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1.Prefacexi
1.Part I Introduction1
1.1IntroductiontoScientificResearch1
1.Traditional Methodsof AcquiringKnowledge2
1.Authority3
2.Rationalism 3
3.Empiricism 3
2.TheScientificApproachtoKnowledgeGeneration4
1.InductionandDeduction4
2.HypothesisTesting5
3.Scienceinthe21st Century6
3.AssumptionsUnderlyingScientificResearch7
1.RegularityinNature7
2.RealityinNature7
3.Discoverability8
4.Characteristicsof ScientificResearch8
1.Empirical 8
2.Control 9
3.Operationalizationof Constructs9
4.Replication10
5.EvidenceNot Proof 10
5.TheRoleof TheoryinScientificResearch11
6.Objectivesof Psychological Research13
1.Description13
2.Explanation13
3.Prediction13
4.Control or Influence14
7.Pseudoscience14
1.Summary15
2.KeyTermsandConcepts16
3.RelatedInternet Sites16
4.PracticeTest 16
5.ChallengeExercises17
2.2ResearchApproachesandMethodsof DataCollection18
1.VariablesinQuantitativeResearch19
2.Experimental Research21
3.Causation22
1.Cause22
2.Effect 23
3.RequiredCriteriafor MakingtheClaim of Causation 23
4.ThePsychological Experiment 24
1.Exampleof anExperiment andItsLogic24
2.Experimental ResearchSettings26
3.Advantagesof Experimental Research26
1.1.Causal Inference26
2.2.AbilitytoManipulateVariables27
3.3.Control over ExtraneousVariables27
4.Disadvantagesof Experimental Research27
1.1.DoesNot Test Effectsof Nonmanipulated Variables27
2.2.Artificiality27
3.3.IncompleteMethodof ScientificInquiry27
5.Nonexperimental QuantitativeResearch28
1.AdvantagesandDisadvantagesof Nonexperimental QuantitativeResearch30
6.QualitativeResearch31
7.MixedMethodsResearch33
8.Major Methodsof DataCollection33
1.Tests34
2.Questionnaires34
3.Interviews35
4.FocusGroups35
5.Observation36
6.Existingor SecondaryData37
1.Summary39
2.KeyTermsandConcepts40
3.RelatedInternet Sites40
4.PracticeTest 40
5.ChallengeExercises41
2.Part II PlanningtheResearchStudy42
1.3IdentifyingResearchQuestionsandFormingHypotheses42
1.Sourcesof ResearchIdeas43
1.EverydayLife43
2.Practical Issues43
3.Past Research44
4.Theory44
2.Breadthof ResearchIdeas45
1.IdeasNot Capableof ScientificInvestigation46
3.Reviewof theLiterature46
1.GettingStarted47
2.DefiningObjectives47
3.ConductingtheSearch47
1.Books48
2.Psychological Journals48
3.Computerizedor ElectronicDatabases48
4.Internet Resources51
4.ObtainingResources53
5.Additional InformationSources53
4.Feasibilityof theStudy54
5.Purposeof theResearch55
1.DefiningtheResearchQuestion55
2.Specificityof theResearchQuestion55
6.FormulatingHypotheses56
1.Summary57
2.KeyTermsandConcepts58
3.RelatedInternet Sites58
4.PracticeTest 58
5.ChallengeExercises59
2.4Ethics60
1.ResearchEthics: What AreThey?61
1.RelationshipBetweenSocietyandScience61
2.Professional Issues62
3.Treatment of ResearchParticipants64
2.Ethical Dilemmas64
3.Ethical Guidelines66
1.BeneficenceandNonmaleficence67
2.FidelityandResponsibility67
3.Integrity68
4.Justice68
5.Respect for People’sRightsandDignity68
4.APAEthical Standardsfor Research68
1.Institutional Approval 69
2.InformedConsent 70
1.InformedConsent andMinors70
2.PassiveVersusActiveConsent 71
3.Deception72
4.Debriefing73
5.CoercionandFreedom toDeclineParticipation74
6.Confidentiality,Anonymity,andtheConcept of Privacy75
5.Ethical IssuesinElectronicResearch76
1.InformedConsent andInternet Research76
