Developing Early Literacy: Assessment and Teaching 2nd Edition by Susan Hill by Eleanor Curtain Publishing

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching is a handbook for understanding and teaching early literacy. It focuses on the development of reading, writing, speaking and listening for children from birth to eight years, and is written for teacher education students and practising teachers working in early childhood settings, including preschools and the first years of school. This second edition includes significant new content with links to the Australian Curriculum: English, and the Early Years Learning Framework; evidenced-based assessment procedures for improving early language, reading and writing; practical examples of teaching strategies in action in a range of classrooms and settings; further information on oral language and its links to reading and writing; additional information on vocabulary and on the development of comprehension strategies. It explores: ways of systematically observing and assessing children’s literacy development

current summaries of research into oral language, home and community languages and literacy, play and literacy, reading, writing and new literacies the importance of children’s literature and reading aloud

using different text types for scaffolding children’s reading and writing word work: phonemic awareness, phonics and vocabulary the importance of teacher modelling, sharing, guiding and encouraging independent activities practical ideas for planning, teaching and managing the literacy program activities and games for making connections between children and families, using literature in the classroom, developing phonemic awareness, understanding concepts of print comprehension, teaching letters and making the letter–sound connections, word study, cooperative learning and more

Susan Hill is an Associate Professor at the University of South Australia where she teaches courses in early childhood education, early literacy and multiliteracies. She has written more than 20 books for teachers on literacy related topics. Her research for many years has been in the area of early literacy development before school and beginning to read and write in school.

Second Edition

This book is the result of many years of research into children’s literacy development and highlights the practical implications for teaching young children to read and write. It is underpinned by three important beliefs: scaffolding children’s learning is vital; children are active problem solvers; and learning needs to be connected to children’s worlds.

Assessment and teaching

developmental phases of literacy

i t i d Ed

Developing early literacy Assessment and teaching Susan Hill

o n d E di ti o

To purchase a hard copy of this book, click here for the Eleanor Curtain Publishing shop.

www.developing-early-literacy.com

For Alex, my daughter, who has challenged and made me rethink every assumption I have held about learning. First published 2006 This new and revised edition first published 2012 Reprinted 2012. Digital Edition 2020 Eleanor Curtain Publishing Level 1, Suite 3, 102 Toorak Road, South Yarra, VIC 3141, Australia www.ecpublishing.com.au Text © Susan Hill 2006–2020. This product is protected by copyright law, and under international copyright conventions, applicable in the jurisdictions in which it is published. Purchasers of this product may have certain rights under applicable copyright law to reproduce parts of the product. Purchasers must make the necessary enquiries to ascertain whether and to what extent they have any such right in the jurisdiction in which they will be using the product. Without limiting any such right, purchasers may in addition make copies of the black-line masters included with this product provided that: (a) the number of copies printed does not exceed the number reasonably required by the purchaser for its teaching purposes; (b) those copies are only printed and are not further copied or stored or transmitted by any means; (c) those copies are not sold, hired, lent or offered for sale, hire or loan; and (d) every copy printed clearly shows the following notice in a footnote ‘© 2012 Susan Hill. Published by Eleanor Curtain Publishing.’ All other rights reserved National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry Author: Hill, Susan (Susan Elizabeth) Title: Developing early literacy: assessment and teaching / Susan Elizabeth Hill. Edition: 2nd ed. ISBN: 978 1 74148 982 8 (pbk.) Subjects: Language arts (Early childhood) Language arts (Primary) Dewey Number: 372.6044 Edited by Ruth Siems / Anne McKenna Designed by Tom Kurema Printed and bound in China through Colorcraft Ltd, Hong Kong For support material go to:

www.developing-early-literacy.com

Contents

Acknowledgements

viii

Preface

Introduction: Developing early literacy

1 Developing early literacy

Social constructivism A developmental process Different pathways to literacy Teaching literacy: great debates Differentiated instruction Chapter summary

3 5 10 11 14 18

Part 1: The foundations

2 Oral language

20 Learning language—learning through language—learning about language Language is a symbol system The development of spoken language Functions of language in preschool and school Connections between oral language and literacy development Oral language and literacy research Factors that affect language acquisition Oral language assessment Teaching strategies for encouraging language development Oral language text structures and features Chapter summary

3 Homes and communities The changing family Research into involving parents and families Literacy in different families

20 21 24 29 36 37 39 41 45 53 55 57 57 58 58

Contents

Indigenous literacy Making home–school connections Literacy experiences at home Chapter summary

63 67 77 79

Part 2: Scaffolding literacy development

4 The literacy program

Reading aloud Shared reading The language experience approach Guided reading Independent reading Writing What does the literacy program look like? Chapter summary 5 Children’s literature Reading aloud Levels of narrative complexity Literature and picture books What makes a good picture book? Involving children in exploring and analysing literature Critical literacy Storytelling Choosing and using children’s literature Chapter summary 6 Phonological awareness Phonological awareness and early literacy Phonemic awareness Assessing phonemic awareness Teaching activities Chapter summary 7 Reading development What is reading? Concepts of print The development of reading skills and strategies Reading development: beginning and early–emergent Reading development: emergent, early, transitional and extending

83 83 92 95 99 99 100 101 102 102 104 107 112 119 121 123 126 132 133 133 134 139 148 160 161 161 164 166 166 170

Contents

Records of reading behaviour Chapter summary 8 Teaching reading Using the four roles of a reader Three steps in a reading lesson Teaching readers to solve problems Teaching activities Teaching and learning activities Chapter summary 9 Reading comprehension Comprehension and young children The interaction between reader, text and activity Teaching reading comprehension Teaching comprehension strategies Comprehension strategies before reading Comprehension strategies during reading Comprehension strategies after reading Metacognition Explicitly teaching a new comprehension strategy Activities for active reading Assessing comprehension Chapter summary 10 Word work: phonics The alphabetic principle and letter identification Teaching sounds mapped to letters The content of phonics Assessing letters and sounds Chapter summary 11 Teaching phonics Different approaches to teaching phonics A combination of approaches and teaching strategies Practical ideas for teaching phonics Phonics activities from stages 1–5 Chapter summary

183 194 196 196 201 202 205 209 214 215 215 216 217 221 222 225 226 227 228 231 236 240 241 241 243 245 256 259 260 260 266 267 276 299

vi Contents

12 Word work: spelling The development of phonics in writing Assessing spelling What words do children need to learn to spell? Teaching beginning spellers Spelling strategies Chapter summary 13 The development of writing Spoken and written language The early development of writing Stages in children’s writing How reading and writing support each other Assessing writing Developing understanding of the writing process Chapter summary 14 Teaching children to write Writing and multimodal literacies Teaching strategies The writing conference Chapter summary 15 Reading and writing different text types Language features of information texts and narratives What text types are useful for young children? Deconstructing and constructing different text types Research on information texts The features of common text genres Design features of information texts Working with children: beginning research Chapter summary 16 Multiliteracies Multimodal texts and young children Design elements of multimodal texts Multiliteracies pedagogy Fairytale: a unit of work using multiliteracies Discussing the issues Chapter summary

300 300 303 305 306 308 311 312 313 314 316 319 321 327 329 330 333 334 340 342 343 343 344 346 348 350 353 355 360 361 361 365 366 372 380 381

vii

Contents

17 Teaching English language learners Controversy and debate Theories of language acquisition and development in young children Methods of teaching English to young children Practical ideas for teaching language to young children Chapter summary

