INTRODUCTION
FollowingthesuccessfulconclusionoftheAlliedcampaigninSicily,which reopenedthesealanesintheMediterraneanbetweenGibraltarandEgypt,the Alliedleaderswereonceagainatloggerheadsoverwhatshouldbethenext moveagainsttheAxispowers.OnlyoneAlliedleadervoicedhisdesireto engageinfurthercampaignsintheMediterranean:PrimeMinisterWinston ChurchillbelievedacampaigntoliberateItalywouldallowtheWestern AlliedarmiestomoveintotheBalkansandEasternEuropeaheadofthe Soviets.TheAmericanmilitaryleadershipwasfirmlyopposedtosucha campaign,seeingrightlythatanysuchactionwasadistractionfromthemain event:thedefeatofHitler’sGermany.TheyarguedthatwhileanItalian campaignmightforcetheGermanstospreadtheirforcesandturnsome attentionawayfromnorthwesternEurope,nothingthathappenedinItaly wouldhaveanyimpactontheoutcomeofthecentralconfrontationacrossthe oldWesternFront.Indeed,Americanleadershadonlybeenpersuadedto engagetheenemyinNorthAfricabecauseofPresidentRoosevelt’sdomestic politicalneedforanoffensiveactioninEuropeattheearliestmoment.
TheSiciliancampaignhadbeenopposedbyAmericanleaders,who wantedacross-Channelinvasionin1943.However,thefactthatthiswas impossibleduetoashortageoflandingcraftthatwouldnotbemetuntil1944
The Allies invading Salerno. The MP (Military Policeman) in the foreground ducks when a blast from an 88mm round explodes nearby. (NARA)
hadallowedChurchilltosuccessfullypressforaninvasionofSicily,which heclaimedwouldputpressureonItalytoquitthewar.WithSicilyunder Alliedcontrolandtheshortageofinvasioncraftstillunresolved,theprime ministerarguedthatfailingtoundertakeanothercampaignbeforethecrossChannelinvasionwouldgivetheGermansbreathingspacetoreorganizetheir forcesandperhapscreateadefenseinnorthernFrancethattheAlliescould notbreak,whilelackoffightingwoulddemoralizethehomefrontwithout newsofcontinuedvictories.OnceChurchilldefinitelycommittedhimselfto supportinganinvasionofnorthernFrancein1944,Rooseveltagreedto supportfurthermilitaryeffortinItaly.Again,expediencyruledtheday.
GermanydecidestodefendinItaly
ChurchillhadbeenrightthatinvadingSicilywouldputpressureonthe Italianstowithdrawfromthewar.ThroughoutJuly1943,anti-Mussolini factionsinthegovernmentinRomehadworkedtoridthemselvesofthe dictator,andIlDucehadbeenforcedtoresignasprimeministeronJuly25. MarshalBadoglioassumedleadership,chargedbyKingVictorEmmanuelIII withfindingawaytomakepeace.OnSeptember3,1943,theArmisticeof CassibilesawItalysurrenderandpledgetojointhefightagainstGermany.At thesametime,theBritishEighthArmycrossedtheStraitsofMessinain Operation Baytown withoutcasualties,theItaliangovernmenthavingordered theirarmedforcesnottoresist.
WithMussolini’sarrest,theGermansplannedtooccupythecountry shouldthegovernmentsurrender.Surprisingly,Hitlersupportedsuchan occupationinhisbeliefthattheAllies’ultimategoalinvolvedinvading southernItalytogaincontroloftheairfieldsaroundFoggia,thentousethese andairfieldsonSicilytosupportaninvasionofGreeceandtheBalkans.He understoodChurchill’sdesiretomoveintoEasternEuropeandforestallthe Soviets,andknewthatsincehisalliesinBulgaria,Romania,andHungary werenotstronglycommittedtotheAxiscause,itmightnotbesucha difficultmove.
TheleadersoftheUSArmywerenottheonlyonestolookaskanceata warinItaly.FollowingtheAxissurrenderinNorthAfrica,FieldMarshal ErwinRommelarrivedinItalytotakecommandofArmyGroupB,which wouldberesponsibleforoccupyingallofthecountryintheeventofa surrender.HitlerpromisedRommelsixinfantryand Panzergrenadier (mechanizedinfantry)divisions,twoPanzerdivisions,andtwodivisionsof
LuftwaffeparatroopsthatwouldbetransferredfromFrance,withtwo additionalPanzerdivisionsfromtheEasternFront.Asithappened,thescale oftheGermantanklossesintheenormousarmoredbattleatKurskinJuly 1943precludedthetransferofthetwoEasternFrontdivisions.
Rommel,reportingtoHitlerthatItalycouldnotbedefendedwithoutthe cooperationoftheItalianArmy,advocatedthatadefensivelinebecreated southofthePoValleyinthenorthernApenninemountains,capableof blockinganattemptbytheAlliestoentertheReichthroughthesouth.
