Case Studies in South and Southeast Asia, Asian Development Bank, Manila 2014, 165p Rochdale Pioneers, The Birth of the Cooperative Movement, Rochdale U.K. 2010 Documentary Film R. Heredia, The Amul India Story, New Delhi, Tata McGraw Hill S. P Birthal, A. K. Jha, and H. Singh, Linking Farmers to Markets for High-Value Agricultural Commodities, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 20 2007 pp. 425-439, and Maharashtra State Grape Growers Association, Pune, India.

Susan Leal, Cooperative Sanitation in Brazil’s Favelas: A New Solution for the Developing World?

Revista: Harvard Review of Latin America, Winter 2013.

B.K. Rohith and M.G. Chandrakanth, Institutional and Economic Dynamics of Water User Cooperative (WUC) Societies in Cauvery Basin of Karnataka, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol. 24 July-December 2011 pp 235-242

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Integral System for Water Management (SIGESH, Sistema Integral para la Gestión Hídrica) Samuel Ortega-Farías(7) ABSTRACT

In general, water availability for irrigation has decreased significantly in the last years due to frequent droughts and strong competition for water resources among the agricultural, industrial, and urban areas.

Due to the aforementioned, the Centro de Investigación y Transferencia en Riego y Agroclimatología (Research and Irrigation Systems and Agro-climatology Center, CITRA) at Talca University implemented an Integral System for Water Management with the purpose of providing the farmers with counseling (VI and VII Regions of Chile) in crops, orchards, and vineyards irrigation programming.

This system provides farmers basic (temperature, humidity, wind speed, solar radiation, and precipitations) and processed (reference evapotranspiration, irrigation time, and irrigation frequency) climate information, which allows optimizing water use in crops, orchards, and vineyards. Among the main results obtained through this service during 1997 and 2005, the following can be mentioned: (1) applied water volume reductions in tomatoes in greenhouse of 72%, without affecting the commercial performance, (2) increased performance in corn seedbed between 14 and 30%, (3) water savings between 30 and 60% in wine vineyards watered through drip irrigation, and (4) wine quality growth between 20 and 30%.

Key Words: irrigation programming, reference evapotranspiration, meteorological stations.

INTRODUCTION Water scarcity in Chile’s different irrigation zones as a result of drought and the strong competition for water resources between hydroelectric companies and the agricultural sector combined with a poor water management of both superficial and mechanic irrigation systems (drip, sprinklers, and swivel), has generated important economic losses in the agricultural sector, being the VI and VII Regions the most affected.

Despite the advancements made in these regions in terms of irrigation technification, the water volumes applied by the drip irrigation systems (frequency and times of irrigation) do not adjust to the specific soil, weather, crop, and agronomic handling, observing water excesses that can vary between a 30 and 60%. This gives rise to the importance of making an adequate irrigation programming that allows optimizing the use of the water resource in drip irrigation systems, based in mathematic algorithms that integrate the non-linear interactions of soil, climate, and crop. Irrigation programming is a methodology that allows determining the optimal water level to apply in each phenological state of the grapevine, 7

Centro de Investigación y Transferencia en Riego y Agroclimatología (CITRA), University of Talca, Chile.P.O. Box 747, Talca, Chile. E-mail: sortega@utalca.cl

Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

according to the specific interactions of soil, plant, climate, which are integrated through biomathematical models. This technique consists in establishing the irrigation frequency (when to irrigate?) and time (how much irrigation?) according to homogenous sectors of soil and crop. To program irrigation is crucial estimating the real evapotranspiration and the amount of water that the soil can store in the zone of the root. Irrigation programming is then a process that allows establishing the appropriate time of irrigation and the exact amount of water to apply on the crops, orchards, or vineyards. Nevertheless, this technique requires the local calibration of some parameters incorporated in its algorithm such as the crop coefficients, irrigation criteria, and components of the energy balance (Ortega-Fariaset al., 2004; Ortega-Fariaset al 2005).

Based on the former background, the Centro de Investigación y Transferencia en Riego y Agroclimatología (Center of Research and Irrigation Systems and Agro-climatology, CITRA) established in 1997 the Sistema Integral para la Gestión Hídrica (Integral System for Water Management, SIGESH) in crops, orchards, and vineyards in the Chilean Region of El Maule (OrtegaFarias et al., 2005). This system is comprised by a central module and a network of automatic meteorological stations (AWSs). The central module is in charge of receiving, processing, and storing information on the soil (field capacity, wilting point, bulk density of soil, effective root depth), climate (temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, solar radiation, and precipitation), and crop (irrigation coefficient, irrigation systems, foliage conduction systems, etc.). The AWSs are in charge of measuring, in different places, climate variables in 15-minute intervals, which are transmitted by telemetry or mobile communication to the headquarters that are located in the CITRA laboratory. Thus, the system determines the real evapotranspiration, the storage capacity of the soil, frequency and time of irrigation based on the specific conditions of the soil, climate, and crop. This information is distributed through Internet to the consultants and farmers.