383 383 385 387 388 395

Part 3: Managing the literacy program

397

18 Small groups in the collaborative classroom

398

Cooperative learning in action Cooperative learning is an intervention strategy Small groups and cooperative learning Some of the best cooperative learning strategies The benefits of cooperative learning Chapter summary 19 Planning and managing literacy learning Designing a literacy curriculum A subject approach to the literacy curriculum Activities for literacy learning centres The steps to designing an integrated curriculum Organising the classroom for learning Chapter summary

398 400 406 408 412 414 415 415 419 423 429 433 435

Appendices 436 1 Dolch’s list of basic sight words

436

2 Fry’s 300 high-frequency words

437

Glossary 438 References and further reading

442

Index 459

viii

Acknowledgements

The author and publisher would like to thank the following for granting their permission to reproduce copyright material: Cover image from The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle, 1986, Penguin Group; Cover image from Who Sank the Boat? by Pamella Allen, 2007, Penguin Group; Cover image from Voices in the Park by Anthony Browne, 1998, DK Publishing (Penguin Group); Extract from The True Story of the Three Little Pigs by Jon Swieszka, illustrated by Lane Smith, Viking Books, a division of Penguin Books, New York, pp. 23â&#x20AC;&#x201C;24; Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The author and publisher would welcome any information from people who believe they own copyright to material in this book.

Preface

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching is about teaching early literacy. It explores the various stages of early English literacy development and acknowledges that all children develop quite differently in response to different previous experiences and their own individual differences. Assessment is highlighted because it is through observing and assessing children’s language and literacy that teachers can make plans for future teaching. However, most of all this book is about teaching, because we, as teachers, have the power to make a difference to the literacy learning of young children, and effective early literacy teaching in preschool and school has been found to have a significant impact on later literacy development. This new edition of Developing early literacy contains new and updated information throughout. There is additional information on language, literature and literacy strategies and more on teaching young children to read, write and use multimodal texts. There is comprehensive information on assessing children’s language, phonemic awareness, reading and writing. This book is organised around three key ideas:

• • •

how literacy develops how to assess literacy development how to teach literacy.

I believe that teachers in the early years lay the foundations for future literacy success. Literacy is a very generative process in that every book enjoyably read to a child builds language knowledge and skills for future development. There are many teaching ideas in this book, and they can be adapted to suit the children you teach. Children require creative and flexible teachers who can assess the their literacy learning and use this as a basis for planning exciting programs. The book is grounded in research about what is known about early literacy learning in English and the teaching ideas take this research into practice. Knowing about phonemic awareness, phonics and the teaching of reading is important—but teachers will get the best results if they know a lot about their children—their favourite football teams, favourite cartoon characters and songs, as these may be the very vehicle to make the link between spoken and written language. I wish to gratefully acknowledge my teaching colleague Chris Hastwell who demonstrated the importance of providing careful explicit teaching in reading and writing. I also thank the children and teachers at Gilles

x Preface

Street School. I wish to acknowledge the teachers and children from the South Australian Department of Education and Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Services for important research that was undertaken into multiliteracies. I would also like to acknowledge the careful work of Sarah Rose and Lisa Nechvoglod who contributed in many ways to this book and I am grateful to the next generation of teachers, great text critics, who provided me with excellent feedback. Ruth Siems provided excellent, constructive editorial skills in making this book accessible to many readers. I am grateful to the many beginning teachers, experienced teachers and academics who have provided feedback on the previous edition of the book and I have incorporated many of their suggestions in this edition. All efforts have been made to reference and acknowledge the important work of colleagues working in this area.

www.developing-early-literacy.com Go to the Developing early literacy website for video examples of ways to assess childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s phonemic awareness, reading development, reading fluency and writing. Downloadable assessment proformas to be used alongside the videos are also provided.

Introduction

Developing early literacy Literacy is developmental; however, there is no one universal pathway for all children

CHAPTER 1

Developing early literacy

Leo was so sad. He could not do anything right. All the other animals could read and write their names, he just scribbled. Leo’s father watched Leo for signs of blooming. Leo’s mother recognised that ‘Leo was just a late bloomer’. Leo’s friends continued to grow and do things as the seasons changed. Then one day, in his own good time, Leo bloomed! He could read! He could write!

(Leo the Late Bloomer, Kraus 1971)

Leo the Late Bloomer is the story of a lion cub who couldn’t read and write, even though all his friends could. His father watches over him fearfully, wondering when he will develop, while his mother just waits for him to read and write in his own time. The story highlights the different roles that adults can play in helping children read and write—on one hand being anxious and worried that their child is being left behind, on the other just waiting for development to occur. Leo took his own time in learning to read and write and as he was doing this he was watching, thinking about and exploring the world around him. Adults, however, can play a vital role in children’s development. Learning to read and write is not easy for all children, and it is important to find out what children can do and then lead them to new learning. Effective teachers harness children’s interests and plan an instructional program to develop children’s reading and writing. Reading and writing begins at birth, and continues steadily as children develop. Some people think that young children learn to read and write best of all by rote learning and repetitive drill of letters and words. However, this is not the way to learn to read and write, as rote learning works best as a way to teach memorisation of facts. It is not effective for learning the strategies and complex problem-solving required for reading and writing. Other people think that children learn to read and write best of all by being left alone and having masses of books available for them to pick up and learn from by themselves. This is also not the best way to learn, as most children require careful guidance from an adult. Still others think that all children learn in the same way, and move through identical stages at the same age, taking the same amount of time. 2

Developing early literacy

Fortunately, children are different, they learn differently at very different rates and some children require more support than others. Three important ideas to understand about early reading, writing and word work are:

• • •

adults scaffold children’s learning children are active learners and problem solvers learning is connected to children’s worlds.

This book emphasises these three ideas and grounds early literacy learning in a social constructivist philosophy. This philosophy views children as active learners and problem solvers, and emphasises the importance of connecting to children’s worlds so that learning is relevant and builds on what children already know. Literacy is reading, writing, speaking, listening and viewing and involves the knowledge and skills required to engage in activities required for effective functioning in the community. Because of the breadth of concepts involved in literacy—media literacy, visual literacy, functional literacy—the plural term literacies may be used. Technology continues to increase the complexity of literacies—reading online, participating in virtual classrooms, sending emails—and literacies are increasingly multiple and dynamic. (For a further definition of literacy see Position Statement of NCTE Executive Committee, National Council of Teachers of English, 2008.)

Social constructivism A social constructivist view of learning draws on the theories of Dewey (1964) and Vygotsky (1978). Both theorists view learning as social, collaborative and active.

Dewey Children need to explore how they learn and how knowledge develops by asking questions and then actively seeking answers.

Dewey saw the classroom as replicating the community where children engage in authentic learning, playing out important social roles and learning social responsibility. Vygotsky focused on how children develop, and the role of adults in leading the child’s early development. Dewey wrote about the process of inquiry as the way by which we attain knowledge, whether it be the commonsense knowledge that guides the ordinary affairs of our lives, or the sophisticated knowledge arising from scientific inquiry. Dewey is also known for highlighting the positive social value of education and the importance of educators—firstly listening closely to children, and then giving them direction through activities.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

For Dewey, the process of learning how to learn was central. Children need to explore how they learn and how knowledge develops by asking questions and then actively seeking answers. For teachers, this means inviting children to think about their thinking strategies to explore how they learn. This is like inviting children into a ‘learning club’ to better understand how knowledge is gained and how it is structured and organised. In Dewey’s philosophy of education, children collaborate to learn as members of a community, actively pursuing interests in cooperation with others. Dewey believed a child is best prepared for the demands of responsible membership within a democratic community when engaged in a process of self-directed learning, guided by the cultural resources provided by teachers. Alongside these ideas of the classroom as a community is the importance of viewing the child within the local context of the family and society.

