Child psychology: development in a changing society, 5th edition 5th edition, (ebook pdf) all chapte
Child Psychology: Development in a Changing Society, 5th Edition 5th Edition, (Ebook PDF)
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Coping with Stress in a Changing World, 5th Edition
the family system,the peer group,the school,and the cultural environment.
As in previous editions, Child Psychology integrates relevant contextual material throughout the text.Thus,in addition to discussing the effects of schools,families,and peers in separate chapters,we consider such influences for each of the topics for which they are relevant.For example, Chapter 11 examines the impact of adverse social circumstances on the development of attachment,Chapter 12 discusses the ways in which schools can affect self-esteem, and Chapter 14 considers the impact of both parents and peers on moral development.This approach allows the course to move from one area of development to another in a topical manner,while including the broad tapestry of variables that affect each area.
We have made three major changes to the present edition that we believe result in an even stronger presentation of contextual influences.First,we have made the contextual perspective a guiding model throughout the text,with structural reorganization and a conceptual map at the end of every chapter demonstrating key elements of the child’s ecosystem that influence development according to each chapter topic.Second,we have reworked the “Families and Peers”chapter into two separate chapters:Relationships with Peers,and Families and Society.Discussions of peer and family influences still occur throughout the book.The new organization,however,permits a fuller consideration of general issues in the study of peers and the family (e.g., parenting styles,the family as a system),and the expanded coverage in the final chapter on Families and Society allows for a deeper examination of the influence of the exosystem and macrosystem on child development.
Cultural Diversity
Each edition of this book has seen expanded coverage of research in diverse communities in North America and in cultures around the world.This remains true for the fifth edition.Discussions of development in different cultures are woven throughout the text.For example,we describe how different cultures foster different approaches to language learning (Chapter 10),we discuss different conceptions of the self and morality across different cultures (Chapters 12 and 14),and we consider cultural variations in childrearing practices (Chapter 16).
In addition,the inclusion of the contextual model as a guiding perspective has allowed us to provide a conceptual framework within which students can interpret such work. We believe that this change makes our treatment of development in cultural context exceptionally strong.
State-of-the-Art Coverage
Information is being generated in the field of child development at a staggering rate.To prepare a textbook of
manageable proportions,authors must make some tough decisions.We have chosen to balance seminal and classical studies in the field with up-to-date references of articles published in the last few years.
In addition to such general updating,every chapter includes a feature entitled Research and Society.These sections permit a fuller discussion of some especially interesting recent research developments that have high real-world relevance,such as the mapping of the genome or the latest brain imaging techniques.Although our focus is on current work,we recognize that some truly classic studies should be known by every student of human development.This material has been integrated into the text.
Topical Organization
We have chosen to organize the book topically.By considering each topic area in a single chapter,we believe we can most effectively present and critique the full body of research and theorizing relevant to that area.The 16 chapters can be grouped into five general parts,integrated thematically according to an ecological model:
• Understanding the Contexts of Child Development: Chapters 1,2,and 3 provide the foundation of the discipline,covering theoretical and historical frameworks for child development,studying child development in context, and the biological context of development.
• Contexts of Physical Development:Chapters 4-6 focus on aspects of physical development,such as prenatal development and birth;the early capacities of infancy,including motor,sensory,and perceptual development;and physical growth and health.
• Contexts of Cognitive Development:Chapters 7-10 cover Piagetian and Vygotskian approaches to cognitive development;information processing and the core knowledge approach;intelligence and schooling;and language and communciation.
• Contexts of Social and Emotional Development: Chapters 11-14 describe social and emotional development,including emotional development,attachment,the self-system,moral reasoning,prosocial and antisocial behavior,and gender role development.
• Peer,Family,and Community Contexts:Chapters 15-16 focus on peer relations,families,and influences of the larger society.
Although the overall organization is topical,the internal presentation of Chapters 4-16 is developmental.The topic area—be it language,gender roles,or whatever—begins with the newborn and describes development through adolescence. This approach helps the student to appreciate the continuity of growth within each area and also to understand the ongoing interactions between biological processes and contextual influences.In addition,a new feature highlights content links between chapters in the margins of the text.
Readability and Accessibility
We have worked hard to make our text above all interesting and accessible to the student reader.We believe that the text’s comfortable writing style and the clarity with which concepts are introduced,discussed,and interrelated will enable students to read and understand a rigorous treatment of the issues.Users of previous editions have consistently praised the text’s accessibility.
In addition,we have focused throughout the text on real-world relevance and application.This is particularly evident in our use of the Applications and Conversations features in every chapter.
PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES
In our effort to be complete and up to date,we have not forgotten that this is a textbook whose audience includes college sophomores.We have designed into the book a number of features to maximize the likelihood that students will learn the material.
Chapter-Opening Vignettes
Each of the chapters begins with a brief story designed to capture the student’s interest and to introduce the topic under consideration.In Chapter 3,for example,we open with the story of Carbon Copy,the cloned kitten,and we consider some of the intriguing ethical questions posed by the research.In Chapter 8 we preview the discussion of information processing with the true story of Josh Waitzkin, child chess champion,and ask students to consider what types of thinking might distinguish a novice from an expert in a given domain.
