BRICKS Biology Proefhoofdstuk

Biology Textbook thavo/tvwo

1

Colofon

Content

Editor: Dr. Monique Welten, Visiting Research Fellow, School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol Design:

Thimo Dirkse, OVD Educatieve Uitgeverij bv Ede

Drawings and graphics:

Gemma Stekelenburg, Gemm’Art, Huizen

The following photographs are used under licence of Shutterstock.com: photo cover, page 6-7, 28-29, 54-55, 84-85, 116-117, 146-147 and figures 1.1, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.23, 1.29, 1.31, 1.32, 1.33, 1.36, 1.37, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 2.11, 2.12, 2.16, 2.39, 2.42, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.7, 3.9, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18, 3.19, 3.20, 3.21, 3.22, 3.23, 3.24, 3.25, 3.26, 3.27, 3.28, 3.31, 3.33, 3.34, 3.35, 3.36, 3.38, 3.40, 3.41, 3.42, 3.43, 3.44, 3.45, 3.46, 3.47, 3.50, 3.51, 4.1, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.10, 4.14, 4.16, 4.18, 4.22, 4.43, 4.44, 4.45, 4.46, 4.48, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.9, 5.10, 5.15, 5.17, 5.18, 5.20, 5.28, 5.32, 6.3, 6.4, 6.12, 6.21, 6.23, 6.25, 6.31, 6.32R, 6.37, 6.39, 6.41, 6.46, 6.55, 6.57, 6.64R, 6.65L, 6.66, 6.67, 6.69, 6.71 and page 186.

Additional sources: Sean Gallup (1.3), thecityjournal.net (1.4), Wouter Spoor (1.18R, 6.32L), Micropix (1.20), wetenschap24nl (1.22), Methoxy Roxy (1.24), Nephron (1.25), Steve Gschmeissner (1.26), National Geographic (1.30), hondencentrum.nl (1.33), bubblenews. com (1.34), Evieduffy (1.35), Jimmy Dominico (2.1L), digitalART (2.1R), www.golabz.eu (2.3), Wolfgang Bettighofer (2.29), Maria Antónia Sampayo (2.30), Frank Fox (2.31), H. Krisp (2.32), benet2006 (2.33), Endro Lewa (2.35), Luinfana (2.36), Liz West (2.37), Joshua Mayer (2.38), Hans Braxmaier (2.40, 2.41, 6.33, 6.38), SpongeBob appears courtesy of Nickelodeon & Viacom Consumer Products (p.

61), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (3.7), National Aquarium New Zealand (3.15), George Grall (3.30), Andreas Tempte (3.39), Darroch Whitaker (3.49), dynamath.scholastic.com (4.5), Delft op zondag, 9 oktober 2017 (4.8), Frank C. Müller (4.9), Modern Mechanics, September 1930 (4.17), Reptonix (6.5), Rasbak (6.7, 6.8, 6.45, 6.50, 6.65R), Paulus Londo (6.13), Arno van Berge Henegouwen (6.14), microscopy-uk.org.uk (6.16), Onno Rook (6.17, 6.18, 6.19), Fungus Guy (6.40), Charles brutlag (6.43), Bjorn Roslett (6.44), Wagner2006 (6.48), Daderot (6.49), Rander Pederson (6.53), Huw Williams (6.54), boerenlevenrokeserf.blogspot.com (6.60), Allen Norcross (6.70), Jasper de Ruiter (p. 182-183), Erwin van der Kolk (p. 184-185).

The BRICKS Biology guided tour 1 Part of something bigger

6 8 14 16 19 21 23 25

2 Classification

28 30 35 37 41 46 50 51

1.1 Organs and organ systems 1.2 Tissues 1.3 Cells, the smallest units of life 1.4 Levels of organisation 1.5 Characteristics of living organisms 1.6 The energy circle of life 1.7 What have I learnt?

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

Welcome to the group The kingdom of bacteria The kingdom of fungi The kingdom of animals The kingdom of plants Identifying species What have I learnt?

3 Animals

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Het papier dat voor deze uitgave is gebruikt, is voorzien van het FSC©-keurmerk.

ISBN 978-94-6171-856-3 © Copyright 2018 Alle rechten voorbehouden. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd, opgeslagen in een geautomatiseerd gegevensbestand of openbaar gemaakt in enige vorm, hetzij elektronisch, mechanisch, door middel van fotokopieën, opnamen of op enige andere manier, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van OVD Educatieve Uitgeverij bv handelend onder de handelsnaam EduHintOVD. Voor zover het maken van kopieën uit deze uitgave is toegestaan op grond van artikelen 16h t/m 16m Auteurswet 1912 jo. Besluit van 27 november 2002, Stb. 575, dient men de daarvoor wettelijk verschuldigde vergoeding te voldoen aan de Stichting Reprorecht te Hoofddorp (Postbus 3060, 2130 KB) of contact op te nemen met de uitgever voor het treffen van een rechtstreekse regeling in de zin van art.16l, vijfde lid, Auteurswet 1912.

De uitgever heeft ernaar gestreefd de auteursrechten te regelen volgens de wettelijke bepalingen. Degenen die desondanks menen zekere rechten te kunnen doen gelden, kunnen zich alsnog tot de uitgever wenden.

4

3.1 Classification of animals 3.2 Sponges 3.3 Cnidarians 3.4 Worms 3.5 Molluscs 3.6 Echinoderms 3.7 Arthropods 3.8 Vertebrates 3.9 What have I learnt?

4 Jointed skeletons

4.1 Different types of skeletons 4.2 Your skeleton and your posture 4.3 Materials of the skeleton 4.4 Joints that make you move!

4.5 Muscles 4.6 Sports-related injuries 4.7 What have I learnt?

54 56 58 60 63 65 67 68 73 80 84 86 91 96 100 104 108 112

5 Sense it

116 118 120 122 126 128 130 132 134 136 141

6 Plants

146 148 151 154 158 163 165 168 170 172 174 177

Common plants of The Netherlands

182

Common birds of The Netherlands

184

Common insects of The Netherlands

186

Skills and Biology

187

The microscope

191

Linking words

192

Sentence starters

194

Index

195

5.1 Stimuli and responses 5.2 The senses 5.3 Vision 5.4 Hearing 5.5 Smell 5.6 Taste 5.7 Feeling 5.8 The nervous system 5.9 Neurons 5.10 What have I learnt?

6.1 The basics 6.2 Roots 6.3 Stems 6.4 Leaves: the green machine 6.5 Flowers 6.6 A game of attraction 6.7 Melting together 6.8 Sowing the seeds 6.9 Let’s grow!

6.10 Asexual reproduction 6.11 What have I learnt?

Tweede herziene druk / tweede oplage

2

3

The textbook contains information in text and images. You will process this information in your workbook or in your digital BRICKS Biology.

The BRICKS Biology guided tour BRICKS Biology is all about ... your life!

But how do you use it, in order to learn in the most effective way?

1

Illustrations and their captions provide important information.

Get introduced to the subject of the section by activating your 'First thoughts' about it.

The introduction always offers two pages which can also be used as an advance organiser. This introduction helps you to connect new information with what you already know.

3.1 Classification of animals Animals live in almost any environment on the planet. To enable them to do so, they have adapted to the place where they live. These adaptations result in lots of different body

3 Animals

KINGDOM

PHYLUM

( animals that do not have a backbone )

consisting of billions of cells.

Sponges Live in water and are asymmetric.

In this section you will answer: What is taxonomy?

•

Which are the seven phyla within the animal kingdom?

•

What classes make up the phylum of arthropods?

•

What classes make up the phylum of vertebrates?

Definitions of the words in the margin are given at the end of each chapter.

CLASS

INVERTEBRATES

shapes. Animals can be very simple, consisting of only one cell; or very complex animals

•

2

Cnidarians Have soft and hollow bodies. They show radial symmetry.

Myriapods 1 or 2 pairs of legs per segment, more than 10 pairs of legs.

Taxonomy taxonomy

You have learned that classifying organisms into groups is called taxonomy. The animal

Worms Long thin bodies without skeleton.

Bilateral symmetry.

kingdom is a taxonomic group (a taxon). Within this kingdom the animals are classified into

The introduction of the section always mentions the learning objectives.

The large picture introduces the main subject of the chapter in an attractive way.

phyla

different phyla. The animal kingdom has seven phyla. Within these phyla organisms can

classes

be classified into classes. Fortunately, you do not have to learn all the different classes of each of the seven phyla. Only the classes within the vertebrate phylum and the arthropod

Molluscs Soft bodies, often in shells (exoskeletons).

phylum will be discussed in this chapter.

Organising the animal kingdom into groups can be done in different ways. Different biology books use different systems. In this book we have chosen to use the 4 kingdom system in the chapter ‘Get organised’. For the animal kingdom we chose a seven phyla system. Be aware of the fact this is a system created by people to help them organise life.

Nature does not care about these classification systems. Therefore we sometimes have organisms that do not fit into a group precisely. In this book for example we decided not to discuss a group of unicellular animals that you might see in other biology books.

Every year about 15,000 new species are discovered while other species go extinct. New DNA studies shed new light on relationships between different organisms. Therefore

A N I M A

Echinoderms Spiny sea creatures that show radial symmetry.

L S

Arthropods Have segmented bodies with a hard exoskeleton and jointed limbs.

Crustaceans Between 4 to 20 pairs of legs.

Arachnids 4 pairs of legs, 2 body segments.

Insects 3 pairs of legs, 3 body segments.

Sticky notes offer you relevant fun facts!

Fish Cold blooded, with gills for breathing and covered with scales.

Amphibians Cold blooded, adults have lungs for breathing.

Besides energy, fire also produces a waste product: smoke, which contains carbon dioxide. classification systems can change over time. Taxonomy is a fascinating subject. Scientists

WB 1 - 4

compare organisms based on differences and similarities. Creating groups just makes it easier to communicate about them.

Reptiles Cold blooded, with dry scaly skin, lay eggs on dry land.

Your cells also produce waste. Not smoke, though this waste also contains carbon dioxide.

A phylum is one group within the kingdom of animals. There are seven phyla in

Vertebrates Animals that have a backbone.

Language boxes offer you And what about the water vapour? This is another waste product resulting from burning language facts glucose. worth knowing!

Birds Warm blooded, have feathers, wings and beaks. Lay eggs with chalky shells.

this kingdom. Words that originally come from the Latin language often have plural

forms that end with –a. Just like museum (singular) is musea in the plural form, and aquarium becomes aquaria.

Which biological level(s) does this chapter focus on?

What’s this chapter all about?

