Acknowledgments
Timeisthemostvaluablethingapersoncanspend.
Theophrastus(DL5.40.3–4)
It’ssuchasimplethingtospendtime evensimplertowasteit.But making timeforanotherpersonisaverydifferentmatter;itrequiresatremendous amountofgenerosity,patience,andempathy.Icannotadequatelyexpresshow gratefulIamtoeveryonewhohasmadetimeformeandforthisprojectoverthe years.Yourattentionandsupportarepricelessgifts,withoutwhichwecouldnever havemadeittothisstage.
ThisprojecthaditsoriginsinmydoctoraldissertationattheUniversity ofChicago,titledADoctorontheClock:HourlyTimekeepingandGalen’ s ScientificMethod.Thus,manyferventthanksareduetothefriends,colleagues, mentors,students,administrators,andfellowshipcommitteeswhoinspiredmeto pursuethistopicinthe firstplaceandprovidedcriticalsupportalongtheway. JacquelineFeke,alongwithmypeerswithinthegraduate-student-runreading grouponancienttechnicalwriting,openedmyeyestothewaysinwhicha philologistandsocialhistorian withnoprofessionaltraininginmedicine,science,orengineering couldneverthelessmakemeaningfulcontributionstothe studyofthesedomainsinantiquity.IamalsogratefultoAlexanderJonesfor welcomingmeintohisseminaronancienttimekeepingatNYU’sInstituteforthe StudyoftheAncientWorld,whichhelpedtosparkmyenduringfascinationwith thesocialhistoryoftime,andforbeingawonderfulmentoreversince.Iam deeplyindebtedtothemembersofmydissertationcommittee,Christopher Faraone,ElizabethAsmis,JonathanHall,andAlainBresson,fortheirguidance, support,andadvocacy,andtoChrisespeciallyforhiscontinuedmentorship throughoutmycareer.IamalsothankfulformypeersatUChicago especially PaulVadan,BartvanWassenhove,ErikaJeck,AimeeGenova,HannahMarcuson, andEmilyWilson whosefriendshiphasbeeninvaluable,boththenandnow.
Nodissertationcanbecomeamonographwithouttime,resources,andcommunitysupport.Ihavebeenveryfortunatetohavedepartmentchairs Stacie RaucciatUnionCollege,LaurenCurtisatBardCollege,andKerillO’Neillat ColbyCollege whohave fiercelyguardedmyresearchtime,evenwhenIwas contingentfaculty,andwhohelpedmetolocateresourcestofundandfacilitate mywork.IamalsothankfulforKathyFox,LeahannaPelish,andKarinParsons, departmentaladministratorswhosetirelessworkenabledmetoprocess
reimbursements,organizeconferences,printmaterials,andnavigatesomanyof thelogisticalchallengesinvolvedinbringingabookprojecttolife.Iamgrateful forthewritingworkshopsandaccountabilityprograms,suchasthoseofferedby theNationalCenterforFacultyDevelopment&DiversityandFORGEFuel,that helpedmetoformandmaintainhealthywritinghabitsandtothemuseumsand librariesthatfacilitatedmyresearch.Ialsoowetremendousdebtsofgratitude tothefrontlineandessentialworkerswhohelpedusallsurvivetheyearsof pandemiclockdown,duringwhichthebulkofthismanuscriptwaswritten;to ourchildcareproviders(especiallyCarolineStairs,RebeccaHowell,andthe staffofHappyDayschildcarecenter);andtoourhousecleaners(especially SherryHarper,Carlene,andtheteamofPleasantValleyExecutiveCleanse& MaintenanceService).Withoutyou,Iwouldnothavebeenabletoworkatall.
Thealchemicalprocessesbywhichmyideashavegerminated,grown,and transmutedwerecatalyzedbymanyconferencesandconversationswithbrilliant colleaguesandstudents.ThisprojectandIwereespeciallyenergizedbythe followingconferences:DowntotheHour:PerspectivesonShortTimeinthe AncientMediterranean,heldattheUniversityofChicagoin2017;TheDayUnit inAntiquityandtheMiddleAges,hostedbytheIsraelInstituteforAdvanced Studiesin2018;ScientificTraditionsintheAncientMediterraneanandNearEast, hostedbyNYU’sInstitutefortheStudyoftheAncientWorldin2019;andKairos, Krisis,Rhythmos:TimeandTimeAwarenessinAncientMedicine,hostedbythe EinsteinCenterChronoi,Berlin,in2020.IamespeciallygratefultoJonathanBenDov,ClaireBubb,PhilipvanderEijk,RobertGermany,SaritKattanGribetz, StephanHeilen,AlexanderJones,JamesKer,PaulKosmin,AlexandravonLieven, CandidaMoss,RobertRitner,BarbaraSattler,AnetteSchomberg,CallowayScott, PeterN.Singer,JohnSteele,SachaStern,ColinWebster,andAnjaWolkenhauer fortheirinspirationalideas,thoughtfulsuggestions,andeagernesstocollaborate. ToSarahSymons,myco-editorof DowntotheHour andnowdearfriend:you havehadatremendousimpactonme,asaresearcher,asaneducator,andasa person.Ican’tthankyouenough.Finally,Iamprofoundlygratefultomyfather, KennethJackson,forcuratingcountlessreadinglistsformeinthephilosophyof scienceandmedicine.Thoseworks,andourconversationsaboutthem,have shapedmythinkinginenduringanddeeplygenerativeways.