2.PrivacyandInternet Research77
3.DebriefingandInternet Research77
6.Ethical IssuesinPreparingtheResearchReport 78
1.Authorship78
2.WritingtheResearchReport 79
7.Ethicsof Animal (Nonhuman) Research80
1.SafeguardsintheUseof Animals80
2.Animal ResearchGuidelines80
1.I.Justificationof theResearch80
2.II.Personnel 81
3.III.CareandHousingof Animals81
4.IV.Acquisitionof Animals81
5.V.Experimental Procedures81
6.VI.FieldResearch82
7.VII.Educational Useof Animals82
1.Summary83
2.KeyTermsandConcepts84
3.RelatedInternet Sites85
4.PracticeTest 85
5.ChallengeExercises85
3.Part III Foundationsof Research87
1.5MeasuringVariablesandSampling87
1.DefiningMeasurement 88
1.Scalesof Measurement 88
1.Nominal Scale88
2.Ordinal Scale89
3.Interval Scale89
4.RatioScale89
2.PsychometricPropertiesof GoodMeasurement 90
1.Overviewof ReliabilityandValidity90
2.Reliability90
1.Test–Retest Reliability90
2.Equivalent-FormsReliability90
3.Internal ConsistencyReliability91
4.Interrater Reliability91
3.Validity91
1.ValidityEvidenceBasedonContent 92
2.ValidityEvidenceBasedonInternal Structure93
3.ValidityEvidenceBasedonRelationstoOther Variables93
4.UsingReliabilityandValidityInformation95
5.Sourcesof InformationAbout Tests95
3.SamplingMethods95
1.TerminologyUsedinSampling96
2.Random SamplingTechniques97
1.SimpleRandom Sampling97
2.StratifiedRandom Sampling99
3.Cluster Random Sampling101
4.SystematicSampling101
3.Nonrandom SamplingTechniques102
4.Random SelectionandRandom Assignment 103
5.DeterminingtheSampleSizeWhenRandom SamplingIs Used104
6.SamplinginQualitativeResearch105
1.Summary106
2.KeyTermsandConcepts107
3.RelatedInternet Sites107
4.PracticeTest 108
5.ChallengeExercises108
2.6ResearchValidity109
1.Overviewof Four Major Typesof Validity110
2.Statistical ConclusionValidity110
3.Construct Validity111
1.ThreatstoConstruct Validity112
1.Participant ReactivitytotheResearchSituation 112
2.Researcher Effects113
4.Internal Validity115
1.ThreatstoInternal Validity116
1.History118
2.Maturation120
3.Instrumentation120
4.Testing120
5.RegressionArtifact 121
6.Attrition121
7.Selection122
8.AdditiveandInteractiveEffects122
5.External Validity123
1.PopulationValidity124
2.Ecological Validity125
3.Temporal Validity125
4.Treatment VariationValidity125
5.OutcomeValidity126
6.RelationshipBetweenInternal andExternal Validity126
1.Summary127
2.KeyTermsandConcepts128
3.RelatedInternet Sites128
4.PracticeTest 128
5.ChallengeExercises129
3.7Control TechniquesinResearch131
1.Control TechniquesCarriedOut at theBeginningof the Study133
2.Random Assignment 133
3.Matching136
1.MatchingbyHoldingVariablesConstant 136
2.MatchingbyEquatingParticipants137
4.BuildingtheExtraneousVariableintotheDesign138
5.Statistical Control 139
6.Control TechniquesCarriedOut DuringtheStudy139
7.Counterbalancing139
1.RandomizedCounterbalancing141
2.CompleteCounterbalancing141
3.IncompleteCounterbalancing142
8.BlindTechnique143
1.Double-BlindTechnique144
2.Single-BlindTechnique144
3.Partial-BlindTechnique144
9.Automation145
10.Likelihoodof AchievingControl 145
1.DetectingParticipant Interpretation145
1.Summary146
2.KeyTermsandConcepts147
3.RelatedInternet Sites147
4.PracticeTest 147
5.ChallengeExercises148
4.8Procedurefor ConductingaResearchStudy149
1.Institutional Approval 150
2.ResearchParticipants151
1.ObtainingAnimals151
2.ObtainingHumanParticipants151
