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The Field: Meet Courtney Goodballet, B.S. in HDFS 24
The Field: Meet Keith Olson, B.S. in HDFS 25
The Field: Meet Brandon Morales, B.S. in HDFS 26
The Field: Meet Carrie Aalberts, B.S. in HDFS 26
1.1 An Individual’s Development Can Be Conceptualized as Three Separate but Interrelated Domains: Physical, Intellectual, and Emotional. Each Domain Is Equally Important throughout Development 5
1.2 Suggested Overview of the Two current Pathways with Application Requirements to Become a cFLE
2.1 HDFS, Psychology, and Sociology
4.1 Sampling
4.2 Developmental
4.3 Scientific
5.1
6.1 Keywords
6.2 ABc-X
2.1 Sample
6.2 Using
7.1
8.1
8.2
about the authors
Bridget A. Walsh is Associate Professor of HDFS at the University of Nevada, Reno. She received her Ph.D. from Texas Woman’s University in child Development, her master’s in Psychology from Villanova University, and her bachelor’s degree in Psychology with an emphasis in Early Childhood and Elementary Education from Albright College. Her research focuses on early childhood development and family engagement. She has also received two awards for teaching and mentoring.
Lydia DeFlorio is Assistant Professor of HDFS and Early Childhood Education at the University of Nevada, Reno. She received her Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley, and her master’s in Early Childhood Education and bachelor’s in Child Development from California State University, Sacramento. Prior to joining the faculty at the University of Nevada, Reno in 2012, she enjoyed a 20-year career as a professional in a variety of positions working with at-risk children, youth, and families.
Melissa M. Burnham is Associate Dean for the College of Education and a Professor of HDFS and Early Childhood Education at the University of Nevada, Reno. She obtained her Ph.D. in Human Development from the University of California, Davis in 2002, her master’s degree in HDFS from the University of Nevada, Reno in 1996, and her bachelor’s degree in HDFS from the University of Nevada, Reno in 1994. She has been a faculty member with the HDFS program since the fall of 2001.
Dana A. Weiser is Assistant Professor of HDFS and a Women’s Studies faculty affiliate at Texas Tech University. She received her Ph.D. from the Interdisciplinary Social Psychology program at the University of Nevada, Reno, her master’s degree in Psychology from california State University, Los Angeles, and her bachelor’s degree in Psychology from claremont McKenna college. Her work focuses on how earlier family experiences are associated with adults’ romantic relationships and sexual behaviors.
Jencie Davies, M.S. is a graduate of the Human Development and Family Studies program at the University of Nevada, Reno and serves as the Northern Nevada TACSEI training coordinator.
Jenna Dewar, M.S., cFLE, is a graduate of the Human Development and Family Studies program at the University of Nevada, Reno and serves as a specialist in Advising and Internships at the University of Nevada, Reno.
Eva L. Essa is Professor Emerita and Foundation Professor of Human Development and Family Studies at the University of Nevada, Reno.
Jennifer A. Mortensen is Assistant Professor of Human Development and Family Studies at the University of Nevada, Reno
abbreviations
AACM American Academy of Case Management
AAMFT American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy
ACEI Association for Childhood Education International
ACF Administration for Children and Families
ADHD attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
AERA American Educational Research Association
AIHCP American Institute of Health Care Professionals
APA American Psychological Association
BMI body mass index
ccLS certified child Life Specialist
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
cFLE certified Family Life Educator
CHIP Children’s Health Insurance Program
cLc child Life council
CV curriculum vitae
DAP Developmentally Appropriate Practice
DELTA Developing English Language Teaching Ability
DSM-5 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
DST Developmental Systems Theory
ELL English Language Learner
ESL English as a Second Language
ETV Education Training Voucher
FCM family case management
FLE family life education/educator
FMLA Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993
FPL federal poverty level
FRC Family Research Council
FSA Family Science Association
GED General Educational Development
GSA Gerontological Society of America
HDFS Human Development and Family Studies
IL Independent Living
IRB Institutional Review Board
LcDc Licensed chemical Dependency counselor
LGBTQ Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and Questioning
MFT Marriage and Family Therapist
NAEYC National Association for the Education of Young Children
NCFR National Council on Family Relations
NOHS National Organization for Human Services
PFCE Parent, Family, and Community Engagement
PPCT Process-Person-Context-Time model
SGA small-for-gestational age
SIECUS Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States
SNAP Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
SRA Society for Research on Adolescence
SRCD Society for Research in Child Development
SSHD Society for the Study of Human Development
STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
TBS Therapeutic Behavioral Services
WHO World Health Organization
WIc Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and children
PART I
What Is HDFS?