Vygotsky Five of Vygotsky’s ideas are very important for educators of young children— children construct knowledge; learning leads development; learning can’t be separated from its social context; language plays a central role in intellectual development; and the concept of the ‘zone of proximal development’. The first idea—that children actively construct knowledge—means that children need to be actively engaged in organising and exploring ideas. In preschools and schools this means being involved in hands-on experiences— science experiments, constructing block and cardboard structures, and exploring the properties of living and non-living things are all important. So, too, is the adult in supporting children to classify and organise information, asking questions and encouraging children to reflect on their thinking. The second idea—that learning leads development—means if the child is given a label, for instance, the name of an animal such as a ‘zebra’, this will accelerate the child’s ability to understand the concept that animals can be named and classified into groups. If the child is at the zoo looking at a zebra and the teacher tells the child the name of the animal, zebra, this will enable the child to recognise other zebras at the zoo, zebras in picture books, and also to recognise zebras in other representations such as drawings. This labelling, linked to a real experience, leads the child into exploring and classifying other animals. Vygotsky’s third important idea is that learning cannot be separated from its social context. Peers assist and support the learning process. However, it is not simply a matter of pairing children for peer support, as a crucial factor in collaboration is having a common goal. Working to achieve a common goal involves each person asking questions, explaining and bringing different points of view. In a nutshell, if children don’t have the same goal—to read a good book, to play a game on the computer, or create a shared big book about a classroom event—then collaboration is not effective. The fourth point—that language plays a central role in intellectual development—comes about because it is through language that the higher mental functions such as symbolic thought are communicated. In the example

Developing early literacy

above, an adult supports a child’s greater understanding of the concept of ‘zebra’ by focusing the child’s attention on the features of the zebra, asking questions to help them recognise a zebra in other situations, in books, photographs and drawings. Language helps to refine thoughts, leading to higher mental functions. The fifth and the most important of Vygotsky’s ideas is the zone of proximal development. This concept has influenced teachers and researchers to scaffold learning so that children achieve success. According to Vygotsky, the child has two levels of performance: the first is the level they are capable of achieving independently; and the second is the level of performance that they reach with assistance. The distance between these two levels is referred to as the zone of proximal development. For instance, an adult sitting beside a child who is drawing a picture of a zebra might focus the child’s attention on the colours of the zebra. They might ask ‘What colour will you draw the zebra?’ In this way, the adult moves the child from the level of unassisted learning to the level of assisted learning within the child’s zone of proximal development. With help from an adult, the child may now begin to use accurate representational colours to draw the zebra and this, in turn, may lead to drawing other animals with attention to colour. The key ideas in social constructivist learning are:

• • • • •

children construct knowledge learning leads development learning occurs in a social context language plays a central role in intellectual development the zone of proximal development.

A developmental process

Learning to read, write and gain word knowledgeis a developmental process.

Learning to read, write and gain word knowledge is a developmental process, and there are many ways to describe the phases of development (Barone, Mallette & Xu 2005; Holdaway 1979; Temple, Nathan & Burris 1982; Elster 1994; Sulzby 1985). The phases in literacy development used here are: Beginning (0–3 years of age); Early-emergent (3–5 years of age); Emergent (P–Kindergarten); Early (K–Year 1); Transitional (Years 1–2); and Extending (Years 2–4). This enables teachers to envisage the distance or the zone of proximal development between what children can do and more sophisticated understandings. The development within these phases is described in more detail in later chapters. Teachers can use these phases as benchmarks of literacy development to plan for future learning. The first step is to observe and identify where the child stands in terms of development. Many children develop word knowledge, reading and writing as parallel processes. For example, a child at 3 years of age may be reading by exploring the pictures in books, beginning to understand that signs and symbols in books represent a message, and attempting to write by scribbling.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Figure 1.1 Phases in literacy development Words Reading Writing Beginning

Begins to scribble Separates scribble that represents writing and the more free-flowing scribble for drawing

Earlyemergent

Uses scribble with random letters and numerals Uses initial consonants to write words, e.g. ‘P’ for people

Emergent

Records the initial and final sounds in a word Begins to use vowels and consonants, e.g. PEPL for people, WUNS for once

Handles a book Turns the pages Looks at pictures Listens to book read aloud, joins in with book reading Chooses favourite books, joins in with books read aloud, memorises rhymes and predictable books Turns the pages, uses left to right directionality Begins to grasp concept of words Left to right, top to bottom directionality Reads word-by-word matching spoken word to print. Can retell a simple story

Early

Can write many high-frequency words Can write many one-syllable three- and four-letter words including blends Can write one-syllable word families with onset and rime Building a vocabulary of topic and interest-based words

Transitional

Uses a range of strategies to write words; visual for high-frequency words, phonics and morphology Recognises that some sounds are represented by two letters, e.g. ship, rain, nose and moon

May still read word-by-word matching each printed word with a spoken word

Understands that signs and symbols tell a message Scribble can contain drawing and writing Invents some letters and repeats these Letters and numbers appear Beginning of directionality Copies some letters Writes letters and words. Leaves spaces between words Begins to understand a sentence and some punctuation Understands that another person can read their written words Writes about topics that are meaningful Can write in simple sentences

Uses multiple sources of information and self-corrects if the reading doesn’t make sense

Is aware of and can use most forms of punctuation

Adjusts reading style to the type of text. Retells the text in sequence. Increasing fluency of reading and reads vocalising aloud

May use repetitive sentences such as ‘I like …’

Reads with more fluency in phrases rather than word-by-word

Can write several sentences with several ideas and includes punctuation

Reads silently

Records own ideas. Checks spelling and punctuation

Can retell main ideas and summarise what has been read Uses a variety of strategies to comprehend texts

Extending

Pretends to write on paper with crayons, paint or pencils

The speed of writing increases and the ideas rather than the mechanics of writing take over

Uses visual, morphological and phonic strategies to spell complex words

Changes style of reading to suit the text type

Writes a range of text types suited to different audiences

Vocabulary suited to different genres such as scientific language with information texts and descriptive figurative language with narratives

Careful close reading for directions and research reports and more fluent reading for narrative and descriptions

Revises, edits and proofreads, checks for flow and meaning of texts

Uses a range of reading strategies to identify new words and comprehend texts

Uses a range of punctuation conventions Can construct a paragraph with topic sentence. Can link several ideas in a formal piece of text

Developing early literacy

These phases in literacy development are a guide only, and are not closely age related as some 3-year-olds may have sophisticated concepts about print and some 6-years-olds may require extra support to develop these concepts.

Beginning In the beginning reading phase, babies, infants and toddlers like to explore books, catalogues and magazines. They explore them by touching, looking, tasting, smelling and listening to the words read aloud. They love to listen to stories with lots of repetition, rising dramatic action and comforting resolutions. They also enjoy information books with photographs of objects in their world. They learn to turn the pages, look at the pictures and join in with well-known stories. They ask to hear stories read again and again. In writing, they learn to hold crayons and pencils and scribble. They are learning that writing conveys a message—a way to communicate— because they have seen the people in their family write. The scribble can be large circular movements and in time the scribble changes. In the beginning phase the scribble slowly changes into drawing and writing-like scribble. Writing like scribble can look like the beginning of wavy lines whereas the drawings are free flowing and circular. The writing is usually linked like handwriting and they are beginning to make the distinction between symbols for drawing and writing. The writing may mean something quite different each time it is read.