TherewasoneothermanbesidesChurchillwhoadvocatedafightonthe Italianpeninsula.LuftwaffeFieldMarshalAlbertKesselring–commanderin-chiefofGermanforcesontheSouthernFront,whichincludedItaly–had longbelievedanAlliedinvasionwasinevitable.Heplannedafull-on defense,usingtheGermanunitsthathadbeenheldbackinItalywhenthe AfrikaKorpssurrenderedinMay,aswellastheItalianArmy,whichhe
General Sir Harold Alexander (left) with Major General Lucian K Truscott Jr (right) at Anzio, March 4, 1944. (IWM/Getty Images)
predictedwouldremainloyal.MarshalKesselringbelievedHitlerfavored Rommel’splan,andwhenparatroopcommanderGeneralKurtStudent arrivedtoplanapossible coup d’état inRometoarrestthekingand Badoglio,Kesselringpresenteddetailedplansforsuchadefense.Hestated hisbeliefthatRomecouldbehelduntilthesummerof1944ifhewere allowedtowageacampaignofattrition,forcingtheAlliestopayinbloodfor everyinchofterritorytakeninCalabriaandApulia,anddelayingtheir advanceaslongaspossible.HealsostatedflatlythattheAllieswouldnot invadebeyondtherangeoftheiraircoveronSicily,correctlynamingSalerno asthemostlikelyinvasiontargetandadvocatingthatGermanforcesoccupy theregionandfortifyagainstsuchamove.
KesselringprescientlystatedthatafterRomefellthenextsummer,the armyshouldthenretreatnorthandtakeupapositioninthelineof fortificationsRommelhadnamed“theHitlerLine,”wheretheycouldhold out“indefinitely”solongassufficientsuppliescouldbesecuredthroughthe BrennerPasslinkingItalywithAustria.Studentwasimpressedby Kesselring’spresentationandreportedittoHitler.Whenhevisitedhis generalsagaininearlySeptember,HitlerlistenedtoKesselring,whohad takenresponsibilitytomoveunitsoftheTenthArmyintopositionaround Salerno,buthedirectedRommeltocontinuebuildingwhathadbeen prudentlyrenamedthe“GothicLine”toavoidthepossibilityofincurring Hitler’srageshouldtheoperationfail.RumorsbegantoswirlonSeptember7 thattheItaliansurrenderwouldbecomeeffectivethenextday.Onthe eveningofSeptember8,Kesselringbowedtotheinevitableandorderedhis forcestopreparetoevacuateiftheorderwasgiven,buttoholdtheir positionsuntiltheyreceivedthewithdrawalorder.
TheAlliesinvade
TheAllieshadonlydecidedtolandontheItalianmainlandinlateJulyand sufferedfromanintelligencedisadvantage,sinceallGermancommunications werebylandlineratherthanradio,shieldingthemfromUltracodebreaking. Someplannersadvocateda coup de main,droppingparatroopsintoRomeon September8tocoincidewiththesurrender,coupledwithlandingthemain forceonthecoastatNettunotocutofftheenemyarmyinsouthernItaly. Thisplanwasdroppedwhenitbecameclearthattherewasnowaytoprovide aerialsupportbeyondtherangeofairforcesinSicily.Planningthenfocused onSalerno,thenorthernmostpossibility,asKesselringhadpredicted.The
hopeofanairbornelandingcontinued,withGeneralMaxwellTaylorofthe 82ndAirborneDivisionlandingsecretlyatAnzioinearlySeptembertomeet withtheItalianauthoritiesinRometoplantheevent.Intheend,theItalians couldnotpromiseloyalarmyunitstosupporttheAmericans,whileitalso becameobviousthatKesselring’sforcesinthecitywerefarmoreactivethan hadbeenexpected.Thecomingcampaignwouldthusseenoaudacious Alliedstrategy.
The bombed-out shell of the monastery at Monte Cassino. The 340th Bomb Group was first in to bomb the abbey, but the newspapers at home gave all the credit to the B-17s. Warning was given and the monastery was evacuated, the artwork removed. The Allies targeted the monastery because they were convinced that the Germans were using it for military purposes They weren’t (Photo by Keystone-France/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images)
TheBritishEighthArmylandedatTarantoonSeptember8.Therewasno opposition,sinceKesselringdidnotseethisasbeingthemainattack.He orderedtheactivationofOperation Achse todisarmItalianunitsandoccupy importantpositions.Rommeldisarmedthenorthernunits,whileKesselring orderedthoseinthesouthtogohome.BySeptember15,theItalianArmy
haddisappeared,leavingtheWehrmachtinfullcontroloffurtherwarinthe peninsula.HadtheAllieswaiteduntilSeptember12,thedatetheItalians expectedtheinvasionandthattheGermanswereusingtocoordinateplans fortheirwithdrawaltoRome,Hitler’sordertoevacuateGermanforcesin southernItalywouldnothavebeengivenuntilSeptember9andtheinvasion wouldhavefoundtheGermanTenthArmyinthemidstofwithdrawal,which wouldhavepreventedoppositiontotheinvadingAllies.Now,inthefaceof theAlliedlanding,withtheTenthArmystillinsouthernItaly, force majeure requiredthatastandbemade,andtheWehrmachtthusstoodfirminthe southofthepeninsula.