CHAPTER 1
HDFS
The professions and areas you are exploring through this text are within the area of human development and family studies (HDFS). Some programs are called HDFS, child and family studies, family studies, family and child studies, or other similar names. The varying names often create a fragmented identity; however, many courses in these programs are similar. HDFS is a relatively young field (Hamon & Smith, 2014) and the term HDFS will be used throughout this text to capture the variety of programs that prepare professionals and emerging professionals to work with individuals and families. The family can be thought of as one context or a setting that contributes to human development. Bronfenbrenner (1986) asserted that the family is the main context in which human development occurs. Traditionally, some academic programs have been organized around one area of focus, such as families, or the other: individuals. On one hand, human development is the study of how humans change and maintain some characteristics from conception to senescence, or aging. On the other hand, family studies is the study of a variety of family forms and how families function.
Strictly speaking, these definitions suggest that a developmentalist looks at individuals within families while a family scientist focuses on families that comprise individuals. In many programs, the lines of these two traditional disciplines blur (Blume & Benson, 1997) and many programs at the very least recognize the interaction of individual development in the context of the family (Adams, 1997; Boyd, 1997). The field of HDFS is inherently multidisciplinary, meaning that it often involves taking college courses from faculty and professionals with some training in psychology, education, and other fields in one program (O’Brien, 2005). Professional organizations, such as the Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD) and the National Council on Family Relations (NCFR), explicitly promote multidisciplinary (as well as interdisciplinary) research and practice and emphasize the advantages of it. However, when multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary training are involved, it is easy for students to feel like “jacks- and jills-of-all trades, but master/mistress of none” (Ganong, Coleman, & Demo, 1995, p. 506). As you
explore HDFS, the acknowledgment of a complex view of both individuals within families and families comprising individuals will gain greater importance.
We next advocate for a small core-body of knowledge that is essential to know in an introduction to studying the area of HDFS. We suspect that, despite multidisciplinary perspectives, the following introductory information would be met with some degree of consensus as the core foundation for a student in HDFS to master.
WHat IS tHe core oF Human Development knoWleDge?
The basic tenet of human development is that “people change and grow as long as they live” (Bredehoft, Eckhoff, & Gesme, 2003, p. 75). The average life expectancy, or the number of years the family of a newborn could expect him or her to live, is approximately 78 years (Administration on Aging, 2012). There are many ages and stages prior to the developmental period of late adulthood. The journey of development starts with conception, when the sperm and ovum unite. Approximately 9 months later, birth occurs and the developmental stages that follow are: infancy and toddlerhood (0 to 2 years), early childhood (2 to 6 years), middle childhood (6 to 11 years), adolescence (11 to 18 years), emerging adulthood (18 to 25 years), adulthood (25 to 65 years), and late adulthood (65 to death). There are many milestones or characteristics of each stage, some of which will be discussed in later chapters.
As shown in Figure 1.1, developmentalists study each age and stage with consideration given to three domains or the “PIE.” The “P” is for the Physical domain, the “I” is for
Image 1.1 Early Childhood Education Trains Emerging Professionals to Work with Children from Birth to 8 Years of Age (photo by Monkey Business/Depositphotos, Inc.).