Atacertainstage,ofcourse,ideashavetobeanchoredintext,andthistexthas receivedthecarefulattentionofmanyeyes,hands,andminds.Iamdeeply gratefultothecolleaguesandfamilymemberswhovolunteeredtheirtimeto readandrespondtodraftsofthisproject ClaireBubb,GlenCooper,Deborah Jackson,KennethJackson,AlexanderJones,PaulKeyser,SusanMattern,Peter N.Singer,RichardTalbert,andColinWebster andtotheanonymousreviewers ofthepress.Thesereaders’ thoughtfulsuggestionshaveimprovedthebook immensely,andanyinfelicitiesthatremainare,ofcourse,nobody’sfaultbut myown
Whenthisbookwasoutforreview,IwasfortunatetodiscoverthatPeter N.Singerhadcompletedadraftofhismonograph, TimefortheAncients (De Gruyter,2022),whichalsousestheGaleniccorpusasajumping-offpointfor pursuingquestionsabouttime,medicine,andsocietyinancientRome,albeitfrom differentperspectivesthanthoseadoptedhere.IamverygratefultoPeterfor generouslysharinganddiscussinghisdraftwithmeandgreatlyenrichingmyown thinking.Heartythanksarealsoduetomyundergraduateresearchassistant, SarahHaynes,whometiculouslyorganizedthisbook’sprimarysourcesand offeredhelpfulfeedbackontheworkasawhole.
IamespeciallygratefultoCharlotteLoveridge,JamieMortimer,andCathryn SteeleofOxfordUniversityPressforseeingthepotentialinthisprojectand helpingtoaccomplishits finaltransformation,frommanuscriptintobook. Manythanksaredue,aswell,tothescholarsandinstitutionswhosuppliedthis book’simagesand,inparticular,tomyfather,KennethJackson,forpreparingtwo originallinedrawings.Itmeanssomuchtometobeabletocollaboratewithyou likethisandtoshareyourartistictalentswiththisbook’sreaders.
Lastly and firstandalways Iaminfinitelygratefulformyfamily,those magicalbeingswhocanmakeanyplaceahomeandanymomentmomentous. KristinMahan,JessicaKwong,ValerieLove,RachaelRichman,andKatieRyan, thankyouforalwaysinspiringmeandbeingtherethroughthickandthin.Heidi, Brian,Max,Julie,andIzzie,Iamsohonoredtobeapartofyourfamilyandgrateful fortheloveandopennesswithwhichyou’vewelcomedme.MomandDad,thank youforlovingmeunconditionally,beingmyrolemodelsandcheerleaders,and alwaysmakingthetime.JonandRiley,ourwondergirl,thankyouforhelpingmeto lookpastthetimeandsavorthemoment.Iloveyoubeyondmeasure.
ListofFigures xi
ListofTables xiii
Abbreviations xv
Introduction1
PARTI.CLOCKWORKS
1.TellingTimeintheGreco-RomanWorld15 TellingTimewithoutClocks17 Hours19 Sundials23 WaterClocks27 Conclusion30
2.DoctorsandClocks:TheEmergenceofHourlyTimekeeping inMedicalContexts32 EgyptianandAssyro-BabylonianPrecedents35 HippocraticEvidence40 HellenisticEvidence45 TheRomanPeriod48
3.ClocksasSymbols1:InGalen’sThought61 Galen’sChronotopicBiography61 Introducing AffectionsandErrors 63 Galen’sScientificMethod66 DefendingPropositions1aand1b:Testability71 DefendingPropositions2aand2b:UsefulContributionsto IntellectualandCivicCommunities75 DefendingPropositions3aand3b:ProgressandPerpetuity79 Conclusion83
4.ClocksasSymbols2:AmongtheRomanElite87 AVeryPublicGnomon:TimekeepingandtheImperialProgram87 ClocksandCelestialGeometry:SymbolsofMathematicalIngenuity93 ClocksandtheEducatedElite:Symbolsofthe Pepaideumenoi 96 ClocksandPhilosophers:SymbolsoftheHumanLifespan100 ClocksinArchitecturalWriting:SymbolsoftheHumanBody105 ClocksandHoroscopicAstrology:SymbolsofDeathandtheAfterlife108 Conclusion:The “Clock-Construction ” Lifestyle111
ListofFigures
A.Portablecylindricalsundial,TombofthePhysician,Este,Italy.Museo NazionaleAtestinodiEste:IGMNA15397.PhotographbyGuido PetruccioliwithpermissionfromtheMuseumAtestinodiEste.16
B.Schematicofsundialhour-linesandday-curves.Modeledafteramarble conicaldialfromPompeii(BerlinSundialCollaboration,AncientSundials, DialfaceID174,Napoli,2014,EditionTopoi,DOI:10.17171/1-1-2199). Image©KennethJackson.24
C.Romanmosaicdepictingathinker,possiblyAnaximander,withasundial. Image©GDKE/RheinischesLandesmuseumTrier,Inv.No.1907,724, photographerTh.Zühmer.27
D.Statuetteofgrievingslavewithsundial,Necropolis,Myrina,Greece. NationalArchaeologicalMuseum,Athens:5007/D.95.Image©Institute fortheStudyoftheAncientWorld,photographerOrestisKourakis.51
E.AschematicrepresentationoftheMontecitorioobeliskactingasa meridiandial.Image©KennethJackson.88
F.RoofedsphericalsundialwithGreekinscriptions.Inv.MA5074.Image ©RMN-GrandPalais/ArtResource,NY,photographerHervéLewandowski.94