Early-emergent In the early-emergent phase, children actively join in with an adult reading their favourite stories. If a child has had a book read aloud to them each day, by age 3 they will have heard over 1000 stories. Many books are asked for again and again, and children like to memorise rhymes such as ‘Humpty Dumpty’ and predictable books such as Brown Bear, Brown Bear What Do You See? They turn pages from left to right and play at reading aloud to themselves. Some children attend to the words at this stage and begin to read the print.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Children’s writing becomes a mixture of drawing and writing, and sometimes replicates picture books so there is print on the page with a large scribble drawing. They begin to write letters and numbers, realising that there are individual symbols to communicate meanings. Some words and letters are copied, particularly the child’s own name, or the first letter in their name. Letters may be invented as the child explores the symbols, figuring out the features of different letters and numerals such as F, E, 3, B and 8, which all look similar. In word knowledge, the scribble changes to show letters and sometimes numerals which are repeated again and again. Children may write the initial letters of words—for example the letter ‘p’ might represent the word people. They are listening to the words spoken and associating the first sound with a letter. This is a huge intellectual feat, as they begin to crack the alphabetic principle in the English code.

Emergent In the emergent phase, children learn the concept of a word. They begin to read words aloud, realising that each written word has a spoken word association. This word-by-word reading may be known as voice pointing or word pointing as they connect the written word with the corresponding spoken version. When the word doesn’t make sense, the child rereads and self-corrects. In this phase, children can retell the events that occur in a simple story. In writing, children show their growing understanding of a word, and there are spaces left between each word. They are starting to understand the meaning of a sentence and are developing ideas about punctuation such as commas, question marks, full stops and quotation marks. In word knowledge, children listen to words and record the initial and final sounds with associated letters. The words children write may include some vowels based on the sound they hear and the letter that best corresponds. Sometimes the letter name is used for a sound such as cAK for cake, where the A is the name of the letter yet also fits the long /a/ sound; similarly, when LIK is written for the word like the vowel is the name of the letter. Invented spelling is common, as children match the sounds they hear to the letter names or sounds associated with letters.

Early In the early phase of reading, some print-to-voice matching continues. Print concepts such as directionality, top to bottom and left to right, are well under control. The child’s reading is usually vocalised and, even if asked to read silently, there may be sub-vocalising as the child solves problems to identify new words. The child is using visual information to

Developing early literacy

read the printed words as well as syntax and meaning, and self-corrects if the reading doesn’t make sense. The child writes simple sentences with most forms of punctuation, for example capital letters, full stops, quotation marks and question marks. Often there are many ideas linked with the word ‘and’—‘… and … and … and …’ There may be some repetitive sentences, for example ‘I like … I like … I like …’ These sentences are known as sentence stems, and they often occur in children’s beginning reading books. Many of the high-frequency words recognised in reading—words such as the, was, is, a—are now also used in writing. Often the first 20 high-frequency words, including the child’s name, are used confidently in writing. The spelling of three-letter words using phonics becomes more common, and groups of words in word families—bat, cat, fat, sat—occur, as well as lists of words with the same initial consonant, the ‘s’ words, or consonant blends such as the ‘st’ words.

Transitional At this phase children are fine-tuning their reading and writing strategies before becoming fluent readers and writers. They have built up fluency when reading aloud, and chunk the words in phrases together, rather than reading word by word. Reading silently occurs and changing the form of reading to suit the particular text is occurring. For example, narratives may be read quickly and information texts with factual details may be read more slowly and deliberately. Children in this phase have built up a repertoire of strat egies they use to understand the meaning of a text, such as posing questions, and organising and classifying information into graphic organisers. The child has developed greater ease with the mechanics of writing, such as letter formation and writing linked script, so the writing is faster and more efficient. Children may write paragraphs elaborating on one idea, and draft their writing several times, proofreading, revising and editing. At this stage, children use a variety of spelling strategies—at times using phonics, and at other times the morphological base to build words, such as happy, unhappy, happiness; medicine, paramedic, medical; and port, import, export, portable, porter. They realise that some words do not fit common patterns and need to be learned by memory.

Extending In the extending phase, children can write quite elaborate texts and use a variety of text types suited to different audiences. They are familiar with revising and editing, and they read and reread their writing to check for meaning and flow of the text.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

In word work children use a variety of strategies to spell complex words: phonics, and visual and morphological strategies. Their vocabulary is suited to the different genres—for example, scientific terms are used within scientific reports and descriptive language is used with narratives. Children’s reading is silent and they read quickly and fluently, adapting their style of reading to suit different text types. They will use closer reading for procedures and reports and skim texts for information to answer questions. They have a repertoire of strategies and can articulate what strategies are important for different tasks.

Assessment Assessment helps the teacher to understand what the child has learned and to plan the next step.

Assessment helps the teacher to understand what the child has learned and to plan the next step. Assessment is ongoing. It takes place by observing the child, talking with the child and having the child engage in reading and writing activities. Teachers can gain an insight into the next teaching step by examining the context where successful learning takes place. Asking questions such as the following focuses the teacher’s thinking on the context for successful learning, and helps to build up knowledge of what elements and what strategies to use next.

• • • • • •

In which settings is the child successful in getting things done? In which settings does the child need further support? In which settings does the child appear comfortable? When does the child seem confused? In which contexts does the child work alone? In which settings does the child prefer to work with others? (Based in part on Owocki & Goodman 2002)

Different pathways to literacy We know that all children develop differently, and that there is no one universal lock-step linear path to literacy development. However, the fact that there are possibilities of alternative pathways to literacy (Clay 1998) does not lessen our responsibility to introduce children to texts and text types that are not easily accessible outside of school. On the contrary, the fact that children take many different pathways in literacy development emphasises the educator’s need to access children’s symbolic and social resources more fully (Dyson 2002). This means finding out what children bring from home to school and carefully building bridges from this. Literacy development can be unpredictable, as early starters don’t necessarily continue to make high progress. The quality of teaching influences the child’s progress in each year of school, and the literacy program itself

Developing early literacy

affects continued literacy development. Children who start later than others can make rapid growth, but only if the teacher, the literacy program and the families provide additional support (Hill et al. 2000). What individual differences affect literacy development? The child’s view of themselves as a learner certainly plays a role. The child’s sociocultural identity kit, while changing and dynamic, also influences learning. The fact is that being a girl or a boy in particular communities does affect how the child views reading and writing. Even within classrooms, the social dynamics of relationships between children and between teacher and child can have a negative or positive effect on progress. Individual cognitive processing abilities are also important, as are tenacity, staying power and an individual’s emotional disposition.

Is there one program that works for all? The task … is to develop a literacy program that challenges and inspires children to learn …

Is there one program or approach that works for all children? Is there one program that is a sure-fire winner for children who experience difficulties? There are many excellent programs that claim to increase the reading scores for all children; however, there is no one teacher-proof program and all teachers modify, weave together and adapt programs. The task for teachers is to develop a literacy program that challenges and inspires children to learn, and which makes sure that children acquire skills and strategies in a consistent way so they feel successful. Teaching children to read and write is not reducible to a simple set of techniques or strategies. ‘Rather, strategies and techniques must be adapted to the contextual experiences of the teacher and learners at the moment of engagement— whereby the student is moved to a newer, more refined level of knowledge and understanding’ (Barone 2003, p. 306).

