Forward 3 Grammar Book by Les Éditions CEC

STEPHEN W. MACDONALD

FORWARD ENGLISH LANGUAGE & CULTURE

• • • • •

16 units for practising grammar points and writing 1 review unit dedicated to advanced sentence formation 1 comprehensive unit focusing on essay writing Clear explanations and easy-to-follow structure Helpful lists for spelling, collocation and irregular verbs

FORWARD 3

This new grammar book is designed to better respond to the writing needs of high-intermediate to advanced students. In this book, the first 16 units provide practice opportunities to focus on existing grammar points found in the Forward 3 student book, as well new grammar and writing theory. In the final unit, Unit 18, essential essay-writing topics are covered, such as rhetorical modes, thesis development and how to produce a strong academic essay.

www.cecplus.com

FORWARD ENGLISH LANGUAGE & CULTURE

STEPHEN W. MACDONALD

ENGLISH LANGUAGE & CULTURE

Forward 3: English Language & Culture

Stephen W. MacDonald, a grammar and word buff, has been teaching ESL for over 20 years, including more than 14 years in the intensive and professional English language programs at McGill University’s School of Continuing Studies. He holds a BA in Psychology from McGill University and an MA in History from Concordia University.

GRAMMAR

Designed to respond to the needs of a wide-range of high-intermediate to advanced students in all programs of study, Forward 3 offers rich, engaging opportunities to learn in greater depth about what English language and culture is. At its core, this series not only develops student skills in reading, listening, speaking and writing, but it also includes grammar activities, strategies for listening, as well as comprehension and vocabulary review activities. Learning is consolidated at the end of each unit with a writing task, and pronunciation activities are also provided for learner comprehension and comprehensibility.

CODE DE PRODUIT : 214816 ISBN 978-2-7617-6681-4

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TABLE OF CONTENTS UNIT 1 WORD FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PART A: Parts of Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . PART B: Focus on Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 3

UNIT 2 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS . . . . . . . . PART A: Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PART B: Personal Pronouns

5 5

and Possessive Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . .

UNIT 3 ARTICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

UNIT 4 ADJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

UNIT 5 ADVERBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

UNIT 6 PRESENT AND PAST TENSES . . . . . . PART A: Simple Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . PART B: Present Continuous . . . . . . . . . PART C: Simple Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PART D: Past Continuous . . . . . . . . . . .

34 34 37 41 43

UNIT 7 FUTURE FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

UNIT 8 PERFECT TENSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

UNIT 9 THE PASSIVE VOICE . . . . . . . . . . . . .

UNIT 10 MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS . . . . . . .

UNIT 11 CONDITIONALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

UNIT 12 GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES . . . . . .

UNIT 13 COMPOUND SENTENCES . . . . . . . . .

UNIT 15 CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS . . . . . . . . . 111 UNIT 16 REVIEW OF SENTENCE STRUCTURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 UNIT 17 INDIRECT QUESTIONS AND SPEECH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 UNIT 18 ESSAY WRITING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 REFERENCES

Spelling Nouns and Verbs: The -s/-es Endings . . . . . . Verbs: The -ed Ending and the -ing Ending (or Present Participles) . . . . . . . . . . Non-Continuous Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common Verbs followed by the Gerund (-ing) and Infinitive Forms . . . . . . . . Verbs/Adjectives + Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . Common Irregular Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Punctuation and Capitalization . . . . . . . . . . .

132 132 133 133 135 136 138

UNIT 14 COMPLEX SENTENCES . . . . . . . . . . . 100 PART A: Subordinating Conjunctions for Adverb Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 PART B: Adjective Clauses with Relative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

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FORWARD 3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND CULTURE GRAMMAR TABLE OF CONTENTS

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HOW TO USE

Forward 3: English Language and Culture Grammar

GRAMMAR UNITS:

ORGANIZATION

The 16 grammar units deal with grammar structures introduced in the student book Forward 3: English Language and Culture, as well as other advanced grammar points and theory on sentence structure. All units have the following parts: Exercises To practise the form and usage of a grammar structure, a wide range of activities are provided, with more open-ended activities towards the end of a unit.

Form and Usage This part of a unit provides an explanation of form, exceptions and usage points so you can get ready for the exercises.

End-of-Unit Activities At the end of certain units, you will find a variety of exercises that test your knowledge of the grammar points taught in the units.

Sentence Review Unit To better grasp sentence variety and the overall flow of coherent writing, you will find a unit that reviews the complexities of proper sentence formation.

GRAMMAR UNITS:

OTHER IMPORTANT FEATURES

Zoom-In These information boxes underline common errors, spelling rules and exceptions in theory.

FORWARD 3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND CULTURE GRAMMAR HOW TO USE

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Visuals Visuals appear throughout the grammar points and provide support for the exercises.

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UNIT 18:

Qualities of a Strong Essay An examination of clarity, unity, support, coherence and conciseness are reviewed.

ESSAY WRITING

This unit focuses on the need for additional support to help students at this level overcome writer’s block and written production. Parts of the Essay An overview of the essential parts of any essay are explained in detail.

Rhetorical Modes All essay types are explained, such as the narrative, informative, argumentative, compare/ contrast and cause/effect.

Exercises Included are exercises on identifying a strong thesis, creating thesis statements, formulating topic sentences and outlining paragraphs. A complete essay activity is also provided.

Sample Theses Below each rhetorical mode are sample theses so that students can better grasp how to develop the main idea for each essay type.

REFERENCES Following the units, this section provides lists of spelling rules, non-continuous verbs, collocations, irregular verbs and a chart on punctuation and capitalization. Spelling At-a-glance charts of -s/-es, -ed and -ing spelling rules Collocation Lists of verb and adjective collocations, as well as gerunds and infinitive collocations Irregular Verb List A comprehensive list of irregular verbs to help with editing

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FORWARD 3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND CULTURE GRAMMAR HOW TO USE

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UNIT

PART A

WORD FORMS PARTS OF SPEECH Knowing the parts of speech can help you better understand English grammar and make educated guesses about vocabulary that might be unfamiliar. You may already speak or write well in English. However, learning the parts of speech will help you understand the explanations in the rest of this book and, in the end, the English language.