G.Gemwithsitting,readingthinkerinfrontofasundial.Staatliche Münzsammlung,Munich,Inv.A.197.Reproducedwithpermissionfrom J.Lang, MitWissengeschmückt?ZurbildlichenRezeptiongriechischerDichter undDenkerinderrömischenLebenswelt,MAR39(Wiesbaden2012),170, Abb.165,Kat.Nr.GTypA65,Taf.21.Image©KölnDigitalArchaeology Laboratory,photographerJörnLang.97
H.Musesarcophagus.Detailofsidepanel,depictingaseated “philosopher” lookingupatasundial.Image©KHM-Museumsverband.99
I.DetailofPrometheussarcophagus.CapitolineMuseum,Inv.638.Image ©Shutterstock.110
J.Mosaicdepictingamanlookingatasundial,Daphne.Image©NPL De AgostiniPictureLibrary/BridgemanImages.177
1.Thepatternofparoxysmspatientexperiencedinthe first fivedays.141 2.TheparoxysmsofGalen’sTertian1.141
Abbreviations
AncientAuthors
Aen.Tact.AeneasTacticus
Aët.Amid.AëtiusofAmida
Libr.med.Librimedicinales
Alc.Alciphron
Alex.Aphr.AlexanderofAphrodisias
InTop. InAristotelisTopicacommentaria
Arr.Arrian
Epict.Epictetidissertationes
Debell.Afr.DebelloAfrico
Debell.Hisp.DebelloHispaniensi
Anth.Graec.AnthologiaGraeca
Antyl.Antyllus
Ar.Aristophanes
Ach.Acharnenses
Ekk.Ekklesiazousai
Arist.Aristotle
Gen.an.Degenerationeanimalium
Pol.Politica
Nic.eth.EthicaNicomachea
Aristid.AeliusAristides
Hier.log.Hieroilogoi
Artem.Artemidorus
Oneir.Oneirocritica
Ath.Athenaeus
Deipn.Deipnosophistae
Aul.Gell.AulusGellius
NANoctesAtticae
M.Aur.MarcusAurelius
Med.Meditationes
Cael.Aur.CaeliusAurelianus
Tard.pass.Tardaepassiones
Caes.Caesar
Gall.DebellaGallica
Civ.Debellacivile
Callim.Callimachus
Catull.Catullus
Cens.Censorinus
DNDedienatali
Cic.Cicero
Denat.deor.Denaturadeorum
Rep.Derepublica
Sen.Desenectute
Tusc.Tusculanaedisputationes
Verr.InVerrem
Dig.Digesta
DioCass.DioCassius
Diod.Sic.DiodorusSiculus
DLDiogenesLaertius
Gal.Galen[seeTitlesandAbbreviationsofWorksAttributedto Galen]
Hist.Aug.Had.HistoriaAugusta:Hadrianus
Hdt.Herodotus
Hes.Hesiod
WDOperaetdies
Hippoc.Hippocrates
Aer.Deaereaquisetlocis
Aph.Aphorismi
Demorb.Demorbis
Epid.Epidemiae
Int.Deinternisaffectionibus
Nat.hom.Denaturahominis
Prisc.med.Depriscamedicina
Reg.Dediaetainmorbisacutis
Vict.Devictu
Hist.Aug.HistoriaAugusta
Had.VitaHadriani
Hor.Horace
Serm.Sermones
Juv.Juvenal
Sat.Satires
Luc.Lucian
Hipp.Hippias
Marcellin.Marcellinus
Puls.Depulsibus
Mart.Martial
Epig.Epigrammata
Orib.Oribasius
Coll.med.Collectionesmedicae
Paus.Pausanias
Pers.Persius
Petron.Petronius
Sat.Satyricon
Pl.Plato
Gorg.Gorgias
Phaedr.Phaedrus
Prot.Protagorus
Rep.Respublica
Ti.Timaeus
Plb.Polybius
Plin.Pliny
Ep.Epistulae
NHHistorianaturalis
Plut.Plutarch
Per.Pericles
Philostr.Philostratus
Im.Imagines
Ptol.Ptolemy
Anal.Analemma
Sen.Seneca
Brev.Debrevitatevitae
Clem.Declementia
Const.Deconstantiasapientis
Ep.Epistulae
IraDeira
OtioDeotio
Tranq.Detranquillitateanimi
Sext.Emp.SextusEmpiricus
Math.Adversusmathematicos
Sid.Apoll.SidoniusApollinaris
Epist.Epistulae
Simpl.Simplicius
InPhys
InAristotelisdePhysicacommentarii
Sor.Soranus
Gyn.Gynaecia
Vit.Hipp.VitaHippocratis
Stob.Stobaeus
Ecl. Ἐκλογαί
Strab.Strabo
Geog.Geographica
Suet.Suetonius
Aug.VitaAugustae
Tib.VitaTiberii
Vit.VitaVitellii
Tac.Tacitus
Ann.Annales
Hist.Historiae
Thess.ThessalusofTralles
Devirt.herb.Devirtutibusherbarum
Ulp.Ulpian
Mos.etRom.legumcoll.CollatiolegumMosaicarumetRomanarum
V.Max.ValeriusMaximus
Varr.Varro
Ling.DelinguaLatina
Verg.Vergil
Aen.Aeneid
Vitr.Vitruvius
Dearch.Dearchitectura
Xen.Xenophon
An.Anabasis
Mem.Memorabilia
TitlesandAbbreviationsofWorksAttributedtoGalen
AbbreviationLatinTitleEnglishTitle AADeanatomicis administrationibus OnAnatomicalProcedures
Adv.Jul.AdversusJulianumAgainstJulian Adv.Lyc.AdversusLycumAgainstLycus Adv.typ.scr.Adversuseosquidetypis scripserunt
Aff.pecc.dig.Depropriorumanimicuiusque affectuumdinotioneet curatione;Deanimicuislibet peccatorumdignotioneet curatione
AgainstThoseWhoHaveWritten onTypes (or OnPeriods)
OntheDiagnosisandTreatmentof theAffectionsandErrorsofthe IndividualHumanSoul (or AffectionsandErrors)
Alim.fac.DealimentorumfacultatibusOnthePropertiesofFoodstuffs Ant.DeantidotisOnAntidotes
[An.ut.] Ananimalsitquodinutero geritur
WhetherWhatisintheWombis anAnimal
Arsmed.ArsmedicaTheArtofMedicine Art.sang.Aninarteriisnaturasanguis contineatur WhetherBloodisNaturally ContainedintheArteries
At.bil.DeatrabileOnBlackBile Bon.hab.DebonohabituOnGoodCondition Bon.mal.sac.DebonismalisquesuccisOnGoodandBadJuices CAMDeconstitutioneartismedicaeOntheCompositionoftheArtof Medicine
[Cath.med. purg.]