Figure 1.1 An Individual’s Development Can Be Conceptualized as Three Separate but Interrelated Domains: Physical, Intellectual, and Emotional. Each Domain Is Equally Important throughout Development.
the Intellectual domain, and the “E” is for the Emotional domain. The physical domain includes biological aspects such as genes, brain and body development, and nutrition. The intellectual domain includes cognitive aspects such as language, cognition, and intelligences. The emotional domain includes socio-emotional aspects such as relationships, emotions, and motivations. It makes intuitive sense that the three domains are interrelated. Consider that if a person is hungry and did not get proper sleep (both examples of the physical domain), the person will most likely not be able to problem solve effectively during class (cognitive domain), and may be more easily upset or insensitive to the feelings of others (emotional domain).
WHat IS tHe core oF FamIly StuDIeS knoWleDge?
Most professionals tend to value a framework that focuses on individual and family strengths rather than deficits in all families (Patterson, 2002). A family is a group of people that is united by marriage and/or adoption, blood, interpersonal relationships, or law. There is a widely accepted acknowledgment of families’ importance on an individual child’s domains of development, making it important for professionals to understand family forms and strategies to support them (Powell, 1989). Given the various possibilities of family ties, families are made up a multiplicity of forms. Marriage is an important part of family studies (Seltzer, 2000). Dimensions of marriage behavior can include: (1) companionship, or the extent to which partners do things together; (2) the affective tone of the relationship, such as the extent of affection, quantity of conflict and negativity; and (3) involvement that spouses have with friends and the like (McHale & Huston, 1985). Marriage and the dimensions of it can be thought of as only one part of the core of family studies knowledge. The core of family studies can also include: family and relationships, a multidisciplinary/interdisciplinary approach to studying individuals and families, a focus on multiple perspectives, such as family systems, family strengths, life span, and ecosystem, an emphasis on prevention, and 10 content areas (e.g., human sexuality) of family life education (FLE) (Hamon & Smith, 2014).
Image 1.2 The Basic Tenet of Human Development Is that People Change and Grow as Long as They Live (photo by Michele Piacquadio/Depositphotos, Inc.).
Family forms can include a variety of forms and all are important. A nuclear family or conjugal family includes parents and their offspring. A single parent family includes a parent and one or more children. An extended family encompasses relatives (e.g., a grandmother, a mother, and her daughter or three generations) that live together in a household or in close proximity. A blended family results when a person remarries another person. Typically, one of the parties has a child or children and if either has children, it is classified as a step-family.
There are many other family forms, including: a cohabitating family (Seltzer, 2000), a foster family, such as kinship care (Berrick, 1997), a conditionally separated family, such as a military family (Drummet, Coleman, & Cable, 2003), a polygamous family (AlKrenawi & Graham, 2006), and grandparents-as-parents (Hayslip & Kaminski, 2005). Family function is overall more important than family form. Family function is how a family operates to meet the needs of and care for each other (e.g., economic support or emotional security). Family processes matter more than structure for individual and family functioning (Walsh, 1996). Family processes, such as caring and problem solving, are essential to family functioning and wellbeing (Walsh, 2003).
Fle content areaS
Up to this point, we have broadly described HDFS. We’ll begin this section with a brief introduction of the NCFR content areas. This will help fortify our understanding of HDFS as we take a look at some of the subareas within it.
FLE has as its primary focus teaching individuals and families skills about healthy family functioning to strengthen individual and family development (Duncan & Goddard,
Image 1.3 An Extended Family Encompasses Relatives that Live Together in a Household or in Close Proximity (photo by
1.4 Marriage Is an Important Part of Family Studies (photo by Liudmyla Supynska/Depositphotos, Inc.).
Monkey Business/Depositphotos, Inc.).
Image
2011; NCFR, 2013). NCFR provides certification for emerging professionals and professionals in FLE. As shown in Figure 1.2, there are essentially two pathways to become a Certified Family Life Educator (CFLE) with provisional status and, once work experience is documented, an individual is eligible to earn full status. One pathway is to get a passing score on the national exam that assesses the knowledge and application of the 10 family life content areas. The other approach is to complete coursework that meets the criteria for the 10 family life content areas.