The Research and Society Feature,which appears in every chapter,is designed to make students aware of recent and exciting research findings that have high real-world relevance and application.Among the topics singled out for such coverage are the Human Genome Project (Chapter 3),Technology and Gender Selection (Chapter 4),Imaging the Brain (Chapter 6),Bilingual Education (Chapter 10),and Bullying and Victimization (Chapter 15).
ment,who talk about the families and children they serve. In Conversations,these professionals explain,for example, how knowledge of child development helps them in the challenges and rewards of working with infants and children.Examples include conversations with an adoption social worker (Chapter 3),a pediatric physical therapist (Chapter 5),a speech-language pathologist (Chapter 10), and men in nontraditional roles (Chapter 13).
This feature appears in every chapter and presents examples of research programs and findings that have been applied to the solution of practical problems in schools, homes,hospitals,and other real-world settings.Examples include Society,Teens and Sexuality (Chapter 6),Brains in a Box:Do New Age Toys Deliver on the Promise? (Chapter 8),and Reducing Stereotype Threat in Minority Populations (Chapter 9).
Test Your Mastery Sections
At the end of each major section in a chapter,questions are presented that link to the learning objective for that section.This organization encourages students to pause and reflect on what they have just read and helps set the stage for the sections that follow.Learning is reinforced when the answers to the Test Your Mastery sections are provided in the Chapter Summary.
Chapter Summaries
Each chapter ends with a summary of the major points and issues to help students organize and review the chapter’s material.These summaries are designed to facilitate learning by linking clearly to the learning objectives and Test Your Mastery sections for each chapter.
Running Glossary
Boldfaced glossary items in the text highlight terms of continuing importance to students.These items are defined in the margin on the same page,as well as at the end of the book,providing a convenient guide for reviewing the material.
For Discussion Questions
• This feature,appearing in every chapter,showcases actual professionals in diverse fields related to child develop-
Included in each chapter are a set of questions designed to foster critical thinking.Each question notes a finding or principle from the chapter and asks the student to apply it to an issue of real-world or personal relevance.
Margin Links to Related Content
Each chapter features links to related content in other chapters,provided in the margins.This gives students a greater appreciation for the ways in which development in one domain relates to development in other domains.
Illustration Program
We reworked many of the figures and drawings from the previous edition to create new,effective illustrations in a full-color format.We also carefully selected many new color photos that depict situations and events described inthe text,along with some that illustrate laboratory techniques and other research methods.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Accompanying the text is a full package of materials to support student learning and classroom teaching.The package includes the following.
Student Study Guide
The study guide for students contains chapter outlines, learning objectives,key terms,application exercises,critical thinking exercises,self-test questions,and practice exams. This guide was prepared by Claire Novosad of Southern Connecticut State University.
Instructor’s Resource Manual
The Instructor’s Resource Manual contains guidelines for the first-time instructor,chapter outlines,learning objectives,key terms,lecture topics,discussion questions,inclass and out-of-class activities,supplemental readings,
video guide,and media materials.The guide was prepared by Joyce Hemphill of the University of Wisconsin, Madison,and is available on-line at www.wiley.com/ college/harwood
Test Bank
The test bank provides approximately 120 questions for each chapter,keyed to the text in multiple-choice and essay formats.Each question notes the text page on which the answer can be found and whether the question is factual or conceptual.The test bank was prepared by Susan Siaw of the California State Polytechnic University, Pomona and is available on-line at www.wiley.com/ college/harwood
POWERPOINT FILES
A set of files with accompanying lecture notes is available on-line at www.wiley.com/college/harwood for instructor use.The PowerPoint slides were prepared by Jennifer Lindner.
Video Library
Instructors can choose from a variety of videos and clips for class presentation from the Child Psychology Video Library.Please contact your local Wiley representative for more details about the different video options.
Web Site
Using the Vasta Web site,located at http://www.wiley.com/ college/harwood,students can take practice quizzes for each chapter,and instructors can download the text supplements directly to their computers.
Acknowledgments
A project of this size requires the participation of many people. We thank Lisa Comparini for her work on Chapter 7; Gretchen Van de Walle for her work on Chapters 7 and 8; Stephen Burgess for his work on Chapters 9, 10, and 12; and Kathryn Jtineant and Gozde Demir for their work on the reference list. We are grateful to Alastair Younger for his contributions to the third and current editions of the text, especially Chapter 2, and to Marshall Haith and Shari Ellis, who were coauthors of earlier editions of the book. Finally, we are grateful to our colleagues who supplied material for the Culture and Society, Conversations, and Applications features: Frances Waksler, Lisa Comparini, Vivian Carlson, Jeannine Pinto, Patricia Greenfield, Caroline Johnston, Gail Rollins, Amy Miller, Kathy Hirsh-Pasek, Chloe Bland, Joan Miller, Ronald Rohner, and Abdul Khaleque.
This book is about children, and we never would have entered the field of child psychology—let alone have pursued its study with such pleasure—without the inspiration of our own wonderful children. They always have our deepest gratitude.