FORM, MEANING AND USAGE Here are the most common parts of speech. Notice how they are used in the sample sentences. Some of these parts of speech will be dealt with in more detail in later units. • A noun names a person, a place, a thing or an idea. The plural forms of nouns are sometimes irregular. (See more about nouns in Unit 2.) Alicia is the youngest employee at this company. (singular count nouns) There is a lot of snow on the street. (non-count noun) The shelter has cats and dogs for adoption. (regular plural nouns) Men and women should be paid equally. (irregular plural nouns) • A pronoun replaces a noun. (See more about pronouns in Unit 2.) Vanessa lives in Paris. She loves the nightlife there. (She = Vanessa) Snowboarding is an exciting sport, but it can be dangerous. (it = snowboarding) Everybody applauded after the dancer had finished her performance. (Everybody = subject) • A verb describes an action or a state of being. Changes to a verb (i.e. different endings, spellings or word forms) indicate different verb tenses and whether a verb is singular or plural. (See more about verbs in Units 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.) Their children walk to school. (regular verb walk in the simple present, plural) Debbie runs 30 minutes a day. (irregular verb run in the simple present, singular) Jean felt sick, so he stayed home. (irregular verb feel in the simple past; regular verb stay in the simple past) • An adjective modifies a noun or complements a noun or pronoun. Note that an adjective is always singular. (See more about adjectives in Unit 4.) We were not very hungry, so we ordered small salads. Antarctica is the coldest continent. – Adjectives include articles. An article precedes a noun or an adjective–noun combination. It lets us refer to the noun in either general or specific terms. (See more about articles in Unit 3.) We need to buy a refrigerator and an oven for the new apartment. • An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb or an entire clause. (See more about adverbs in Unit 5.) Gaetan paced nervously in the waiting room. He seemed rather anxious. Warren works very quickly, but, unfortunately, he makes too many mistakes. UNIT 1 word forMS

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• A preposition connects a noun or a pronoun to the rest of a sentence and can explain time, place, direction, manner, etc. Our anniversary is on August 18. We will celebrate it by going to that Thai restaurant on the corner of the street. • A conjunction connects words or groups of words. Conjunctions can be coordinating or subordinating. (See more about conjunctions in Units 13, 14 and 15.) Audrey likes opera and jazz, but she doesn’t listen to pop. (coordinating conjunctions) We’ll let you know our decision after we have met all the candidates. (subordinating conjunction) • An interjection expresses emotion. Wow! Look at all that snow! Hey, why don’t we go tobogganing?

Zoom-in | That Is Impressive! Just as you may have different roles in life—student, athlete, friend, cook, pet owner—some words can have different functions and act as different parts of speech. For example, look at the word that:

Example

Function of that

That backpack is mine.

adjective

She doesn’t like desserts that are too sweet.

pronoun

You can do it! It isn’t that difficult.

adverb

I know that I can trust you to keep my secret.

conjunction

EXERCISE 1

Identifying Word Forms

Read the following paragraph, focusing on the underlined words. Then, identify the correct part of speech for each underlined word. The first answer is given for you in the list that follows. 1

Although many people consider a career in music to be impractical, there are com3

pelling reasons for high schools to make music courses mandatory. First, studying 6

music can help students understand a particular culture and its history. Whether it is 8

classical music and Europe, reggae music and Rastafarianism or hip-hop and modern 9

American urban culture, music can reflect the society that spawns it, and students can gain

insight into a culture they might not have known

ing about musical theory can help students understand fact, studies indicate that recognizing

about before. Second, learn-

other high school subjects. In

the patterns and structures of some musical

compositions can help a student understand and appreciate mathematics. playing a musical instrument can be a

Finally,

wonderfully fulfilling lifelong hobby. Even if

students never attain the level of competency of a professional musician, they can derive years of enjoyment from playing for friends, family or just 2

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themselves. And what

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if a music student does become the

lead violinist for the Montreal

Symphony Orchestra, the next guitar god or the newest rap star?

Bravo! Give that musician a standing ovation! 1 Although conjunction

adjective

3 reasons

adjective

6 help

4 for

preposition

5 mandatory

7 it

pronoun

8 or

noun

10 insight

article

13 the 16 themselves

PART B

2 impractical

pronoun

conjunction

11 about

preposition

14 Finally

adverb adjective

17 lead

noun verb verb

9 reflect

adjective

12 other

15 wonderfully

adverb

interjection

18 Bravo

FOCUS ON SUFFIXES When acquiring vocabulary, try to become familiar with all the various forms of a word. Identifying suffix patterns can help you do this. Examine these common suffixes.

Verbs

Nouns

Adjectives

Adverbs

-ize, -ify, -en, -ate and other endings

-ion, -ence, -ance, -er, -or, -ment, -ness, -ity, -ist, -ism

-able, -ent, -ant, -ful, -ic, -ical, -ous, -ing, -ed, -ive

-ly

educate

education

educated

educationally

economize

economist

economic, economical

economically

differ

difference

different

differently

vary

variance

variant, variable

variably

help

helper, helpfulness

helpful

helpfully

sadden

sadness

sad

sadly

entertain

entertainment, entertainer

entertaining

entertainingly

defend

defence, defender

defensive

defensively

notify

note, notification

notable

notably

theorize

theory, theorist

theoretical

theoretically

infuriate

fury

furious

furiously

Zoom-in | Adjectives with –ed vs. –ing The common adjective suffixes -ed and -ing are often used to describe emotions or reactions, but they have very different meanings. • The form ending in -ed describes someone’s feeling about or reaction to something. • The form ending in -ing describes what causes a feeling or reaction. The students were interested in the lecture. The lecture was interesting. All of the fans were excited. It was an exciting football game. Sometimes, however, the adjective describing the cause of the feeling or reaction is not an -ing form. We were all impressed. That was an impressive (not impressing) performance.