Quos,quibuscatharticis medicamentisetquandopurgare oporteat
WhomtoPurge,withWhat CleansingDrugsandWhen
Caus.cont.DecausiscontentivisOnContainingCauses Caus.morb.DecausismorborumOntheCausesofDisease Caus.proc.DecausisprocatarcticisOnAntecedentCauses
Caus.puls.DecausispulsuumOntheCausesofthePulse
Caus.resp.DecausisrespirationisOntheCausesofBreathing
Caus.symp.DecausissymptomatumOntheCausesofSymptoms
Comp.med.gen.Decompositione medicamentorumpergenera OntheCompositionofMedications AccordingtoKind
Comp.med.loc.Decompositione medicamentorumsecundum locos
OntheCompositionofMedications AccordingtoPlaces
Cons.DeconsuetudinibusOnHabits
Cris.DecrisibusOnCrises
Cur.rat.ven.
sect. Decurandirationepervenae sectionem OnTreatmentbyVenesection
[Def.med.] DefinitionesmedicaeMedicalDefinitions
Dem.DedemonstrationOnDemonstration
Di.dec.DediebusdecretoriisOnCriticalDays
Di.Hipp.morb. ac. DediaetaHippocratisinmorbus acutis OnHippocrates’ RegimeninAcute Diseases
Diff.feb.DedifferentiisfebriumOntheDistinctTypesofFever Diff.morb.DedifferentiismorborumOntheDistinctTypesofDisease Diff.puls.DedifferentiispulsuumOntheDistinctTypesofPulse Diff.resp.DedifficultaterespirationisOnDifficultyinBreathing Dig.insomn.DedignotioneexinsomniisOnDiagnosisbyDreams Dig.puls.DedignoscendispulsibusOnDiagnosingPulses
Elem.DeelementisexHippocrateOntheElementsAccordingto Hippocrates
Fasc.DefasciisOnBandages
Foet.form.DefoetuumformationOntheFormationoftheFetus Gal.fasc.ExGaleniFromGalen’sNotes Gloss.GlossariumHippocraticGlossary [Hipp.Alim.] InHippocratisDealimentoCommentaryonHippocrates’ Nutrition
Hipp.Aph.InHippocratisAphorismosCommentaryonHippocrates’ Aphorisms
Hipp.Art.InHippocratisDearticulisCommentaryonHippocrates’ On Joints
Hipp.AWPInHippocratisDeaereaquiset locis
CommentaryonHippocrates’ Airs WatersPlaces
Hipp.Com.Decomatesecundum Hippocratem ComaAccordingtoHippocrates
Hipp.Epid. 1 InHippocratisEpidemiarum 1 CommentaryonHippocrates’ Epidemics1
Hipp.Epid. 2 InHippocratisEpidemiarum 2
Hipp.Epid. 3 InHippocratisEpidemiarum 3
CommentaryonHippocrates’ Epidemics2
CommentaryonHippocrates’ Epidemics3
Hipp.Epid. 4
InHippocratisEpdemiarum 4
CommentaryonHippocrates’ Epidemics4
Hipp.Fract.InHippocratisDefracturisCommentaryonHippocrates’ Fractures
[Hipp.Hum.] InHippocratisDehumoribusCommentaryonHippocrates’ Humors
[Hipp.Ius] InHippocratisIusCommentaryonHippocrates’ Oath
Hipp.Off.med.InHippocratisDeofficina medici
CommentaryonHippocrates’ Surgery
Hipp.Prog.InHippocratisPrognosticumCommentaryonHippocrates’ Prognostic
Hipp.Prorrh.InHippocratisProrrheticonCommentaryonHippocrates’ Prorrhetic
[Hipp.Sept.] InHippocratisDeseptimanisCommentaryonHippocrates’ Sevens
Hipp.Vict.InHippocratisDevictuCommentaryonHippocrates’ RegimenforHealth
[Hipp.Vict. morb.] Devicturationeinmorbisacutis exHippocratissententia
OnRegimeninAcuteDiseases AccordingtoHippocrates
[Hist.phil.] HistoriaphilosophicaHistoryofPhilosophy
HNHInHippocratisDenatura hominis
HRCISDehirundinibus,revulsione, cucurbitula,incisioneet scarificatione
CommentaryonHippocrates’ HumanNature
OnLeeches,Revulsion,Cupping, Incision,andScarification
[Hum.] DehumoribusOnHumors
HVAInHippocratisDevictuin morbisacutis
CommentaryonHippocrates’ RegimeninAcuteDiseases
Inaeq.int.DeinaequaliintemperieUnevenBadMixture Ind.DeindolentiaOnAvoidingDistress Inst.log.InstitutiologicaIntroductiontoLogic Inst.od.DeinstrumentoodoratusTheOrganofSmell [Int.] IntroductioseumedicusIntroduction Lib.prop.DelibrispropriisMyOwnBooks Loc.aff.DelocisaffectisOnAffectedPlaces Marc.DemarcoreOnMarasmus Med.exp.DeexperientiamedicaOnMedicalExperience
[Mel.] DemelancholiaOnMelancholy MMDemethodomedendiOntheMethodofHealing MMGDemethodomedendiad Glauconem OntheMethodofHealing,for Glaucon
Mor.DemoribusOnCharacterTraits
Morb.temp.DemorborumtemporibusOnOpportuneMomentsinDisease Mot.dub.DemotibusdubiisOnProblematicalMovements Mot.musc.DemotumusculorumOntheMovementofMuscles