We owe special thanks to our Developmental Editor, Mary Ellen Lepionka. This book couldnot have been completed without her assistance and dedication.
We would also like to acknowledge the contributions of the many colleagues who have provided reviews or suggestions that have helped to strengthen the various editions of this text. The following individuals served as reviewers or provided other forms of input for the current edition.
Mary Beth Ahlum Nebraska Wesleyan University
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We are also grateful to colleagues who provided reviews of the earlier editions of the book.
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About the Authors
Robin L. Harwood
Robin Harwood is a Research Scientist at the University of Connecticut, Department of Anthropology, and a Visiting Professor at the Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany. She received her Ph.D. in developmental psychology from Yale University in 1991. She has previously authored (with Joan Miller and Nydia Lucca Irizarry) Culture and Attachment: Perceptions of the Child in Context. Her research has focused on cultural influences on parenting and early socioemotional development.
Scott A. Miller
Scott Miller is Professor of Psychology at the University of Florida. After completing his undergraduate work at Stanford University in 1966, he entered the Institute of Child Development at the University of Minnesota, where he earned his Ph.D. in 1971. His initial appointment was at the University of Michigan. He is a Fellow in the American Psychological Association (Division 7). He has previously authored Developmental Research Methods, second edition, and coauthored (with John Flavell and Patricia Miller) Cognitive Development, fourth edition. His research has been in the cognitive area, focusing on Piaget’s work, children’s understanding of logical necessity, theory of mind, and parents’ beliefs about children.
Ross Vasta
Before his death in 2000, Ross Vasta was Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the State University of New York at Brockport. He received his undergraduate degree from Dartmouth College in 1969 and his Ph.D. in clinical and developmental psychology from the State University of New York at Stony Brook in 1974. He was a Fellow in the American Psychological Society and the American Psychological Association (Division 7). In 1987 he was awarded the SUNY Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Teaching. His previous books include Studying Children: An Introduction to Research Methods, Strategies and Techniques of Child Study, and Six Theories of Child Development. He also edited the annual series Annals of Child Development.
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PART I UNDERSTANDING THE CONTEXTS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
1 Frameworks for Development
Child Development in Space and Time 4
Contexts of Child Development 5
An Ecological Model 5
The Developmental Niche of Childhood 8
Perceptions of Children Across Time 10
Key Issues In Child Development 12
Nature and Nurture as Sources of Influence 12
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY The Social Construction of Childhood 13
Stability and Change in Developmental Pathways 14
Typical Development and Individual Variation 15
Cultural Differences and Similarities in Development 15
Child Development Research in Applied Contexts 17
Parenting 17
Schools and Child Care 17
Social Policy 17
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with an Outreach Liaison 18
Theoretical Perspectives—An Overview 19
Psychoanalytic Approaches 20
Evolutionary and Biological Approaches 22
Ethology 22
John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory 24
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology 24
Behavioral and Social Learning Approaches 24
Classical Conditioning 25
B. F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning 25
Social Learning Theory 26
Cognitive-Developmental Approaches 28
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 29
Information Processing Model 31
Sociocultural Approach: The Work of Vygotsky 31
■ APPLICATIONS Theories as Everyday Explanations for Behavior 33
2 Studying Child Developmentand and Its Contexts
Studying Children 40
From Observation and Theory to Hypothesis 40
Ensuring Objectivity 40
Methods Used to Study Children 42
Descriptive Methods 42
Continued
Observation 42
Interview Methods 44
Case Studies 45
Correlational Research 45
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a Cross-Cultural Psychologist 48
Experimental Research 48
Studying Development 52
Longitudinal Research 53
■ APPLICATIONS Wise Consumers of Research on Development 54
Cross-Sectional Research 54
Cross-Sequential Design 55
Microgenetic Method 56
Issues in the Study of Children 56
Ethical Considerations in Child Development Research 57
Cultural Considerations in Child Development Research 58
■ CONVERSATIONS Studying AIDS Orphans in Africa 60
3 The Biological Context of Development
Mechanisms of Inheritance 68
Cell Division 68
Inside the Chromosome 70
Mendel’s Studies 70
Principles of Genetic Transmission 72
Principles of Inheritance Since Mendel 72
Genes and Behavior 73
Family Studies 73
Adoption Studies 74
Twin Studies 75
Interaction of Genes and Environment 77
Reaction Range 77
Gene–Environment Correlations 79
Nonshared Environment 80
Genetic Disorders 81
Hereditary Autosomal Disorders 82
Dominant Traits 82
Recessive Traits 82
X-Linked Disorders 84
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY The Human Genome Project 86
Structural Defects in the Chromosome 87
Autosomal Defects 88
Disorders of the Sex Chromosomes 88
Genetic Counseling 89
A Counseling Session 90
Population Screening 90
Pathways to Parenthood 91
Assisted Reproduction 91
