Let's Talk – excerpt

LET’S TALK

LET’S TALK

A valuable resource designed to help teachers create a bridge between their daily practices and new FSL curricula Let’s Talk: Lifelong Language Learning offers insight into the “big ideas” that are the foundation of oral interaction in French-as-asecond-language classrooms. This essential guide has been created to support teachers and students as their roles evolve to meet the demands of twenty-first century research and trends.

Let’s Talk is a comprehensive resource. Written in three sections, it provides practical information and hands-on activities for classroom use for teachers to establish an environment based on student talking time.

Section 1, The Role of Assessment: When and How Learning Matters, defines the principles of effective assessment and evaluation including assessment for, as and of learning and helps teachers assess their students on a daily basis.

Section 2, Language-Learning Strategies: Motivating the Learner and Encouraging Risk-Taking, examines specific strategies that students learn to use to become effective second-language communicators. It provides notes and suggestions for teachers as they help their students develop the confidence to communicate in French.

Section 3, Oral Communication Competence: Speaking Aloud Allowed, defines straightforward concepts that are critical to a classroom environment where oral interaction plays a primary role.

Student talking time is at the core of a successful FSL classroom. When students learn to communicate orally, reading and writing are far less challenging for them. Written in simple and clear language, Let’s Talk: Lifelong Language Learning is a valuable resource that will support teachers’ endeavours to establish a classroom rich in student talk.

Includes CD-ROM with: • practical activities • evaluation charts • model anchor charts in both modifiable and non-modifiable formats.

Series Editor: Marie Turcotte Marie Turcotte has been involved in FSL for many years as a successful Core French and Immersion teacher, as a publisher and as a consultant. Over her years in publishing, Marie has authored many successful FSL resources including an array of books, teachers’ guides and support documents. She managed the writing team that produced the 1999 secondary Core French curriculum for the Ontario Ministry of Education. She has also led countless workshops in Canada and the United States to support teachers and schools in various FSL initiatives.

Throughout her career, Marie has been a strong advocate for French-as-a-second-language teachers and students, and is focused on developing the resources students need to succeed.

Green, Marshall Gray, Remigio • LET’S TALK: Lifelong Language Learning

Lifelong Language Learning

Lifelong Language Learning

Michael Green Pamela Marshall Gray Sonia C. Remigio

PRODUCT CODE: 214522 ISBN 978-2-7617-6262-5

Series Editor Marie Turcotte 9 782761 762625

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Table of Contents

IntRoduCtIon ....................................................................................V section 1

by Pamela Marshall Gray

the Role of assessment: When and How learning Matters ............... 1 Chapter 1: Poser un diagnostic Assessment for Learning: Diagnostic Assessment................................ 7 Chapter 2: Évaluer pendant le travail Assessment for Learning: Formative Assessment .............................. 15 Chapter 3: Cueillette des données Assessment for Learning: Documenting Student Learning.................. 22 Chapter 4: De la rétroaction pour devenir bon Assessment for Learning: Descriptive Feedback and Implications for Learning ......................................................... 28 Chapter 5: L’autoévaluation, un grand défi !

Assessment as Learning ................................................................. 33 Chapter 6: Évaluer : Les temps ont changé !

Assessment of Learning: Evaluating the Learning ............................. 39 Summary: Rassemblons le tout !

Assessment for, as and of Learning in the FSL Classroom.................. 44 section 2

by Michael Green

language-learning strategies: Motivating the learner and encouraging Risk-taking .......................................................... 47 Chapter 1: Ensemble, on développe notre confiance Using Social and Affective Strategies to Build Confidence and Work Together ......................................................................... 55 Chapter 2: On utilise notre bagage de connaissances Using Prior Knowledge When Selecting the Topic ............................. 59 table of contents

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Chapter 3: On fait des prédictions pour mieux comprendre Using Prediction to Guess Content .................................................. 65 Chapter 4: On connaît des solutions Using Compensation Strategies When the Right Words Can’t Be Found ............................................................................. 70 Chapter 5: On réfléchit et on devient meilleur Using Metacognitive Strategies to Increase Confidence and Autonomy ............................................................................... 76 Summary: Rassemblons le tout !