Musc.diss.DemusculorumdissectioneOntheAnatomyoftheMuscles
Nat.fac.DefacultatibusnaturalibusOnNaturalFaculties
Nerv.diss.Denervorumdissectione OntheAnatomyoftheNerves Nom.med.DenominibusmedicisOnMedicalTerminology Opt.const.corp.DeoptimacorporisconstitutioneOntheBestConstitutionofour Bodies
Opt.doct.DeoptimadoctrinaOntheBestMethodofTeaching Opt.med.Quodoptimusmedicussit quoquephilosophus ThattheBestDoctorisalsoa Philosopher
Opt.med.cogn.DeoptimomedicocognoscendoOnDiscoveringtheBestPhysician [Opt.sect.] DeoptimasectaOntheBestSect Ord.lib.prop.DeordinelibrorumpropriorumOntheOrderofMyOwnBooks Oss.DeossibusadtironesOnBonesforBeginners
Part.art.med.DepartibusartismedicaeOnthePartsoftheArtofMedicine Part.hom.diff.Departiumhomoeomerium differentia OntheDifferenceBetweenUniform Parts
Parv.pil.DeparvaepilaeexercitioOnExercisewiththeSmallBall PHPDeplacitisHippocratiset Platonis OntheOpinionsofHippocrates andPlato
Plat.Tim.InPlatonisTimaeumCommentaryontheMedical Statementsinthe Timaeus
Plat.Tim.comp. Timaei PlatoniscompendiumCompendiumofPlato’ s Timaeus
Plen.DeplenitudineOnFulness
[Pond.mens.] DeponderibusetmensurisOnWeightsandMeasures Praec.DepraecognitioneadEpigenemOnPrognosis,forEpigenes
Praen.DepraenotioneOnPrognosis
Praes.puls.DepraesagitioneexpulsibusOnPrognosisfromthePulse [Praes.ver.exp.] DepraesagitioneveraetexpertaOnTrueandExpertPrognosis [Prog.dec.] Prognosticadedecubituex mathematicascientia
PrognosisBasedontheHourWhen aPatientGoestoBedBasedonthe ScienceofAstrology
Prolaps.Dehumeroiismodisprolapso quosHippocratesnonvidit OnDislocationsUnseenby Hippocrates
Prop.plac.DepropriisplacitisOnMyOwnOpinions
Protr.ProtrepticusAnExhortationtoStudytheArts Ptis.DeptisanaOnBarleyGruel
Puer.epil.PueroepilepticoconsiliumAdviceforanEpilepticBoy Puls.DepulsibusadtironesOnPulsesforBeginners [Puls.Ant.] DepulsibusadAntoniumOnPulses,forAntonius Purg.med.fac.Depurgantium medicamentorumfacultatibus OnthePropertyofPurgatives
QAMQuodanimimorescorporis temperamentasequantur ThattheSoul’sBehaviorDepends onBodilyMixtures
[Qual.incorp.] DequalitatibusincorporeisOnNon-corporealQualities
[Rem.] DeremediisparabilibusOnReadilyAvailableRemedies
[Ren.aff.] DerenumaffectibusOnAffectionsoftheKidneys
San.tu.DesanitatetuendaOnHygiene
Sect.Desectisadeosqui introducuntur OnSectsforBeginners
Sem.DesemineOnSemen
Sept.part.DeseptimestripartuOnSeven-monthChildren
Sim.morb.Quomodosimulantesmorbum deprehendendi
SMTDesimpliciummedicamentorum facultatibus
HowtoDetectMalingerers
OnthePropertiesofSimpleDrugs
Soph.Desophismatibuspenes dictionem OnLinguisticSophisms
Sub.nat.fac.Desubstantiafacultatum naturalium OntheSubstanceoftheNatural Faculties
Subf.emp.SubfiguratioempiricaASketchofEmpiricism
[Suc.] DesuccedaneisOnSubstituteDrugs
Symp.diff.DesymptomatumdifferentiisOntheDistinctTypesofSymptom
Syn.puls.SynopsisdepulsibusASynopsisofthePulse Temp.DetemperamentisOnMixtures
[Ther.Pamph.] DetheriacaadPamphilanumOnTheriac,forPamphilianus
[Ther.Pis.] DetheriacaadPisonemOnTheriac,forPiso
Thras.ThrasybulussiveItrum medicinaesitautgymnasticae hygiene
ThrasybulusorWhetherHygiene BelongstoMedicineorPhysical Training
Tot.morb.temp.DetotiusmorbitemporibusOnOpportuneMomentsin DiseasesasaWhole
Trem.palp.Detremore,palpitatione, convulsione,etrigore
OnTremor,Spasm,Convulsion, andShivering
Tum.pr.nat.DetumoribuspraeternaturamOnUnnaturalSwellings Typ.DetypisOnTypes
UPDeusupartiumOntheUseofPartsoftheBody [Ur.] DeurinisOnUrines
[Ur.comp.] DeuriniscompendiumASynopsisofUrines
[Ur.comp.Gal.] DeurinisexHippocrate,GalenoASynopsisofUrines,accordingto Hippocrates,Galen
Us.puls.DeusupulsuumOntheUseofthePulse Us.resp.DeusurespirationisOntheUseofBreathing
Ut.diss.DeuteridissectionOntheAnatomyoftheWomb
[Ven.] DevenereisOnSexualActivity
Ven.art.diss.Devenarumarteriarumque dissectione OntheAnatomyofVeinsand Arteries
[Ven.sect.] DevenaesectioneOnVenesection
Ven.sect.Er.Devenaesectioneadversus Erasistratum OnVenesection,Against Erasistratus
Ven.sect.Er. Rom.