What are you going to learn? The main learning objectives of this chapter in content and language aims.

cellular respiration

classmate using some words related to taxonomy.

Figure 3.1 Overview of the classification of the animal kingdom

Take a look at yourself. You are made up of different body parts. Just like yourself, a tropical fish is also made up of many different parts. The same is true for an apple tree, a blue whale or a sea turtle. Your body parts are part of something bigger. They belong to you! You yourself are also a part of something bigger. You, the tropical fish, the apple tree and the sea turtle are all part of a living system called the Earth.

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

Organs and organ systems Tissues Cells, the smallest units of life Levels of organisation Characteristics of living organisms The energy circle of life What have I learnt?

•

The different parts of a human body

•

The eleven organ systems

•

Different types of cells

•

The levels of organisation

•

The characteristics of life

•

dioxide and water vapour. When this happens inside your cells, this process is called

Respiration and photosynthesis

After therespiration: introduction, you will digcells deeper subject. textbook offers information that you will cellular the process where breakinto downthe glucose to getThe energy. process in the workbook or online. Sticky notes, extension boxes, EIO- and language boxes offer extra

Language •

The difference between ‘big numbers’ in English and Dutch

•

The difference between respiration and to respire

57

Talking points offer opportunities for active use of the English language.

So here it is: whenever you burn fuel with the help of oxygen, you produce energy, carbon

Content

Part of something bigger

Take a look outside. What organisms do you see? Describe some organisms to a

56

In this chapter you will learn:

1

Talking point

Mammals Warm blooded with fur or hair. Lungs to breathe. Females have mammary glands.

We use the energy for life processes such as: information from different perspectives. ‘Do you remember’-items bring back relevant Biology-knowledge

The sections in this chapter.

• keeping a constant body temperature

and Talking points will help you use the English language in an active way.

• movement (contracting muscles)

• replacing and adding (growing) cells

After studying these pages, you will have a perfect idea of what to expect in

Cellular respiration can be written down as follows:

this chapter. The interactive version even gives you the option of organising the

A lot of information in BRICKS Biology is labelled. Talking points, glucose + oxygen ➔ so water carbon dioxide +learning energy strategies. extension boxes and on vapour are all + part of effective

introduction on your own (e.g. at home), by means of interactive videoclips, slideshows and voice-overs (which can also help you learn the proper pronunciation of key words).

Figure 1.9 Combustion reaction in a candle.

The fuel is candle wax.

The energy that is released is sensed by us as light and heat.

When you burn wood in a campfire, this is called combustion:

8.2Keyword Love is in connections the air …

wood + oxygen ➔ water vapour + carbon dioxide + energy Finding Mr. or Mrs. Right is not always simple. What traits do you want to see in your

4

partner? Beautiful eyes, a cute smile … but they also need to smell good! A bad breath, or

3

Do you ...can be annoying; but when you do not like someones body clothing thatremember smells of sweat

Providing information, and the way it is processed, needs a clear view on learning. BRICKS Biology offers you relevant information and support in achieving your learning objectives.

odour that canBiology be a real volume turn off. Research shows that chemicals in sweat can It actisasactually signals. the In BRICKS 1 you learnt about photosynthesis.

These chemicals affect our behaviour. In animals this is more obvious than in humans.

opposite of respiration. Using the picture below, explain to another student how

Female butterflies that are willing to mate produce so called pheromones to attract male

photosynthesis and respiration relate to each other. Where does glucose come from?

butterflies. Often, animals show very complicated mating rituals. Mating behaviour is behaviour shown to attract a partner and pursue them to mate.

Talking point

In this section you will answer:

Time to put it to the test!

•

What is mating behaviour and what is its function?

• Definitions of important concepts at the end of the chapter.

•

What is a behavioural sequence?

•

What is a sign stimulus?

• All learning objectives in one clear questionnaire to check your understanding.

•

What is a supernormal stimulus?

light

• In the online version, you will find a digital self-test at the end of each chapter.

Mating behaviour O + glucose 2

• A special section dedicated to the basic skills.

Mating rituals are also called courtship behaviour. In many animal species these rituals

• Summary exercises in your workbook relating to the complete chapter content.

cellular respiration can be very photosynthesis complicated. The rituals are a way of communicating.

Showing a ritual can

Alltellthese areitpart oftothe BRICKS didactics.

These anotheritems animal that belongs the same species, is of the opposite sex, didactics is physically consist of a variety of effective strategies,

• Mind maps of the key concepts and their mutual connections to structure the

CO + water

2 fit and a threat to the other.

Mating rituals are series of actions triggered such as:is not activating and linking withoften prior knowledge (content and language), focusing on the learning

content on a more abstract level.

by a specific stimulus. These happen in a particular, fixed order. Such a fixed pattern in

behavioural sequence behavioural units

objectives, advanced organising, behaviour is called a behavioural sequence. practising and processing in activating exercises, deepening and Each behavioural consists ofincreasing different elements, the behavioural units. feedback, summarising, testing yourself, etcetera. broadening ofsequence knowledge, motivation, giving Birds-of-Paradise are known to be beautiful creatures and have bizarre mating rituals. They

Figure dances 1.10 The between and respiration perform in relation which they changephotosynthesis themselves into something that does not even look

In this chapter you will learn:

1

Content

Part of something bigger Take a look at yourself. You are made up of different body parts. Just like yourself, a tropical fish is also made up of many different parts. The same is true for an apple tree, a blue whale or a sea turtle. Your body parts are part of something bigger. They belong to you! You yourself are also a part of something bigger. You, the tropical fish, the apple tree and the sea turtle are all part of a living system called the Earth.

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

Organs and organ systems Tissues Cells, the smallest units of life Levels of organisation Characteristics of living organisms The energy circle of life What have I learnt?

• The different parts of a human body • The eleven organ systems • Different types of cells • The levels of organisation • The characteristics of life • Respiration and photosynthesis Language • The difference between ‘big numbers’ in English and Dutch • The difference between respiration and to respire

1 Part of something bigger

1.1 Organs and organ systems You are an organism, a living creature. Besides humans, there are many other living

brain are also organs. In figure 1.2 you see a model of a human torso and the location of

things on our planet. Living things are the main objects of study in biology. Biology (bios

several major organs.

means ‘life’ and logia means ‘study’) is the study of life. Have you ever wondered what you are made of? You are made up of many different body parts that are organised to work together. When you carefully look at (observe) a human body you will see a lot of different organism biology

back

front

parts. Eyes, ears and a nose are good examples of what you will see when you look at

heart

someone.

lungs

heart lungs liver

liver stomach

You also know that the human body contains parts on the inside as well. Can you mention organs

pancreas

ten different ones? All these parts of a body are called organs. Every organ has a function.

gallbladder kidneys

small intestine

You have bones to support and protect other organs, you have muscles to be able to move, lungs to breathe and a stomach to digest. All organs together ensure that the organism

large intestine

can live. This is the same for animals, plants and humans.

bladder

The human body contains approximately 80 different organs. It contains at least 650 muscles (which are organs too). An adult has 206 bones, while a newborn baby has 301.

bladder

Figure 1.2 Model of a human torso with major organs

Organ transplants When an organ stops working, it can sometimes be replaced by an organ from another person (a donor); this is an organ transplant. Kidneys and livers, for instance, may be

organ transplant

transplanted from a living donor. This is Figure 1.1 Different organisms

because people can live with only one kidney and the liver can grow back part of itself. Even a lung can be transplanted

In this section you will answer:

from a living donor, but this is very rare.

• What do we mean with organism, organ system and organ?

For a kidney transplant, a patient can ask

• Which organ systems do we humans have?

a family member (often a brother or sister) to be the donor.

Figure 1.3 A transport box for organs

Talking point

Discuss with your classmates what your connection is with other organisms. Try to

For other organ replacements, such as a heart transplant, the patient needs a donor

discuss as many as you can. What is the nature of the different ‘relationships’ you have

who has died. Such a donor must have given permission for the use of his or her organs

with other organisms?

after death. Out of 10.000 people who have died, only one is suitable to become an organ donor. Therefore, many patients who need an organ transplant are on a waiting

After a kidney transplant, most patients have three kidneys because their own kidneys are usually left in place!

list with other patients who need the same organ type. Unfortunately, these waiting

Organs organ

lists are very long and there are not enough donors.

An organ is a group of two or more tissue types with a recognisable structure. Each organ

In the Netherlands, the government regularly organises campaigns to promote organ

has a specific job within an organism. The job or task of an organ is also called its function.

donation. Any person of 18 years of age and older can register their willingness to

In an organ, different types of tissues work together to carry out this job. These tissues have

be a donor into the ‘Donorregister’. This is called an opt-in system: you have to give

different structures by which they can be recognised (we will discuss this in paragraph 1.2).

permission to be a donor. In Belgium, Spain and Austria (amongst others) there is an

Your stomach, for instance, is an organ. It is made of different types of tissues that work

opt-out system: anyone who hasn’t refused consent to donate is a donor.

together to digest part of your food. Your heart is another organ. In your heart, different tissues work together to pump blood around your body. Your kidneys, intestines, lungs and

8

9

1 Part of something bigger

2 The nervous system includes your brain, spinal cord and nerves.

However, at the beginning

It picks up signals from inside and outside your body. Its organs work

of 2018, a new law

together to send and receive messages to and from other body parts

was introduced in the

and to and from your brain. This way, your brain always knows what

Netherlands, to change the

is going on inside and outside your body, and it can respond by

opt-in system to an opt-

controlling and coordinating your body’s many activities.

out system. The law was

Sometimes an organ is part of more than one organ system. The pancreas is part of both the endocrine system and the digestive system!

accepted, which means in the Netherlands we now have an opt-out system: everybody is a donor unless

Figure 1.4 Organ donation rates per million in the opt-in and the opt-out system in 2012

The body usually rejects organs that do not belong to it. Because of this, patients with donor organs have to use special medicines for the rest of their lives to prevent rejection.

Talking point

Figure 1.6 Nervous system

you refuse to give consent.

3 The muscular system includes all the different muscles

4 The skeletal system

inside your body,

consists of your skull and

which have to work

bones. Together, they

together to make

support and protect

As you have read, the discussion of changing our opt-in system to an opt-out system

different movements

your organs. Muscles are

and the debate whether this is a good change is still going on. Will an opt-out system

possible.

attached to the bones to

increase the number of donors, and solve the shortage of donor organs? Is it a good

enable you to move. Some

thing that we force people to refuse consent when they don’t want to be a donor?

of your bones also make

Discuss these questions and discuss whether you want to be a donor and why (not).

Figure 1.7 Muscular system

red blood cells.