UNIT 1 word forMS

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EXERCISE 1

Nonsense Vocabulary

Using your knowledge of suffixes, choose the most likely answer to complete the following sentences. Your dictionaries won’t help you here! 1 The kids

in the park yesterday.

a) blatted

b) gronly

c) jisness

d) tintion

2 That political party believes strongly in a) harelly

b) gontiful

c) opesticism

d) gredelible

3 Most of the local residents were a) sclurrier

b) milackled

by the news. c) juggliant

d) onitickfully

4 My boss thought Harold’s idea for improving sales wasn’t very a) tantful

b) quifly

c) jartion

d) lewtism

5 The doctor said, “If we a) seggiful

the patient, he may not survive.”

b) freet

c) nojable

d) kressiness

6 If elected, the political candidate will a) hewtical EXERCISE 2

b) punfition

the highways.

c) inratically

d) klicken

Identifying Word Forms

Based on their suffixes, identify the most likely word form for each possible answer in Exercise 1. The first one has been done for you. past tense verb

1 a) blatted

noun

c) jisness

adverb

2 a) harelly

noun

c) opesticism

adverb

b) gronly

d) tintion

noun

b) gontiful

adjective

d) gredelible

adjective past participle v.

3 a) sclurrier

comparative adj.

b) milackled

c) juggliant

adjective

d) onitickfully

adjective

4 a) tantful c) jartion

noun

5 a) seggiful

adjective adjective

c) nojable 6 a) hewtical c) inratically EXERCISE 3

adjective

adverb

b) quifly

adverb noun

d) lewtism

adverb

verb

b) freet

d) kressiness

noun

b) punfition

noun verb

d) klicken

Distinguishing Adjective Forms

Choose the correct adjective form to complete the following sentences. 1 I am not as (interested / interesting) in politics as my brother is. 2 The fire was finally extinguished, but the house was badly (burned / burning). 3 She is an (amazed / amazing) woman, with many wonderful qualities. 4 His statements were (offensing / offensive) and (disgusted / disgusting). I was (appalled / appalling) by what he said. 4

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UNIT

PERFECT TENSES FORM There are three perfect tenses: present perfect, past perfect and future perfect. Each tense uses a form of the auxiliary have + the past participle of the main verb. 1 The Present Perfect

• The present perfect uses the present of have (i.e. have or has) + the past participle of the main verb. Remember that the form of have depends on the subject and that the past participles of many verbs are irregular. See References for a list of irregular verb forms.

Form

Present perfect conjugations with various verbs

Affirmative

I / you / we / they have done he / she / it has not done

Affirmative contracted

I’ve / you’ve / we’ve / they’ve played he’s / she’s / it’s played

Negative

I / you / we / they have not seen he / she / it has not seen

Negative contracted

I / you / we / they haven’t walked he / she / it hasn’t walked

Affirmative yes / no question

Have I / you / we / they arrived? Has he / she / it arrived?

Negative yes / no question (usually contracted)

Haven’t I / you / we / they finished? Hasn’t he / she / it finished?

Affirmative information question

What have I / you / we / they been? Where has he / she / it been?

Negative information question (usually contracted)

Where haven’t I / you / we / they gone? Where hasn’t he / she / it gone?

2 The Past Perfect

• The past perfect uses the past of have (always had) + the past participle of the main verb.

Form

Past perfect conjugations with various verbs

Affirmative

I / you / he / she / it / we / they had done

Affirmative contracted

I’d / you’d / he’d / she’d / it’d / we’d / they’d played

Negative

I / you / he / she / it / we / they had not seen

Negative contracted

I / you / he / she / it / we / they hadn’t walked

Affirmative yes / no question

Had I / you / he / she / it / we / they arrived?

Negative yes / no question*

Hadn’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they finished?

Affirmative information question

Where had I / you / he / she / it / we / they been?

Negative information question*

Where hadn’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they gone?

*Usually contracted UNIT 8 perfect tenses

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3 The Future Perfect

• The future perfect uses the future of have (always will have) + the past participle of the main verb.

Form

Future perfect conjugations with various verbs

Affirmative

I / you / he / she / it / we / they will have done

Affirmative contracted

I’ll / you’ll / he’ll / she’ll / it’ll / we’ll / they’ll have played

Negative

I / you / he / she / it / we / they will not have seen

Negative contracted

I / you / he / she / it / we / they won’t have walked

Affirmative yes / no question

Will I / you / he / she / it / we / they have arrived?

Negative yes / no question (usually contracted)

Won’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they have finished?

Affirmative information question

Where will I / you / he / she / it / we / they have been?

Negative information question (usually contracted) Where won’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they have gone?

Zoom-in | A Common Error Because the present perfect is formed with the auxiliary have and the past participle of the main verb, many French speakers think this tense is the same as the passé composé in French. In fact, the passé composé usually corresponds more closely to the simple past in English. There is no French equivalent to the English present perfect.

USAGE Although forming the perfect tenses is relatively straightforward, using these tenses correctly can be challenging, even for native speakers. Whereas the present perfect is common in English, the past perfect and future perfect are much less common.

Zoom-in | Nobody’s Completely Perfect! In the perfect tenses, the word “perfect” means “completed.”