In addition to danger in the air, there was also danger on the ground. This photo shows a Ju87 Stuka dive-bomber given to the Italian Regia Aeronautica (as identified by the Italian insignia on the tail) at Catania, Sicily, in December 1943 The hole just forward of the cockpit is the result of the detonation of a booby trap set by the retreating forces (57th Bomb Wing Archives, Edward Betts Collection)
Operation Avalanche onSeptember9,whichsawtheUSFifthArmyand elementsoftheBritishEighthArmyandtheCanadianArmycomeashoreat Salerno,wasthemainattackKesselringanticipated.Tomaximizesurprise, invasioncommanderLtGeneralMarkW.Clarkhadforegonethetraditional preliminaryairandnavalbombardment.Yettherewasnosurprise;the Germanswerereadyandabletorespond.AsthefirstwaveoftheAmerican 36th(Texas)InfantryDivisionapproachedtheshoreatPaestum,a loudspeakerinthelandingareaproclaimedinEnglish:“Comeoninandgive up.Wehaveyoucovered.”Thefirstwavelandedintotheteethofthefour battlegroupsofthe16thPanzerDivision.Bytheendoftheday,leadAllied
elementscouldlookdownontheplainofNaplesbutwerehard-pressedto keeptheirposition.
Thatnight,theHermannGöringand15thPanzergrenadierdivisions movedtothebattlefield.Fightingwasintenseduringthenextthreedaysas KesselringfedinmoreunitswhileAlliedreinforcementswereconstrainedby limitedtransportavailabilityandthepredeterminedbuild-upschedule. KesselringaskedRommeltosendhimthetwoArmyGroupBPanzer divisions,butRommelrefusedonthegroundsthattheirlosscouldnotbe riskedifhewastosuccessfullydefendnorthernItalyafterKesselring’sforces weredefeated.Afterthewar,KesselringtoldhisAlliedinterrogatorshe believedthatifRommelhadsenthimthetwoarmoreddivisionsby September13,hecouldhavedefeatedtheSalernoinvasion.Consideringhow hardthefightingwas,twoexperiencedarmoreddivisionsmightwellhave tippedthebalanceintheGermans’favor.
Asitwas,theAllieswereforcedtodropthe82ndAirborneDivisiononthe invasionbeachestoprovidereinforcementwhentheGermancounterattack cameonSeptember13.TwoGermanbattlegroupsoverrantwobattalionsof the36thInfantryDivisionandnearlywipedthemout.Theywereonly stoppedbyUSartilleryfiringoveropensights,navalgunfire,anda makeshiftpositionmannedandheldbyartillerymen,drivers,cooks,and clerks.Atonepoint,GeneralClarkseriouslyconsideredthepossibilityofan evacuationunderfire.
TheGermanattackswererepulsedwithheavycasualtiesthenextday.That night,everyAlliedbomberinNorthAfricaandSicilyhitenemypositionsin thesurroundinghills.Nextday,theHermannGöringDivision’sattackwas stoppedbynavalgunfire,includingthe15ingunsofHMS Warspite. HitlerwasimpressedwiththeresultsandagreedwithKesselringon September15thatadelayedwithdrawalwascorrect.Kesselringorderedthe preparationofadefensivelineontheVolturnoandRapidoriversnorthof Naples,whichhecalledtheBernhardLine.OnSeptember16,theLuftwaffe usedFritz-Xguidedbombsagainsttheinvasionfleet,damagingHMS Warspite andsinkingtwocargoships.
Thebattleofattrition
BeginningonSeptember17,theGermanTenthArmyunderGeneral HeinrichvonVietinghofbeganafightingwithdrawalwhichextendedover thenextmonthuntilhistroopsoccupiedtheBernharddefensesfromwhich
theywouldblockanyfurtherAmericanadvance.VonVietinghofhadcome withinanaceofdefeatingtheSalernobeachheadandwouldcontinueto stymiehisopponentsoverthenext18months.Americanplannershadnot anticipatedsuchresistance;itwasafailureofimaginationandplanningthat wouldrepeatitselfinthemonthstocome.
OnSeptember19,theAlliesattackedtowardNaplesandthefreshlylanded US3rdInfantryDivision,commandedbyMajorGeneralLucianK.Truscott, Jr,tookAcerno,followedbytheliberationofAvellinoonSeptember28.The followingday,theEighthArmycapturedthemajorairfieldcomplexat FoggiawhichwouldbecometheprimarybaseofAlliedairpower.On October1,AlliedforcesenteredNaplesfollowingtheGermanwithdrawalin thefaceofrebellionbythepeopleofthecity.
HitlersummonedKesselringandRommeltohisheadquartersonOctober4 toheartheirviewsonacounteroffensive.Rommel,overestimatingAllied amphibiouscapability,believedalinetoofarsouthwasagreatdanger, thoughheadmittedtoholdtheBernhardLineitwouldtakehalfthedivisions necessarytodefendhislineintheAppenines.Rommel’snegativeattitude towardfightinginthesouthconvincedHitlerhewasnolongerreliable. KesselringwasorderedtofinishtheBernhardLine,thoughHitlerdidnot completelyacceptKesselring’soptimismaboutbeingabletoholdtheAllies inthesouthforsixtoninemonths,andalsoorderedRommeltocompletethe GothicLine.HethenappointedKesselringCommander-in-ChiefSouthwest (i.e.,theItaliantheater)andArmyGroupC.TheLuftwaffefieldmarshalhad wonamajorvictoryintheargumenttodefinetherestofthewarinItaly.On November21,RommelwassenttoFrancetofinishtheAtlanticWall.After Kesselring,thetwomainimpedimentstoAlliedsuccesswouldbethe pedestrianBritishGeneralSirHaroldAlexander,aChurchillfavoritein overalltheatercommand,andGeneralMarkClark,whoselustforglory wouldlengthenthebattleinItalybynearlyayear.