Devenaesectioneadversus ErasistrateosRomaedegentes
OnVenesection,Againstthe ErasistrateansinRome
Vict.att.DevictuattenuanteOntheThinningDiet [Virt.cent.] DevertutibuscentaureaeOnthePropertiesofCentaury Voc.DevoceOntheVoice
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Introduction
Imagineafutureinwhicheveryprescriptioncarriesatimestamp,and evenanover-the-counterremedysuchasParacetamol(Tylenol), profoundlyrhythmicinitslivertoxicity,sportsalabelwithtiming instructions.Nexttoyourbloodtype,yourmedicalrecordscould includeyourchronotype,whichyourworkhoursalsoreflect.Junk foodwouldcarryawarningaboutlate-nightconsumption.¹
Thisvisionofthefuture,offeredbysciencewriterJ.Gamblein2016,reflectsthe factthatWesternbiomedicalprofessionalshavebecomekeenlyinterestedinhow humanbodiesperformdifferentlyatdifferenttimesofdayandnight.This fieldof medicalresearch,knownaschronobiology,investigateshowmolecular “clocks” orchestratetherhythmsandcycleswithinus.The “settings” ofthesemolecular clocksvaryfrompersontoperson,leadingsomepeople,forexample,tobe describedas “earlybirds” or “nightowls,” ortoexperiencevaryingdegreesofjet lagwhenadjustingtoanewtimezone.Molecularclockscanalsoaffectthe outcomesofmedicaltreatments.Forinstance,therateatwhichapatient ’sbody processesamedicationwill,accordingtothisnewresearch,varydependingon thatpatient ’ s “chronotype” andontheexacttimeofdayatwhichthemedicine wastaken.Gamble’svisionofthefuture,projectingoutwardfromcurrenttrends inchronobiology,proposesthatonedaypeoplemightbeasfamiliarwiththeir chronotypesastheyarewiththeirbloodtypes,andthatknowledgeofone’ s chronotypemightbeusedtocreatemedical,dietary, fitness,andworkregimens thatarepreciselytimedandspeciallytailored.
Theideaofusinghigh-precisiontimekeepinginstrumentstosynchronize humanbehaviorswithnaturalrhythmsandperiodicitiesmaystrikeusasexceedinglymodern,perhapsborderingontherealmofscience fiction.Thisbook, however,arguesthatmanycurrentchronobiologicalideasarenotentirelynew. Infact,ancientphysicianshotlydebatedtheroleof “clocks”—whetherthose insideusorthoseexternaltous,suchascelestialbodiesorsundials within medicaltheoryandpractice.Bothancientandmoderndebatesonthistopic intersectwithaconstellationofotherissues:towhatextentshouldmedicalized timebeexpressedinnumericalratherthanqualitativeterms?Towhatextentmust ¹Gamble2016,9. TimeandAncientMedicine:HowSundialsandWaterClocksChangedMedicalScience.KassandraJ.Miller, OxfordUniversityPress.©KassandraJ.Miller2023.DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198885177.003.0001
medicalizedtimebestandardized?Andwhatdegreesofprecisionandaccuracy aremedicallyusefulorjustified?²
Thisbookchronicleshow,intheGreek-andLatin-speakingworlds,healers’ answerstothesequestionschangedovertimeandfromcontexttocontext.Inthe fifthandfourthcenturies ,theHippocraticsdevelopedpractices(potentially adaptedfromAssyro-BabylonianandPharaonicEgyptianapproachestopredictivehealing)thatreliedontrackingthetemporaltrajectoriesofdiseases,andthese practicescoincidedwithaburgeoningsocietalinterestintimekeepingandcalendrics.Itisinthisperiod,thelateClassicalandearlyHellenistic,thatsundials,water clocks,andreferencestonumberedhours firstappearinourtextualandarchaeologicalrecords.Yet,atthetime,thesetoolsremainedrelativelyrare,andthere waslittleconsensusamonghealersaboutwhetherandhowtoemploythem.