1 The Present Perfect

As its name implies, the present perfect is a present tense even though it has a reference to the past. This means that actions or states described in the present perfect always have consequences for or relevance to the present. The present perfect has two main uses. It can be helpful to think of these two uses as being distinct. • Present perfect for actions completed in the past: Use the present perfect to describe an action or a state completed at an unspecified time in the past, but with significance for the present. This use includes repeated actions. In either case, it is not important when the actions occurred; it is important that the actions have relevance to the present. Alex has eaten in many local restaurants. He can tell you which ones are the best. The company has hired a new manager. She will begin next Monday. I love that movie! I have seen it ﬁve times! 56

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• This use of the present perfect includes actions that are very recent and— again—that have consequences for or relevance to the present. Someone has turned off the light. I can’t see anything in the dark. Have you heard the news? The police have arrested the mayor. Note: Do not use the present perfect if you are specifying when something occurred. In these cases, use the simple past. Incorrect: I have bought a new car last Saturday. Correct: I bought a new car last Saturday. Correct: I have bought a new car. Now, I can drive to work. Note: Do not use the present perfect for persons or situations that no longer exist, even if there are still consequences for the present. Incorrect: Nelson Mandela has brought about many changes to South Africa. Correct: Nelson Mandela brought about many changes to South Africa.

Zoom-in | Checklist, Please! An action in the present perfect is like an item on a checklist: you have either done something or you haven’t, but if you have done it, it doesn’t matter when. It just matters that the action is done. An action in the simple past is more like an item on a schedule: you did something at a certain time.

• Present perfect for actions continuing into the present: Use the present perfect to describe a situation that began in the past and continues to the present. This usage usually includes a time-indicator phrase—for example, one that begins with for or since—and is often used with verbs that imply a continuing state, such as be, know, love, work (in the sense of “be employed”) and live (in the sense of “be a resident of”). We have worked together since May, but we have known each other for 10 years. Barbara has lived in Rimouski since 2007.

Zoom-in | For or Since? When using the present perfect to indicate how much time has passed from the beginning of an action or a state to the present, we can use either for or since. Use for to indicate the total amount of time; use since to indicate the beginning point, either a time or another action. She has been an architect for seven years. (seven years = length of time) She has been an architect since 2007. (2007 = beginning point) She has been an architect since she graduated. (she graduated = beginning point)

Zoom-in | Present Perfect vs. Simple Past with For Phrases Phrases with for and a length of time can be used with either the present perfect or the simple past, but the meanings are significantly different. Henri has lived in Paris for three years. Henri lived in Paris for three years.

Henri still lives in Paris now. Henri does not live in Paris anymore.

UNIT 8 perfect tenses

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2 Key Words with the Perfect Tenses

• Certain key time indicators are often used with the perfect tenses, especially the present perfect. Such words include already, yet, ever, never and before. • Already and yet mean “by this time”. Already is usually used in affirmative statements; yet is usually used in questions and negatives. Already can also be used in questions to indicate surprise. Jean: Have you seen that movie yet? Jacques: No, I haven’t seen it yet. I don’t want to go to that movie; I have already seen it. Have you seen that movie already? But it started playing only yesterday! • Ever means “at any time” and is used only in negative statements and questions. Never means “at no time” and creates a negative statement. In this context, before means “at some time in the past” and can be used in affirmative statements, negative statements and questions. Nicole: Have you ever eaten bison, Nancy? Nancy: No, I have never eaten bison. Nicole: How about you, Nicolas? Have you eaten bison before? Nicolas: Yes, I have eaten bison before, but my wife hasn’t eaten it before. Note: Ever cannot replace before or already in an affirmative statement. Incorrect: I have ever eaten bison. 3 The Past Perfect

• Use the past perfect to describe an action or a state completed at an unspecified time in the past before some other time or action. The other action—i.e. the action closer to the present—is usually in the simple past tense. Here, using the past perfect indicates which action occurred first. I noticed that she had changed her hairstyle. (Her hairstyle change was complete at some unspecified time before I noticed it.) The riot had already begun when the police arrived. (The riot began; then, sometime after that, the police arrived.) Compare the sequence of events in the previous sentence with the sequence of events in this one: The riot began when the police arrived. (The police arrived; then the riot began.) • The action that is closer to the present may be part of a phrase beginning with by. Using by emphasizes that the past perfect action was completed at some unspecified time before the other time or action, not at the same time. I had finished the assignment by the time the boss asked me for it. I had finished the assignment by 5:00. 4 The Future Perfect

• Use the future perfect to describe an action or a state that is expected to be completed at an unspecified time in the future before some other future time or action. He will have bought his tuxedo by the wedding date—or else! • The other action—i.e. the action further in the future—is often part of a phrase beginning with by. Using by emphasizes that the future perfect action will be completed at some unspecified time before the other time or action, not at the same time. Note that we usually use the simple present tense in the time clause that indicates the future. He will have bought his tuxedo by the time he gets married—or else! 58

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Zoom-in | Specify Unspecified, Please! When we emphasize that an action in the perfect tense occurs at an unspecified time, we are saying that we don’t know—or don’t care—exactly when it occurred. If we do know and care, we use a different verb tense. She has taught French. (She taught French at some unspecified time.) She taught French in 2009. (She taught French at a specified time—i.e. in 2009.) He had left by noon. (He left at some unspecified time before noon.) He left at 11:45 a.m. (He left at a specified time—i.e. 11:45 a.m.) I will have gone to bed by the time he arrives. (I will go to bed at some unspecified time before he arrives.) I will go to bed at 11:00 p.m.. (I will go to bed at a specified time—i.e. 11:00 p.m.)

Zoom-in | Using Before or After to Avoid the Past Perfect

and the Future Perfect

When before or after is the time indicator, you can often avoid the past perfect and future perfect tenses with little or no change in meaning. These time indicators already clarify the time relationship. Everyone had evacuated the building before the fire trucks arrived. Everyone evacuated the building before the fire trucks arrived. The fire trucks arrived after everyone had evacuated the building. The fire trucks arrived after everyone evacuated the building. We will have arrived at the airport before her flight lands. We will arrive at the airport before her flight lands.

EXERCISE 1

Writing Present Perfect Sentences

Look at the checklist below, which is a combined wish list for you and your partner, Chris. (“Chris” can be a male or female name.) Write sentences in the present perfect to indicate what you and Chris have done and what you haven’t done yet. Remember not to specify when each action occurred.