The future General Knapp (3rd from the left, front row) during pilot training in 1928 at Baker Field. Robert Knapp was a respected leader of the 57th Bomb Wing, and a pioneer of military aviation He was an early advocate of the radar-controlled SHORAN bombing technology (57th Bomb Wing Archives)
8H was shot down on February 16, 1944, over Campoleone, supporting the invasion at Anzio A direct hit set the engine on fire Only the navigator, Sgt Mones E Hawley, was able to bail out. He was captured immediately by the Germans. (57th Bomb Wing Archives)
TheSalernobloodbathwasonlyatasteofwhatwastocome.BymidOctober,theGermansweresafelyintheBernhardLine;furthernorth,the GustavLine,centeredonMonteCassinoandblockingtheadvancetoRome,
wascompleted.TheBernhardLineheldtheAlliesfollowingtherainsof NovemberandtheblizzardsanddriftingsnowofDecember.
InJanuary1944,GeneralDwightD.Eisenhower,Alliedcommandersince theNorthAfricaninvasion,lefttobecomeSupremeCommander,Allied ExpeditionaryForcesfortheforthcomingNormandyinvasion.Hetookwith himtheUS1stInfantryDivision,“TheBigRedOne,”whichhadprovenits worthandreputationinNorthAfrica,Sicily,andItaly,aswellasthe82nd Airborne,themostexperiencedAmericanparatroopdivisionwithdropsat Casablanca,Sicily,andSalerno.AlliedforcesinItalywouldfindthemselves progressivelyweakeragainsttheirGermanopponentsasmen,materiel,and equipmentweredivertedtooperationsaimedmoredirectlyatGermandefeat. NootherAlliedcampaigninEuropewasmorecostlyinliveslostand woundssufferedbyinfantrymenthanthebittersmall-scalefightsatthe BernhardLine,theGustavLine,Anzio,andtheGothicLine.Intheend,the warinItalywasfoughtbecauseitwasthere.
GeneralClark’smistake
ShortlyafterEisenhower’sdeparture,FifthArmyreachedtheGustavLineon January15,followingsixweeksofheavyfightingtobreakthroughthe BernhardtLine,duringwhichtheAlliedarmiessuffered16,000casualties; Kesselring’sstrategyofmakingtheAlliespayinbloodforeveryfootofItaly theytookwasbearingfruit.OnJanuary22,GeneralTruscott’snew command,VICorps,attemptedan“endrun”aroundtheGustavLineby landingatAnzio,butindecisiveAmericanfrontlineleadershipallowedthe Wehrmacht’sFourteenthArmytosurroundthebeachhead,turningitintoa “meatgrinder”forTruscott’sforce.
BetweenJanuary20andMay11,fourattemptstobreaktheGustavLine wouldseetheaerialdestructionofthemedievalmonasteryandsomeofthe worstAlliedcasualtiesoftheentirewarbeforethePolishdivisionfinally foughtitswaytothecrestofCassinoonMay12.Threedayslater, Commonwealthunitshadmovedintopositionsfromwheretheycouldcutoff theGermanTenthArmyfromitspathtoRome.Atthispoint,therewas reasonforoptimismthattheItaliancampaignwouldsoonend.
TheAlliedplaninvolvedabreakoutfromAnziobyTruscott’sVICorps whentheGermanretreatfromtheGustavLinebegan,headingsoutheastto connectwithCanadianArmyforcesand“bag”theTenthArmy. Unfortunately,GeneralClark’segointervened.Desperateforthegloryof
beingtheliberatorofRome,ClarkhadactuallyaskedEisenhowertodelay Overlord –theinvasionofnorthernFrance–fortwoweekstoallowtimeto celebratethefallofRome.WhenTruscott’stroopsweresuccessfulintheir breakout,ClarkorderedhimtoturnnortheastinsteadandliberatetheEternal City.
Mark Clark,
allowed the German
wanted the
of
TheGermansescapetotheGothicLine
TheTenthArmyfoundthegapbetweenUSVICorps’southernflankandthe Canadians,andtheGermansmadeasuccessfulforcedmarchnorth.While AmericantroopsliberatedRome–whichhadfallenwithoutafightwhenthe Germanswithdrew–TenthArmymarchedaroundthecityandlinkedup withtheFourteenthArmyasitwithdrewfromtheAnziofighting.
ImmediatelyafterthevictoryatCassinoandthefallofRome,General Truscott’sVICorpsandtheFrenchExpeditionaryCorps–atotalofseven combat-hardenedexperienceddivisions–werewithdrawnfromoperationsin ItalytoparticipateinOperation Dragoon,theAlliedinvasionofsouthern FranceonAugust17,1944.
General
who
glory
being the “Liberator of Rome ” To achieve that, he
Tenth Army to escape a trap as they retreated from Monte Cassino Two days after Rome was liberated, the D-Day invasion of France totally overshadowed the liberation of Rome, robbing Clark of the glory he sought (Photo by Keystone/Getty Images)
Overthecourseofthesummerof1944,aseriesofpitchedbattleswere foughtinItalyastheAllieskeptuppressureontheretreatingGermans.The fightingretreatoftheTenthandFourteentharmieswasamasterfuldisplayof generalshiponthepartofKesselringandhisfieldcommander,von Vietinghoff.TheirforcesheldtheAlliesateachpositiontothelastmoment, withdrawingjustintimetoavoiddestructionandleavingtheiropponents withgrowingfrustration.