The Benefits of Teaching and Using Language-Learning Strategies .... 86 section 3

by sonia C. Remigio

oral communication competence: speaking aloud allowed ........... 89 Chapter 1: On parle pour progresser Using Talk to Build Understanding, Connections and Confidence ....... 95 Chapter 2: On aime les situations vraies et significatives Interacting Orally in Meaningful, Authentic and Relevant Situations ............................................................... 100 Chapter 3: On est maître de notre apprentissage !

Empowering Students Through the Gradual Release of Responsibility Model ................................................................ 108 Chapter 4: On y va une étape à la fois The Importance of Chunking to Facilitate Student Learning ............. 120 Chapter 5: Plus on parle, plus c’est facile !

How to Provide Frequent, Multiple and Varied Opportunities for Speaking French .................................................................... 125 Chapter 6: Parler est un besoin, écouter est un art How to Further Develop Listening and Spontaneous Speaking to Improve Oral Communication Skills ........................................... 132 Summary: Rassemblons le tout !

It Starts With Oral Interaction ....................................................... 141 References ....................................................................................... 143 about the Contributors ...................................................................... 146

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Section 1

The Role of Assessment

When and How Learning Matters Introduction Assessment of learning, assessment for learning and assessment as learning have been much discussed in the research and professional learning literature over the last few decades. However, inasmuch as the variants have been discussed and the theory understood, some issues remain unresolved in the field of second language education. In particular are questions surrounding the distinction between these three forms of assessment, and how they co-exist in a French as a second language (FSL) context.

Essentially, all three types of assessment refer to the gathering of information and evidence of student learning for the purposes of improving student learning. assessment of learning is the process of evaluating evidence of student learning for the purposes of reporting or assigning a final mark or grade or final feedback after a particular period of learning.

section 1 • The R ole of Assessment: When and How Learning Matters

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Chapter 5

L’autoévaluation, un grand défi !

Assessment as Learning

Assessment as learning is the process by which students reflect on their own learning for the purposes of monitoring and making decisions about their learning processes and their individual learning journeys. It is an assessment process that enables students to develop and implement metacognitive skills.

FSL students who are metacognitively aware are autonomous learners who are able to identify what they can do, what they are close to doing, and the strategies they will need to achieve what they do not yet know or cannot yet do. Students use evidence-based descriptive feedback from the FSL teacher, their peers and their own self-assessments to determine the next steps required in their language-learning journey, to develop language-learning goals, and then to reflect on the strategies and actions that will assist them in attaining their goals.

Metacognition is thinking about thinking, and is a skill that FSL teachers need to explicitly teach in the classroom. In order to teach and facilitate assessment as learning processes in the FSL classroom, teachers need to recognize that the process of becoming metacognitive is a journey in itself, and that metacognitive strategies need to be explicitly introduced and modelled. Teachers also need to provide multiple opportunities before, during and after a period of learning for students to engage in selfand peer-assessments, and they need to identify ways for students to track and monitor their thinking and their learning. As well, FSL teachers need to accept occasional student self-assessment and reflection ideas in English since beginning language learners do not yet have the vocabulary necessary to express their thinking about thinking in French. As cHapteR 5 •

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students become more familiar with metacognitive strategies and more proficient in French, they will be better able to express their ideas more explicitly in French.

Metacognition should be taught explicitly in the FSL classroom.

Over time, students will develop their own strategies for monitoring their thinking and learning.

Multiple opportunities for selfand peer-assessment Students need opportunities to self-assess and to reflect on their language-learning processes and thinking before and throughout their period of learning. Students who self-assess at the beginning of a learning period determine what they can already do in relation to the learning goal, as well as the language-learning strategies that may assist them in moving forward. FSL teachers may use self-assessment sheets (see, for example, Fiche d’autoévaluation 1.5.1 : Mes critères de succès) to help students identify what they can do. As well, students may use self-assessment sheets related to their language-learning strategies to self-assess the strategies they may use.

Throughout the learning period, students continue to self-assess and reflect on their use of language strategies and the next steps needed to achieve the learning goal and identified success criteria. FSL teachers can introduce a variety of tools and strategies to help students self-assess and reflect on their thinking. Some examples of these tools and strategies are checklists, rubrics, proof cards, “Traffic Lights” and prompts to promote self-reflection.

checklists Checklists permit FSL students to monitor and reflect on their demonstration of the co-constructed success criteria or identified indicators of success.