Teaching literacy: great debates Over the decades there have been numerous debates and controversies about the best way to teach literacy. In Nila Banton Smith’s book American Reading Instruction (1965), she writes that literacy instruction seems to go along quietly then all of a sudden this pattern is abandoned. ‘Then a new plan becomes popular and we teach reading according to this plan until another turning point arrives’ (p. 424). In the 1960s there were debates on whether it was best to teach children to read with special alphabets invented to make the English language easier to read. In another approach children learned to read with reading machines, where individual children read and answered questions and received immediate feedback about their responses.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

In the 1980s the debate was between literature-based instruction and skills-based approaches. Literature-based reading emphasised the use of authentic literature for independent reading, read-alouds and collaborative discussions. The skills-based programs used a commercially available basal reading program and followed a sequence of skills ordered in difficulty (Foorman & Torgesen 2001). In the 1990s Snow, Burns and Griffin (1998, p. 199) identified debates between three main approaches to teaching the beginning of literacy, particularly the teaching of phonics and decoding skills in a print-rich environment:

1 2 3

As well as explicit instruction, children also require meaningful, enjoyable texts.

Implicit phonics in which the emphasis is on whole connected text, with alphabetic learning assumed to go on implicitly Embedded phonics in which sound spelling patterns are systematically embedded in connected texts Direct code in which letter–sound correspondences and practice take place with various kinds of text.

According to Snow, Burns and Griffin, there is enormous variation in how teachers actually teach reading, and classrooms that claim to be whole language may look nothing like each other. In implicit phonics or whole-language approaches, teachers give priority to children’s construction of meaning, and phonics is taught opportunistically in the context of meaningful reading and writing. The teacher is viewed as the facilitator of learning rather than the director of learning. There is authentic assessment, and portfolios of children’s work are used to show progress. The teaching of phonics is implicit and children read a variety of literature and information books. Embedded phonics involves teachers using word families where a word containing the target spelling pattern is presented—for example dog—and then children are encouraged to build up families of words by deleting the first consonant or consonant blend, for example, dog, fog, log, clog, frog, slog. Children can find words in reading books that fit these patterns and are then encouraged to write using these words. They are learning phonics and decoding by a process of analogy where, if they know one word dog, they can then work out other ‘og’ words. Children use levelled books and trade books. Guided reading is an embedded phonics approach (Foorman & Torgesen 2001). In direct code instruction, children are taught letter–sound correspondences and spelling conventions explicitly, and these letter–sound correspondences are practised and extended. Independent reading is introduced through a graduated series of books with controlled vocabulary designed to offer practice with the sight words and phonics. Children are encouraged to sound out words they don’t know. Debates about whole language, embedded or direct code approaches suggest that implicit and embedded approaches benefit children who bring high levels of literacy to the classroom work. Children who have difficulties

Developing early literacy

learning to read require instruction ‘that must be more explicit and comprehensive, more intensive and more supportive than the instruction required by the majority of children’ (Foorman & Torgesen 2001, p. 206). Recently, several large national inquiries and reviews of the research into the teaching of literacy have taken place: in Australia, Teaching Reading (Rowe 2005); in the United Kingdom, Independent Review into the Teaching of Early Reading (Rose 2006); and in the United States, National Reading Panel (2000) and the National Early Literacy Panel (2008). These large reviews and government inquiries explored evidence-based research studies into the teaching of literacy, to inform policy and funding. They were conducted largely because of the awareness of the literacy achievement gap between children living in poverty and non-dominant cultures and children in more economically advantaged mainstream communities. The inquiries reached similar findings and led to the development of forms of national literacy standards. The Teaching Reading report and the National Reading Panel findings were similar: teach phonological awareness in K–1, phonics first and fast, comprehension strategies through explicit instruction, vocabulary through a range of approaches, and fluency through oral reading practices (Pearson & Hiebert 2010). The National Reading Panel report findings have influenced policy and practice in the United States, Britain and Australia. The National Early Literacy Panel (NELP) has been more controversial. It reviewed research into the early precursors to school success in literacy. Six variables were found to be predictive of later measures of literacy: alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness, rapid automatised naming of letters/digits, rapid automatised naming of objects/colours, writing/writing name and phonological memory. The NELP report provided a useful summary of research into the predictive skills and abilities of young children birth to 5 years; however, as in earlier literacy debates, there were many critics of the report. Critics of the NELP report claim that teaching of narrow sets of skills does not take into account the global language competencies which influence reading comprehension and later literacy development throughout school. Also, a narrow focus on a set of subskills in beginning reading does not acknowledge the strengths that children from non-dominant cultural groups bring to school. Knowledge of different cultures and different languages will enhance children’s participation in the multilingual and multicultural world. Researchers in the early literacy field call for more research into effective early literacy pedagogy, more research into the prominent role of oral language in literacy development and more research to understand family literacy practices in diverse communities (McGill-Franzen 2010). The tensions and debates about early literacy pedagogy are important because development varies widely within and across individual children, and timelines for individual children do not follow a straight line (Genishi & Dyson 2009).

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Differentiated instruction In the same classroom, teachers work with children who are at very different stages of literacy development and this requires differentiated instruction (Ellis, Gable, Gregg & Rock 2008). Differentiated instruction is a process where the teacher matches the learning objectives, how the student learns, and the student’s ability level, interests and learning styles. Read the following case studies of children, all in the same class. What are their different experiences prior to school, different strengths and different ways of approaching reading and writing? How will the teacher adjust teaching strategies to scaffold learning for each child?

CASE STUDY

— Pete Pete liked cars, bikes and toy soldiers, and he was encouraged to play outside on his bike and inside in his room with his army men. When he watched his dad make motorbike models or work on the mural in his room, the interactions were demonstrations, not verbal instructions. Pete’s dad liked to show Pete how to do things whether it was drawing or making models of motor bikes. Pete’s mum said that Pete had a mind of his own and if you could show him, not tell him what you were trying to say, then he was happy. Pete’s parents did not believe they had a strong tutoring role in his learning. They had a view of ‘let them be kids while they can’ and being a kid meant playing outside with wheel toys, or inside playing with computer games or watching TV. Pete’s parents claimed that children learn through experience and it didn’t matter how much you told them, they had to learn through their mistakes. Pete attended preschool for two days of the week and took part in an individualised, child-centred curriculum. Children could choose from a range of activities and there was lots of enjoyable immersion in books, songs and poems. There was a sense that Pete did not see many purposes for literacy other than writing and reading his name on his possessions and being entertained by the illustrations in a picture book. When Pete started school he thought reading was a snap. It was too easy. He read the small reading books by telling the story from the illustrations and he came up with great tales. It was sad to have to tell him that the story is actually in the printed words and not just the illustrations because some of Pete’s stories were more entertaining than those in the reading books. When Pete was assessed at the close of the first year of school he knew some sounds that letters represent. He also said some of the letter names but was confused about what were letter names and what were the sounds the letters represented. He knew some high-frequency words but was not fluent with these; in fact he tried to sound out words like was sometimes forwards w-a-s,

Developing early literacy

and sometimes backwards s-a-w. His writing showed influences of first reading books. Figure 1.2 is an example of Pete’s writing—‘In the jungle is a lion. In the jungle is a tiger.’