3.SampleSize153
1.Power 153
4.Apparatusand/or Instruments156
5.Procedure157
1.Schedulingof ResearchParticipants157
2.Consent toParticipate158
3.Instructions159
4.DataCollection159
5.Debriefing159
1.DebriefingFunctions159
2.HowtoDebrief 160
6.Pilot Study161
1.Summary162
2.KeyTermsandConcepts163
3.RelatedInternet Site163
4.PracticeTest 163
5.ChallengeExercise164
4.Part IVExperimental Methods165
1.9Experimental ResearchDesign165
1.WeakExperimental ResearchDesigns167
1.One-GroupPosttest-OnlyDesign168
2.One-GroupPretest–Posttest Design168
3.Posttest-OnlyDesignwithNonequivalent Groups169
2.StrongExperimental ResearchDesigns170
3.Between-ParticipantsDesigns172
1.Posttest-OnlyControl-GroupDesign172
1.StrengthsandWeaknessesof thePosttest-Only Control-GroupDesign173
4.Within-ParticipantsDesigns175
1.StrengthsandWeaknessesof Within-Participants Designs175
5.MixedDesigns(i.e.,Combinationof BetweenandWithin) 176
1.Pretest–Posttest Control-GroupDesign177
2.AdvantagesandDisadvantagesof IncludingaPretest 177
6.Factorial Designs179
1.Factorial DesignsBasedonWithin-Participants Independent Variables184
2.Factorial DesignsBasedonaMixedModel 185
3.Natureof Independent VariablesinFactorial Designs 186
4.StrengthsandWeaknessesof Factorial Designs186
7.HowtoChooseor Construct theAppropriateExperimental Design188
1.Summary189
2.KeyTermsandConcepts190
3.RelatedInternet Sites190
4.PracticeTest 190
5.ChallengeExercises191
2.10Quasi-Experimental Designs193
1.Quasi-Experimental Designs194
2.Nonequivalent ComparisonGroupDesign196
1.OutcomeswithRival Hypotheses198
1.OutcomeI: IncreasingControl andExperimental Groups198
2.OutcomeII: Experimental-Group-Higher-thanControl-Group-at-Pretest Effect 199
3.OutcomeIII: Experimental-Group-Lower-thanControl-Group-at-Pretest Effect 199
4.OutcomeIV: Crossover Effect 200
2.RulingOut ThreatstotheNonequivalent Comparison GroupDesign200
3.Causal Inferencefrom theNonequivalent Comparison GroupDesign202
3.Time-SeriesDesign202
1.InterruptedTime-SeriesDesign203
4.RegressionDiscontinuityDesign204
1.Summary206
2.KeyTermsandConcepts207
3.RelatedInternet Sites207
4.PracticeTest 207
5.ChallengeExercises208
3.11Single-CaseResearchDesigns210
1.Historyof Single-CaseDesigns211
2.Single-CaseDesigns213
1.ABAandABABDesigns214
2.CombinationDesign216
3.Multiple-BaselineDesign217
4.Changing-CriterionDesign218
3.Methodological ConsiderationsinUsingSingle-Case Designs220
1.Baseline220
2.ChangingOneVariableat aTime221
3.Lengthof Phases222
4.Criteriafor EvaluatingChange222
1.Experimental Criterion223
2.TherapeuticCriterion224
5.Rival Hypotheses224
1.Summary225
2.KeyTermsandConcepts226
3.RelatedInternet Sites226
4.PracticeTest 226
5.ChallengeExercises227
5.Part VNonexperimental,Qualitative,andMixedMethodsResearch 228
1.12Nonexperimental QuantitativeResearchMethods228
1.Independent VariablesandDependent Variables inNonexperimental QuantitativeResearch229
2.TheBradfordHill Criteriafor Causation230
3.Techniquesof Control inNonexperimental Quantitative Research232
1.Matching232
2.HoldingtheExtraneousVariableConstant 234
3.Statistical Control 234
4.Nonexperimental DesignsBasedontheTimeDimension 235
1.Cross-Sectional andLongitudinal Designs235
2.Evaluationof Cross-Sectional andLongitudinal Designs237
5.Nonexperimental ResearchDesignsbasedonResearch Purpose238