Using a checklist such as Fiche d’autoévaluation 1.5.2 : Mes réflexions, students record the date of each self-assessment period and then check any success criteria or indicators that they were able to demonstrate or achieve on that day.

Using the checklist, students then set goals for continued language learning based on the indicators not yet demonstrated. As well, students identify any language-learning strategies that have helped them learn or any supports that they may require.

Rubrics Once a learning goal has been established and success criteria co-constructed with students, FSL teachers develop an assessment tool, such as a rubric, to use in the assessment of student learning. Preparing this tool at the start of the learning period makes the end goal visible to students, and enables them to understand how they will be evaluated when they are ready for assessment of

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learning. These rubrics may be used by students during the learning period for self- and peer-assessment as a means of monitoring language-learning changes over time. A sample strategy is for students to use different coloured pencils each time the rubric is used so any changes in self-assessed or peer-assessed achievement can be monitored over time.

proof cards Proof cards are a tool that students can use to document their learning, and that students and teachers can access to inform teaching and learning decisions (see, for example, Fiches d’autoévaluation 1.5.3-1.5.5 : Je peux...) On proof cards, students identify something they can do, then list the evidence of learning and, in some cases, the next steps to move their learning forward.

These cards can be attached to or can reference a sample of oral language (e.g. a video recording of a student-student interaction, a written transcript of a student response), a sample of written work or a reading text. You may wish to use the sheet that best meets the needs of your students, depending on their language level. In addition, students may use evidence to track successful achievement of the learning goal by success criteria, as in Fiche d’autoévaluation 1.5.6 : Mon casse-tête d’apprentissage. In this case, students write co-constructed success criteria for the identified learning goal in each of the jigsaw pieces. When they are able to meet one of the criteria, they write the evidence or proof of learning in the jigsaw piece. This is a visual collection of evidence that helps students track their language-learning journey.

traffic lights Another strategy that can be used is the Traffic Lights strategy. As discussed in Chapter 1, this strategy can be used as a pre-assessment tool for students to assess what they can already do, which not only provides information for teachers to inform instruction (assessment for learning), but also can be used by students to provide a frame of reference for their own learning and their learning processes (assessment as learning). When teachers use Traffic Lights at the beginning of a unit or as an exit pass during a unit to gauge what learners feel they know or can do, they are using the tool to assess for learning.

However, as Cooper (2011) explains, when the Traffic Lights strategy is used by students to direct their learning, it becomes a tool in the assessment as learning process. Cooper describes an example of a mathematics teacher who uses a Traffic Lights chart to help students determine their readiness to work independently and then select an appropriate task to complete (p. 29).

Following the introduction of specific language use through teacher modelling (e.g. demander et donner des directions) and a period of shared and guided use and reuse of the specific language skills and structures by students, the FSL teacher may refer students to a Traffic Lights self-assessment chart such as the one on next page.

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Summary

Rassemblons le tout !

Assessment for, as and of Learning in the FSL Classroom

Assessment for, as and of learning are the three assessment practices that teachers use in the classroom to move student learning forward and to evaluate the learning that has taken place. In this first section, we have discussed each practice, described several strategies and principles for successful implementation, and offered various examples and samples of assessment tools. What emerges through the outlining of each assessment practice is that all three practices have several principles in common: •

assessment begins with the end in mind evidence of learning is gathered from multiple sources evidence of learning compared with the learning goal determines the assessment result • •

Assessment begins with the end in mind Regardless of the assessment process being used, teachers must begin by knowing the learning goal, the criteria for success and how successful learning will be demonstrated. To assess for learning and inform the teaching and learning decisions made by FSL teachers and students, the learning goal must be clear. As well, the criteria for successful demonstration of the learning goal must be clear, so that teachers and students are able to determine what students can do in relation to the goal, what they are close to doing, and the next steps needed to be taken to ensure continued learning in order to meet the goal (assessment for and as learning). When evaluating student learning after the learning period (assessment as learning), students and parents need to be aware of the learning goals and success criteria to understand the evaluation that has

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been given, to know exactly what the student is able to do and to determine the learning that has taken place.

Gather evidence of learning from multiple sources To know what students can do and what they are close to doing in relation to the learning goal, teachers must collect evidence of student learning and thinking in the classroom. To ensure that the assessment is reliable and valid, the learning evidence should come from multiple, triangulated sources, specifically from observations, conversations and products.