Figure 1.2 Pete’s writing

Pete read emergent reading books by telling a story based on the illustrations. He read little alphabet books such as ‘W’, and said ‘lady’ for ‘woman’ and ‘spider’ for ‘web’ and commented ‘This is so easy!’ Pete’s literacy development showed knowledge in several areas: highfrequencywords, letter identification and letter–sound relationships. Firming up his high-frequency words, plus attending to print detail would have helped support his development. Also, Pete loved soccer and played twice during the week and on the weekend. He liked books about sport. Finding emergent reading books where he had to read carefully to find information about soccer and sports may have increased his interest in reading.

CASE STUDY

— Christianne Christianne, at 3 years of age, wanted to be a teacher like her mother when she grew up. From the beginning literacy phase she played with her dolls, putting them all out like a classroom and teaching them the alphabet and how to write. Even before preschool Christianne knew the names of the letters of the alphabet and could sing the ABC song with no problems at all. She spoke very clearly in sentences, following her mother around asking how to write words. Her parents read to her at night. At the preschool, she chose to read in the book corner. She wrote at the writing centre. The preschool program was filled with language and literacy experiences and at home there were conversations about what Christianne did during the day. Christianne’s grandmother looked after her while her mother worked,

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

and although she did not read and write English, she translated all the English songs and fairytales into Greek for Christianne to read. At 5, when Christianne first began school, she would take home the small levelled texts that she was reading in school and read them aloud to her mother. She copied the text word by word and also the illustrations. She began to make her own small reading books. The writing samples that were collected for Christianne showed that she liked to copy books, and also if she wrote at home her mother helped her with the spelling. Christianne moved easily from home to school. Her mother was a teacher and the two sat down in the evenings, mother doing her school preparation and Christianne doing her homework. She was a very, very keen beginning reader and writer. Below is an example of a book she made. She has written ‘I can juggle’. Note the phonetic spelling of ‘juggle’—jugwr.

Figure 1.3 Christianne’s writing

Developing early literacy

CASE STUDY

— Sean Sean was interested in watching cartoons and videos and he had a very large video library. He liked to draw fighting machines and cartoon characters. Before he started school his mother thought that he had a learning difficulty when compared to his older brother. Most people she spoke to about Sean said to let him take his time and develop at his own pace. In preschool Sean spoke in short phrases and was hard to understand. Sometimes he communicated with gestures and by touching or grabbing people, and he sounded a lot like cartoon characters on television. When Sean began school his mother spent a lot of time at the school. She was very worried about how Sean was settling in and coping with the routines. If Sean was interested in a topic or a book the teacher had read aloud, he would engage. If he wasn’t interested he sabotaged instruction to get out of school work which he didn’t want to do—already he felt a failure. As he battled to gain respect from his peers he developed his great sense of slapstick humour, carefully honed by repeated watching of videos. After several months in school Sean struggled when reading a simple book with one- or two-word captions. He knew a few letters like S, N, E and A, the ones in his name. He had a small number of familiar high-frequency words that he could read. Over the next few years, Sean became more alienated from school. He felt a failure in the academic world and his mother was frustrated by this and paid for phonics-based tutoring outside school hours. But school was not a happy place for Sean and by the second year of school he had been suspended three times. Should more time be given to wait for Sean to develop? What does Sean do well? He does have quite a large vocabulary but it takes time and trust to access this. He knows a lot about cartoon plots, characters, sound effects. Would using Sean’s interest in cartoons and helping him construct simple oral sentences then writing them down on sentence strips to create early language experience texts be a useful way for Sean to progress? Sean required intervention very early on, before formal schooling. His language development in preschool showed that there were only some words that he used confidently. Support was needed at this stage as it is very difficult for children who speak in one- or two-word sentences to move confidently into learning how to read and write.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Chapter summary Learning to read and write is developmental—but not in a lock-step, stepby-step progression. Each child’s experiences with language and literacy prior to school will have an effect on their later literacy development. This is because language and literacy are generative processes—the more children talk, read and learn, the more they can talk, read and learn. In social constructivist theories of learning, adults and more able peers play a key role in supporting literacy learning. Language plays an important role in intellectual development in that when children learn a new concept or new vocabulary this will accelerate their thinking. The learning children engage in will lead their development into new directions in the future. It is necessary to scaffold children’s learning if they are to move to the next step in learning. The zone of proximal development highlights the importance of finding out about the child’s current level of development and then scaffolding the learning to the next stage. The developmental phases of beginning, early-emergent, emergent, early, transitional and extending show how reading, writing and word work complement and inform each other and develop in unison. There is, however, no one universal pattern that all children follow. Children’s experiences and abilities in the years before school have an impact on learning to read and write in the first years of school. Differentiated instruction—assessing what children can do and then planning an appropriate literacy program—is necessary to support all children to become readers and writers. No one program or approach works for all children and skilful teachers weave together activities and teaching strategies to fit the context and experiences of children.

Part 1

The foundations Language, homes and communities are the foundations of literacy

CHAPTER 2

Oral language

‘I’m being haive!’

(Two-year-old boy when his mother told him to behave)

‘Why don’t you get some expensive money?’

(Three-year-old when told by her mother that she could get a small toy but that the ones asked for were too expensive)

‘Daddy, did your hair slip?’

(Three-year-old to his bald, but long-bearded father)

Learning language—learning through language—learning about language

Language is at the top of the agenda for early childhood. One of the greatest discoveries for a very young child is the recognition that verbal signs have meaning. Language then becomes the key to communicating, learning and thinking. There are three fundamental aspects: children need to learn language, they learn through language and learn about language (Halliday 2004). Children learn language in speech-rich communities, and most children effortlessly acquire the spoken language of the community. Children learn through language in interactions with others: at first directing their language to an adult and later internalising it to become thinking (Vygotsky 1978). Speech, internalised as thinking, plays an essential role in the organisation of higher psychological functions such as planning, memorising and regulating behaviour. Children learn about language when they explore how language works in activities such as dramatic play, stories and exploring nature and the environment in the years before school and in later schooling. Oral language is the base for building literacy. Snow, Burns and Griffin (1998) write that a child’s language development is one of the most important preconditions for literacy. Being able to hear language, perceive differences in meaning and articulate language is crucially important for learning to read and write.

Oral language

Being able to hear language, perceive differences in meaning and articulate language is crucially important for learning to read and write.

Oral language provides the base and foundation for written language because it is the beginning of using language as a symbol for meaning. In fact, as Vukelich, Christie and Enz (2002) write: Oral language involves first-order symbolism, with spoken words representing meaning. Written language, on the other hand, involves secondorder symbolism that builds on the first-order symbolism of oral language. Printed symbols represent spoken words that, in turn, represent meaning (p. 2).

While oral language is the foundation for written language, the two modes are different. Oral language relies on the context, the here and now objects to make meaning—for example, pointing to an apple a child may say ‘Look at this one’. Written language, however, is removed from context; it is decontextualised and the writer has to provide additional information for the reader—for example, ‘Look at this red apple’.

Language is a symbol system

Language is made up of sounds (phonemes), words and word order (syntax), and meaning (semantics).