Figure 1.8 Skeletal system

Organ systems

An organ system is a group of related organs that work together to perform a certain job

Hair, fingernails and toenails are accumulations of dead epidermal cells. As more cells die and need to be removed, the hair and nails grow. But they do have a specific function: hairs protect us from cold or heat.

And nails protect us, or help us pick up small objects.

such as digestion or circulation. Your stomach digests only part of your food. Other organs

5 The respiratory

take care of the rest of the digestion process. Your complete digestive system consists

system is formed by

of your oesophagus, stomach, intestines, pancreas and various other organs. And your

your lungs and your

6 The digestive system

circulatory system consists of your heart and your blood vessels.

windpipe. It provides

includes your oesophagus,

your cells with

stomach, intestines,

oxygen and removes

pancreas and various other

carbon dioxide waste.

organs that work together

In total there are eleven organ systems at work inside your body: 1 The integumentary system includes

to break down and absorb

your hair, nails and your skin and its parts. It

food and to get rid of

protects your body from injury, infection and

waste products..

dehydration. The skin also plays a role in the removal of waste, such as dead cells and sweat.

The skin gives signals to your brain, for instance, whether it is cold or warm.

Figure 1.9 Respiratory system Figure 1.10 Digestive system

Figure 1.5 Integumentary system

10

11

1 Part of something bigger

Variations of organ systems

7 The urinary system includes the kidneys, bladder and

8 The circulatory system

urethra. Its job is to

consists of your heart and blood

control the fluids

vessels. Besides pumping blood

inside your body. It

around your body and keeping

filters your blood and

you warm, it also transports the

gets rid of waste.

things your cells need, such as oxygen and food. When cells need to get rid of waste, this

Figure 1.11 Urinary system

system helps transport the waste for removal.

Figure 1.12 Circulatory system

Other living organisms like plants and animals also possess organs and organ systems that enable reproduction, digestion, respiration, circulation and so on. The variation of organ systems has to do with all sorts of differences.

Plants, for instance, don’t really have organ systems, but you could say – as you will see in the chapter Plants – that plants have 5 organs: root, stem, leaf, flower and fruit.

A root contains a lot of different tissues to take up water and nutrients from the soil, to transport these to the top of the plant, to be able to grow longer and more roots and to be able to search for nutrient rich soil. So, plants do have a system to transport different substances up and down the plant like our circulatory system transports everything in our body, but the systems are quite different from each other. Flowers are another example. We use them to brighten up our day, but in fact they are the reproductive organs of plants. ovary

oviduct

9 The lymphatic system consists of

10 The endocrine system

vessels and organs

produces hormones

that help filter blood

(messenger molecules)

and protect you from

in many different types

disease.

of glands. An example of an endocrine gland is the

body of uterus cervix

endometrium

beginning of vagina

Figure 1.16 Various organisms have their own distinct organ systems for corresponding functions

pancreas.

We also see big differences for instance in the digestive systems of humans and animals. Humans eat meat as well as plants. We are called omnivores (omni is Latin for

Figure 1.13 Lymphatic system

‘everything’, vora means ‘to eat’). Animals that eat mostly meat are called carnivores Figure 1.14 Endocrine system

(carnis means ‘meat’). Other animals that mostly eat plants are called herbivores (herba means ‘plant’ or ‘herb’). Different food patterns, mostly meat or mostly plants, ask for different ways to organise digestion. Carnivores like the coyote and the lion, and omnivores like humans, have a rather long small intestine. Herbivores like the koala

11 The reproductive system is different in females and in males. It consists of organs that produce egg cells and sperm cells. In females, an organ called the uterus gives the developing baby a safe, healthy place to live and grow for nine months.

have a shorter small intestine, but a much longer large intestine. Some herbivores, like cows and deer that ruminate (to chew over again) have four stomachs. Both the four stomachs and the large intestine make sure that the plants, which are hard to digest, can be digested with the help of bacteria.

All organs and organ systems together ensure that the organism can live. This is the same for animals, plants and humans.

WB 1 - 8 Figure 1.15 Reproductive system

12

13

1 Part of something bigger

1.2 Tissues All cells in one tissue type are the same. In order to function well, organs consist of different When you take a good look at an organ (any organ), you will see that an organ consists

types of tissues. There are four basic types of tissues: epithelial tissue, muscle tissue,

of different ‘parts’. Every organ contains blood vessels. But lungs, for example, consists

connective tissue and nerve tissue.

of tubes and of air sacs at the end of these tubes. And when we look at the lining of the stomach, we see different layers. These different layers of cells are called tissues. Every part

Epithelial tissue consists of cells that work together to provide a covering such as skin,

epithelial tissue

of an organ, like the air sacs and tubes of the lungs (figure 1.17) and lining of the stomach

or the surfaces of parts inside your body. Muscle tissue is made up of muscle cells that

muscle tissue

(figure 1.18) contain multiple types of tissues.

contract. All of these tiny contractions performed by all muscle cells together at the same time make your whole muscle contract. Muscle tissue is not only found in your muscles, but also on the outside of your stomach and intestinal tract and in your heart.

Connective tissue supports other tissues and binds them together. It can be found in your

connective tissue

bones and in your blood. Finally, nerve tissue is made from nerve cells that work together

nerve tissue

to send and receive messages to and from other body parts. Your brain, spinal cord and nerves are made of this.

In figure 1.19 you see examples of these four basic tissue types.

Figure 1.17 Diagram of the parts of the lungs

epithelial tissue

muscle tissue

connective tissue

nerve tissue

Figure 1.18 A diagram showing the lining of the stomach, and a very detailed microscopic view of the lining of the stomach, showing the different tissue types.

In this section you will answer: • What is a tissue?

• Which types of tissues are there?

Figure 1.19 The four basic tissue types

Besides these four types of tissues, which we find in almost all organs, there are also the

Types of tissues tissue cells

A tissue is a group of similar cells that perform a certain task. Cells are the smallest living

functional cells that compose the functional tissue. These are cells like the cells in your

functional cells

stomach. Also your liver consists of different cells that perform several tasks like storage of

functional tissue

nutrients, and break down harmful substances. These cells are specific for every organ.

units, the building blocks of life (you will learn more about cells in the next paragraph).

single-celled organism

There are organisms that consist of only one cell. That is what we call a single-celled

multicellular organism

organism or unicellular organism. You, however, are a multicellular organism, which

WB 9 - 17

contains lots and lots of cells. These cells work together in tissues.

14

15

1 Part of something bigger

1.3 Cells, the smallest units of life Big numbers

All living things are made up of cells.

The English number trillion is translated as ‘biljoen’ in Dutch. It is a very large

A cell is the very smallest living part of an

number, precisely 1,000,000,000,000. For comparison, a trillion seconds takes about

organism. The smallest organism is made

31,000 years! The English language also has the word billion. However, billion is

up of only one cell. It takes trillions of cells

translated as ‘miljard’ in Dutch, which means 1,000,000,000 or in other words 1,000

to make up a human body.

million (1.000 miljoen).

Figure 1.20 A stentor is an organism that is made up of only one cell

Different cell types in different types of organisms Scientists are not sure exactly how many cells are in the human body.

Some say the average adult human body is made up of ‘50 trillion cells’, while others put the figure closer to 10 trillion. The number will vary from person to person, depending on their size. The number of cells in your own body is constantly changing, as cells die or are destroyed and new ones are formed. There are between 200 and 300 different cell types.

In this section you will answer:

When biologists study cells, they put them into different groups, depending on the type of

• What is a cell what does it consist of?

organism the cells belong to. The cells of plants and animals are very different. The same

• Which different cell types are there?

goes for the cells of bacteria and fungi. This means there are four groups. Although humans

• What is an organelle and what are the functions of the most important organelles?

have some unique characteristics, we have cells that are similar to those of animals. That is

• What are photosynthesis and respiration?

why there is not a fifth group called humans.

Robert Hook For centuries, scientists did not know that the human body is made up of trillions of cells. Before the invention of the microscope, nobody even knew cells existed!

In 1665, an English scientist named Robert Hooke built a simple microscope and looked at a piece of cork, the bark of the cork oak tree. What he saw were small, box-shaped structures. He called them cellulae (a Latin word meaning ‘small rooms’) because the boxlike cells of cork reminded him of the cells in which monks live at a

Besides a cell membrane, cytoplasm and often a nucleus, plant cells have a cell wall. This is

cell wall

a second outer covering that is made of hard, tough material called cellulose. Animal cells

cellulose

do not have a cell wall.

A chloroplast is a cell organelle that makes food inside a plant cell using light. This process

chloroplast

is called photosynthesis. A mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria) is a cell organelle that

photosynthesis

turns food into energy. This process is called respiration. A plant cell and a fungus cell

mitochondrion

have a vacuole in which it stores food, waste products and water. Figure 1.21 shows the

respiration

differences between a bacterial cell, a fungus cell, an animal cell and a plant cell.

vacuole

Bacterial cell

Fungus cell

Animal cell

Plant cell

Cell wall

Cell wall

-

Cell wall

Cell membrane

Cell membrane

Cell membrane

Cell membrane

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm

-

Nucleus

Nucleus

Nucleus

-

-

-

Chloroplasts

A basic cell

-

Mitochondria

Mitochondria

Mitochondria

Each organ consists of specific types of cells. There are blood cells, bone cells, skin cells,

-

Vacuole

-

Vacuole

monastery. It is from Hooke’s discovery that we have the word cell.

muscle cells and so on. There must be many different types of cells in your body. All cells organelles

have cell organelles. These are little organs that have several functions inside the cell. Not

Human cells are not different from animal cells. That is why we talk about animal cells, and not about human cells.

every cell has the same organelles. However, all cells have two things in common. cell membrane

Firstly, all cells have a cell membrane. This is a soft outer covering that controls what goes

cytoplasm

into and out of the cell. Secondly, they all have cytoplasm, which is a gel-like liquid inside the cell. Here, all kinds of chemical reactions take place. In the cytoplasm of most cells,

nucleus DNA

we find the nucleus of the cell. The nucleus controls what the cell does. It also contains hereditary material in the form of DNA. Hereditary means it is material that is passed on from parents to their offspring. That’s why children look like their parents.

Figure 1.21 Differences between cells of different organisms

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17

1 Part of something bigger

1.4 Levels of organisation

Your red blood cells are the only cells in your body that do not have a nucleus.