Atimekeepingrevolution,whichoriginatedinthemiddleHellenisticperiodand solidi fiedundertheRomanEmpire,sawadramaticincreaseintheubiquityand standardizationoftimekeepingdevices.Thistechnologicalrevolution,inturn, helpedtogeneratenewwaystousetimeinmedicaldiagnosis,prognosis,and therapeutics.Thetemporalparametersofthisbookweredictatedbytheavailabilityofevidenceforhourlytimekeeping.Thus,whilethebookconsidersmaterialfromcirca400 –300 producedbyarangeofauthorswritingwithin manyregionsthatcameunderRomanrule,itfocusesprimarilyonmaterialfrom majorurbancentersduringtheRomanImperialperiod.³
TheancientMediterraneandidnothaveanythinglikeourInternationalBureau ofWeightsandMeasures,whichhasdeclaredthe “second” tobethebasetemporal unitforthescientificworldandhasdefinedthisunitverypreciselyas “the durationof9,192,631,770periodsoftheradiationcorrespondingtothetransition betweenthetwohyperfinelevelsofthegroundstateofthecaesium-133atom.”⁴ However,astheexpandingRomanEmpirebroughttogetherunderasingle administrationnumerousregionsandpolitieswithdifferentcultures,languages, andpracticesofmeasurement,theneedforsomedegreeofstandardizationwas increasinglyfelt.TheImperial-periodphysicianGalenofPergamon,forexample, oftencomplainedthatitwasdifficulttotranslatepharmacologicalmaterialfrom oneculturalcontexttoanotherbecausetherewasinsuf ficientstandardizationin thenamesofplantsandunitsofmeasurementappropriateformixinganddosing
²Agroundbreakingworkonthesociologyoftime(withanemphasisonschedules)inAmerican hospitalsisZerubavel1979.
³ThisconcentrationofevidenceinRomanImperialurbancentersisnodoubtpartiallyattributable tobiasesinpreservationandexcavation.Nevertheless,itisclearthat,withtheadventofsundials,water clocks,andhourlytimekeepingframeworksintheHellenisticperiod,webegintoseeasignificant changeinhowcertainkindsoftimearemarkedandmeasured,achangethatreachesitsacmeunderthe RomanEmpire.
⁴ TaylorandThompson2006,113,section2.1.1.3.Thesestandardsecondsaremarkedusing “atomicclocks,” whichdeviatefromtruebylessthan1 10–15 secondsoveragivenmonth.
medications.⁵ Greatstridesinstandardizationweremadeoverthecourseofthe Romanperiod,butadoptionwasdifferential:standardizationwasnoteffected equallyinallpartsoftheEmpire,orinallsocial,cultural,andprofessional contexts.
BytheheightoftheRomanImperialperiod,residentsofmosturbancenters hadaccesstomonumental,domestic,orevenportablesundialsandwaterclocks which,betweenthem,couldoffercontinuousnumericaltimekeepingthroughout thedayandnightandcould,insomecases,evenmeasuretimedowntothehalfhour.Yet,asweinthetwenty-firstcenturyknowwell,beingsurroundedby precisetimekeepingdevicesdoesnotmeanthatwerelyonthemfortiming everyactivity,orthatwealwaysemploythegreatestlevelofavailableprecision whentalkingabouttime.Thedigitaltimekeepersonmostofourphones,computers,andwatchescanindicatethetimedowntoafractionofasecond.Yet insteadofsaying,forexample,thatwearrivedforanappointmentat10:27:49a.m., wewilltypicallyroundupandsaythatwearrivedat10:30.Likewise,ifwearetold thatamedicationismeanttobetakentwohoursaftereating,wetendtointerpret thisasageneralguidelinewithsometemporalleeway.Moreover,thereare occasionswhenweabandon “clocktime” andnumericalprecisionalltogether andtimeouractivitiesusingqualitativeindicators.Forinstance,whilesomeofus decidewhentobreakforlunchbyusingaclock(e.g.,becauseourcompanygives usapredeterminedlunchhour,orbecausewearecoordinatingadatewith someoneelse),manyofusdecidewhentoeatbasedoncuesfromourbodies, suchaswhetherourstomachsaregrowlingorwecanfeelourselvesgetting “hangry.”⁶ Wemightalsodecidewhentoeatlunchbasedonthesequenceof ouractivities,perhapstellingourselvesthatwecantakeabreaktoeat after we havecompletedacertainprojector finishedwritingthatemail.Thus,eveninthe clock-denseenvironmentsofthemodernday,differentpeoplemakedifferent choiceswithindifferentcontextsaboutthedegreetowhichquantitativetemporal precisionisrelevant.Thisbookseekstodemonstratethatthesameprincipleholds trueforGreco-Romanantiquityandinvestigateshowvariouspersonal,social,and culturalfactorsledindividualphysicianstomarkandmeasuretimein differentways.
Increasingly,butindifferentways,ancientGreekphysicianschosetomarkand measuretime quantitatively,usingdeviceslikesundialsandwaterclocksthat couldmeasuretimeinnumberedhours.Tomanyancientphysicians,numbers andmathematicsofferedthetantalizingpossibilityofdescribing,predicting,and therebycontrollingpatientoutcomeswithprecision.Yetthisattitudewasnot sharedacrosstheboard.Manyancientphysiciansalsoarguedthat,sincemedicine
⁵ See,e.g., Alim.fac. 6.628K.
⁶ Thisfunportmanteau(addedtothe OxfordEnglishDictionary in2018)describestheirritability thatoftenattendshypoglycemia.
dealswithhumans whohavediversebodies,habits,andpreferencesandare embeddedindifferentsocialframeworks—“real-world” medicineshouldbeconsideredaninexactscience,onethatdoesnotreadilyconformtoabstract,mathematicalmodels.Thisdebateis,itself,intertwinedwithanumberofotherissues, suchastheavailabilityofhourlytimekeepingdevices(based,forinstance,onone’ s geographicallocationandsocialclass),one’sideologicalorientationtowardnumbersandmathematics,andthedegreetowhichthesubjectmatterathandlends itselftonumerical,temporalmeasurement.