Effects of ART on Child Development 93
Adoption 93
■ APPLICATIONS Journey to Parenthood 94
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with an Adoption Social Worker 96
PART II CONTEXTS OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
4 Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn
Pregnancy 106
Factors that Influence Conception 107
Impacts of Parental Age 108
Prenatal Screening 109
Ultrasound 109
Amniocentesis 109
Chorionic Villus Sampling 110
Endoscopic Fetoscopy 110
Test-tube Screening 110
Prenatal Treatment 110
Medical Therapy 110
Surgery 111
Genetic Engineering 111
Ethical Considerations 111
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY Technology and Gender Selection 112
Stages of Prenatal Development 113
Period of the Zygote (First Two Weeks) 113
Period of the Embryo (3rd to 8th Week) 114
Period of the Fetus (9th to 38th Week) 115
Prenatal Environmental Influences 118
Teratogens 118
Illegal and Harmful Drugs 120
Tobacco 123
Alcohol 123
Therapeutic Drugs 124
Environmental Hazards 124
Infectious Diseases 125
Herpes 125
HIV 126
Syphilis and Gonorrhea 126
Maternal Health 126
Nutrition 127
Stress 128
Prenatal Care 128
Continued
Birth 130
Labor and Delivery 130
Childbirth and Society 131
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a Certified Professional Midwife 132
The Newborn 135
Assessing the Newborn’s Health 135
Birth Complications 136
Birthweight and Gestational Age 137
■ APPLICATIONS Caring for Preterm and Low-Birthweight Infants in the NICU 138
5 Early Capacities in Infancy
The Organized Infant 150
States of Arousal 150
Changing Sleep Patterns 151
■ APPLICATIONS Sleep in Cultural Perspective 152 Reflexes 153
Congenitally Organized Behaviors 155
Looking 155
Sucking 155
Crying 156
Motor Development 157
Development of Motor Skills in Infancy 157
Motor Development in Cultural Context 159
Dynamic Systems Approach to Motor Development 160
Motor Development in Childhood 161
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversation with an Infant Physical Therapist 162
Perceptual Development 163
Studying Perceptual Development 164
Touch, Smell, Taste, and Vestibular Sensitivity 165
Touch 165
Smell and Taste 166
Vestibular Sensitivity 166
Hearing 166
Prenatal Hearing 167
Sound Localization 168
Vision 168
Visual Acuity 169
Color Vision 170
Visual Pattern and Contrast 170
Visual Organization 170
Face Perception 171
Can Newborns Recognize Their Mothers’ Faces? 172
Perception of Objects and Their Properties 173
Size Constancy 173
Seeing Objects as Continuous 173
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY Infants’ Perception of Motion 174
Perception of Depth 174
The Integrated Senses 176
Exploration 177
Representation 177
Attention and Action 178
Development of Attention 178
Helping Children with Attentional Problems 181
6 The Brain, Physical Growth, and Health
The Brain 192
Structure of the Brain 193
Development of the Brain 193
Hemispheric Specialization 195
The Developing Brain and Early Experience 196
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY Imaging the Brain 198
Physical Growth 200
Changes in Physical Growth Across Time and Place 200
Individual Differences in Growth Rates 201
Gender 201
Genetic Factors 202
Malnutrition and Illness 203
Changes in Body Proportion and Composition 203
Puberty Changes and Timing 204
Cultural and Social Attitudes toward Puberty 205
Physical Health in Infancy 205
Infant Mortality 206
Nutrition 207
Breastfeeding 207
Cultural Perspectives on Weaning and Feeding 209
Malnutrition 209
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a Family Nutritionist 210
Sleep 210
Immunization and Child Health Care 212
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) 214
Physical Health in Childhood and Adolescence 215
Physical Activity and Sports Participation 216
Obesity 216
Eating Disorders 217
Substance Use and Abuse 218
■ APPLICATIONS Just Say No? Teens, Sexuality, and Society 220
PART III CONTEXTS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
7
Piaget and Vygotsky
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 231 Mechanisms of Cognitive Change 231
The Concept of Stages 232
Cognition During Infancy: The Sensorimotor Period 233
Six Substages of Sensorimotor Thought 234 Object Permanence 237
Testing Piaget: Recent Work on Infant Cognition 238 Violation of Expectancy Method 239 Representing Hidden Objects 239 Deferred Imitation 240
Thought in the Preschooler: The Preoperational Period 241 Symbolic Function 241
Emergence of Symbolic Play 242
Symbolic Advances of Early Childhood 242
■ APPLICATIONS Selecting Developmentally Appropriate Play Materials 244 Strengths of Preoperational Thought 244 Limitations of Preoperational Thought 245
Egocentrism 245
Perspective-Taking Abilities 245 Centration 245
Focus on Appearances 247
Middle-Childhood Intelligence: The Concrete Operational Period 248
The Concept of Operations 248
Conservation 248
Relational Reasoning: Class Inclusion and Seriation 249
Testing Piaget: Operational vs. Preoperational Differences 250
Preoperational Perspective Taking 250
Preoperational Conservation 251
Adolescent and Adult: The Formal Operational Period 251
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning 251
Reasoning about Pendulums 252
Testing Piaget: Formal Operations vs. Concrete Operations 253 Evaluating Piaget’s Theory 254
The Issue of Stages 254
The Issue of Universality 254
Vygotsky and the Sociocultural Approach 255
The Temporal Contexts of Development 256
The Social Origins of Thought 256
The Use of Cultural Tools and Artifacts 257
Interacting with Toys and Objects 257
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY Weaving Generations Together: Evolving Creativity in the Maya of Chiapas 258 Implications of Object Play for Development 260
The Role of Pretend Play 260
Piaget and Vygotsky on Language and Thought 262