Different types of cells within one organism

You have learned that an organism consists of organs that are made up of tissues while

Cells come in many shapes and many

each tissue consists of different cells. Each cell contains organelles. You know that the

sizes. A human egg cell is about the size of

nucleus contains DNA and that you breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide.

the dot at the end of this sentence. This is

DNA, oxygen and carbon dioxide are examples of molecules. A glass of water contains

actually still pretty big for a cell! A red blood

trillions of water molecules, and just one grain of sugar contains trillions of sugar molecules

cell is ten times smaller than that.

called glucose.

molecules molecule organelle

Humans are just one life form out of an estimated 100 million life forms on Earth!

Figure 1.22 Human egg cell

The shape of a cell depends upon the job it has to do. A nerve cell is long and thin and has many extensions with which it reaches out to other nerve cells to transmit messages. A red

mitochondrion cell

glucose (C6H12O6)

blood cell has a small and round disc-like shape that fits inside the smallest blood vessels.

A white blood cell and a muscle cell can even change shape!

tissue

smooth muscle cell

A muscle cell, for instance, can get shorter when the muscle contracts and longer when

organ

the muscle relaxes. Some plant cells on the other hand, are shaped like hollow tubes to transport water and food to different parts of the plant.

smooth muscle tissue stomach

muscle layers epithelial tissue

organ system oesophagus

The biggest (longest) cells in the human body are nerve cells. They can grow up to one metre long! They are also very thin.

liver gallbladder pancreas smal intestine large intestine

Figure 1.23 Red blood cells

Figure 1.24 Nerve cells

rectum digestive system organism

Figure 1.27 Levels of organisation in the human body

In this section you will answer: • What are the levels of organisation? • What are (examples of) molecules?

Figure 1.25 Muscle cells

Figure 1.26 Plants cells for water transport

Part of something bigger Just like cells are part of tissues, tissues are part of organs, organs are part of organ systems and organ systems are part of an organism. As a member of a group of organisms called

WB 18 - 24

humans, you are also a part of something bigger. Humans are a species. Siberian tigers

species

are also a species, as are apple trees and blue whales. Members of the same species can produce offspring together.

18

19

1.5 Characteristics of living organisms

1 Part of something bigger

Our species, that is all human beings, are part of something bigger still. We live together community ecosystem

with other species, with which we form a community. When we add all non-living parts

What defines something as a living thing? Does ‘dead’ and ‘non-living’ mean the same?

(like water, soil, rocks) to this community, this is called an ecosystem. An ecosystem

We say something is dead when it was once alive.

consists of all organisms, such as humans and other species, living together in a certain

We say something is non-living when it has never been alive at all.

area. Figure 1.28 shows how the different levels of life are organised.

Biologists use seven life processes or characteristics to determine whether something is living or non-living.

Humans, dogs, giraffes and African bush elephants are all different species.

There are groups of species that live in different area and do not meet each other.

These groups are called populations. A population is a group of the same species in a certain area.

Level

Example

Symbol

molecule

DNA, glucose, oxygen, water

In this section you will answer:

cell organelle

nucleus, chloroplast

• What are the differences between dead and non-living and what are examples of

cell

nerve cell, blood cell

tissue

muscle

organ

brain, heart, skin

organ system

blood circulatory system

organism

you and all other living things

dead non-living

both?

• What are the characteristics of life?

Organisms can be very different from each other. A single-celled organism, a plant population

school of fish, herd of deer

community

all populations that live together

ecosystem

forest, ocean

biosphere

zone where life is possible

planet earth Figure 1.28 Levels of organisation of life

and an animal are all living things. What are the main differences between these three

Talking point

organisms? Why would you consider all three of them a living thing?

A living thing, or organism, must have all seven of the following characteristics: movement, feeding, respiration, excretion, sensitivity, reproduction and growth.

Let’s look at each characteristic in more detail.

Movement means going from one place to another, like a cheetah running. It also means moving a body

Organize and organization compared with organise and organisation are different

part, like plants move their leaves towards the sunlight.

spellings of the same words. Organize and organization is the preferred spelling in the United States and Canada, while organise and organisation is more common

Figure 1.30

outside North America and is the preferred spelling in the United Kingdom (British English).

Feeding means taking in food and fluids. Animals must eat and drink. They get their food from other organisms. Plants make their own food during the day, which they use during the night.

Figure 1.31

Respiration (sometimes called cellular respiration) is the process of getting energy out of food. All living things need energy to survive; their cells turn food into energy. Living things need energy to move, feed, sense, excrete, reproduce, grow and breathe.

WB 25 - 30

Figure 1.29 The African bush elephant is the larger of the two species of African elephant. Both the African bush elephant and the African forest elephant have been classified as separate species.

Figure 1.32 A mitochondrion

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21

1.6 The energy circle of life Respiration, also called cellular respiration, should not be confused with ‘respiration’: breathing in and out (‘to respire’). During cellular respiration, you need to breathe in oxygen to obtain energy from food.

After your cells got energy from food, you produce carbon dioxide, which

1 Part of something bigger

Every cell needs respiration in order to stay alive, and to perform many processes.

You have learned that respiration takes place in mitochondria. Bacteria also perform respiration, although they don’t have special organelles for this process.

In this section you will answer: • What is the link between the processes of respiration and photosynthesis?

respiration

• Which organisms perform both processes or just one of the processes?

you have to breathe out.

Excretion is removing waste. When cells make energy,

Respiration is a very important process in our cells, which provides us with energy,

they also produce waste, just like a factory does. For

needed for growth, movement, and many other things. But where does the energy

example, our bodies produce urine as a way to get rid of

we need ultimately come from?

Talking point

waste products.

Figure 1.33

Producing energy To produce energy, a mitochondrion needs substances that are found in food, like glucose

Sensitivity means reacting to changes in the

(which is known as a sugar). To break down glucose, a mitochondrion needs oxygen. When

environment. These changes are called stimuli; the

glucose is broken down, two other substances are formed: water (H2O) and carbon dioxide

reaction is called a response. The leaves of the sensitive

(CO2). Besides these two waste products, energy is created. This energy can be used for

plant Mimosa pudica quickly fold inward when you

all other processes in your body: to move, to grow, to keep you warm and many other

touch them. Your touch is the stimulus, the leaves

processes. The purpose of cellular respiration is to create usable energy from the foods

folding is the response.

that living things eat.

Figure 1.34 carbon dioxide

Reproduction is making new living things. Living things reproduce and pass on characteristics such as

oxygen

energy

eye colour or hair colour from one generation to the next. Species can only continue to exist as long as they reproduce.

Figure 1.35

Growth means increasing in cell number and size.

Most organisms stop growing after a while. Others keep on growing for a very long time. The tallest tree, for example, is the giant sequoia tree.

water

Figure 1.36

glucose

Figure 1.37 The process of respiration in a mitochondrion

WB 31 - 45

22

23

1.7 What have I learnt?

1 Part of something bigger

And where does the glucose we need come from? It is produced by plants in a process photosynthesis

called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts in the leaves of plants and trees. Photosynthesis involves the use of energy from sunlight, water

In this chapter, you have learnt about the following topics:

and carbon dioxide to produce glucose and oxygen. Oxygen is a waste product of photosynthesis in plants; it is released into the air and we, humans, animals, and all other

Content

organisms need oxygen to be able to perform respiration.

• The different parts of a human body.

• The eleven organ systems.

• Different types of cells.

• The levels of organisation.

carbon dioxide sunlight oxygen

• The characteristics of life.

• Respiration and photosynthesis.

Language • The difference between big numbers in English and Dutch.

• The difference between respiration and to respire.

• The difference between organise and organize.

glucose

You can answer the following questions: 1.1

1 What do we mean with organism, organ system and organ?

2. Which organ systems do we humans have?

1.2

1 What do we mean with a tissue?

2. Which types of tissues are there?

1.3

1 What is a cell and what does it consist of?

2. Which cell types are there?

3. What is an organelle and what are the functions of the most important organelles?

4. What is photosynthesis and what is respiration?

1.4

1 What are the levels of organisation?

Have you seen that respiration and photosynthesis are almost opposite processes? During

2. What are (examples of ) molecules?

photosynthesis plants use the energy of the sun to form glucose during photosynthesis in

1.5

1 What is the link between respiration and photosynthesis?

chloroplasts; while glucose is broken down in plants during respiration in mitochondria,

2. Which organisms perform both processes or just one of the processes?

in order to produce energy. A plant can perform both processes, and needs respiration to

1.6

1 What are the differences between dead and non-living? What are examples of both?

create energy for all other processes in the plant, like growing, producing substances to

2. What are the characteristics of life?

water

Figure 1.38 The process of photosynthesis in a dandelion (glucose is produced)

Respiration and photosynthesis are opposites

protect themselves and much more.

WB 46 - 50

24

25

1 Part of something bigger

Keywords and definitions 1.1 Organs and organ systems organism: living creature biology: the study of life organ: a part of an organism with a specific function organ transplant: to replace a non-working organ by a healthy organ from another person (donor) organ system: a group of related organs that work together to perform a certain job

BIOSPHERE

1.2 Tissues

1.3 Cells, the smallest units of life

tissue: a group of similar cells that perform a certain task cell: the smallest living thing single-celled organism: a living creature that consists of only one cell multicellular organism: a living creature that consists of multiple cells epithelial tissue: tissue consisting of cells that work together to provide a covering muscle tissue: tissue consisting of cells that can contract and expand connective tissue: tissue consisting of cells that binds tissues together nerve tissue: tissue consisting of cells working together to send and receive messages from other body parts

organelle: a small organ inside the cell, with a specific function cell membrane: outer covering of the cell that controls what goes into and out of the cell cytoplasm: gel-like liquid inside a cell nucleus: part of the cell that controls what the cell does; it also contains hereditary material in the form of DNA DNA: big molecule containing all information for an organism to function cell wall: a second outer covering that is made of hard, tough material called cellulose cellulose: the hard material a cell wall of plants is made of chloroplast: part of the cell that makes food inside a plant cell using light. photosynthesis: the process inside a chloroplast in which glucose is produced, using sunlight, carbon dioxide and water mitochondrion: part of the cell that turns food into energy in a process called (cellular) respiration respiration: the process of creating energy using glucose and oxygen vacuole: part of the cell that stores food, waste products and water