Evidence of learning compared with the learning goal determines the assessment result Whether assessing for learning, as learning or of learning, teachers use the collected evidence and compare it to the learning goal and the identified success criteria and standards, to determine the learning that has taken place (what students can do), the extent of the learning (how well students can do it), and the goals for future learning (the next steps).

To determine the assessment process to use in a given situation, teachers must first define the purpose of the assessment and how it will be used. Assessment tasks are simply tasks. The evidence of learning is simply collected evidence.

However, the purpose for collecting evidence and giving assessment tasks is what establishes whether teachers and/or students are engaging in assessment for, as or of learning. The table below outlines the three purposes for assessment and presents examples of each practice.

Assessment process Purpose of assessment

Who, when, what

Examples of assessment

Assessment for learning

To inform instruction

Teachers, students

To enable teachers and students to identify what students can do, what they are close to doing, and the next steps to move forward

Before and during the learning period

• An FSL teacher observes student interactions to determine what students can do at the start of a learning period.

• A teacher uses an oral language checklist to record when students use specific language structures (e.g. express agreement, state an opinion).

• A teacher asks students to complete a short online survey indicating the learning strategies they used to complete a specific task.

To promote student learning

Observations Conversations Products

> suMMaRy •

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Section 2

Language-Learning Strategies Motivating the Learner and Encouraging Risk-Taking “If your life is free of failures, you’re not taking enough risks.”

– Anonymous

Introduction Are your students hesitant to develop their abilities in French class, or to take risks speaking French? They are not alone. Many students decided early on that the classroom is not always the best place in which to take risks. In fact, learning anything new is a challenge; it involves the unknown and the unexpected. As such, the question becomes how do we, as educators, direct our students away from the fear naturally associated with risk and often, failure? The solution lies in giving students the tools and support they need to become independent, lifelong language learners. Our goal is to get our students talking—to each other, to their teachers, and most importantly, to those outside the classroom.

section 2 • Language-Learni ng Strategies: Motivating the Learner and Encouraging Risk-Taking

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Chapter 3

On fait des prédictions pour mieux comprendre Using Prediction to Guess Content

Prediction is a language-learning strategy in which students use clues from a text to “make logical guesses about what will happen in a written or oral text” (Chamot, 2006, p. 2). Students can use prediction when listening, using clues such as context, body language and gestures, eye contact, intonation and word choice to understand the speaker and discern meaning in an interaction. Prediction can also be used in reading, using clues found in text features such as the title, subtitles, headings, images and graphs to better comprehend the text. Prediction is most effective when students use these clues and make connections with their prior knowledge and experiences. When making predictions, students should ask themselves the following questions: • •

What do these clues tell me about this text or this interaction?

What do I already know about this? What have I heard or read before on this topic?

What do I think this text or interaction is about?

•

Once they have started reading or listening, students either confirm or revise their predictions based on the new knowledge they have read or heard.

Using prediction facilitates students’ comprehension of a new text or interaction because they are not going into the text or interaction without some prior knowledge. Through the use of prediction, students realize they know something about the topic and can understand the text’s contents more readily. Moreover, because students have made connections chapter 3 •

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with their prior knowledge, they approach reading or listening to the text with greater confidence. When students use prediction, they are also more likely to get excited about the text. This is because they have anticipated what might happen and are eager to read or listen to see if they were correct. In the case of interactions, using prediction helps students better prepare to contribute to the interaction.

Using prediction encourages a greater understanding of the text or interaction. When students make predictions, they read more carefully or listen more intently to discern whether their predictions are correct or not. Using prediction also helps recall information later on; students have made connections between what they already know, their predictions and what they have learned from the text. Their predictions create the link between their prior knowledge and the new information which, in turn, allows them to internalize and access new information more readily the next time.

In the following activity, the prediction strategy is used with a written text. It can, however, be easily adapted to use with a listening text or oral interaction.

Activity 1 Using prediction to guess content and gain better understanding of a text Goal of the activity • To help students navigate a new text using the prediction strategy.

• To help students make meaning of the information contained within the text before, during and after reading the text.