Impacts of Piaget and Vygotsky on Education 264
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with an Early Childhood Educator 267
Comparing the Cognitive-Developmental and Sociocultural Approaches 267
8
Information Processing and Core Knowledge Approaches
The Information Processing Approach to Cognition 282
Computer Simulations and Neural Networks 283
Microgenetic Studies 284
Memory 286
Basic Memory Processes in Infancy 287
Recognition Memory 287
Recall Memory 288
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY Children’s Eyewitness Testimony 289
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a Child Therapist 290
Developmental Changes in Memory 290
Cognitive Tools 290
The Role of Strategies 292
Developmental Changes in Strategy Use 292
Variability in Strategy Use 293
The Role of Knowledge: Experts and Novices 293
The Role of Metacognition 295
Developmental Changes in Metacognition 296
Effects of Metacognition on Memory Performance 296
Problem Solving 297
Rule-Based Problem Solving 297
Preschoolers’ Rule-Based Reasoning 297
Developments in Rule-Based Reasoning 298
Reasoning by Analogy 300
Contributions of Memory to Problem Solving 301
Mechanisms of Cognitive Change 303
Information Processing and Academic Learning 304
Strategy Construction and Selection in Arithmetic 304
Development of a Conceptual Knowledge Base in Physics 305
Metacognitive Awareness in Comprehension 306
The Core Knowledge Approach to Cognition 307
Knowledge of the Physical World 308
Understanding Solidity and Continuity 308
Understanding Physical Causality 309
Understanding the Social World 310
Understanding Human Behavior 310
Understanding Psychological States 311
Evaluating the Core Knowledge Approach 312
Theory of Mind 313
■ APPLICATIONS Brains in a Box: Do New Age Toys Deliver on the Promise? 314 Impacts of Cognitive Skills on Theory of Mind 314
Learning in Social Contexts 315
Representational Skills 315
Metacognitive Skills 317
Evaluating Theory of Mind 317
9 Intelligence and Schooling
Intelligence: IQ Testing and the Psychometric Approach 328
Measuring Intelligence 329
Stanford-Binet 329
The Wechsler Scales 329
Other Tests of Childhood Intelligence 330
Evaluating Intelligence Tests 330
Individual and Group Differences in IQ 331
Genetic versus Environmental Influences on Individual IQ Scores 332 The Concept of Heritability 333
Factors that Influence Performance on IQ Tests 334
Genetics 334
Cultural Bias in the Tests 335
■ APPLICATIONS Reducing Stereotype Threat in Minority Populations 336 Influence of the Environment 336
Alternative Conceptions of Intelligence 338
Evolutionary Approaches 338
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 340
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 341 Giftedness and Creativity 342
Schooling: Variations and Effects 343
Culture and the Cognitive Effects of Schooling 343
Social Organization of Classroom Instruction 345
Teacher Expectations 345
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY Culture, Schooling, and the Mind 346
Class and School Size 347
School Transitions 347
School Effectiveness 349
Schooling as a Mesosystem 349
Ability Grouping 351
Tracking 351
Single-Gender Classrooms 352
Mainstreaming and Inclusion: Teaching Students with Special Needs 353
Motivation to Learn 354
Motivation to Achieve 354
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a Special Educator 355
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 356
Other Factors Associated with Motivation 357
Culture, Diversity, and Schooling 358
Ethnicity 358
Socioeconomic Status 359
An Ounce of Prevention: Compensatory Education 360
The Abecedarian Project 360
Head Start 360
Culture, Classrooms, and Academic Performance 362
10
Language and Communication
Components of Language 376
Sounds and Words 377
Sentences and Communication 377
Theories of Language Development 378
Learning Approach 378
Nativist Approach 379
Cognitive-Developmental Approach 380
Sociocultural Approach 380
Preverbal Communication in Infancy 383
Speech Perception 383
Early Sounds and Gestures 384
Semantics: First Words and Vocabulary 385
Early Vocabulary Development 385
Individual and Cultural Differences 386
Children’s First Words and Word Combinations 387
Learning the Meaning of Words 389
Roles of Parents and Children in Semantic Learning 391
Grammar: Communicating in Sentences 392
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a Speech-Language Pathologist 393
Development of Grammar 394
Mechanisms of Grammar Acquisition 395
Environmental Contributions to Mastery of Grammar 397
Development of Pragmatics: Socially Appropriate Use of Language 399
Speech Acts 399 Discourse 400
Social Referential Communication 401
Contexts That Influence Language Development 402
Learning Language in Diverse Family Contexts 402
Early Experiences with Books and Oral Language 403
Early Experiences with Television and Computers 405
■ APPLICATIONS Teaching Children to Read 406
Language Development in Multilingual Settings 408
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY Bilingual Education 410
Language Development Across Cultures 411
PART IV CONTEXTS OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
11 Social and Emotional Worlds of Infants and Young Children
Temperament 428
How Is Infant Temperament Measured? 429
Dimensions of Temperament 429
Understanding Different Temperament Profiles 430
Goodness of Fit: Parenting and Temperament 431
Stability of Temperament and Later Personality 431
Emotions and Early Communication 432
Understanding Emotions 432 Development of Emotional Expression 433 Emotions and Responding to Others 434
Stranger Anxiety 435
Social Referencing 435
Emotions and Parent-Infant Interactions 436
Parent-Infant Interaction Cycles 436
Parent-Infant Interaction Patterns 437
Problems in Parent-Infant Interaction 437