ECOSYSTEM

species

non-living

alive

COMMUNITY

alive

POPULATION

dead

cell membrane

other parts of the cell

cytoplasm

cell wall

cellulose

vacuole ORGANISM nucleus

DNA

ORGAN SYSTEM

excretion

ORGANELLE

mitochondrion

respiration

ORGAN TISSUE

chloroplast

photosynthesis

CELL

1.4 Levels of organisation molecule: smallest substance, like one particle of glucose, water or oxygen species: organisms that are almost the same and can produce fertile offspring together community: all population in a certain area living together ecosystem: all the living, dead and non-living components of an area together population: a group of organisms of the same species in a certain area biosphere: zone of planet earth where life is possible

circulatory system

glucose

1.5 Characteristics of living organisms dead: something that was alive once non-living: something that was never alive excretion: removing waste from a body (or cell) respiration: the process of creating energy using glucose and oxygen photosynthesis: the process inside a chloroplast in which glucose is produced, using sunlight, carbon dioxide and water

DNA

cellulose MOLECULE

Keyword connections

water

carbon dioxide

oxygen

26

27

Common birds of The Netherlands

12

11

3

1 13 2

6

15

4

14 5 8 17

18

7

9

16 10 1

Š Elwin van der Kolk

184

1 common buzzard buizerd Buteo buteo (50-56 cm) 2 western jackdaw kauw Corvus monedula (32-34 cm) 3 barn swallow boerenzwaluw Hirundo rustica (16-22 cm) 4 common kestrel torenvalk Falco tinnunculus (33-36 cm) 5 carrion crow zwarte kraai Corvus corone (45-49 cm) 6 great tit koolmees Parus major (13-14 cm) 7 blue tit pimpelmees Parus caeruleus (11-12 cm) 8 European robin roodborst Erithacus rubecula (13-15 cm) 9 common chaffinch vink Fringilla coelebs (15-16 cm) 10 house sparrow huismus Passer domesticus (14-15 cm)

11 jay gaai Garrulus glandarius (33-36 cm) 12 Eurasian magpie ekster Pica pica (42-50 cm) 13 domestic pigeon stadsduif Columba livia domestica (31-35 cm) 14 common blackbird merel Turdus merula (24-27 cm) 15 Eurasian collared dove Turkse tortel Streptopelia decaocto (26-29 cm) 16 common starling spreeuw Sturnus vulgaris (20-22 cm) 17 northern lapwing (also peewit, tuit) kievit Vanellus vanellus (29-32 cm) 18 common wood pigeon houtduif Columba palumbus (39-43 cm) 19 black-tailed godwit grutto Limosa limosa (36-40 cm)

19

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Skills and Biology Biology is all about the living world around and inside of you. To increase your understanding of this world, we study and research it, using various skills. On the following pages we have put together the necessary information about these skills. They can support you in understanding Biology and solving the more practical assignments in your workbook.

Life is everywhere. To focus our attention we distinguish five different organisational levels of life. We zoom in and out from the small DNA and cell levels to the large ecosystems that are found on earth.

Organisational levels of life

Description

Example

The hereditary information / the smallest unit of life

A muscle cell

Cells make up tissues and several tissues make an organ

A heart

A living thing

A deer

Zoom out t

Living things that can produce fertile A herd of deer on the Veluwe offspring together / a group of such living things A place in which living things live and where they are influenced by other living and non-living things

The Veluwe with its animals, plants and non-living factors such as rain, sunshine etc.

Zoom in

1 The scientific method The scientific method is the procedure scientists use to design any kind of experiment. Several steps must always be followed in a well-organised experiment. After making an observation a research question has to be formulated.

This is followed by putting down the hypothesis, this is a predicted answer to the research question. Then you design a test to see whether or not your prediction was correct. The method is a detailed description of every step in this test. Also, a list of materials that are needed is recorded. Results are described and can also be presented in the form of a drawing or a diagram (a chart or graph). Hopefully the research question can now be answered by putting down the conclusion. The final step is called the discussion, it tells us how the experiment gave us new understanding of the problem you investigated.

Scientists all over the world use these steps to inform each other about scientific findings. In this way we can communicate internationally in a uniform matter (EIO means European and International Orientation).

Writing a good research question can be difficult!

Below you can find a short checklist to examine the quality of your research question. ✓✓ T he question is open ended and starts with What, How, Which, Why or When. A research question that can be answered with a simple yes or no is considered less good. ✓✓ This question is researchable. You have the time and all the required materials needed to find the answer.

✓✓ T his question is measurable. There is something that you can measure to answer the research question. ✓✓ The question is focused. The question is specific enough and can be answered completely by doing the experiment.

Example of a good research question: How do different water temperatures affect the growth of the waterplant Elodea?

Example of a hypothesis: A water temperature of 30 0C will cause Elodea to grow faster than a water temperature of 10 and 20 0C.

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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OBSERVATION RESEARCH QUESTION The reason to conduct the experiment

HYPOTHESIS An educated prediction or guess as to the outcome

METHOD Items and supplies being used and the steps or processes taken

THINK Change something and try again

EXPERIMENT What occurs during the experiment

CONCLUSION Outcome or findings

YES

NO

The hypothesis was true

The hypothesis was false or partially true

DISCUSSION Document: what was done and what was learned

2 Microscopy When studying organelles, cells or tissues we often make use of light microscopes at school. This tool enables us to observe small specimens. Specimens have to be transparent or translucent because light must be able to move through it to reach the lenses of the microscope. Always carry a microscope with two hands when you remove it from the cupboard, one hand around the arm and the other hand underneath the base. Then place it on a clean table.

Magnification The magnification is the measure of the ability of the microscope to enlarge an image. There are lenses in the eyepiece and in the different objectives on your microscope. Magnifications are printed on the sides of the objectives and on the side or top of the eyepiece.

To determine the total magnification of any image, multiply the eyepiece magnification by the objective magnification.

Calculating total magnification Total magnification = eyepiece lens x objective lens eyepiece lens

objective lens

188

For example: For an eyepiece of X10 and an objective of X10, the total magnification of the object is: 10 x 10 = 100.

Making a slide A specimen is placed on a slide. Sometimes water or a staining solution is used. This staining is used to create contrast between different parts of the cell or tissue. The specimen is then covered with a small glass plate, the cover slip.

4 Plotting graphs cover slip

slide

hair

Using the microscope When the slide is placed on the stage the smallest objective is always used first. Use the course adjustment knob to focus the image, the image may be small at this magnification. Move the slide around until the specimen is in the middle of the field of view. If you have not focused on this level you will not be able to see a sharp image on the next level.

Once focused, switch to the next objective in line. Use the small adjustment knob to focus. Now it is possible to switch to the high power lens. Pay attention; only use the fine adjustment knob to focus! The diaphragm, located underneath the stage, can be adjusted when the image is too light or too dark.

3 Making a biological drawing To get a better understanding of what you see we often make a biological drawing. However, it is important to keep the drawing rules in mind!

• Always use a sharp pencil.

• Your full name, class, date, a title and the total magnification should be present on the paper.

• Draw what you see, not what you think you must see.

• Draw smooth, continuous lines, sketching is not allowed!

• No shading allowed, instead you can use dots to show contrast.

• Label lines are drawn with a ruler, horizontal and all point to the right side of the drawing.

• Labels are written with pencil in lowercase script.

length (mm)

When you collect data in an experiment you want to put down the results in a clear way. This makes it easier to visualise information, and possibly see patterns. In biology we often make use of bar graphs, line graphs and pie charts.

55 54 53 52 51 50

1

30° 20° 10°

2

3

4

5

time(days)

Line graph showing the growth of the plant Elodea in different water temperatures over 5 days.

A line graph, a bar graph and a pie chart.

When you make a chart or graph there are some basic rules to keep in mind: • Imagine you are recording the growth of a water plant in three different water temperatures. You will need to determine the dependent and independent variable. The independent variable always goes on the x-axis (horizontal) and the dependent variable on the y-axis (vertical). The effect of the independent variable (temperature) is measured as the dependent factor (the part that you want to observe or measure – here: plant growth) varies.

We are trying to see how plant growth depends on temperature.

• Add a title to your graph. The title should contain a short description of what is investigated. If possible also include the date, place and name of the experimenter. If there is more than one graph a number or letter is required.

For example: ‘Figure 1 A bar graph showing the growth of the plant Elodea in different water temperatures after 5 days.’

• Label the axes. The horizontal and vertical axis are labelled with the name of the variable and the unit. The variable could be ‘temperature’, the unit ‘degrees Celcius’ (°C).

Water temperature in oC Time in days

10 oC

20 oC

30 oC

Day 1

50 mm

50 mm

50 mm

Day 2

50 mm

50 mm

50 mm

Day 3

50 mm

51 mm

52 mm

Day 4

50 mm

51 mm

53 mm

Day 5

50 mm

52 mm

55 mm

Chart: The length of Elodea in three different water temperatures over 5 days.

5 Math skills • Calculating percentages (%) Percent means ‘for every 100’ or ‘out of 100’. As an example, instead of saying ‘it rained 14 days out of every 100,’ we say ‘it rained 14% of the time.’

When you need to calculate a percentage you can use this formula: part whole

x 100% = percentage of the part of the whole

For example: 12 out of 48 people are female. What is the percentage of females?

12 48

x 100 = 25%

• Calculate the average To calculate the average you need to add op all the numbers and then divide by how many numbers there are.

For example: You need to calculate the average weight of a group of 4 pigs.

The weight of the four pigs is shown in the next chart.

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pig

weight in Kg

1

250

2

265

3

270

4

225

Average weight =

250 + 265 + 270 + 225 4

= 252,5 Kg

6 Using sources Sometimes we use other sources than our textbook.

This could be a website or an article in a newspaper or a magazine. It is important to check if these sources are reliable. The fact that an article appears on the internet does not mean it is accurate information. Therefore you need to ask yourself questions to find out if a source is reliable.

1 Who is the author? Is he an expert on the topic?

This could be a professor linked to a University or a doctor that is specialised in a certain field of medicine.

2 When was the source last updated? Does it have a date? Older information is considered less reliable than up-to-date information.

3 What is the purpose of the page? Is the information posted as a public service? As an advertisement?

As a research tool for academics? A tobacco company might publish different information about addictiveness to nicotine than a health organisation. So always be suspicious!

Citing sources When you make a poster, a presentation, or write a report you will probably use information that was collected by other people. It is important to put down where the information you used came from.

This is called ‘citing the sources’. Citing sources can show a reader that the information used was reliable information. This can make your assignment much better! Always follow these rules when you cite your sources: Citing from the internet: Author, A.A., (Year of Publication), Article title, Retrieved from URL For example: Modgil, R., (2017), Should I worry about the mercury in the fish I eat?, Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ guides/zs3882p, date retrieved

190

Citing from a book: Author, A.A., (Year of publication), Title of work, Publisher City

The microscope

For example: Moeskops, K., Spoor, W., Wüst, D., (2017), Bricks Biology Textbook 2 thavo/tvwo, OVD Educatieve uitgeverij Ede

A microscope contains several glass lenses. The lens closest to your eye is called the ocular. The lens closest to the object you want to see is called the objective. Each lens magnifies the previous lens. When the ocular magnifies 4 times and the objective magnifies 10 times, the total magnification is 4 x 10 = 40 times (40x). As the magnification gets higher, you see more details, although only a smaller part of the object is seen.