Language—whether it be English, Chinese, French or Spanish—is any system of symbols that is used to communicate meaning. These symbols can also consist of sounds, finger movements and print (Vukelich, Christie & Enz 2002). Because this book is about language and literacy—speaking, listening, reading and writing—language refers to oral language, which is communicating through speaking and listening, and literacy refers to reading and writing, which is communicating through print and multimedia. Language is made up of sounds (phonemes), words and word order (syntax) and meaning (semantics). Pragmatics is the social use of language which has to do with selecting language to suit a particular purpose, and vocabulary or lexicon is knowledge of words and word meanings. Discourse is a larger framework and concerns how all components of language are used in particular social contexts; for example, children may have a school discourse and a home discourse. From birth onwards, infants and toddlers experiment with sounds, words and word order and by the time they are 3 or 4 years old they have a large vocabulary of words. Figure 2.1 Key definitions of the components of language Phonology refers to the way sounds of a language operate. Syntax refers to the rules for how words work in phrases, clauses and sentences. Semantics refers to the ways that language conveys meaning. Pragmatics refers to the ways the members of the speech community achieve their goals using language. Vocabulary refers to stored information about the meanings and pronunciation of words. (Based on Emmitt, Zbaracki, Komesaroff & Pollock 2010; Snow, Burns & Griffin 1998)

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Phonology Phonology is the sound structure of speech and includes intonation, stress and timing, as well as its articulatory units, including words, syllables and phonemes. Intonation involves stress, pitch and juncture. Pitch refers to how high or low a voice is when producing a sound, stress refers to how loud or soft it is, and juncture refers to the pauses or connections between words, phrases and sentences (Morrow 2005). The sounds of language are called phonemes, and there are 44 phonemes in the English language. The word cat has three phonemes and so does the word sheep because in written language letters are used in various combinations to represent sounds: ‘sh’ is one sound and ‘ee’ is one sound. Phonemic awareness is the insight that every spoken word can be thought of as a sequence of phonemes. Phonemic awareness is important for understanding the alphabetic principle—the idea that sounds are represented by letters.

Syntax Syntax is the grammar or the rules by which words are organised into sentences. Grammar also includes morphology, which is the use of grammatical markers that indicate number, tense, person, gender and case, for example cat, cats; prince, princess; jump, jumped. Syntax refers to the ways words, phrases and clauses are structured in sentences. In English, the order of the words in sentences is important—for example, ‘the dog bit the boy’ has a very different meaning from ‘the boy bit the dog’. Some basic sentence patterns are:

• • •

subject – verb: The baby cried. subject – verb – object: The baby drank milk. subject – verb – indirect object – direct object: The baby gave Freda the bottle.

Words and word order are important for expressing ideas and understanding what other people say. Children experiment with word order in simple sentences like ‘Give me’ and ‘Me give’, playing with the order of words and meanings. The grammar of young children’s beginning sentences ‘Give me’ and ‘Me give’ are shortened versions of standard grammar which would sound like this: ‘Give it to me’ and ‘I’ll give it to you’. Syntax is recognisable, and we can tell if a sentence is grammatically acceptable even when using meaningless nonsense words like the f ollowing: Bix was plux zopt. ‘Morp when you are zopt,’ said Tjbe.

Oral language

Semantics Semantics is concerned with meaning. Richgels (2004) provides an example of the meaning of semantics when using the word love. He writes that most of us can define the word love, but a full accounting of its meaning must include how it means different things in different contexts. My My My My My

brother brother brother brother brother

George George George George George

loves loves loves loves loves

his wife. his country. to garden. science fiction. getting out of doing the laundry.

The word loves in the verb position restricts the words we can use in the subject position, for example: My brother George works in all of the propositions, My sister Mary works in some but not all, and My dog Fido works in none. Language communicates meaning through content words—like dog and cat—that carry meaning in themselves. Meaning is conveyed in function words which have no meaning in themselves but which indicate relationships between other words in a sentence. Function words can be prepositions such as of, to and in; conjunctions such as and, but and because; and determiners which mark nouns so that when there is a determiner a noun follows—for example, the, a and few. Semantics or meaning is achieved by the choice of words, word order and the tone and stress placed on words. In spoken language, facial expressions and gestures affect how meanings are communicated.

Pragmatics Pragmatics is the social communicative side of language. This is often taken for granted until teachers work with children with autism spectrum disorder, where pragmatic skills are not developed. Pragmatics involves turn-taking, maintaining topic relevance, understanding gestures, tone of voice and judging what kind of language form or genre to use in different social situations—for example, to facilitate interactions with others (Let’s go shopping), to express opinions and feelings (This makes me feel great), to provide information (That’s a digital watch), to use imaginative language (I’m a movie star), to express needs and wants (I want that bag), to regulate others (Stop that!), or to inquire (How much is this?). The ability to comprehend and produce communication is referred to as pragmatic competence, and it often includes one’s knowledge about the social distance, social status between the speakers involved, and cultural knowledge such as politeness.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Vocabulary

Children combine all aspects of language— phonology, semantics, grammar, pragmatics and vocabulary—to communicate meanings.

Vocabulary or lexicon is knowledge of words and word meanings. Vocabulary acquisition is one of the key components of oral language development and it also plays an important role in early literacy. In general, receptive vocabulary is larger than productive or expressive vocabulary; we can understand more words through listening and reading than we use in speech or writing (Pearson, Hiebert & Kamil 2007). Pronunciation of words and knowledge about word use is important because it affects children’s comprehension of spoken and written language. For an emergent reader to get meaning from text, most of the words represented by the text must be in the reader’s oral vocabulary. If the reader can recognise most of the words in the text they can use context clues to figure out the meaning of a few unfamiliar words. A writer’s choice of words is affected by their oral language vocabulary. Children who have rich oral language experiences at home before school tend to become early readers (Dickenson & Tabors 2001). By the time children enter school, a conservative estimate is that children who speak English know 4000–5000 word families in oral language (Nation & Waring 1997). Children combine all aspects of language—phonology, semantics, grammar, pragmatics and vocabulary—to communicate meanings. Acquisition of each one facilitates mastery of the others. Children actively construct language to communicate and they will often create amusing comments as they try to work out how the phonology, grammar, semantics, pragmatics and vocabulary work in language. The following comments show how children interpret language and concepts. • ‘Daddy picked them up and looked underneath. I think it’s printed on the bottom’ —3-year-old when his mother asked how his father knew the genders of four new baby kittens • ‘They didn’t see it —it was all cutted off!’ —2-year-old when his mother asked how his grandparents liked his new haircut. Language begins at birth, and continues throughout schooling and over a lifetime.

The development of spoken language Beginning—birth to one At about 3 months, babies will turn their heads towards voices and show that they recognise their parents’ voices by stopping crying when the parents are speaking. They indicate contentment and amusement by smiling, and repeat sounds (e.g. cooing).

Oral language

At 4 to 7 months, babies notice new sounds such as the telephone. They respond to ‘no’ and to changes in tone of voice, and pay attention to music. Early sound discrimination skills are beginning to emerge. Sounds have a more speech-like babble to them (e.g. baba, mama). When playing alone or with parents, babies make gurgling sounds, and tell you by sound or gesture when they want something. By 6 months of age, long before they are ready to talk, babies start to organise speech into the phonemic categories of their own language, and they stop responding to sound distinctions that are not useful in their language community (Berk 2003). At 8 months to 1 year, infants are beginning to recognise their name and can turn their heads or look up when you say their name. They listen when spoken to, and are beginning to recognise common words (e.g. cup, juice and bottle), and to respond to requests like ‘Come here’. Infants imitate speech sounds, and utter their first words, usually things that are meaningful to them such as Mummy, Daddy, biscuit, milk, bottle, bye-bye and no. They more frequently use speech or non-crying sounds to get and keep attention. Babbling has repeated consonants and vowel sounds such as ‘mama mama’.