Operation Strangle
ThroughouttheItaliancampaign,theUSAAF12AirForcewascommittedto Operation Strangle,aplantocutofftheGermanretreatfirstattheBernhard LineandlaterattheGustavLine,throughbombingoftheItalian transportationsystem,concentratingonbridges.Bridgesarenotoriously difficulttargetsforbombers;destructionofthespanitselfdoesnot necessarilymeanthecrossingwillbeabandonedunlesstheapproacheson eithersidearealsodestroyed,sinceotherwisetheenemycanconstruct pontoonbridgesandothertemporarystructures.Defenseagainstthebombers issimplifiedbythefactthatthemainrouteofattackisobvious,makingthe sitingofantiaircraftweaponsconsiderablymorestraightforward.
Another bridge over the Po River goes down. Note the number of bomb craters, indicating multiple visits to this target. The bombers flew in very close formation to ensure that the bombs would all land in a tight pattern on the target. (57th Bomb Wing Archives)
“TheBridgebusters”
Throughoutthisaerialcampaign,fourB-25bombgroups–whichwere combinedinJanuary1944intothe57thBombWing–hadbeeninthe forefrontoftheairsupportcampaign.
The321stBombGrouphadarrivedintheMediterraneanTheaterof Operations(MTO)inFebruary1943.TheunitwascommandedbyColonel RobertD.Knapp,amanwithalifelonginvolvementinaviationsince meetingtheWrightBrothersattheageoftenwhentheystayedwithhis familyfortendaysin1907.Commissioneda2ndlieutenantintheAir ServiceinMarch1918,heheldUSPilotLicenseNumber187,signedby OrvilleWright,andhadbeenflyingforlongerthanmostofhisyoung aircrewshadbeenalive.In1919,heservedontheUS–Mexicoborderwith futureUSAAFleadersHapArnoldandIraEaker.In1923,hepioneeredthe airmailroutefromMontgomery,Alabama,toNewOrleans.MadeChiefof PrimaryFlightTrainingatRandolphandKellyfieldsin1929,hewas responsibleforallAirCorpsflighttraining.In1937,heleda98-plane formationonanationaltourtorecruitROTC(ReserveOfficers’Training Corps)studentsatland-grantcollegesintoaviationinanticipationofafuture buildupofthecorps.
The effect of accurate bombing on bridges could be catastrophic. Bridges over large expanses like the Po River were put out of commission for the duration Smaller bridges like those in the Brenner Pass were quickly rebuilt or diversions constructed, causing US bombers to return again and again to the same targets (57th Bomb Wing Archives, Edward Betts Collection)
Whenwarpreparationbeganin1941,KnapporganizedthefirstsixB-25 bombgroups,andpersonallytrainedthree:the310th,321st,and340th groups–unitsthatwouldformhisfuturecommand.Aftermuch
“politicking,”hewasabletotakethe321stGrouptoNorthAfrica,despite beingconsideredtoooldfordirectcombatduty.Havingtrainedthecrews whohadgoneontotakepartintheDoolittleRaidonTokyo,hewasableto getseveralofthesurvivorsassignedtothethreegroups,givingthenew aircrewsexperiencedrolemodels.
Attheageof45,Knapptookthe321stthroughtheNorthAfrican,Sicilian, andBalkanscampaigns,personallyleading40toughmissions,includingthe firstbombingofRome.HewasawardedtheSilverStarforasuccessful unescortedraidonanAxisconvoy,andthe321streceiveditsfirst PresidentialUnitCitationfortheattackonAthensinSeptember1943.Knapp waspromotedtobrigadiergeneralandbecamecommanderofthe57thBomb WingwhenitwasformedinJanuary1944tobringthethreegroupsundera centralcommand.Latercaricaturedas“GeneralDreedle”inthenovel Catch 22 byJosephHeller,thosewhotrainedunderandservedwithhimsaw Dreedle’spolaropposite:toughanddemanding,neveraskingamantodo somethinghehadnothimselfdonefirst.Thereplacementswhoarrivedin 1944didnotknowtheleaderwhoalwaysled“thetoughones.”Theyknew himonlyasahardtaskmasterorderingthemtoflymissionaftermission, unawareofhisconstantattemptstogettimelyreplacementsinsufficient numbersinthefaceofoppositionbyairforces“fightingtherealwar”over Germany.
The310thBombGrouphadfollowedthe321stintoNorthAfricain January1943,andspecializedinanti-shippingstrikesfollowingtheGerman surrenderinMay.The340thBombGrouparrivedinEgyptfromIndiainthe springof1943andadvancedwestwiththeBritishforces.The319thBomb GrouphadarrivedinNorthAfricajustafterthefightingatKasserinePass, andallfourunitshadparticipatedinthePantelleriacampaign–inwhichthe Italiandefenderssurrenderedinthefaceofairattacksbeforetheplanned invasionwasmounted–andintheSiciliancampaign.Theirinitialoperations inItalyhadledKnapptobeabletosuccessfullyarguethattheB-25Mitchell unitsshouldbecombinedintotheirowncommand.