1.DescriptiveNonexperimental QuantitativeResearch 238
2.PredictiveNonexperimental QuantitativeResearch239
3.ExplanatoryNonexperimental QuantitativeResearch 240
1.Summary244
2.KeyTermsandConcepts245
3.RelatedInternet Sites245
4.PracticeTest 245
5.ChallengeExercises246
2.13SurveyResearch247
1.Purposesof SurveyResearch249
2.StepsinSurveyResearch250
3.Cross-Sectional andLongitudinal Designs251
4.SelectingaSurveyDataCollectionMethod252
5.ConstructingandRefiningaSurveyInstrument 254
1.Principle1.WriteItemstoMatchtheResearch Objectives255
2.Principle2.WriteItemsThat AreAppropriateand Meaningful for theRespondentstoBeSurveyed255
3.Principle3.WriteShort,SimpleQuestions256
4.Principle4.AvoidLoadedandLeadingQuestions256
5.Principle5.AvoidDouble-BarreledQuestions256
6.Principle6.AvoidDoubleNegatives257
7.Principle7.DetermineWhether Closed-Endedand/or Open-EndedQuestionsAreNeeded257
8.Principle8.Construct MutuallyExclusiveand ExhaustiveResponseCategoriesfor ClosedEndedQuestions258
9.Principle9.Consider theDifferent Typesof ClosedEndedResponseCategoriesRatingScales258
1.BinaryForcedChoice260
2.Rankings260
3.Checklists261
10.Principle10.UseMultipleItemstoMeasureComplex orAbstract Constructs261
1.SemanticDifferential 261
2.Likert Scaling262
11.Principle11.MakeSuretheQuestionnaireIsEasyto Usefrom theBeginningtotheEnd263
1.Orderingof Questions263
2.ContingencyQuestions263
3.QuestionnaireLength264
4.ResponseBias264
12.Principle12.Pilot Test theQuestionnaireUntil It Is Perfected265
6.SelectingYour SurveySamplefrom thePopulation265
7.PreparingandAnalyzingYour SurveyData267
1.Summary268
2.KeyTermsandConcepts268
3.RelatedInternet Sites268
4.PracticeTest 269
5.ChallengeExercises269
3.14QualitativeandMixedMethodsResearch270
1.Major Characteristicsof QualitativeResearch272
2.ResearchValidityinQualitativeResearch273
1.DescriptiveValidity274
2.Interpretiveor EmicValidity274
3.Theoretical Validity274
4.Internal (Causation) Validity274
5.External (Generalizing) Validity275
3.Four Major QualitativeResearchMethods276
1.Phenomenology276
1.Phenomenological DataCollectionandData Analysis277
2.Phenomenological Report Writing278
2.Ethnography279
1.EthnographicDataCollectionMethods280
2.Entry,GroupAcceptance,andFieldwork280
3.DataAnalysisandReport Writing281
3.CaseStudyResearch282
1.DataCollectioninCaseStudyResearch282
2.CaseStudyDesigns282
3.CaseStudyDataAnalysisandReport Writing283
4.GroundedTheory283
1.DataCollectioninGroundedTheoryResearch 285
2.GroundedTheoryDataAnalysisandReport Writing285
4.MixedMethodsResearch286
5.ResearchValidityinMixedMethodsResearch287
6.MixedMethodsDesigns289
1.Summary292
2.KeyTermsandConcepts293
3.RelatedInternet Sites293
4.PracticeTest 294
5.ChallengeExercises294
6.Part VI AnalyzingandInterpretingData295
1.15DescriptiveStatistics295
1.DescriptiveStatistics296
2.FrequencyDistributions298
3.GraphicRepresentationsof Data299
1.Bar Graphs299
2.Histograms300
3.LineGraphs300
4.Scatterplots302
4.Measuresof Central Tendency304
1.Mode304
2.Median304
3.Mean304
5.Measuresof Variability305
1.Range306
2.VarianceandStandardDeviation306
3.StandardDeviationandtheNormal Curve306
1. z scores307
6.ExaminingRelationshipsAmongVariables309
1.UnstandardizedandStandardizedDifference BetweenGroupMeans309
2.CorrelationCoefficient 310
1.Partial CorrelationCoefficient 315
3.RegressionAnalysis315