Item visit Paris

Chris Item

√

plant trees in a rain forest

fly in a hot-air balloon

√

compete in a triathlon

drive across Canada

√

climb Mount Fuji

go skydiving sing at a karaoke bar

√ √

teach a yoga class √

Examples: I have visited Paris before.

√

Chris

√

try snowboarding

√

Chris has never visited Paris.

1 Answers will vary. 2

UNIT 8 perfect tenses

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3 4 5 6

EXERCISE 2

Using the Simple Past or the Present Perfect

Use either the simple past or the present perfect to conjugate the verbs in parentheses. Pay attention to key words such as time indicators. Some verbs may be in the negative form. Example: Have you seen (see) that movie yet? We saw (see) it last night. 1 I

have been

was

(bite) me when I

(be) 7 years old.

took

2 Their plane

bit

(be) afraid of dogs since a poodle

landed

(take) off at two o’clock and

(land) about three hours ago.

has completed

3 Ms. Tremblay is partly qualified for the job. She her bachelor’s degree, but she

(complete)

has not worked

(work, not) in a similar

have prepared

(prepare) the salad, too.

position before. 4 Here are the appetizers, and I What would you like me to do next?

was

5 Ursula

quit

(be) a food writer for 15 years; then, she

(quit) to open a restaurant.

Have

you

read

(read) the contract yet?

you

see

(see, not) me yesterday when

Are you ready to sign it?

Didn’t

7 I

tried

(try) to wave to you from across the street?

has become

8 Climate change

(become) a significant problem, but it is

not too late to change, and many people

haven’t given

(give, not) up

hope for the future yet.

did

9 What

met 10 Hugo

has worked

she

talk

(talk) about when you

(meet) for lunch on Tuesday? (work) for the government for 30 years. He plans to

retire next year.

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EXERCISE 3

Using the Simple Past or the Past Perfect

Use either the simple past or the past perfect to conjugate the verbs in parentheses. Try to determine the logical sequence of events. Some verbs may be in the negative form. Example: By the time the driver delivered (deliver) the pizza, we had lost (lose) our appetites.

hadn’t held

1 By my 20th birthday, I (hold, not)

knew

2 I (know)

that he (eat)

a full-time job yet.

had eaten

lunch, so we

just went for coffee.

did

3 I (do)

well in the interview because I (prepare)

had prepared

for it in advance.

4 When the firefighters (arrive) (evacuate, not)

hadn’t evacuated

5 By the time the workday (be)

had left had

8 We (finish, not)

ended

the building yet. Some people were still inside.

was

over, Helena (leave)

had begun

, so we (have)

to wait to be seated.

7 After coming home, we (see)

had broken

, many of the workers

the office.

6 The symphony concert (began)

EXERCISE 4

arrived

saw

that someone (break)

into our house.

hadn’t finished

writing our exams yet when the class (end)

Using the Future Perfect

Using the given time indicators, write sentences using the future perfect to express what you think will have happened by various times in the future. Consider your own future—including your career, education, travel plans, etc.—as well the future of the world. Include at least two sentences in the negative. Examples: I will not have bought a condo by the time I finish university. By 2025, electric cars will have replaced most gas-powered vehicles. 1 By the time I finish this English course, Answers will vary.

by 2017.

3 By the time I finish my studies,

by my 30th birthday.

5 By 2050,

6 By the end of this century,

UNIT 8 perfect tenses

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EXERCISE 5

Using All the Perfect Tenses

Look at the calendar of events below.

Sun

Mon

• repair • take Joe to leaky tap lunch • stream new • write blog film entry

Tues

Wed

Thur

• give • go to clinic • send presentation • take yoga package • eat dinner class • buy wine with André for party

Fri • pay rent • meet friends at pub

Sat • play hockey • visit parents

A Imagine that it is early on Sunday. Using the future perfect, write five sentences about what you will have done and what you won’t have done by the end of Friday. Example: By the end of Friday, I will have sent the package. 1 Answers will vary.

B Imagine that it is the end of the day on Wednesday. Using the present perfect, write five sentences about what you have done and what you haven’t done. Example: I haven’t paid the rent yet.

1 Answers will vary.

C Imagine that it is late on Saturday. Using the past perfect, write five sentences about what you had done and what you hadn’t done by the end of Thursday. Example: By the end of Thursday, I had given my presentation at work.

1 Answers will vary.

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UNIT

COMPLEX SENTENCES In complex sentences, we use subordination to include additional information that we consider less important. In this unit, we will look at dependent—or subordinate— clauses as they are introduced by subordinating conjunctions. In particular, we will look at dependent adverb clauses and relative adjective clauses. Remember that any dependent clause—whether it is an adverb clause or an adjective clause—depends on something else to form a complete sentence. Any clause that cannot stand on its own as a sentence is one kind of sentence fragment.

PART A

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS FOR ADVERB CLAUSES FORM & USAGE Subordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that are placed at the beginning of an independent clause to create a dependent adverb clause. The information in this kind of clause is considered less important than—dependent on or subordinate to—the information in the main clause. A sentence with a dependent clause and an independent clause is called a complex sentence. 1 Subordinating Conjunctions

• Functions of subordinating conjunctions: Subordinating conjunctions can provide information about such aspects as when, where, why, how, how often and under what condition. Here are some common subordinating conjunctions and their usual functions.

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Use

Subordinating conjunctions

Sample sentences (with dependent clause in italics)

Time

after, as, as long as, before, now that, once, since, until, when, while, whenever

She arrived after the concert had started. Before she calls for help, she should read the contract. He has lived in a small town since he retired. Don’t plan anything until I check the weather forecast. When you finish eating, we can leave. Adam was working while Gary was playing.

Place

where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, nowhere

Don’t walk where the ice looks thin. Wherever you live, try to contribute to the community. She makes friends everywhere she goes.

Contrast

although, even though, though

Although the test was difficult, it was fair. She loves Havana even though she doesn’t like the heat.