Manynotedthatfoodintheunitsofthe57thBombWingwasbetterthan whatwasgenerallyfoundintheItaliantheater.ThiswasbecauseKnapp believedthatgoodfoodwasnecessaryformorale.PaulYoung,apilotwith the321stGroup,remembered,“Weflewregular‘rumrunner’tripstoSicily forfoodandliquor,andevenasfarawayasTunisiaorEgypt.”Manyofthe youngaircrew,forwhomGeneralKnappwasadistantfigure,didnotknow
hewastheonewhoauthorizedtheflightsandthevariousbusinessdealsthat filledtheirmessesandclubswithluxuries.The488thBombSquadron’sWar Diarynotedoneincidentthatshowedwhatwasgoingon:OnSeptember16, 1944,2ndLt.MaunoA.Lindholm,thesquadron‘messofficer’operatingthe rumrunnerflightsforthe488thBombSquadrongotcaughttradingcoffeefor fresheggsinCataniabyaBritishmilitarypoliceagent.Theconsequencesof beingcaughtcouldnothavebeentoodiresinceLindholmwaspiloting8C overLaSpeziaonlyaweeklater.KnappeitherintercededwiththeBritishor satisfiedthembypunishingLindholmwithaslaponthewrist.(Lindholmis consideredbymanytobethemodelforthecharacterofMiloMinderbinder in Catch-22.)
FollowingtheMarch1944eruptionofVesuviusthatruinedthenearby airfieldsanddestroyedmoreUSAAFaircraftintwoweeksthantheGermans hadaccomplishedin18months,the57thWingmovedtonewlyliberated CorsicainlateApril1944.Theisland,centrallylocatedinthewestern MediterraneaninrangeofcentralandnorthernItaly,Austria,andsouthern France,becameknownas“USSCorsica,TheUnsinkableAircraftCarrier” thatwashometoAmerican,Commonwealth,andFreeFrenchbomberand fightersquadrons.
USS CORSICA, THE UNSINKABLE ISLAND AIRCRAFT CARRIER
AirpoweragainsttheAlps
TheB-25sinItaly
TheNorthAmericanB-25Mitchellflownbythesquadronsofthe57thWing wasconsideredbymanytobethebestAmericanmediumbomberofthewar, andamongthebestmediumbombersofanyairforce.The“definitive”subtypewastheB-25J,whichenteredproductioninlateAugust1943atNorth America’sKansasCityfactoryandbecamethemost-producedversion,with aproductionrunof4,390outofagrandtotalof9,890.
B-25J “Ladies Delight” of the 486th Bomb Squadron with its escorts from the 57th Fighter Group. The bomber crews were always glad to see the fighter planes arrive to escort them over enemy-held territory, affectionately referring to them as “Our Little Brothers.” (57th Bomb Wing Archives)
ThefirstJ-modelsarrivedintheMediterraneantheaterinMarch1944, flownacrossthe“SouthernRoute”fromFloridaovertheCaribbeantoBrazil thenceacrosstheSouthAtlantictoAfricaandovertheSaharatoAlgeria.The firstunittocompletelyre-equipwasthe340thBombGroupafterits88B25CandDmodelsweredestroyedbythevolcanicashfromtheeruptionof Vesuviusthatmonth,whichcoveredtheaircraftbasedatPompeiiairfieldjust tothesoutheastofthevolcano,meltingtheirplasticcanopiesandgunturrets
andfillingthefuselageswithashwhileburningthefabricofftheircontrol surfaces.
Allthreebombgroupsofthe57thWinghadtradedintheMitchellsthey hadflowninNorthAfrica,Sicily,andItalybymid-Mayfollowingtheir movetoCorsica.The340thGroupagainlostoverhalftheirnewbombersin thefinalLuftwaffebombingraidintheMTOonthenightofMay13/14;the survivingbomberswouldeverafterbeidentifiablebythecamouflage hurriedlypaintedontheiruppersurfacesafterwards.Theeventwouldbe immortalizedin Catch 22,writtenbyabombardierinthe340th’s488th BombSquadron,JosephHeller,whoarrivedintheunitaweeklater.
TheB-25hadasix-mancrew:pilot,co-pilot,bombardier,flight engineer/topturretgunner,radioman/waistgunner,andtailgunner.Thelead shipinaformationcarriedaseventhcrewman,anavigator.TheB-25Jsofthe 57thWingcouldbedistinguishedfromothersbytheremovalofthefour “package”.50calmachineguns,fittedtwooneachsideexternallyonthe forwardfuselagesidesbelowthecockpit,sincethesebomberswerenever employedinthestrafingrole.TheB-25couldcarryamaximumloadoffour 1,000lbbombs;thesewerealwayshigh-explosive(HE)bombsforthe BrennerPasscampaign.Analternativeloadwaseight500lbHEbombsorten setsofclusterincendiarieswiredtogethersothatthebundledbomblets separatedwhendropped,spreadingtheincendiariesoverawidearea.
PoweredbytwoWrightR-260014cylinderradialengines,theairplanehada topspeedof275mphandacruisingspeedinformationof230mph.
57TH BOMB WING ORGANIZATION
The battle for the Brenner Pass, the most successful battlefield interdiction campaign ever performed by the US Air Force, is given scant notice in wartime accounts of USAAF operations in the Mediterranean theater. As one wag put it, “The Air Force doesn’t want to admit they ever did a good thing for the Army.”