Success criteria Look for evidence that students can: • use the text features (title, subtitles, images, graphs, etc.) to predict the content of the text • make connections between the topic of the text and their own prior knowledge of the topic • identify their use of the prediction strategy Principal strategies • Predicting • Making connections • Summarizing • Reflecting

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Assessment and evaluation • Assessment for learning • Assessment as learning Audience Junior / Intermediate / Senior students When to use this activity • This activity can be used any time students are interacting with a new text.

• It can be used with any genre of text (novel, news article, electronic text, website, poem, etc.) and any text form (narrative, recount, procedure, exposition, explanation, report, etc.).

• The activity should be used before, during and after reading a new text.

Planning for the activity • This activity will take at least one full lesson (or more depending on your students).

• During the MINDS ON (before) portion of the lesson, set the stage for the activity: – Inform students that they will be making predictions about a text.

– Question students as to why we make predictions. Elicit the following possible answers: – so we don’t approach a text without knowing anything about it – to make connections with our prior knowledge to better understand the new information contained in the text – to build interest and excitement about the text • The activity itself is done as part of the ACTION (during) phase of the lesson.

• During the CONSOLIDATION (after), students create a summary and reflect on their use of prediction.

Materials required • New text (class set, group sets or individual text) • Fiche d’activité 2.3.1 : Je fais des prédictions pour mieux comprendre un texte (1) • Fiche d’activité 2.3.2 : Je fais des prédictions pour mieux comprendre un texte (2) • Tableau référentiel 2.3.1 : Faire des prédictions pour mieux comprendre un texte Student groupings Pairs or small groups How to use this activity • Provide students with access to any text (online, a novel, a graphic novel, an article, a video, etc.). You might give every group the same text, or you might choose to vary the text, depending on your students’ readiness and prior knowledge. (See student surveys in Section 1 for support.)

For Junior students, you may wish to use a visual/oral text. chapter 3 •

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Section 3

Oral Communication Competence Speaking Aloud Allowed

“It is not an exaggeration to suggest that classroom talk determines whether or not children learn, and their ultimate feelings of self-worth as students. Talk is how education happens!”

– Pauline Gibbons

Introduction When people say that they have studied a language for six to nine years, we naturally expect that to mean that they can have a conversation using the language. It is interesting to note that many spend a large amount of time in an education system learning a second language such as French but still have difficulty speaking it. As such, the focus of any French as a second language classroom should be on building this oral competence. Speaking French is an important life skill, central to a successful life experience in an increasingly global economy.

section 3 • O ral Communication Competence : Speaking Aloud Allowed

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Chapter 2

On aime les situations vraies et significatives Interacting Orally in Meaningful, Authentic and Relevant Situations

Are you familiar with authentic tasks? Which of the following tasks do you think are authentic?

•

asking to get a drink of water debating which team will win the hockey game tonight watching a news clip explaining to the teacher why you were absent the previous day small group discussions recounting your favorite book to a friend listening to a song discussing in class about a school policy participating in an interview role playing collaborating on a project presenting an argument or a debate • • • • • • • • • • •

All of these tasks allow the students to express themselves in situations that are relevant and pertinent to them and which they can easily use when faced with a similar situation in everyday life.

French is a living language; it is used by millions of people around the world in all spheres of life. A successful French class allows students to use the language in situations in which they may find themselves at some point in their lives. They should be encouraged to enjoy using the language in real-life interactions and put their learning to good use.

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Authentic situations, documents and tasks When students see their language learning as useful and as a skill they will be able to use in a “real-life” setting then they will be more engaged in taking an active role in learning it. When a situation or task is authentic, a continuum is established between the classroom setting and the outside world and students can see the practical applications. An authentic document, defined as “un document qui n’a pas été conçu à des fins pédagogiques” (Tagliante, 2006), should be used to support such tasks.

A student sees the relevance of an authentic document, such as a newspaper article on a current issue, as a topic that can be discussed outside of the class.

There is utility in the document and thus practicality in accomplishing the task. (Rosen, 2006) Teaching and learning a language within an authentic context, where an abundance of authentic documents and tasks are used, allows for opportunities and responses that go beyond simple right and wrong answers. It provides students with opportunities for creative thinking and enables collaboration between learners.

As in real-life situations, when an authentic task is introduced to students, there is the natural possibility to approach the task from various perspectives.

This encourages the use of creative thinking skills and adds relevance to the task. It creates a situation where students can see that their input is valued and that different perspectives lead to different possible outcomes. Students are not placed in a situation where there is one single answer and therefore do not face the risk of feeling inadequate if they fail to provide it.