Emotions in Cross-Cultural Perspective 438
Socialization of Emotions 438
Emotional Display Rules 439
Attachment to Others 440
Why Do Infants Become Attached? 441
Drive Reduction Theories 441
Other Psychoanalytic Perspectives 442
Ethological Approaches 442
Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment 442
Individual Differences in Attachment 443
■ APPLICATIONS Promoting Healthy Parent-Infant Relationships 445 Causes and Consequences of Individual Differences in Attachment 446
Temperament and Attachment 446
Consequences of Attachment 446
Attachment Across Generations 446
Culture and Attachment 447
Attachment Relationships in a Changing World 448 Nonparental Care and Attachment 449
The Changing Role of Fathers 450
Attachment and the Family Courts 450
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY In the Child’s Best Interest? 451
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a CASA Volunteer Supervisor 452
Social and Emotional Development in Contexts of Risk 453
Trauma 454
Abuse and Neglect 454
Childhood Hospitalization 455
Severe Emotional Deprivation 455
Risk and Resilience 456
12
Self and Identity
Theories of the Self 467
Psychoanalytic Approaches to the Self 467
Cognitive-Developmental Approaches to the Self 467
Environmental/Learning Approaches to the Self 467
Evolutionary and Biological Approaches to the Self 468
Sociocultural Approaches to the Self 468
Self-Knowledge 469
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY Culture and the Self 470
Discovery of the Self in Infancy 470
Self-Recognition 471
Self-Recognition over Time 472
Individual Differences in Self-Recognition 473
Awareness of Self and Others 473
Developmental Changes in Self-Descriptions 474
Self-Control 475
Compliance 477
Delay of Gratification 479
Internalization and Development of Conscience 481
Self-Evaluation and Self-Esteem 482
Understanding and Measuring of Self-Esteem 483
Methods of Measurement 483
Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Children 483
Marsh’s Self-Description Questionnaire 485
The Developmental Progression of Self-Esteem 486
Gender Differences in Self-Esteem 487
Academic Self-Concept 487
Dweck’s Motivational Model of Achievement 487
The Development of Motivation:
Work with Preschool Children 488
Children’s Implicit Theories of Intelligence 488
Effects of Praise and Criticism 489
Role of Social Comparisons 490
Role of Parenting Styles 491
Effects of Academic Self-Concept 492
Cultural Perspectives on Understanding the Self 492
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a School Guidance Counselor 493
Identity and Society 493
Erikson and Marcia on Identity Crisis 494
Social and Cultural Influences on Identity 495
Ethnic Identity 496
■ APPLICATIONS Possible Selves and Academic Achievement 497
Identity Construction as an Ongoing Process 498
13
Sex Differences and Gender Role Development
Sex Differences: Perceived and Real 513
Physical Differences 514
Vulnerability 514
Activity Level 514
Motor Development 514
Cognitive Differences 514
Language and Verbal Abilities 514
Quantitative Abilities 515
Spatial Abilities 517
■ APPLICATIONS Should Schools Teach Visual-Spatial Skills? 518
Social and Personality Differences 518
Emotional Development 519
Self-Control 519
Aggression 520
Prosocial Behavior 520 Activities and Interests 520
Friends and Companions 521
Influences on Sex Differences and Gender Role Development 522
Biological Influences 522
Genes and Hormones 522
Hormonal Regulation and Abnormalities 523
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY When Genotype and Phenotype Don’t Match 524
Brain Lateralization 525
Social Influences 525
Society and the Media 526
Teachers 526
Parents 527
Siblings 530
Peers 530
The Child’s Active Participation in Gender Role Development 532
Self-Selecting Processes 532
Role of Cognition in Gender Identity 533
Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Approach 533
Schema Theory 534
Gender Role Development 535
Development of Gender Knowledge 535
Flexibility of Gender Stereotypes 535
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with Men in Nontraditional Roles 536
Influences of Gender Knowledge on Behavior 537
Toy Preferences 537
Motivation 538
Memory 538
Social Judgments 538
Development of Sexual Relationships and Behavior 539
Emergence of Romantic and Sexual Interest 540
Origins of Sexual Orientation 541
Biological Influences 541
Social Influences 542
Gender Identity and Transsexualism 542
14 Moral Development
Theories of Moral Development 552
Piaget’s Model of Moral Development 552
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development 555
Turiel’s Moral Domains 558
Cultural Construction Approach 560
Influences on Moral Development 560
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY When Are We Obligated to Help Others? Cultural Differences in Children’s Perceptions 561
Peer Influences on Moral Reasoning 562
Parent Influences on Moral Reasoning 562
Psychological Factors that Influence Moral Behavior 563
Prosocial Behavior 564
Empathy and Sympathy 564
Helping and Sharing 564
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a Marriage and Family Therapist 565
Conflict Resolution 567
Individual Differences 567
Gender Differences 568
Social and Cultural Differences 568
Determinants of Prosocial Behavior 569
Kin Selection and Reciprocal Altruism 569
Moral Affect and Moral Reasoning 569
Social Participation and Socialization 570
Aggression 572
Age and Gender Differences in Aggression 572
Biological Determinants of Aggression 573
Cognitive and Affective Influences on Aggression 574
Sociocultural and Family Determinants of Aggression 575
Family Processes 575
Peer Relations 576
Television and Real-Life Violence 577
Controlling Childhood Aggression 578
Parent and Child Training 579
School-Based Programs 581