In the specific case of vineyards,the homogenous water areas are determined with satellite images complemented with a group of modern technologies that allow a site-specific irrigation water management. This group of technologies includes the use of automatic meteorological stations (AWSs), water meters on the soil and plant, global positioning systems (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS), aerial photography, satellite images and diverse computer programs for data processing (Bramley and Lamb, 2003; Ortega-Farias et al., 2005).

Information Requirements To make a correct irrigation programming, it is essential to determine the crops’ water consumption (real evapotranspiration), the amount of water in the soil explored by the roots and the phenologic behavior of the plant. Besides, it is necessary incorporating additional information such as agronomic handling, irrigation system, productive potential, etc., which in some form condition the crops’ water demands.

Determining Water Consumption Weather measuring is fundamental to estimate water consumption or real evapotranspiration (ETreal).

This entry variable in the irrigation programming model is quantified using the reference evapotranspiration (ETr), which is corrected by a crop coefficient (Kc). The ETr is estimated through the Food and Water Security – Water Week LA 2015

Penman-Monteith equation, which has as entry variables solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed (Jensen et al., 1990). Therefore, the hourly ETr can be calculated the following way (Allen et al., 1998):

Determining the Amount of Water Stored in the Soil To determine the amount of water available in the soil for the plant, it is necessary to make a water balance in a property level. For this purpose it is necessary to measure simultaneously the following variables: a) Physical-Hydrological Properties: These properties determine the exact amount of water available (usable humidity) for the crops, considering the soil texture. These properties are: field capacity, permanent wilting point, and bulk density of soil. b) Supply of Water into Root Area: To determine the soil provision of water, it is necessary to obtain: â&#x20AC;˘ Effective precipitation percentage that represents the amount of water infiltrated in the soil. â&#x20AC;˘ The evolution of the water table. c) Depth of the Root: The goal of irrigation is to apply water where the most percentage of effective roots are located, therefore in each property it is necessary to make soil pits to determine the depth of effective roots. d) Irrigation Criteria: In general, this variable is equal to 0.55 and 0.3 for furrow and drip irrigation systems respectively (Cuenca, 1988). Nevertheless, these coefficients must be modified if the Controlled Water Stress (CWS) technique application is required to improve quality (Hepner et al., 1985; Acevedo et al., 2004).

Determining the Crop or Irrigation Coefficient The effect of the phenological state over water consumption in a crop is represented by the crop coefficient (Kc), which depends of the index of the foliar area in time or soil coverage by foliage, locality, variety, and previous irrigation regime percentage. In general, this parameter represents a great uncertainty since in Chile there are few works validating Kc .

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RESULTS

Here, some of the results of the service of programmed irrigation in vineyards, seedbed corn, and greenhouse tomato will be described, which the CITRA has carried out in the past 10 years.

Irrigation Programming in Vineyards

Since the 1997-1998 seasons, the professional team of CITRA has carried out irrigation programming services for several winegrowing companies of the VI and VII Regions. Through this service, the drip irrigated vineyards achieved water savings that oscillated between 20% and 60%. The aforementioned can be illustrated in Figure 1, where it can be appreciated that the farmer tended to apply a higher irrigation time than recommended by the service during the entire season. As a consequence, it can be observed that the flows applied on the vineyard did not adjust to the soil, climate, and plant characteristics. This is shown in Figure 2, where the flow applied with the traditional method was superior from the months of September through May. It is important to mention that along the water saving in the vineyards, the quality of musts and wines increased between 20% and 30%.

The total amount applied in the grapevine growth period, total performance, and water use efficiency is presented in Table 1. It can be observed in the table that the irrigation programming allowed savings of 1619 m3 ha-1 season-1, which meant net water saving of 40%. On the other hand, the water use efficiency was increased from 4.1 kg m-3 to 9.1 kg m-3, indicating a meaningful improvement of water use in drip-irrigated vineyards.

Figure 1: Monthly irrigation time estimated by the farmer in comparison with the irrigation programming for a dripirrigated (1998-1999season).

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Table 1.Total flow, total performance, and water use efficiency in a drip-irrigated commercial vineyard (Cabernet Sauvignon, 1998-1999 season).

Irrigation Programming with without

Total Flow (m3 ha-1) 2397 4016

Performance (kg ha-1) 22316 20000

Water use efficiency (kg m-3) 9.31 4.48

Figure 2: Monthly flow estimated by the farmer in comparison with the irrigation programming method for a drip-irrigated vineyard (1998-1999season).

Irrigation Programming in Corn Seedbed The CITRA developed a corn seedbed irrigation programming service for about 60 farmers of the ANASAC seedbed company during the seasons of 2000-2001 and 2003-2004. In this case, the surface of the corn seedbeds varied between 10 and 150 hs, covering 1600 ha in the VI and VII Regions. The irrigation programming reports were handed over twice a week by the ANASAC consultants, which had 15-20 farmers in charge. Simultaneously, the team of CITRA professionals made a system recommendation checkup through soil humidity measurements in representative properties of each locality. These measurements were made with TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry) at the beginning, middle, and end of the furrow. In practical terms, the soil humidity measurements allowed to adjust the irrigation frequency, crop coefficient and length of furrows to the edafoclimatic conditions.