Cause & effect

as, because, since, now that

I should go soon as I am already late. I don’t eat squid because I don’t like its texture. Since you are already here, why don’t you join us?

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Use

Subordinating conjunctions

Sample sentences (with dependent clause in italics)

Condition

if, unless, only if, even If you get the scholarship, we will celebrate. if, as long as, in case, The game will go on unless it is snowing. provided that, whether You can stay here as long as you are quiet. Only if you are related can you visit the patient.

Purpose

so that

We left early so that we wouldn’t have to rush.

Direct contrast

while, whereas

While Canada has cold winters, Cuba has hot winters. I love jazz, whereas my sister hates it.

Manner, comparison

as, as if, as though

She behaved as a child behaves. It looks as if it is cold outside. He ran as though his life depended on it.

Frequency

as often as, whenever

William brings his lunch to work as often as he can. Whenever I go to Ottawa, I visit the museums.

Distance

as far as, as near as, as close as

We will continue cycling as far as our legs can take us. She sat as close to the front of the room as she could.

Zoom-in | Like Looks Like It’s Informal! In informal English, some people use the preposition like as if it were a subordinating conjunction. In formal written English, it is usually better to use as if or as though. Informal: He looks like he has been awake all night. Formal: He looks as if / as though he has been awake all night.

• Using so, so that and so [adjective] that: Many people confuse the coordinating conjunction so with the subordinating conjunction so that. Not only are so and so that punctuated differently, but they also have different meanings. Coordinating so: It was cold, so we went indoors. (result; logical consequence) Subordinating so that: I went indoors so that I could get out of the cold. (purpose) In informal English, we sometimes omit that when using the subordinating conjunction so that. Informal: I went indoors so (that) I could get out of the cold. It is better not to omit that from so that if there is any possibility that your reader or listener will think that you are using the coordinating conjunction so. Be careful also not to confuse so and so that with the construction so [adjective] that, which introduces a result based on the intensity or degree of some quality. John: It was cold. Dina: How cold was it? John: It was so cold that I had to go indoors.

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• Punctuating complex sentences: In complex sentences, either the dependent clause or the independent clause can come first. When the dependent clause comes first, we usually put a comma after it. If you go to the store, please buy some milk. When the alarm rang, everyone evacuated the building. Because the tickets were too expensive, we decided not to go to the concert. When the independent clause comes first, we usually don’t put a comma after it. Please buy some milk if you go to the store. Everyone evacuated the building when the alarm rang. We decided not to go to the concert because the tickets were too expensive. The exception to this guideline is when the dependent clause begins with whereas or while to indicate opposition. Canada is sparsely populated, whereas the Netherlands is densely populated. Sean is a banker, while Brian is a teacher. Note, however, that when while indicates time rather than opposition, there is no comma when the dependent clause comes second. The phone rang while we were eating dinner. • Reminder: Verb tenses in adverb clauses of time: Remember that when the main clause is in the future, the verb tense in the adverb clause of time is usually in the simple present tense. See Unit 7 for more information.

EXERCISE 1 Identifying

Complete Sentences

Read the “sentences” below and decide whether they are complete sentences or sentence fragments. Examples: When the party finished. sentence fragment

102

The party finished at 3 a.m. complete sentence

1 Before the festival ended.

sentence fragment

2 Please close the door.

complete sentence

3 We couldn’t understand why she was upset.

complete sentence

4 By the time the meeting wrapped up.

sentence fragment

5 We left after the police had been called.

complete sentence

6 Opening the window.

sentence fragment

7 Was walking down the street.

sentence fragment

8 Although the car didn’t start.

sentence fragment

9 She was confused about that because she had not seen the results.

complete sentence

10 While I was taking a shower.

sentence fragment

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EXERCISE 2

Correcting Sentence Fragments

Exercise 1 has six sentence fragments. Using your own words, rewrite these sentence fragments so that they are complete sentences. 1 Answers will vary. 2 3 4 5 6

EXERCISE 3

Choosing Subordinating Conjunctions

Read the following sentences and choose the subordinating conjunction that shows the most logical relationship. Example: He wanted to go to Alberta (although/before/because) there were many jobs in the oil industry there. 1 (Because/Even though/After) Janice failed her exam, she isn’t too disappointed. 2 I don’t have to bring my charger to school (before/because/even though) my computer has a long battery life. 3 I usually bring my lunch to work (if/until/unless) I don’t have time to prepare it in the morning. 4 I called my father for advice (now that/as if/when) I was looking to invest in mutual funds. 5 (Because/Even though/While) I had left a window open, the strong wind blew the bedroom door shut. 6 My girlfriend and I will travel to her home country during spring break (before/ although/if) we can book our flight in advance. 7 My brother quit school at the age of 17 (because/ while/even though) he wanted to get a job to support our family. 8 (Now that/Unless/Whenever) my courses have ended, I plan to celebrate. 9 (Although/Before/Since) Chantale was confident in her English competencies, she applied for graduate work in an English university. 10 (If/Only if/Since) it is snowing will she leave her car at home and take the subway.

UNIT 14 complex sentences

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EXERCISE 4

Completing Complex Sentences

Use the dependent clauses below to create your own complex sentences. Be sure to add correct punctuation where it is necessary. Example: Even though I feel sick, I plan to go to work today.

Answers will vary.

1 Whenever I have a weekend off 2

even though he had never acted on stage before.

because she doesn’t like to do grammar exercises.

4 Since Denise graduated from high school, 5

so that we could afford to pay the rent.

6 Once she finishes her dinner, 7

in case we don’t have enough money.

8 Only if you wear the appropriate clothes

EXERCISE 5

Completing Complex Sentences

Use the independent clauses given below to create your own complex sentences. In some cases, the subordinating conjunction is given for you. Be sure to add correct punctuation where it is necessary. Example: I plan to go to work today even though I feel sick.

Answers will vary.