All night, hot ash fell on the 340th Bomb Group base at Pompeii when Vesuvius erupted in March 1944; although destruction was near total, there were no casualties The entire fleet of bombers, about 88 B-25s, were lost. It is a tribute to American manufacturing that the 340th was back flying combat missions only one week later with replacement aircraft. (57th Bomb Wing Archives)
The young bombardier Joseph Heller, third from the left, top row, on Corsica Other crewmen are unidentified After the war, Heller wrote the novel Catch-22, drawing heavily on his experiences in the 488th Bomb Squadron. (57th Bomb Wing Archive, Burton Blume Collection)
InOctober1944,theMediterraneanAlliedTacticalAirForces(MATAF) –whichcomprisedBritishandCommonwealth,FreeFrench,andAmerican units–wereprimarilylocatedonCorsica.Theforceincludedtwogroupsof USAAFmediumbombers:the42ndBombWing,composedofthreebomb groupsflyingB-26Marauders,andthe57thWingwiththreegroupsflyingB25Mitchells.AdditionallytherewerefourUSAAFfightergroups,allnow flyingtheRepublicP-47Thunderbolt.TheB-26groupsinitiatedattackson thePoValleyandBrennerPassraillinesinOctoberaspartoftheattemptto cutofftheGermanTenthandFourteentharmiesfromtheirsupplybasesin Germany.TheseattackscontinueduntilNovember21,1944,whenthe42nd WingwastransferredtoFrancetoreinforcetheB-26unitsofthe9thAir Force.Thisalsorationalizedthesupplyandsparepartssystem,sincetheB26wastheonlymediumbomberoperatedbytheUSAAFinnorthwestern Europe,whiletheB-25wouldnowbetheonlyUSmediumbomberoperated intheMTO.ThisreductioninforcecontinuedinJanuary1945,whenthe 319thBombGroupwasdetachedfromMATAFandreturnedtotheUnited Statestore-equipwiththenewDouglasA-26Invader.The12squadronsof the310th,321st,and340thgroupsofthe57thWingwerenowtheonly mediumbomberforceleftinthe12thAirForce,andweresolelyresponsible forOperation Bingo betweentheendofDecember1944andtheconclusion ofthecampaignonApril25,1945.WhiletheB-25sconcentratedonrail bridges,stations,marshallingyards,andtherestoftheinfrastructure associatedwiththetransportsystem,theP-47fighter-bombersweretasked withattackingindividualtrains.
Thefighter-bomberwar
FourP-47-equippedgroupsinXXIIFighterCommandparticipatedinthe battlesovertheBrennerPass:the57th,79th,324th,and350thFighter Groups.OriginallybasedonCorsica,theywouldmovetoGrossetoonthe ItalianmainlandshortlyafterthecommencementofOperation Bingo in November1944.
Longest-servingwasthe57thFighterGroup,thefirstAmericanfighter grouptoentercombatinEuropeaftertheyweretransportedinJuly1942to Accra,Ghana,aboardthecarrier Ranger,thenflewtheirP-40sontoEgypt wheretheyoperatedwiththeRAF’sDesertAirForcethroughtheNorth AfricancampaignandSicily.Re-equippingwithP-47sinDecember1943, theywerethegroupmostcloselyinvolvedintheBrennerbattles.
ThebigP-47wasanevenbetterfighter-bomberthanitwasafighter, armedwitheight.50calmachinegunsandabletocarrya500lbbombunder eachwing.TheywerefrequentlyusedtoattackandsuppressGerman antiaircraftpositions,inadditiontodive-bombingattacksagainstdifficult bridgetargetsandrovinghuntsacrossnorthernItalyinsearchoftrainsand roadtraffic.
Amongthe57th’spilotswasMichaelMcCarthy,whoarrivedintheunitas abrand-new2ndlieutenantamonthbeforehis20thbirthday,shortlyafterthe PalmSundayMassacre(anoperationinwhichtransportaircraftevacuating GermanforcesfromTunisiasufferedheavylosses)inApril1943,and becameoneofveryfewfighter-bomberpilotstosurvivetwocomplete combattours.Helaterwrote:“Theair-to-groundenvironmentisbrutal,life threatening,andconsistentlydangerous.Thefighterpilotpopulationinour squadronchanged400percentfromMay1943untiltheendofthewar.We lostairplanesandpilotsonaregularbasis.Wechangedtactics,varied approachesandroutestotargets,andemphasizedsurpriseatevery opportunity.Intheend,welearnedthatyoumustflydowntheenemy’sgun barreltodestroythetarget.”
AloneamongUSAAFfighterunits,the57thFighterGroupfolloweda commandphilosophythatrequiredprovenabilityincombat–notrankor timeintheunit–bethebasisforselectionofelement,section,flight,and squadronleaders.McCarthyrecalled:“Wefollowedthatpolicywithout exceptionduringmy27monthswiththegroup.Insomecases,acaptainor major,newlyassigned,mightflyacompletetourasawingmanandfailevery chancetoleadanelementorasection.Itwasoddtoseeasquadronof16 shipsledsuccessfullybyayoungfirstlieutenantwithafieldgradeofficer ridinghiswing,butthepolicysavedlives,putthestrongestpilotsinlead positions,andproducedexceptionalcombatresults.”Inthegroup,anew pilotwasknownasa“Sprog.”Oncehehadsurvived15–20missionsand demonstratedsomeability,hewaspromotedto“Sport.”Ifhesurvivedhalfa tour,hebecamean“OldSport.”Those“OldSports”whoshowedskillas wellasabilitywerepromotedintounitleadershipaspositionsopened throughcompletionoftour,transfer,ordeath,andwerethe“Wheels”ofthe group.McCarthybecameoneofthose“Wheels”duringhissecondtour, promotedtomajorand65thSquadronOperationsOfficeramonthbeforehe turned21.