CFLEs have knowledge and training in 10 content areas; these include: (1) families and individuals in society, (2) internal dynamics of families, (3) human growth and development, (4) human sexuality, (5) interpersonal relationships, (6) parent education and guidance, (7) family resource management, (8) family law and public policy, (9) professional ethics and practice, and (10) FLE methods (NCFR, 2009).
All of the 10 content areas were deemed by CFLEs and noncertified family practitioners as important to practice, with human growth and development ranked as the highest or most important (Darling, Fleming, & Cassidy, 2009). In the content area of human growth and development, the specific competencies that are important to FLE are the ability to:
(a) Identify developmental stages, transitions, tasks, and challenges throughout the life span, (b) Assist individuals and families in effective developmental transitions,
Provisional certification
(up to 5 years with this status)
Coursework in 10 content areas in NCFR-approved program
Application form with fee within 2 years of graduation
Checklist
Two pathways to become a CFLE
Official transcript(s) Code of ethics
CFLE exam
CFLE exam application form and exam fee
Official transcript(s) CFLE code of ethics
Full certification
Application fee
Work experience summary form
Employer’s assessment and verification form
Application fee
Work experience summary form with documentation
Résumé or vitae
Employer’s assessment and verification form
Maintaining certification
Provisional and full CFLEs will pay the CFLE annual maintenance fee
Full CFLEs will submit evidence of 100 hours of professional work experiences every 5 years
Figure 1.2 Suggested Overview of the Two Current Pathways with Application Requirements to Become a CFLE.
(c) Recognize reciprocal influences, (d) Recognize the impact of individual health and wellness on families (1. Family development on individuals 2. Individual development on families), and (e) Apply appropriate practices based on theories of human growth and development to individuals and families.
(Darling et al., 2009, p. 336)
The more individuals are informed about the specific competencies within the content areas of FLE, such as human growth and development, the closer the individual is to understanding the expectations related to being certified (Darling et al., 2009). Each content area has specific competencies and these will be discussed in a later chapter.
For now, keep in mind that FLE is a profession dedicated to promoting family wellbeing (Darling et al., 2009) and is germane to but distinct from family therapy (MyersWalls, Ballard, Darling, & Myers-Bowman, 2011). We will next consider family therapy and other areas related to HDFS.
areaS relateD to HDFS
Family therapy
The field of family therapy views the family as a system while acknowledging individuals’ influences (Piercy & Sprenkle, 1990). Family therapy typically helps families repair relationships and functioning (Myers-Walls et al., 2011). The American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT) is the main professional organization for Marriage and Family Therapists (MFTs). To become a licensed family therapist, one must earn a graduate degree—a master’s or doctoral degree—as well as complete clinical training during and after graduate school, and finally earn a passing score on a licensing exam (AAMFT, 2011). State boards determine the length of the internship and administer the licensing exam. Alternatively, in some states it is possible to work as a non-licensed family therapist without clinical training or a graduate degree.
child life
The child life profession focuses on helping children and their families cope and adjust in medical settings or other potentially stressful contexts (American Academy of Pediatrics, CLC, and Committee on Hospital Care, 2006; Thompson, 1989). The professional organization of the child life profession is the Child Life Council (CLC). The CLC has established professional standards of practice, a code of ethical responsibility, and a mission, values, and vision for the child life profession (CLC, 2012). To become a Certified Child Life Specialist (CCLS), requirements include having a bachelor’s degree in an area such as HDFS, taking a minimum of one child life course taught by a CCLS, having clinical child life work experience under the auspices of a CCLS, passing an exam, and paying certification fees (CLC, 2012). Central to the work of child life specialists is developmentally appropriate play, psychologically preparing children for procedures, and educating and advocating for families about what they are experiencing (American Academy of Pediatrics, CLC, and Committee on Hospital Care, 2006).