Using authentic tasks can have a significant impact on student engagement in the class because the teacher can bring in topics that are specific to the interests of a particular class. This also provides a real opportunity to incorporate a cross-curricular approach into the French class. Students engage in tasks when the tasks are meaningful to them. And because of this, the language becomes a means to accomplish a task rather than the focus of study itself. It is in this way that oral communicative competence can be achieved.

Authenticity in every classroom The classroom itself is an authentic social environment. The mere need to communicate is authentic. The classroom, then, is an ideal setting to practise oral communication. When students have a specific need to communicate in the classroom—they forgot a book at home, they need to go to the washroom, or they need to borrow a friend’s pencil—they should feel comfortable automatically using French in these spontaneous situations. The functional language of the classroom is an ideal starting point to practise interactions in a second language. chapter 2 •

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Chapter 5

Plus on parle, plus c’est facile !

How to Provide Frequent, Multiple and Varied Opportunities for Speaking French

As we have come to understand in the previous chapters, second-language learning should focus on the development of oral communication skills.

For reading and writing to be successful, they must be preceded by successful listening and speaking. Beginning with oral interactions facilitates the learning process; once the students can say it, they will be able to read and write it.

This chapter provides examples of activities to increase oral interaction in class that can be tailored to allow students to practise particular vocabulary, language patterns and expressions in authentic scenarios. In this way, teachers who often feel that they cannot afford much time for oral work because they need to cover language content can still work on content in an orally communicative way. In a classroom where students are active participants in their own learning, and where oral interaction is at the forefront, the focus is less on teaching the content and more on students practising and using the content.

How to create opportunities to incorporate listening and speaking Oral interaction—either modelled, scaffolded or spontaneous—should be part of the everyday classroom routine; students should not feel that this is a special, out-of-the-ordinary activity. Daily oral interaction enables students to build confidence using the language so that learning becomes meaningful to them. Spoken production, which is often prepared chapter 5 •

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LET’S TALK

A valuable resource designed to help teachers create a bridge between their daily practices and new FSL curricula Let’s Talk: Lifelong Language Learning offers insight into the “big ideas” that are the foundation of oral interaction in French-as-asecond-language classrooms. This essential guide has been created to support teachers and students as their roles evolve to meet the demands of twenty-first century research and trends.

Let’s Talk is a comprehensive resource. Written in three sections, it provides practical information and hands-on activities for classroom use for teachers to establish an environment based on student talking time.

Section 1, The Role of Assessment: When and How Learning Matters, defines the principles of effective assessment and evaluation including assessment for, as and of learning and helps teachers assess their students on a daily basis.

Section 2, Language-Learning Strategies: Motivating the Learner and Encouraging Risk-Taking, examines specific strategies that students learn to use to become effective second-language communicators. It provides notes and suggestions for teachers as they help their students develop the confidence to communicate in French.

Section 3, Oral Communication Competence: Speaking Aloud Allowed, defines straightforward concepts that are critical to a classroom environment where oral interaction plays a primary role.

Student talking time is at the core of a successful FSL classroom. When students learn to communicate orally, reading and writing are far less challenging for them. Written in simple and clear language, Let’s Talk: Lifelong Language Learning is a valuable resource that will support teachers’ endeavours to establish a classroom rich in student talk.

Includes CD-ROM with: • practical activities • evaluation charts • model anchor charts in both modifiable and non-modifiable formats.

Series Editor: Marie Turcotte Marie Turcotte has been involved in FSL for many years as a successful Core French and Immersion teacher, as a publisher and as a consultant. Over her years in publishing, Marie has authored many successful FSL resources including an array of books, teachers’ guides and support documents. She managed the writing team that produced the 1999 secondary Core French curriculum for the Ontario Ministry of Education. She has also led countless workshops in Canada and the United States to support teachers and schools in various FSL initiatives.

Throughout her career, Marie has been a strong advocate for French-as-a-second-language teachers and students, and is focused on developing the resources students need to succeed.

Green, Marshall Gray, Remigio • LET’S TALK: Lifelong Language Learning

Lifelong Language Learning

LET’S TALK Lifelong Language Learning

Michael Green Pamela Marshall Gray Sonia C. Remigio

Series Editor Marie Turcotte

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