Corsica was made up of agricultural and fishing villages, with very little in the way of nightlife, so the GIs had to make their own entertainment. Here we see a comedy skit in progress. Note the orchestra: it was made up of men from the 321st Bomb Group who called themselves “The Mitchell Aires.” (57th Bomb Wing Archives)
The57thFighterGrouparrivedonCorsicainmid-March1944,takingup residenceatAltoairfield,nearthetownofFolleli,northofwhatwould becomethethreeB-25fields.Advancepartieshadarrivedearlyenoughtoset uptentsandpreparemesshalls,clubs,andmaintenancefacilities.Sincethey hadbeendoingthisforalmosttwoyears,theyknewalltheshort-cutsand problemareas.Infact,the57thhadawell-deservedreputationasthebest scroungersintheMediterraneantheater.Iftheyneededsomethingandcould notborroworbuyit,theyhadateamof“midnightrequisitioners”whowould stealit.“Ourroadconvoysweresodiversethatitwasdifficulttoidentifythe nationalidentityofmostofourvehicles.WehadmoreGerman,Italian,and BritishrollingstockthanAmerican.”McCarthyrecounted.AftertheNorth AfricandesertandthedustyheatofSicily,Corsicawasabigchange.
McCarthyremembered:“Afteratediouslylonghotdayontheline,ground crewsandpilotsrelaxedinthecoolinvigoratingmountainstream. Improviseddivingboardswereconstructed.Lifeinthemountainsaffordeda greatmanymenachancetorestinquietandtakethingseasyforawhilebut forotherswhocravedexcitement,thecomplaintwasthatlifewasgrowing monotonousanddull.”
BOMBING RUN
1. The bombing run begins with the advanced flight of three or, in this case, six lead ships of the anti-flak formation. They come in about six miles ahead of the main formation, at a lower altitude (9,000ft) than the main formation (11,000ft), and at a different speed. This is to force the computer controlling the guns to constantly need to recalculate.
2. As they crest the mountain and become visible to the German ranging radar, the formation drops chaff, also known as “Window” – small, thin strips of aluminum which are almost weightless, and will linger in the air for a long time. The cloud of chaff reflects the radar beams and obscures the location of the incoming aircraft formations.
3. The right echelon peels off to attack a gun battery in the hills. They drop white phosphorus, which produces obscuring white smoke and horrific burns to anyone it lands on, causing the gun crews to seek shelter until the danger passes.
4. The left echelon peels off to attack another battery with fragmentation bombs. The anti-flak formation is escorted by
three P-47 fighters which fly above the B-25s on the bomb run, but which would sometimes also strafe the gun batteries.
5. The two echelons re-form the six-plane box as they exit the valley over the mountains, and the fighters resume their escort position above the bombers.
6. With the German guns hopefully silenced, the bomber formation (12 to 18 aircraft) crest the mountains. From the Initial Point (IP) just on the other side of the mountain to “Bombs Away” they must fly straight and steady. If the guns are intact they are sitting ducks for the German gun crews who scramble back to their posts as soon as the danger from the anti-flak echelons has passed. Very often the ships in the last formation would find themselves under heavy fire.
7. After “Bombs Away!” the aircraft are now free to take evasive action. As a group they dive from 11,000ft to descend at least 500–1,000ft and make a 20-degree turn. After making the initial turn, the German targeting computers will plot their anticipated location and fire a volley. It will take around ten seconds for the 88mm rounds to reach an altitude of 10,000ft, so the pilots must change direction every ten seconds to stay ahead of the computer’s calculations and the flight time of the rounds. With the 3,000–4,000lb bomb load gone, the powerful engines are able to gain altitude without losing much speed. They regain their altitude as they crest the mountain and get out of range of the guns.
During their time in Corsica, the pilots would discover just how hard their mission was. McCarthy remembered one song that was frequently sung after a few drinks in the Officer’s Club:
THE DIVE BOMBER’S LAMENT
I don’t mind a dive in a 25
Till the bombs that I’m carrying smack
But those little black flowers
That grow in the sky –
Oh! My achin’ back.
Skimmin’ a ridge to plaster a bridge
Makes you feel as goofy as wine, And your heart takes a jolt when your Thunderbolt Tangles with an Me-109.
It’s like shootin’ ducks
When you come across trucks
And I don’t mind the rifles that crack. But those little black flowers
That grow in the sky –Oh! My achin’ back!
“TheJug,”astheP-47wasuniversallyknowntoitspilotsthroughoutthe war,wasagreatdive-bomberbecauseithadexcellentstabilityatallspeeds. McCarthywrote:“Itwaseasytocentertheball,trim,andkeepthenoseon thetarget.Itwasareliefnottostandontheleftrudderjusttokeepthe airplanefromslippingsidewaysinadive(aswasthecasewiththeP-40). Thisnaturalstabilityenhancedanexcellentgunplatform.StrafingafastmovingtraininthePoValleylaterinthewar,Ihitthelocomotivewiththe coneofmyeightgunsknockingitcompletelyoffthetrackswhiletherestof thetrain,minusitslocomotive,rolledonwithnohesitation.”