■ APPLICATIONS Intervening in the Lives of Aggressive Children 582
15 Relationships with Peers
Peer Sociability 596
Types of Play 597
Friendship 599
Determinants of Friendship 600
Behavior with Friends 602
Intimacy 603
Effects of Friendship 603
Peer Acceptance 604
Peer Status 605
Peer Status and Problem-Solving Skills 606
Stability of Peer Status 607
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY Bullying and Victimization in School 608
Peer Relations in Cultural Perspective 608
■ APPLICATIONS Enhancing Peer Competence among Shy Children 610
The Social Contexts of Peer Relationships 612
Conformity to Peers 613
Family-Peer Connections 613
Siblings and Peers 614
Parents and Peers 614
Peer Relations as a Source of Resilience 616
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a Community Mental Health Practitioner 618
16 Families and Society
Parenting Styles 626
Contextual Influences on Parenting Styles 628
Parenting Roles: Mothers and Fathers 629
■ RESEARCH & SOCIETY Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Parental Acceptance and Rejection 630
The Child’s Contribution 632
The Family as a Social System 633
Siblings 634
Sibling Relationships over Time 634
Effects of Siblings 635
Grandparents 636
Families in Cultural Perspective 636
Social Support and the Family System 637
Families in Social Context 638
Families and the Media 639
Families, Schools, and Communities 640
Socioeconomic Influences 641
Families Living in the Context of Poverty 642
Ethnicity and Race 643
Families and Immigration 645
■ APPLICATIONS Building Tolerance in a Diverse Society 646
Families in a Changing Society 648
Divorce and Blended Families 648
Effects of Divorce 648
Determinants of Effects 649
Remarriage 649
Single-Parent Families 650
Single-Parent Families Formed Through Divorce 650
Single-Parents Who Have Never Married 651
Adoptive and Foster Families 653
■ CONVERSATIONS Conversations with a Child Protective Services Administrator 654
Families Headed by Gay and Lesbian Parents 655
Glossary G1
References R1
Author Index I1
Subject Index I20
Frameworks for Development
In what ways does this child's cultural & historical contexts shape his development?
(John Warburton-Lee/Danita Delimont)
CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN SPACE AND TIME
Learning Objective 1.1
DESCRIBE WAYS THAT CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXTS HAVE INFLUENCED OUR UNDERSTANDING OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT.
Contexts of Child Development
• An Ecological Model • The Developmental Niche of Childhood
Perceptions of Children Across Time
RESEARCH & SOCIETY The Social Construction of Childhood
KEY ISSUES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objective 1.2
HOW CAN WE UNDERSTAND THE INFLUENCES OF NATURE AND NURTURE, STABILITY AND CHANGE, AND UNIFORMITY AND VARIATION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT?
Nature and Nurture as Sources of Influence
Stability and Change in Developmental Pathways
Typical Development and Individual Variation
Cultural Differences and Similarities in Development
CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH IN APPLIED CONTEXTS
Learning Objective 1.3
DESCRIBE HOW RESEARCH-BASED KNOWLEDGE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT IS APPLIED IN REAL-LIFE CONTEXTS.
Parenting
Schools and Child Care
Social Policy
CONVERSATIONS with an Outreach Liaison
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES—An Overview
Learning Objective 1.4
WHAT ARE FIVE MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN THE FIELD OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT?
Psychoanalytic Approaches
Evolutionary and Biological Approaches
• Ethology • John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory • Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
Behavioral and Social-Learning Approaches
• Classical Conditioning • B. F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning • Social-Learning Theory
Cognitive-Developmental Approaches
• Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development • Information-Processing Models
Sociocultural Approach: The Work of Vygotsky
APPLICATIONS Theories as Everyday Explanations for Behavior
The [Gusii of] Nyansongo [Kenya] had the largest number of children (50 percent) involved in the herding of animals. The young boys took the cattle, sheep, and goats to the homestead pastures or drove them along the sides of the road where there was grass. They were responsible for seeing that the animals did not get into the gardens and ruin their own or someone else’s food supply. They drove the cattle, sheep, and goats to the river to drink and took care that they returned home with the proper number of animals. (Whiting & Whiting, 1975, p. 90)
[In] Orchard Town [New England, USA] the tasks assigned to children are less clearly related to the economy and welfare of the child or the child’s family and probably seem more arbitrary to the child The need for having clothes hung up, bureau drawers tidy, or the bed smoothed out neatly is probably not immediately clear, nor are the consequences of negligence obviously serious. (Whiting & Whiting, 1975, p. 106)
These paragraphs describe children who are growing up in two very different contexts. The first context is a small village in Kenya populated by subsistence farmers. Children help with chores that are essential to survival. Through their daily involvement with these tasks, they learn the skills necessary to become productive farmers themselves someday. The second context is a small town in the northeastern United States. Children grow up in home settings and go to schools that are typically separated from adult work environments. School usually
Learning Objective 1.1
Describe ways that cultural and historical contexts have influenced our understanding of child development.