1 Jason can finally move to a new apartment 2 Whenever brownies.

Lionel bakes chocolate

3 I don’t like to go to the casino

4 Flavio will work with the homeless this summer because 5

the candidate I work for will win the election.

6 Roberto agreed to help us 7 Many of my friends are worried about the future because 8

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he doesn’t expect to get a raise.

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PART B

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH RELATIVE PRONOUNS A relative adjective clause is another kind of dependent clause. These clauses modify nouns and begin with the relative pronouns that, which, who and whom and the relative possessive adjective whose. Using relative pronouns correctly requires knowing which pronoun to use as well as how to punctuate the adjective clause.

FORM & USAGE 1 Using Relative Pronouns

- Use who or whom for people. - Use that or which for things. - Use whose for possessives of either people or things. 2 Using Relative Pronouns to Replace Nouns

Relative pronouns replace the noun that they are modifying so that we can combine information more efficiently. Deciding which pronoun to use can be difficult. The table below shows how to decide.

Person or thing?

Subject, object Restrictive clause or possessive? (without commas)

Non-restrictive clause (with commas)

Person

subject

who

object

whom*/who

possessive

whose

subject

that/which

which

object

that/which

which

possessive

whose

Thing

* Whom is preferred in formal written English.

The man looks like my brother. He is near the door. (He = person, subject > who) The man who is near the door looks like my brother. The car is expensive. It is in the driveway. (It = thing, subject > that/which) The car that/which is in the driveway is expensive. Aunt Mary lives in Halifax. I called her last night. (her = person, object > whom) Aunt Mary, whom I called last night, lives in Halifax. The man looked angry. His face was red. (His = person, possessive > whose) The man whose face was red looked angry. Note that whether a clause is restrictive or non-restrictive sometimes depends on the context. You will see some examples in the next section. 3 Punctuating Relative Clauses: Restrictive vs. Non-restrictive

Clauses

How you punctuate a relative clause tells your reader a lot about the situation you are describing. Including or omitting commas can make a significant difference in the meaning of a sentence with a relative clause.

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• Restrictive relative clauses: A restrictive relative clause is needed to identify the noun it modifies; that is, it gives essential information about that noun. A restrictive relative clause is not separated from its noun by commas. Consider these sentences and what a reader may ask about them: The gold medal was awarded to the athlete. Which athlete? The essay won the contest. Which essay? The woman is a doctor. Which woman? The classmate is my best friend. Which classmate? Adding a restrictive relative clause to each sentence helps the reader answer these questions. Note that we do not add commas. The gold medal was awarded to the athlete who comes from Abitibi. The essay that was about the First World War won the contest. The woman whom I met last night is a doctor. The classmate whose pen I borrowed is my best friend. • Non-restrictive relative clauses: A non-restrictive relative clause gives extra but non-essential information about the noun it modifies; that is, the information that it gives is not needed to identify the noun. Consider these sentences and what a reader may already know about them: The gold medal was awarded to Yves Legagnant. I know who got the gold medal. My essay won the contest. I know who wrote the essay. Widgetco is hiring new workers. I know which company is hiring new workers. Joan Bones is a doctor. I know the name of the doctor. Lee is my best friend. I know the name of your best friend. Adding a non-restrictive relative clause to each sentence gives the reader more information, but this information is not needed to identify the noun. The gold medal was awarded to Yves Legagnant, who comes from Abitibi. My essay, which was about the First World War, won the contest. Widgetco, which Joseph works for, is hiring new workers. Joan Bones, whom I met last night, is a doctor. Lee, whose pen I borrowed, is my best friend. Note that we separate the relative clauses with two commas if it is in the middle of the sentence and one comma if it is at the end. • Non-restrictive relative clauses that modify entire independent clauses: Although a relative clause usually modifies a particular noun, it can also modify an entire independent clause. Arlene got the job. This stunned her colleagues. (The job did not stun her colleagues; the fact that Arlene got the job stunned them.) Arlene got the job, which stunned her colleagues. (which modifies the entire independent clause Arlene got the job.) • Non-restrictive relative clauses with expressions of quantity: We can create nonrestrictive relative clauses by using expressions of quantity with the object pronouns whom, which and whose. Last week, we had 10 cm of snow. Most of the snow has melted. Last week, we had 10 cm of snow, most of which has melted.

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4 Choosing between Which or That, That or Who, Who or Whom,

Whose or Of Which

Even when the noun to be replaced is clearly a person or a thing, a subject or an object, restrictive or non-restrictive, English speakers may still disagree on which word to use, especially in informal or spoken English. • Which or that: Either which or that can be used as a pronoun for things in nonrestrictive relative clauses, but only that can be used for things in restrictive relative clauses. • Who or that: Although who is preferable when referring to people, some speakers will use that for a person in informal or spoken English. • Who or whom: Although who is a subject pronoun and whom is an object pronoun, some speakers find that using whom is too formal and even pretentious. • Whose or of which: Whose can obviously be used as the possessive relative adjective for the person who possesses something. However, it can also be used for something that “possesses” a thing. The building whose facade is dirty is the tallest building in the city. The group of which we are members is meeting tonight. (more formal) Of which also can be used with people or things. GUIDELINES: Refer to this set of guidelines to make relative pronoun use more manageable. 1) When referring to a thing in a restrictive adjective clause, choose that over which. That is, use that for restrictive clauses and which for non-restrictive clauses. 2) When referring to a person, choose who over that. 3) When using the object pronoun for a person, choose whom over who in formal, written English. However, using who can be acceptable in informal or spoken English. 4) When using the possessive relative adjective, choose whose for both people and things. 5 Reducing Relative Clauses

Often, relative clauses can be reduced or reworded to avoid some of the difficulties mentioned above. • Reducing restrictive object relative clauses: If a restrictive relative clause refers to an object, we can omit the pronoun. The man whom I met at the party lives downtown. (I met him. > object) The man I met at the party lives downtown. The film that I saw last night has won many awards. (I saw the film. > object) The film I saw last night has won many awards. Note that we cannot reduce non-restrictive relative object clauses this way. Hector Bann, whom I met at the party, lives downtown. (No reduction possible) • Reducing subject relative clauses: If a relative clause refers to a subject, we can sometimes reduce it whether it is restrictive or non-restrictive. • If a restrictive clause referring to a subject includes a form of the verb be, omit the pronoun and the verb be. The house that is on the corner is ours. (It is on the corner. > subject) The house on the corner is ours. (Omit that and is.) The worker who was wearing a blue shirt was rude. (He was wearing …> subject) The worker wearing a blue shirt was rude. (Omit who and was.)