Onion cells (40x) Onion cells (100x) Onion cells (400x)

Sometimes you are not able to find all the information of the source you are using. This makes the source less reliable. However sometimes you might decide to still use the information. Follow these rules in citing them.

If there is no author the article title comes first.

For example: Should I worry about the mercury in the fish I eat?, (2017), retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/guides/ zs3882p For example: Modgil, R., (n.d.), Should I worry about the mercury in the fish I eat?, Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ guides/zs3882p In text citations When summarizing or quoting from another text you need to insert an ‘in text citation’. For every in text citation in the paper (or presentation, or poster) there must be a corresponding citation in the bibliography which lists all the used sources in alphabetical order.

In text citations are the short version of the complete citation in the bibliography. They include the name of the author and the year of publication.

For example: ‘The fish we eat, such as tuna and salmon, all contain small amounts of mercury – a pollutant that can be highly toxic to our nervous systems.’ (Modgil, 2017).

7 Science words

In the word ‘microscope’ you recognise the words ‘micro’ meaning small, and ‘scope’ meaning to view. A microscope helps you to view small things. Just as a telescope helps you to see things that are far away (‘tele’ means far away).

revolving nosepiece

eyepiece, contains the ocular lens body tube

objective lenses

arm

stage clips coarse adjustment knob

stage

diaphragm

fine adjustment knob

light source

The parts of a microscope The ocular lens sits inside the eyepiece, which fits inside the body tube. Beneath the body tube you find the revolving nosepiece. This holds several objective lenses, each with a different kind of magnification. The arm connects the part with the lenses to the base of the microscope. On the arm you will find two knobs to adjust the focus of the image. The coarse focus adjustment knob is for big focus adjustments; the fine focus adjustment knob is for making small focus adjustments.

The slide you want to study is placed on the stage and held in place by two stage clips. A small light source (a lamp) illuminates the slide. The amount of light can be adjusted by using the diaphragm.

base

Preparing a slide The object you want to magnify is prepared by placing it in a drop of water on a slide. The wet object is covered by a cover slip. This is a very thin, square piece of glass. Then you can place the slide on the stage and fix it with the stage clips. Be careful to hold the slide and cover slip by the edges to prevent smudges from your fingers.

Some words that are used in science have similar beginnings or endings. These similarities can unlock the meaning of the word. Being able to recognise them might make it easier to understand biology.

Beginnings

Endings

Micro-

small

-scope

instrument to see

Photo-

light

-logy

science of

Hydro-

water

-meter

measuring instrument

Anti-

against

-vision

to see

Chromo- colour

-therm

heat

Atmo-

gas

-tomy

cutting into

Geo-

earth

-phobia afraid of

One leaf placed on a microscope slide.

One drop of water added.

Cover slip lowered slowly on specimen to avoid trapping air bubbles.

Excess liquid removed using tissue. Ready to be examined under microscope.

To keep record of what they see, biologists usually make a biological drawing. In a biological drawing you leave out the small details and you only draw the important parts. The rules for biological drawings can be found in the section Skills and Biology in your Textbook.

191

Linking words Linking words are important when you try to understand the texts you read. And to write readable texts and answers, or to have a proper conversation, the use of linking words can also be of great help. In these pages you find linking words you can use in texts and conversations.

Linking words to express a beginning, a continuation

Linking words to express causes/reasons and effects/

Linking words to express connections between

and a conclusion

consequences

words and sentences

Words to express a beginning:

Words to introduce causes or reasons:

Words to express an addition:

Words to identify something:

In the first place

In de eerste plaats

Because (of …)

Omdat, vanwege

As well

Ook

That is (to say)

Dat wil zeggen

Firstly

Ten eerste

Since … / As …

Aangezien

Not only …, but also …

Niet alleen …, maar ook …

Specifically

Specifiek

To begin / start with

Om te beginnen

Due to (the fact that)

Vanwege (het feit dat)

Also

Ook

More precisely

Meer specifiek, in het

First of all

In de eerste plaats,

For the (simple) reason

Om de (simpele) reden

And

En

Furthermore

Bovendien

Besides …

Naast … / Behalve …

Or

Of

Too

Ook

allereerst At first

that

dat

In het begin Words to introduce conditions:

bijzonder Words to introduce a clarification: That is (to say)

Dat wil zeggen

I mean

Ik bedoel

(To) put (it) another way

Met andere woorden

In other words

Met andere woorden

Words to express a continuation:

On (the) condition (that)

Op voorwaarde dat

In the second (third, etc.)

In the case that

In het geval dat

Words to introduce examples:

If

Als

Such as

Zoals

Including

Inclusief

For example

Bijvoorbeeld

Words to introduce an opposition:

Like

Zoals

But

Maar

For instance

Bijvoorbeeld

While

Terwijl

Especially / Particularly

Vooral, met name

On the other hand

Aan de andere kant

e.g.

bijvoorbeeld

However

Maar, echter, toch

(and) yet

(maar) toch

Whereas

Terwijl

Though / Although

Hoewel, echter

In contrast to

In tegenstelling tot

When in fact

Terwijl, in feite

place

In de tweede (derde, etc.) plaats

Secondly, thirdly …

Ten tweede, ten derde …

As / so long as

Zolang

Subsequently

Vervolgens, daarna

Unless

Tenzij

Next

Dan, vervolgens

Even if

Zelfs als

Afterwards

Daarna, nadien

Only if

Alleen als

After

Nadat

Hence

Vandaar, daarom

Then

Dan, toen

For this reason

Om deze reden

Because (of …)

Omdat, vanwege

So that

Waardoor

Therefore

Daarom, vandaar

In order to

Om

Words to express a conclusion: Finally

Tot slot

Lastly

Ten slotte

Eventually

Uiteindelijk

At least

Eindelijk, uiteindelijk

Words to introduce a consequence or effect:

Last but not least

Ten slotte, maar wel van

Then

Dan

In that case

In dat geval

belang To conclude (with)

Ter afsluiting

In summary / to

Samenvattend

summarise All in all

Al met al

To make a long story

Om een lang verhaal kort

short

Similarly

Op dezelfde manier

In the same way

Op dezelfde manier

Equally

Evenzeer, even groot

Likewise

Eveneens, overeenkomstig

As

Zoals, net als

Words to emphasise things: Even more

Nog meer

Above all

Maar vooral

More importantly

Nog belangrijker

te maken

Thus

Dus

To sum up

Kortom, samenvattend

Overall

In het algemeen

(To put it) briefly

Kortweg

In conclusion

Ter afsluiting

In short

Kortom

192

Words to indicate similarity:

193

Sentence starters In this textbook you encounter many Talking points; most of these ask for your opinion. You can discuss these points in pairs, in small groups or with your whole class. In this way you learn to value subjects, use the appropriate vocabulary and practise your conversation skills. The sentence starters on this page can support you in starting an active and proper conversation.

Giving an opinion I think … / In my opinion …

I would say … / If you ask me …

I tend to think … / I feel that …

It seems to me … / It’s obvious that …

I think it’s important that …

All the evidence shows / points towards …

As I see it, …

Asking for an opinion What do you think?

How about you?

What’s your opinion on …?

What would you say?

Any thoughts on this?

Do you agree?

Agreeing with an opinion Absolutely.

I couldn’t agree more.

That’s an excellent point.

I’d agree with that.

Great idea!

Of course!

Indeed!

I think you have a very good point there.

Disagreeing with an opinion I don’t think so.

How can you say that when …?

Absolutely not.

I don’t agree with that.

I don’t believe that.

You cannot be serious!

I disagree.

I think otherwise.

(Dis)Agreement, followed by an opinion Yes, but …

That’s true up to a point, but …

That could be true. However, …

What’s more, …

You ould be right, but …

Showing you are not certain yet I’m not sure.

It might be …

I can’t say I’m convinced.

Perhaps …

I’m uncertain …

Giving contrasting ideas (On the one hand …) / On the other hand …

On the contrary … / (Mean)while …

While it is true that …, …

However … / Yet …

Still … / Nevertheless …

Sure, …, but … / Then again …

To be fair, …

Interrupting Sorry, can I just say …

Wait a minute.

Sorry, if I can stop you there, …

Hang on …

Excuse me, but …

Showing a surprise / shock I’m amazed that …

I can’t believe that …

How is it possible that …

I find it shocking that …

I do find that hard to believe.

I’m very surprised to hear this.

I’m flabbergasted …

I’m stunned by this.

This can’t be true.

Making suggestions Let’s …

What about …

Why don’t we …

We could …

We should try to …

We might …

Maybe …

Possibly …

194

Biology Workbook thavo/tvwo

1

Colofon

Content

Editor: Dr. Monique Welten, Visiting Research Fellow, School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol and Correspondent, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden

1 Part of something bigger

Design:

Thimo Dirkse, OVD Educatieve Uitgeverij bv Ede

Drawings and graphics:

Gemma Stekelenburg, Gemm’Art, Huizen

The following photographs are used under licence of Shutterstock.com: photo cover, page 5, 31, 32, 50, 58, 61, 62, 63, 66, 67, 73, 83, 101, 104, 119, 132, 140, 143, 152.

1.1 Organs and organ systems 1.2 Tissues 1.3 Cells, the smallest units of life 1.4 Levels of organisation 1.5 Characteristics of living organisms 1.6 The energy circle of life 1.7 Skills: The microscope 1.8 Skills: Scientific investigation

2 Classification

31 32 35 39 41 43 45

3 Animals

50 51 53 55 58 61 66 69 73

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Deze uitgave is volledig CO₂-neutraal geproduceerd.

Het papier dat voor deze uitgave is gebruikt, is voorzien van het FSC©-keurmerk.