ThemostdominantvoiceinthisdebatebelongstoGalenofPergamon (129–216 ).GalenwasbornandraisedonthewestcoastofAsiaMinorand thentraveledthroughouttheMediterraneantostudywithavarietyofphilosophicalandmedicalteachersbeforeultimatelysettlinginRome.Therehebecamethe personalphysiciantotwoRomanemperors,MarcusAureliusandCommodus.⁷ AsS.Matternpointsoutinher2013biographyofGalen, “themostmodern editionofhiscorpusrunsto22volumes,includingabout150titles,makingup one-eighthofalltheclassicalGreekliteraturethatsurvives.”⁸ Inadditionto producingavastamountoftextualmaterial,Galenalsowroteonawiderange oftopics.Heconsideredhimselfanauthoritynotonlyonmedicalpractice,but alsoonpharmacology,philosophy,linguistics,andbasicastronomyandmathematics.Asaresult,hiswritingsallowthemodernscholartoseehowthese disciplinesintersectedandmutuallyinfluencedoneanotherwithinGalen’ s thought.Additionally,sinceGalenengagesbothregularlyandcriticallywiththe worksofothertheoristsandpractitioners,hiscorpusisarichsourcefor(hisown interpretationsof)theviewsofhiscontemporaryandhistoricalrivals.Thepresent bookproposesthatGalen’stexts althoughtheyconstructtheevidenceaccording tohisownbiases capturealivelydebatesurroundingthemedicaluseoftimekeepingwithinhisownandearlierperiods.
Thisbookexploreshowindividualphysicians,likeGalenandhisinterlocutors, decidedwhentoindicateandmeasuremedicallysignificanttimeusingnumbered hours ratherthanbyreferencing,forinstance,thesequenceofapatient’ s activitiesorthecuesgeneratedbyapatient ’sbody.Itconsidershowthesedoctors ’ decisionswereaffectedbytheavailabilityandrelativeaccuracyofsundialsand waterclocksintheirenvironments.Italsoaskshowtheirdecisionsaboutwhen andwhytoemploythesetoolswereaffectedbytheirownpersonalvalues,biases, andideologicalcommitments,aswellasbybroadersocialandintellectualtrends, suchastheincreasingpopularityofastronomyandastrology.Finally,thisbook investigateshowthewaysinwhichphysicianschosetotalkabouttimecould,in turn,helpthemtoarticulatetheirideologicalcommitmentsandsupporttheir stanceswithinanetworkofactivedebates.Itfocusesonfourkindsofdebates,
⁷ ForGalen’sbiography,seebelow, “Galen’sChronotopicBiography” andChapter3,n.1.
⁸ Mattern2013,3.
broadlyspeaking:(a)debatesoverspecificquestions,suchashowtodefinethe lengthoffetalgestationortheperiodsofirregularintermittentfevers;(b)debates overproperscientificmethodology,suchasthosethatragedbetweentheso-called Rationalist,Empiricist,Methodist,andPneumatistschoolsofmedicalthought duringtheRomanperiod;(c)debatesoverthestatusofmedicineasaformalartor tekhnē,whicharecloselyintertwinedwithdiscussionsaboutthevalueofmathematicsandwhethermedicinecanandshouldbeconsideredanexactscience(like astronomyandgeometry);and finally,(d)debatesovertherelativestatusof HippocratesofCosandother “foundingfathers” ofmedicine.Thecasestudies thatanchoreachofthisbook’schaptersinvestigatehowthesevariouskinds ofdebatesintersected,interacted,andinformedthethinkingofindividual physicians.
ThemedicalenvironmentinwhichphysicianslikeGalenwroteandpracticed wasverydifferentfromthepresent.Whiletherewerecertainlyrecognizedschools ofmedical thought,therewerenoformalinstitutionsformedicaleducationor accreditation.Inaworldinwhich,technicallyspeaking,anyonecouldlayclaimto medicalexpertise,practicinghealersandmedicalwriterswereunderconstant pressuretodemonstratetheirownmeritsanddiscredittheclaimsoftheir rivals.Thebackingofhigh-profilepatronsorthebrandnameofaparticular teacherormedicalsectcouldprovidesomedefenseagainstthiscutthroatenvironment. ⁹ Nevertheless,onecouldoften findseveralrivalhealerscrowdedaround thesickbedsofwealthyindividuals,witheachphysiciantryingtopersuadethe patienttochoosethecourseoftreatmentthathe(forthesephysicianswere overwhelminglymale)personallyrecommended.¹⁰ Aspiringstudentsofmedicine werenotrequiredtocommitexclusivelytooneschoolofthought,butwerefreeto hopfromteachertoteacherastheypleased.BytheRomanperiod,thishadcreated amarketforintroductorymedical “textbooks” or “handbooks” thatadvertisedthe author’sexpertisebutomittedenoughcriticalinformationthatthewould-be studentwouldhavetocomeandpayforlessonsinpersonifhewantedtounlock thetruesecretsoftheart.¹¹
ThemedicalmarketplacesofGreco-Romanantiquitywerevast,diverse,and limitedneithertomalepractitionersnortothosewhoexplainedhealthand diseasebyreferencetonatural,physicalcauses.Accordingtotheirwritings, maledoctors(iatroi inGreek; medici inLatin)oftenconsultedwithmalegymnasticsinstructors,aswellaswith “midwives ” (maiai inGreek; obstetrices in Latin)andgeneralist “femalephysicians” (iatrinai inGreek; medicae inLatin).
⁹ GalenisnotshyabouthissuccessescuringsucheminentphilosophersasGlaucon(Loc.aff. 8.361–6K)andEudemus(Praen.14.605–19K).
¹⁰ Diff.puls. 8.511–14Kand Dig.puls. 8.900–16K.Formoreonthecompetitivenatureofancient medicine,seeBarrasetal.1995,p.vii;Hankinson2008a;Lloyd2008;Mattern2008,69–97.Onthe agonisticaspectofGalen’spublicdissections,seeGleason2007. ¹¹Barton1994,156.