early childhood education
The field of early childhood education trains professionals and emerging professionals for work with young children and their families. This field includes the education of children from birth to 8 years of age. Some students and professionals join the Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI), which covers early childhood but also considers the stages through early adolescence. One key area of early childhood education is the endorsement of developmentally appropriate approaches to teaching and learning by the professional organization of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Developmentally Appropriate Practice, or DAP, aims to promote teaching and learning that takes into account knowledge of young children’s learning and development (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). For more information about DAP with infants and toddlers, preschoolers, kindergarteners, and in the early primary grades, the NAEYC website is a good starting point (www.naeyc.org/DAP). There are a variety of approaches within early childhood education that support different goals and methods (Roopnarine & Johnson, 2012; Walsh & Petty, 2007).
Human/Social Services
Human/social services can include professions within social work, health care, and family case management (FCM) with employment in such settings as private practice,
Image 1.5 The Primary Focus of FLE Is to Teach Individuals and Families Skills about Healthy Family Functioning (photo by Andres Rodriguez/Depositphotos, Inc.).
mental health centers, school systems, social service agencies, alcohol and drug treatment programs, and religious organizations. FCM involves work with families, particularly those who have entered the government child and family welfare system (Myers-Walls et al., 2011). FCM uses a strengths-based approach to working with families and guiding them to locate resources to help meet children’s needs (Myers-Walls et al., 2011). The National Organization for Human Services (NOHS) focuses on prevention and remediation and serves students, educators, and other professionals (NOHS, n.d.). For case management in health-related areas, the American Academy of Case Management (AACM) within the American Institute of Health Care Professionals (AIHCP) is the main professional organization. The AACM offers certification for applicants, which involves criteria including being a health care professional with a certain quantity of hours of study as determined by the AACM, documenting appropriate work experiences, an examination of knowledge, and fees (AACM, AIHCP, 2011).
Summary
1 The area of HDFS values the interaction of individual development and the context of the family.
2 The foundation of human development includes the following:
A ages and stages of development from conception to senescence;
B the three interrelated domains of development.
3 The foundation of family studies includes the following:
A marriage and the complexity of the definition of family;
B family forms and family function.
4 FLE includes 10 content areas and these areas often are subareas with HDFS. These 10 family life content areas include:
A (1) families and individuals in society, (2) internal dynamics of families, (3) human growth and development, (4) human sexuality, (5) interpersonal relationships, (6) parent education and guidance, (7) family resource management, (8) family law and public policy, (9) professional ethics and practice, and (10) FLE methods.
B There are two pathways to become a CFLE.
5 Four areas related to HDFS include:
A Family therapy;
B Child life;
C Early childhood education;
D FCM.
Key Terms
Certified Family Life Educator
child life profession
developmental stages
early childhood education
family case management
family forms
family function
family therapy
human development and family studies
Challenge: Integration
In each chapter in this text, you will find a section called Challenge: Integration, which will underscore concepts from the chapter and promote thinking about them in complex ways. The purpose of integration is to make connections and meaning out of information that is known (Ganong et al., 1995).
It is important to use knowledge of HDFS to prevent problems from happening, slow them down, or prevent further harm. A prevention model or systems of intervention can take a three-tiered approach:
1 Primary prevention or intervention has the goal of not allowing an unwanted circumstance or event to occur;
2 Secondary prevention or intervention has the goal of slowing down or averting an unwanted circumstance or event;
3 Tertiary prevention or intervention has the goal of preventing further harm from developing.
Consider that a professional is thinking about aggression in a school setting and wants to create change to increase safety. Thinking about this topic using knowledge of HDFS will help the professional to consider points, such as why the aggression is occurring and what forces within the individual and family are contributing to the aggression. Primary prevention or intervention, such as skills training, would be targeted at the school students who do not have serious behavioral problems (Espelage et al., 2013). Secondary prevention or intervention, such as mentoring programs, would be aimed at the students who are starting to display behavioral problems (Espelage et al., 2013). Tertiary prevention or intervention, such as wraparound services, would be geared toward students with chronic behavioral problems (Espelage et al., 2013).