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• If a restrictive clause referring to a subject does not include a form of be, the verb can sometimes be changed to an –ing form, creating a participial adjective. The man who hosted the party lives downtown. (He hosted the party. > subject) The man hosting the party lives downtown. (Omit who; change hosted to hosting.) • If a non-restrictive clause includes a form of the verb be, omit the pronoun and the verb be. This creates an appositive. Toronto, which is the capital of Ontario, is also its biggest city. (It is the capital of Ontario > subject) Toronto, the capital of Ontario, is also its biggest city. (Omit which and is.) Hector Bann, who is my landlord, lives downtown. (He is my landlord. > subject) Hector Bann, my landlord, lives downtown. (Omit who and is.)

EXERCISE 1 Determining

the Meaning of Relative Clauses and Phrases

Read the sentences below and answer the questions that follow them. Example: The bicycle, which is locked to the parking meter, is safe from thieves. No Is there more than one bicycle in question? Does the listener know which bike is being referred to?

Yes

1 The students gave a present to the teacher who had helped us. Is there more than one teacher in question?

Yes, probably

Did more than one teacher help us?

2 The students gave a present to the teacher, who had helped us. Is there more than one teacher in question?

Did more than one teacher help us?

3 The students, who passed the exam, were relieved. Did all of the students pass the exam?

Yes

Were all of the students relieved?

Yes

4 The students who passed the exam were relieved. Did all of the students pass the exam?

Were all of the students relieved?

5 Tell the technician that the computer, which is on my desk, needs to be replaced. Is there is more than one computer in question?

Does more than one computer need to be replaced?

6 Tell the technician that the computer that is on my desk needs to be replaced.

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Is there is more than one computer in question?

Yes, probably

Does more than one computer need to be replaced?

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EXERCISE 2 Punctuating

Relative Clauses

Correct the following sentences by adding or deleting commas as necessary. Do not add, delete or change any words in the sentences. Some sentences have information in parentheses to give you context. , , t

Example: My brother whose name is David lives in Ontario. (I have only one brother.)

1 China the most populous country in the world has a long history.

, t

2 My hometown, which is on the Ontario border is a small farming community.

delete comma

3 The airline gave refunds to passengers who were on flights, that were delayed.

4 My best friend whose car I borrowed is generous and thoughtful. (I have only one best friend.)

, t

5 My favourite pet was my first one which was a dog that was named Ruff.

delete comma

6 The house, that is across the street from us, was bought by a young couple.

delete comma

7 I can’t remember the name of the salesclerk, who served me. (There was more than one salesclerk in the store.)

, t

8 Yuka whom I met in my English class, used to live in Japan.

EXERCISE 3 Reducing

Relative Clauses

Rewrite the following sentences by reducing the relative clauses if possible. In some cases, some unnecessary words can be omitted; in other cases, the clauses can be reduced to phrases. Finally, write “correct” if no change is possible. Example: The man who is playing tennis is a great all-around athlete. The man playing tennis is a great all-around athlete. 1 Jeannette, who is my sister, works for a law firm.

Jeannette, my sister, works for a law firm. 2 Rock climbing, which looks dangerous, is actually safe if proper precautions are taken.

Correct 3 The band that is performing on stage at the Jazz Festival is one of my favourites.

The band performing on stage at the Jazz Festival is one of my favourites.

UNIT 14 complex sentences

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4 The camera that I bought last week takes clear, crisp photos.

The camera I bought last week takes clear, crisp photos. 5 My roommate, who plays chess regularly, is also good at computer games.

Correct 6 My department manager, who is a business school graduate, doesn’t have much work experience.

My department manager, a business school graduate, doesn’t have much work experience.

EXERCISE 4

Error Correction

Correct any errors in the following sentences. The errors are all related to relative adjective clauses or phrases. In some cases, more than one change is possible. Example: Tokyo which is the capital of Japan, is a fascinating city.

Tokyo, which is the capital of Japan, is a fascinating city.

1 The man which helped me change my tire wouldn’t accept any money for helping me.

The man who helped me change my tire wouldn’t accept any money for helping me. 2 The book, that is on the table, is more interesting than the one, that is on the bookshelf.

The book that is on the table is more interesting than the one that is on the bookshelf. 3 These bagels which from the local bagel shop, are delicious!

These bagels, which are from the local bagel shop, are delicious! 4 Because of my cat allergies that are quite severe, I cannot live with my girlfriend who has a cat.

Because of my cat allergies, which are quite severe, I cannot live with my girlfriend, who has a cat. 5 Mount Everest, is the highest mountain in the world, is no longer considered the unconquerable peak that it was in the past.

Mount Everest, which is the highest mountain in the world, is no longer considered the unconquerable peak that it was in the past.

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STEPHEN W. MACDONALD

FORWARD ENGLISH LANGUAGE & CULTURE

• • • • •

FORWARD 3

www.cecplus.com

FORWARD ENGLISH LANGUAGE & CULTURE

STEPHEN W. MACDONALD

ENGLISH LANGUAGE & CULTURE

Forward 3: English Language & Culture

GRAMMAR

CODE DE PRODUIT : 214816 ISBN 978-2-7617-6681-4

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Marie

2014-03-26 12:40 PM