4.ContingencyTables318
1.Summary320
2.KeyTermsandConcepts320
3.RelatedInternet Sites320
4.PracticeTest 321
5.ChallengeExercises321
2.16Inferential Statistics322
1.SamplingDistributions323
2.Estimation325
3.HypothesisTesting327
1.Directional AlternativeHypotheses331
2.Reviewof theLogicof HypothesisTesting332
3.Hypothesis-TestingErrors332
4.HypothesisTestinginPractice334
1.The t Test for CorrelationCoefficients335
2.One-WayAnalysisof Variance336
3.Post HocTestsinAnalysisof Variance337
4.Analysisof Covariance338
5.Two-WayAnalysisof Variance340
6.One-WayRepeatedMeasuresAnalysisof Variance342
7.The t Test for RegressionCoefficients344
5.NonparametricStatistics346
1.Chi-SquareTest for Independence347
2.Other SignificanceTests348
6.HypothesisTestingandResearchDesign348
1.Summary350
2.KeyTermsandConcepts351
3.RelatedInternet Sites352
4.PracticeTest 352
5.ChallengeExercises352
7.Part VII WritingtheResearchReport 354
1.17PreparingtheResearchReport UsingAPAStyle354
1.TheApaFormat 356
2.Preparationof theResearchReport 363
1.WritingStyle364
2.Language365
1.Specificity365
2.Labels365
3.Participation366
4.SpecificIssues366
3.Editorial Style367
1.Italics367
2.Abbreviations367
3.Headings367
4.Quotations368
5.Numbers368
6.Physical Measurements368
7.Presentationof Statistical Results368
8.Tables368
9.Figures369
10.FigureLegendsandCaptions370
11.FigurePreparation370
12.ReferenceCitations370
13.ReferenceList 371
14.Preparationof theManuscript for Submission372
15.Orderingof Manuscript Pages372
3.Submissionof theResearchReport for Publication373
1.Acceptanceof theManuscript 374
4.PresentingResearchResultsat Professional Conferences 374
1.Oral Presentation375
2.Poster Presentation375
1.Summary377
2.KeyTermsandConcepts377
3.RelatedInternet Sites378
4.PracticeTest 378
5.ChallengeExercises378
1.Appendix379
2.Glossary380
3.References392
4.Index401
Preface
Welcometo Research Methods, Design, and Analysis.Youareembarking onastudythat will helpyoutothinksystematically,critically,and creativelyinPsychologyandother disciplines.Wehavetwoprimarygoals for thistext.First,wehavefocusedonwritingabookthat providesan understandingof theresearchmethodsusedtoinvestigatehumanthought andbehavior.Researchmethodstendtochangeslowly,but theydochange. Thisbookprovidescoverageof thecompleterangeof researchmethods availabletoday.Psychologytendstofavor experimental methods,sowe devotemoretimetoexperimental researchmethods.Because nonexperimental researchalsoisusedinmanyareasof psychology,we carefullycover thismethod,includinghowtowriteaproper questionnaire. Becauseof therapidgrowthof qualitativeandmixedmethodsin psychology,wecarefullycover thesemethodstocomplement themore traditional methodsandtoaddtoeachstudent’srepertoireof research skills.
Asecondoverarchinggoal that hasbeenmaintainedthroughout all editionsof thetextbookistopresent informationinawaythat is understandabletostudents.Wehaveattemptedtomeet thisgoal by presentingmaterial inassimpleandstraightforwardamanner aspossible andbyaccompanyingcomplexmaterial withillustrationstakenfrom the researchliterature.Webelievethat suchillustrationsnot onlyassist in clarifyingthepresentedmaterial,but alsobringthematerial tolifewhenit isplacedinthecontext of actual researchstudies.Thisallowsthestudent not onlytolearnthematerial,but alsotoseehowit isusedinaresearch study.