ISBN 978-94-6171-895-2 © Copyright 2018

5 6 9 11 13 15 20 21 25

Welcome to the group The kingdom of bacteria The kingdom of fungi The kingdom of animals The kingdom of plants Identifying species

3.1 Classification of animals 3.2 Sponges 3.3 Cnidarians 3.4 Worms 3.5 Molluscs 3.6 Echinoderms 3.7 Arthropods 3.8 Vertebrates

4 Jointed skeletons

83 84 87 93 98 103 113

5 Sense it

119 120 122 124 128 132 134 137 140 141

6 Plants

151 152 156 159 166 174 177 180 181 183 188

4.1 Different types of skeletons 4.2 Your skeleton and your posture 4.3 Materials of the skeleton 4.4 Joints that make you move 4.5 Muscles 4.6 Sports-related injuries

5.1 Stimuli and responses 5.2 The senses 5.3 Vision 5.4 Hearing 5.5 Smell 5.6 Taste 5.7 Feeling 5.8 The nervous system 5.9 Neurons

6.1 The basics 6.2 Roots 6.3 Stems 6.4 Leaves: the green machine 6.5 Flowers 6.6 A game of attraction 6.7 Melting together 6.8 Sowing the seeds 6.9 Let’s grow!

6.10 Asexual reproduction

Alle rechten voorbehouden. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd, opgeslagen in een geautomatiseerd gegevensbestand of openbaar gemaakt in enige vorm, hetzij elektronisch, mechanisch, door middel van fotokopieën, opnamen of op enige andere manier, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van OVD Educatieve Uitgeverij bv handelend onder de handelsnaam EduHintOVD. Voor zover het maken van kopieën uit deze uitgave is toegestaan op grond van artikelen 16h t/m 16m Auteurswet 1912 jo. Besluit van 27 november 2002, Stb. 575, dient men de daarvoor wettelijk verschuldigde vergoeding te voldoen aan de Stichting Reprorecht te Hoofddorp (Postbus 3060, 2130 KB) of contact op te nemen met de uitgever voor het treffen van een rechtstreekse regeling in de zin van art.16l, vijfde lid, Auteurswet 1912.

De uitgever heeft ernaar gestreefd de auteursrechten te regelen volgens de wettelijke bepalingen. Degenen die desondanks menen zekere rechten te kunnen doen gelden, kunnen zich alsnog tot de uitgever wenden.

Tweede herziene druk / tweede oplage

2

3

1

Part of something bigger Your digital Bricks Biology website gives you the opportunity for a do it yourself orientation on the subject of this chapter. There you’ll find: - the learning aims on content and language, - a visual introduction on the subject in a slide show (including a voice over so you can hear the proper pronunciation of certain key words), - (interactive) video fragments with some useful facts to start with.

1 Part of something bigger

1.1 Organs and organ systems

1 Part of something bigger

5

Imagine you get up in the middle of the night to go to the toilet. On your way to the bathroom you stub your toe against your desk. Within a millisecond, you know what happened.

1

Which organs are located in or on your head?

a Which type of cell sent the message that you stubbed your toe?

2

Which (parts of ) organ systems can you find in your head? Try to name at least five.

b Which organ received the message?

c Which organ system was responsible for letting you know what happened?

3

The skin on your fingertips is made up of curving ridges that form the basis for fingerprints. Fingerprints were first used to solve crimes

6 In some countries, like the United States, framing is one of the first steps in building a house.

in 1860 by a Scottish medical missionary named Henry Faulds. Your fingerprints are uniquely yours! Not even identical twins have the

The framework gives the house structure and

same fingerprints.

shape. Which organ system can be compared to the framework of a house?

To which organ system does your skin belong?

7

Below are diagrams of some organ systems. Write the names of the organ systems in row 1 beneath the diagrams. Then place the correct organ(s) in row 2.

4

Goose pimples on your skin are created when tiny muscles at the base of each hair contract and pull the hair upright. When you have

Choose from the following organs:

goose pimples, your skin responds to a stimulus. The upright hairs

stomach, brain, bladder, skull, lungs, heart, liver, intestines, kidneys, bones, trachea, pancreas, blood vessels

then trap air and protect you from cold by providing insulation.

a Name two stimuli to which your skin may respond with goose pimples.

b How does your skin respond to protect you from heat?

c Which tissue type is responsible for goose pimples?

6

1.

1.

1.

2.

2.

2.

7

1 Part of something bigger

1 Part of something bigger

1.2 Tissues

1.

1.

1.

2.

2.

2.

9

There are five basic types of tissues. Which are they?

10

Name two tissue types that are found in your heart.

11

Name a tissue type that is found in your bones.

12

Is muscle a tissue or an organ? Explain your answer.

13

When someone has a third-degree burn, he does not feel pain at the site of the burn.

8 Here you see a poster that was used in a campaign to promote organ donation. a The poster is meant for everyone. But can everyone also

Which type of tissue in the skin has been damaged?

be a donor? Explain your answer.

14

b Usually, organs are only donated after the donor has died. However, you can also donate organs as a living donor. In your textbook you can read some examples of organs that can be given by living donors. There is one organ that you can donate to yourself! Write down which

Draw lines to join the correct characteristic with the correct tissue type.

Characteristic

Tissue type

Has the ability to contract.

nerve tissue

Has the ability to send messages.

epithelial tissue

Has flat cells that form a covering.

muscle tissue

Has the ability to bind other tissues

connective tissue

together.

organ this is and explain your answer.

15

Choose the best answer. A group of similar cells that work together is a(n):  A Tissue  B Organ

c Discuss with a classmate why people choose to be a donor or give reasons against being available as a donor.

8

 C Organ system  D Organism

9

1 Part of something bigger

16

Which of the following is made up of groups of different tissues? Choose the best answer.  A Organ

1 Part of something bigger

1.3 Cells, the smallest units of life

 B Organelle  C Organ system

18

cell part belongs to an animal cell, a plant cell or both.

 D Organism 17

In the table below, you see a number of cell parts. Complete the table by writing a tick () if the

Go to your digital Bricks Biology (1 thv, chapter 1). Watch the clip ‘Cell Differentiation’ and answer

Cell part

the following questions.

cell wall

Typical animal cell

Typical plant cell

cell membrane a Some cells in the developing embryo form a long line and grow into a tube. Which organ is

cytoplasm nucleus

being formed here?

chloroplasts mitochondria vacuole b What tissue type do the cells in this organ form?

19

Below are seven descriptions about animal cells and plant cell parts. For each part, match the correct description (letter) to the cell part (number).

Cell part

Description

1 cell wall

A A large sac inside a cell where a plant stores food and other

2 cell membrane

B A small organelle that makes food inside a plant cell.

3 cytoplasm

C The outer covering of a plant cell, made of cellulose.

4 nucleus

D A liquid where chemical reactions take place.

5 chloroplasts

E The structure which controls the cell.

6 mitochondrion

F A soft layer surrounding the cytoplasm, controlling what goes in

c To which organ system does this organ belong?

materials.

d To which organism does this organ system belong?

H This small organelle turns food into energy.

7 permanent vacuole 1

2

3

and out.

4

5

6

7

e Which characteristic of life is shown in this film?

20

The figure below shows a typical plant cell. What are the names of the numbered parts?

1= 2= 3= 4= 5= 6=

10

11

1 Part of something bigger

21

1 Part of something bigger

Sort them into two groups in the table.

1.4 Levels of organisation

1A They are surrounded only by a thin cell membrane.

25

Below are four pairs of statements about animal cells and plant cells.

Put the following concepts into the correct order, the smallest one first. tissue, cell, organism, cell organelle, organ system

1B They have a cellulose cell wall and a cell membrane.

2A They have a large permanent vacuole.

2B They do not have a large permanent vacuole.

3A The cytoplasm fills the cell.

26

Explain why it is better to use the biological term ‘population’ in the levels of organisation instead of ‘species’.

3B The cytoplasm is pushed towards the edge of the cell.

4A The cytoplasm contains chloroplasts.

4B The cytoplasm does not contain chloroplasts.

Animal cells

22

23

Plant cells

Plants can make their own food. Explain why animals cannot make their own food.

27

You are an organism. Name four other organisms living in your house besides humans.

28

Somewhere nearby your house or school you can find a ditch. This ditch is an ecosystem.

Give a proper example of the lower levels of organisation found in this ditch.

Not all cells have the same number of mitochondria. Which cell would have more mitochondria, a muscle cell or a bone cell? Explain your answers.

29 24

Some parts of a cell are not called organelles. Give the names of the three parts that aren’t called

You are made up of many different body parts. Many objects around you, for example a computer, are also made of different parts.

organelles. Explain your answer by explaining the defenition of organelle. a Name four of these computer parts.

b What would happen to the computer if one of these computer parts gets damaged?

c What would happen to your body if one of your body parts was not working properly?

12

13

1 Part of something bigger

d The biosphere also consists of many parts working together. Examples of such parts are species, populations and ecosystems. What would happen to life on Earth if

1 a species disappears

2 a population disappears

3 an ecosystem was destroyed?

1 Part of something bigger

1.5 Characteristics of living organisms 31

Open your digital Bricks Biology (1 thv, chapter 1). Watch the clip ‘Is it Alive?’ and decide if the things mentioned there are alive or not. Put a tick in the appropriate box in the table below.

Item

Alive?

Yes

No

icicle cell river seed 30

A cell is alive. If you look at even smaller structures, these are not living things.

cloud clock

a Which levels of cell organisation aren’t living?

coral fire

b If you go from cell to bigger levels of organisation, you will also find levels that contain living and non-living parts. Which levels contain living and non-living parts?

bubbles chick cars jellyfish 32

The items in question 31 that you ticked as ‘yes’ are called ‘living’. What do we call the items that you ticked ‘no’?

33

Name two things that you would characterise as ‘dead’.

34

In the table below, you see six non-living things. All six, however, show one or more characteristics of living things. What are the characteristics of living things shown by each item?

Growth

Reproduction

Sensitivity

Excretion

Respiration

Feeding

Item

Movement

Mark the appropriate box with a tick.

car bicycle crystal fire river camera

14

15

1 Part of something bigger

35

1 Part of something bigger

Explain why the items in question 34 are not alive, even though they show some of the

c Stimulus: You taste something very bitter.

characteristics of life.

Response: d Stimulus: You see your best friend wave at you.

36 The photograph shows a Texas Longhorn

Response:

cow, which is a breed of cattle known for its characteristic horns which measure up to 1 m from tip to tip. Some of the life processes in

39

Reproduction is a very important characteristic of life. Explain why it is so important.

40

In the table below, you see four observations. Next to each observation fill in the correct

this cow are feeding, growth and excretion.

Name the four life processes that are not mentioned.

characteristic of life.

Observation

Characteristic of life

A scientist uses a microscope and observes that one bacterium splits up to form two 37

individual bacteria.

Explain all seven of the characteristics of life in this Texas Longhorn cow with a short description

When the farmer measured his corn plants,

for each.

they had all increased in height by at least 10 cm.

A boy observes that tomato plants on a window ledge bend towards the light.

After holding his breath for a minute, the swimmer exhaled deeply.