As an example, Figure 3 presents the soil humidity content measurements in the beginning, middle and end of the furrow for two farmers of the same locality. In Figure 3a can be observed that the farmer made a uniform water application throughout the furrow during the whole season; however in Figure 3b can be observed that other farmer presented a uneven water application along the furrow from half of December and so on. In general, the uneavenness problems in water application were associated to very long furrows (between 400 and 500 meters).

To assess the impact of the irrigation programming service, the seed company ANASAC assessed the performance of several commercial seedbeds at random (Table 2). In the first season, the company Food and Water Security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water Week LA 2015

found that irrigation programming allowed increasing in 14% the seedbed performance with just adjusting the irrigation frequencies and times instead of the edafoclimatic conditions. It is also important to mention that the performance increase varied between 2% and 32%; and in only one case, the irrigation programming services presented inferior performance than the farmers'.

Figure 3:Soil humidity measurements in the initial (IS), middle (MS), and end (FS) of the furrow. The field capacity (CC), permanent wilting point (PMP) and critical humidity (Hc) are included as reference.

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Table 2. Impact evaluation of irrigation programming in corn seedbeds during the 2000-2001season.

Seedbed performance (t ha-1) With programming Without programming 4.13 3.12 4.36 3.34 2.69 2.75 4.27 3.87 6.12 5.13 4.56 4.96 4.33 3.78 4.33 3.78 Source: ANASAC Seedbed Company.

Farmers A, VII Region B, VII Region C, VII Region D, VI Region E, VI Region F, VII Region G, VI Region Average

Increase% 32.4 31.0 2.2 10.3 19.3 -15.7 37.4 14.6

Risk Programming in Greenhouse Tomato Tables 3 and 4 show the impact of irrigation programming over performance and water use efficiency for fall and spring tomatoes grown in greenhouses and drip-irrigated. It can be observed in these tables that irrigation programming allowed important water savings without meaningfully affecting performance. In this case, the fall and spring tomato crops had water savings of 3.205 m 3 ha-1 and 2.304 m3 ha-1, respectively. In both cases, water savings were of about 72% and the water use efficiency increased almost 50%. On the other hand, the commercial performance of the fall and spring tomatoes was not affected by water savings.

Table 3. Total flow, performance (commercial and waste) and efficiency of water use in fall(cv. FA-144te) greenhousegrown and drip-irrigated tomato(growth period: January-July, 1997).

Irrigation programming without with

Total flow (m3 ha-1) 7614 4409

Commercial Waste Total performance (t ha-1) Performance (t ha-1) (t ha-1) 88.9a 41.5a 130.4 a 87.9 a 43.3 a 131.2 a Source: Ortega-Farías et al. (2000)

Water use Efficiency (kg commercial m-3) 11.68 19.94

Table 4.Total flow, performance (commercial and waste) and efficiency of water use in spring (cv. Presto) greenhousegrown and drip-irrigated tomato (growth period: August 2000- January 2001).

Irrigation programming without with

Total flow (m3 ha-1) 5493 3189

Commercial Waste Total performance (t ha-1) Performance (t ha-1) (t ha-1) 120,3ª 42,2b 162,6 b 129,8 a 50,5a 180,3 a Source: Ortega-Farías et al., 2003

Water use efficiency (kg commercial m-3) 21,9 40,7

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CONCLUSIONS AND RECCOMENDATIONS According to our experience we can establish the following conclusions and recommendations: • The installation of pressurized irrigation systems, without considering irrigation programming, does not guarantee optimal water use in a property level. Therefore investments in irrigation technologies must be complemented with investments in computational systems and automatic weather stations that allow an adequate water management of the mechanic irrigation systems.

• Implementing transference programs, oriented to agribusiness professionals and agricultural workers, that enables adopting irrigation programming technologies, which are available in the market.

• Encouragingcientific-technological research programs to develop and/or adapt irrigation programming technology that allows improving water management of mechanic and superficial irrigation systems

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Ortega-Farías, S.; Leyton, B.; Valdés, H.; Paillán, H. Efecto de Cuatro Láminas de Agua Sobre el Rendimiento y Calidad de Tomates (LycopersiconesculentumMill., cv. Presto) de Invernadero Producido en Primavera-Verano. Agricultura Técnica, 63: 394-402. 2003 Ortega-Farías, S.; Acevedo, C.; Acevedo, A.; Leyton, B. Talca Irrigation Management System (TIMAS) forGrapevine. Acta Hort., 664:499-504. 2004.

Ortega-Farias, S.; Rigetti, T.; Acevedo, C.; Matus, F.; Moreno, Y. Irrigation-management decision system (IMDS) for vineyards (Region VI and VII of Chile). Integrated Soil and Water Management for orchard Development. FAO Land and Water Bulletin, 10:59-64. 2005.

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