Developmental psychology
The branch of psychology devoted to the study of changes in behavior and abilities over the course of development.
focuses on acquiring skills that children may not easily associate with the adult roles they will someday assume. How might growing up in these two very different contexts affect a child’s development? For example, what skills and abilities are likely to be practiced and acquired by a child who is contributing to daily subsistence through herding animals or watching younger siblings while parents work in the fields, as compared to a child who spends a great deal of after-school time in leisure activities such as play and TV? ■
Child Development in Space and Time
The study of child development,also known as developmental psychology,is one of the largest of psychology’s many subfields.It is concerned with the changes in behavior and abilities that occur over time as development proceeds.Developmental researchers examine what the changes are and why they occur.
The field of child development consists of five major topics or dimensions of development that researchers focus on in their studies:physical,cognitive,linguistic,emotional, and social.In this book,we will discuss child development as it occurs within each of these broad domains.
• A researcher who studies the physical domain will examine topics such as development’s genetic foundations,physical growth,motor development,health,or sensory and perceptual development.
• Someone who studies cognitive development will focus on questions such as how children think,learn,remember,and solve problems.
• Linguistic development is concerned with how children acquire speech and learn to communicate using language.
• Studies of emotional development examine topics such as children’s temperament, or styles of responding to the environment,the quality of their attachments,and the development of emotions and self-concept.
• Researchers who are interested in children’s social development will study topics such as peer and family relationships,moral development,aggression,and prosocial behavior.
In addition,the field of child development is usually broken down into specific age periods. These are:
• Prenatal,or conception to birth
• Infancy/toddlerhood (birth to 36 months)
• Preschool or early childhood years (3–5 years)
• Middle childhood or school age (6–12 years)
• Adolescence (ages 13–18)
When we study children’s development over time,we are looking at how children change in their physical,cognitive,linguistic,emotional,and social development across these age periods.
Finally,child development researchers recognize that children are born into families— typically,families that hope the best for them.These families live within neighborhoods, which exist within communities,that in turn are part of larger societies and cultures.As children develop,their lives are influenced by each of these contexts:families and the love and types of resources they bring;neighborhoods and the educational settings they provide;communities and the peers and activities they offer for play and enrichment.Societies provide laws and institutions that guide childrearing,whereas cultures shape the beliefs and values that permeate the lives of children and their parents at all levels.In addition,societies and cultures change over time in some ways,while staying the same in other ways.These conditions and changes are the contexts of child development.
Many aspects of child development reflect our biological heritage as human beings and so are universal across cultures and societies.This textbook traces the growing child’s biological development from the embryo’s earliest beginnings to the child’s eventual adolescence.Many other aspects of development,however,are shaped by children’s families, neighborhoods,communities,and cultures.In addition to paying attention to the influence of biology on child development,this textbook focuses on the larger environmental context in which child development takes place.Thus,this textbook presents child development within a contextual framework.
Contexts of Child Development
Traditionally,scientific research on children’s development has taken place in laboratory settings,and for many good reasons.The most important reason is that scientific investigation demands careful experimental control,and the laboratory has traditionally afforded the only setting in which such control can be achieved.However,children’s development does not take place in laboratories.It takes place at home,with the family;at school,with classmates and teachers;in the park,with neighbors and peers;and within a larger social and cultural environment.In short, development always occurs in a context,and the context often influences the course ofdevelopment.
An Ecological Model The contexts of child development can be understood as a kind of ecological system.Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model is based on the idea that we can understand development completely by considering how the unique characteristics of a child interact with that child’s surroundings (1979,1992;Bronfenbrenner & Morris,1998;Pinquart & Silbereisen,2004).The child possesses a variety of personal characteristics,such as personality traits,physical appearance,and intellectual abilities. Bronfenbrenner described the most important characteristics as (1) developmentally generative—capable of influencing other people in ways that are important to the child;and (2) developmentally disruptive—capable of causing problems in the environment with corresponding negative effects on the child.
For example,suppose 2-year-old Avery has the developmentally generative characteristic of being highly verbal for her age.This affects her environment,for example,by
Questions for Thought and Discussion
In what ways has your development been shaped by your time and place?
Questions for Thought and Discussion
What behaviors or aspects of children’s development are you particularly interested in learning about in this course?
Ecological systems model Brofenbrenner’s model of development, which focuses on individuals and their relationships and interactions within their environmental contexts.