41

38

Draw lines to join the correct characteristic of life to the correct observation.

Characteristic of life

Observation

movement

A tree makes and releases seeds.

growth

A bee flies from flower to flower.

reproduction

Oak trees develop from acorns.

be your response to each stimulus.

sensitivity

Releasing energy from food.

a Stimulus: You hear your mobile phone ring.

respiration

The boy turned around when he

Living things react to changes (stimuli) in the environment. When your dog hears you open the biscuit jar, he may come running to the living room even though you have not called his name.

The dog ran in response to a stimulus: the sound of you opening the biscuit jar. His response was to run to you.

How do you react to stimuli? Below is a list of different stimuli. Write down what you think would

Response:

heard somebody call his name.

b Stimulus: You feel hungry.

Response:

16

17

1 Part of something bigger

42

1 Part of something bigger

Fill in the gaps. Use the words in the word bank.

44

Different cells have different numbers of mitochondria. Below are descriptions of a few cells in different situations. It is because of these situations that the cells do not have the same numbers of mitochondria. Which type of cell do you think is most likely to have the most mitochondria?

For living things to keep their species going from one generation to the next, they must . Animals also need to

Order the cell types from fewest to most mitochondria, using the letters A – D.

in order to find

Explain your answer.

food, find a mate and escape from danger. Living things produce new individuals that

A Muscle cells in the legs of a marathon runner.

to become adults. To perform all characteristics of life, food must be turned into

. This is called

we produce waste. This is

B Bacterial cells that are growing on sugar.

C Hair root cells that are growing.

. Inside our bodies

D Cells in the skin of your finger that are not growing.

from the body. Living things must react to

changes around them. This process, called

is very important for living

things to survive.

Choose from: grow, excreted, respiration, reproduce, energy, move, sensitivity 45 43

Explain why cells, and not cell organelles, are called the smallest units of life.

Answer the following questions about respiration: a What is the function of respiration in living organism?

b Which cell organelle turns food into energy? (Tip: see section 1.5 of your textbook).

c Name four things that this energy may be used for.

d Oxygen is also needed to turn food into energy. Where does the oxygen come from?

e Explain whether you think respiration is more important, less important or equally important than the other six characteristics of life.

18

19

1 Part of something bigger

1 Part of something bigger

1.6 The energy circle of life

1.7 Skills: The microscope

46

1

Write down the equations for both respiration as photosynthesis.

You are going to make a biological drawing of an object.

Do it like this: Substances that are used  products What do you need?

• An object, such as an apple cut in half, a flower or something your teacher provides you with • A drawing pencil • A ruler What do you have to do?

1. Study the rules for making a biological drawing in the section Skills and Biology in the back of 47

If you compare both equations, you can see you can turn them around to get the other equation, but there is a difference. Explain this difference.

your textbook.

2. Look at the example of a biological drawing of two flower bulbs below. (A is during early spring, B is in late spring while in bloom).

48

Explain why your food always comes from plant, directly or indirectly.

49

Explain why a plant can’t survive without mitochondria.

A

B

3. Make a biological drawing of your project and label the parts in the correct way.

50

20

Explain why you can’t survive without mitochondria.

21

1 Part of something bigger

2

1 Part of something bigger

Fill in the missing words in the figure of a microscope below.

4

You are going to work with a microscope. You will compare animal cells with plants cells.

What do you need?

The ............................................... holds the ............- and...........-power

The .......................... contains the .................. lens.

• a microscope • two microscope slides

objective ...................; it can be rotated to

• two cover slips

change ...................................

• forceps • teasing needle • tap water

Magnification ranges

• a dropper

from .......... x to ......... x.

The .................. is ........................... holds the slide in place.

used to ....................... the microscope when carried.

• an elodea plant • cotton buds • eosin Alternatively, your teacher may have prepared one or both slides for you.

The ................. supports the ................. being viewed.

What do you have to do?

The .............................

A A plant cell: Elodea

regulates the

1. Place a drop of water on a microscope slide.

amount of ............

2. Using forceps, carefully tear a young leaf from the tip of an Elodea plant.

3. Place the leaf in the water droplet, make sure the leaf does not fold.

The ................................................................

4. Place the edge of a cover slip onto one side of the water droplet.

moves the stage up and down

5. Using a teasing needle, slowly let the cover slip fall onto the slide.

for ..........................

6. Observe the tip of the leaf at low magnification. Focus on the top layer of cells.

The .............................................................

7. Switch to a higher magnification and focus on a few cells.

moves the stage slightly to

8. Observe the chloroplasts: the green, disc-shaped objects moving around the outside of the large permanent vacuole.

................................. the image.

9. Try to find the nucleus: it looks like a transparent ball.

10. Make a biological drawing of a few Elodea cells. If you can see them, label the cell wall,

A .............................. projects

cytoplasm, chloroplasts, permanent vacuole and nucleus.

light .......................... through the diaphragm, the ................. and the ...........................

The ................. supports the................................

B An animal cell: human cheek cells 1. Using a cotton bud, scrape some cheek cells from the inside of your mouth.

2. Rub the cotton bud with the cheek cells onto a microscope slide. Make sure that you can see some material on the slide.

3

You have a microscope with an ocular lens which magnifies 10x. This microscope also has objective lenses of 4x, 10x and 40x. Calculate the lowest magnification and the highest magnification. Show your calculations.

3. Place a droplet of eosin onto the cheek cells. Be careful: the eosin may stain your fingers or clothes!

4. Place the edge of a cover slip onto one side of the eosin droplet.

5. Using a teasing needle, slowly let the cover slip fall onto the slide.

6. Observe the cheek cells at low magnification. Focus on a few cells.

7. Switch to the highest magnification and observe a few cheek cells.

8. Try to find the nucleus.

9. Make a biological drawing of one or two cheek cells. Label the cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.

10. Answer questions a and b.

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1.8 Skills: Scientific investigation 1

Every scientific investigation begins with a research question. You ask a research question after you have wondered why something happens the way it happens. Below are some observations.

Write a possible research question after each observation. a Peter notices that his father never has to mow the lawn during winter. In summertime, however, his father has to mow the lawn even as much as twice a week.

b Marieke knows that many wild berries are poisonous. However, she never sees dead birds lying below a berry bush, even though the birds eat the berries.

c Faisal observes something special during his vacation: sea turtles laying their eggs in the sand.

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Rohit really loves eggs. He notices that the eggs he eats have different colours. Sometimes they are white and sometimes brown. But a chicken is a chicken, right? He decides to do a scientific investigation. a What would be a good research question to go with Rohit’s observation?

b Describe what Rohit’s work plan might look like. a In the table below, mark the cell parts you have observed by placing a tick (3) in the appropriate box.

Cell part

Elodea (plant cell)

Cheek (animal cell)

cytoplasm nucleus chloroplasts cell wall cell membrane b You may not have seen a cell membrane in the Elodea cells. Do you think Elodea cells have cell membranes? Explain your answer.

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Laura did a scientific investigation at school. Her research question is: ‘Which is the most common

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Look again at the results of Laura’s investigation. Which conclusion can you draw?

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Below are the results of a scientific investigation made by Julian. Julian has grown two groups of

pet among all first-year students?’ To find out, she asked the team leader of her year how many first-year students there are. The answer is 241. With the help of the first-year mentors, she hands out notes to all students. On these notes, the students can write down which kind of pet they have. After three days, Laura receives all of the notes back. Below is Laura’s tally list.

Type of pet

Tally list

Number

sunflowers. One group grew in the shade and one grew in the sun. All other circumstances were the same. In the bar graph below, Julian showed the height (in centimetres) of each sunflower.

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(gold)fish guinea pig rabbit

100

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rat/mouse dog cat reptile/amphibian

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40

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no pet 0

a Write down the correct number of pets in the empty column next to the tallies. b Laura also wants to make a bar graph from her results. Change the numbers into a bar graph.

Sunflower in the shade

Sunflower in the sun

a What could have been Julian’s research question?

Use the following grid. b Why is it important that all circumstances, except for the sun/shade, remain the same?

c Which conclusion can Julian draw?

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Glossary assignment Clues:

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Across 1

Producing offspring.

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The …..….. system that is involved in producing and excreting urine.

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A group of cells that act and look the same.

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The …..….. system is involved in reproduction.

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The …..….. system contains heart and blood vessels.

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Living creature that has all of the seven life characteristics.

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The ability to respond to changes in the environment.

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Parts of a cell which have a specific task.

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An organism that does not show any of the seven life characteristics, was once alive.

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Tissue consisting mainly of contractile cells.

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The …..….. system contains the central …..….. system and the peripheral …..….. system.

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To which organ system belong glands? The ………. system.

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What kind of tissue supports and connects other tissues? The ………. tissue.

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A group of organisms that can produce fertile offspring.

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Eating and drinking, taking in food and fluids.

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The system which is made up of a living part (community) and a non-living part (habitat).

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A bundle of nerve cells running to various organs and tissues of the body.

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Releasing energy inside the mitochondria by burning glucose, for this process oxygen is needed.

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Down 2

Kind of tissue that covers the surface of organs.

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Instrument that helps you see small things.

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Gel-like liquid inside every cell, all chemical reactions of the cell take place here.

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Getting bigger.

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Organelle inside green leaves, contains chlorophyll.

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Organelle of cells, releases energy to keep the cell alive.

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Organ system that is involved in breathing, the lungs and air ways: the ………. system.

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A tiny cavity filled with fluid in the cytoplasm of a cell.

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Organ system that consists of bones.

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18 System that transports excess fluids from body tissues; it does not have a pumplike organ like the heart, the ………. system.

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System of organs which participate in digestion, the ………. system.

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Organ system that consists of muscles, the ………. system.

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Removing waste products by way of urine, exhaled air and sweat.

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Organelle in a cell (not in bacteria) that controls everything that happens in a cell.

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Going from one place to another.

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After studying chapter 1 you can answer the following questions: 1. What do we mean with organism, organ system and organ?

1.1

2. Which organ systems do we humans have?

1. What do we mean with a tissue?

1.2

2. Which types of tissues are there?

1. What is a cell and what does it consist of?

1.3

2. Which cell types are there?

3. What is an organelle and what are the functions of the most important organelles?

4. What is photosynthesis and what is respiration?

1. What are the levels of organisation?

1.4

2. What are (examples of ) molecules?

1. What is the link between respiration and photosynthesis?

1.5

2. Which organisms perform both processes or just one of the processes?

1. What are the differences between dead and non-living? What are examples of

1.6

both?

2. What are the characteristics of life?

When you are not certain of your answers: check out the section in your textbook that goes with it.

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