One to two By the first year, children’s babbling reflects the sounds and the intonation patterns of their native language. Comprehension of words emerges before the ability to produce words, and this occurs at around the time of the child’s first birthday. Children begin to participate more actively in listening to simple stories, songs and rhymes. They can follow simple commands and can point to a few body parts, and to pictures of things in a book when an adult names them. Children begin to use telegraphic speech from 12 months on—usually noun and verb with no content words: ‘Daddy home’, ‘Get milk’, ‘Bottle fall’. Some one- to two-word questions such as ‘What that?’ are used. Children are beginning to put two words together—for example, ‘More juice’ and ‘Get up’. They use many different consonant sounds at the beginning of words. By 18 months, most children can pronounce most of the English phonemes and use nine to 20 words.

Two to three The mother replied, ‘It’s rabbit, not wabbit.’ ‘I know it’s wabbit,’ said the toddler.

Between 2 and 3 years of age, three-word sentences appear. In English they conform to a relatively fixed word order, subject–verb–object. At the same time, a grammatical explosion takes place as children add grammatical morphemes—small markers that change the meaning of sentences, as in ‘John’s dog’ and ‘He is eating’. Children may hear words but not be able to pronounce them. For example, a mother I know asked ‘Can you see

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

the rabbit?’ and the child answered, ‘See wabbit’. The mother replied, ‘It’s rabbit, not wabbit.’ ‘I know it’s wabbit,’ said the toddler. Roger Brown and colleagues (1986) suggested that the clearest indication of language development was the increasing length of sentences used by children. The method of measuring length was to count the individual morphemes (units of meaning) used in utterances produced by the child. There were five stages of development, and beyond stage five the sentences became more structurally complex so it was not just a matter of adding more units. Figure 2.2 Brown’s developmental stages as mean length of utterance (MLU) Stage MLU 1 1.75 2 2.25 3 2.75 4 3.50 5 4.00

Brown and his colleagues intensively studied the language of three children—Adam, Eve and Sarah—and also suggested that there was a regular order in which children acquire grammar. Figure 2.3 shows the general order or early use of grammar. Figure 2.3 First appearance of grammatical morphemes Morpheme Example The present progressive Prepositions The plural marking of nouns The irregular past tense Possessives Uncontracted be as a main verb Articles The regular past tense Third person singular verbs Third person irregular verbs Uncontractible be as auxilliary Contractible copula (linking verb) Contractible be as auxilliary

-ing ‘in’, ‘on’ ‘cat – cats’, ‘dog – dogs’ ‘went’ (from ‘go’) ‘Mummy’s nose’ ‘Where is it?’ ‘a’, ‘the’ ‘walked’ (from ‘walk’) ‘she goes’ ‘has he?’, ‘does she?’ ‘is he?’, ‘were they?’ ‘that’s’ ‘they’re running away’, ‘he’s sitting down’ Source: Emmitt, Zbaracki, Komesaroff & Pollock 2010

Oral language

Early-emergent—three to four Most children at 3 to 4 years of age have a large vocabulary and use more and more complex sentence structures. They can use plurals and regular verbs but often over-generalise plurals and verb inflections. For example, they may say ‘sheeps’, ‘mouses’ and ‘childs’ as they over-generalise the rule of adding ‘s’ to form a plural. Similarly, they may say ‘sleeped’, ‘comed’ and ‘runned’ for the past tense of these irregular verbs. Children might talk to themselves as they complete tasks and it seems as if they are trying to articulate their actions (Morrow 2005). A 4-yearold boy was noticed by Morrow talking to himself saying: ‘I’m making a nice picture. I’m making colours all over. I’m painting, pit, pat, pit, pat. I’m going back and forth and up and down. Now I’m jumping as I paint.’ As he talked and painted, he did exactly what he said, words and actions coinciding.

Four to five Children continue to learn new vocabulary and more complex sentence structures. At age 5 they may have a vocabulary of between 2500 and 5000 or so words. Some have difficulty pronouncing sounds /l/, /r/, and /sh/ at the end of words. If they do not have a word for a particular situation they may create their own. They talk a lot and use words to control situations.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Figure 2.4 Language development 0–4 years Age 2 months 3 months 7 months 10 months 11 months 14 months 16 months 22 months 23 months 26 months 29 months 34 months 37 months 47 months

Language skill Makes sounds in response to stimulus Makes cooing sounds Makes sounds such as giving a ‘raspberry’ Single syllable babbling (‘ma’, ‘pa’, ‘ba’, ‘da’) Multiple syllable babbling (‘mama’, ‘dada’, ‘baba’) Uses mama and dada (or similar sounds) to call parents Uses some words besides mama and dada Has a vocabulary of four to six words Can express some wants Can be understood by parents about half the time Can form two-word sentences Has a 50-word vocabulary Uses ‘me’, ‘you’, ‘my’ Uses prepositions Can carry on a conversation Can identify and use ‘cup’, ‘spoon’ Can be understood by strangers about three-quarters of the time Can be understood by strangers most of the time Source: Vukelich, Christie & Enz 2002

Five to eight The language of school-aged children continues to develop throughout their schooling. As teachers know, each child’s oral language development will be unique, as it grows out of their experiences in homes and communities and will have been fashioned for particular purposes with particular individuals. Each child will also have their own language style and ways of expressing meaning in different situations. Children’s semantic, syntactic and phonological knowledge, and their understanding about language—or metalinguistic knowledge—continues to develop. Their semantic knowledge grows in school experiences as they add new vocabulary and word meanings. For example, a child may know the word dogs, and will add poodles, dalmatians and retrievers to extend this concept. Similarly, words to describe feelings, size, numbers, shapes, colours and parts of objects, and verbs and actions are added to children’s meaning systems. Syntactic growth continues. Contrary to the idea that children master all the basic syntactic structures in their native language by age 6, many are still acquiring this knowledge at age 9 and older. This has implications for teaching and learning, as children’s listening comprehension may be at risk if instructions and explanations are given in complex syntax.

Oral language

Chomsky (1972) studied the acquisition of syntax in children aged 5 to 10 years and found there was considerable variation. He tested children’s comprehension of the following syntactic structures:

1 2 3 4

John is easy to see. John promised Bill to go. John asked Bill what to do. He knew that John was going to win the race.

The syntactic structure in example 4 is acquired by most children at age 5.6 years. The syntax in example 3 is still not acquired by some children even at age 10. The syntax in examples 1 and 2 is acquired between the ages of 5.6 and 9 and is known by most children over 9 years. From ages 5 to 8, children use longer and more complex sentences with more adjectival clauses. Conditional dependent clauses occur beginning with ‘if’ and ‘because’. Children aged 5 to 8 years increasingly use verbs in present and past tense.

Summary of the development of language The age at which children say their first words varies considerably from child to child. Developmental guidelines provide a guide but they are not perfect. Many guidelines have been developed with English-speaking children from middle-income families in modern industrial cities, and the notion of ‘universal norm’ must be interpreted carefully. However, developmental guidelines are useful if parents think their children may be delayed, and if this is the case then intervention may be useful.

Functions of language in preschool and school Children learning language is important prior to school and in the early years of school. Learning about language and how language is used for many different functions or purposes is also important. Linguists working from a systemic functional linguistic viewpoint see language as semiotic, or a sign system that carries meaning. In systemic functional linguistics, children’s language development is a process by which children ‘learn how to mean’ (Halliday 1975). Language communicates meaning for many different functions—to tell someone what you want, to give information, to think, to be imaginative and to entertain. Halliday’s systemic functional linguistic work (1973; 1975; 1985) is useful for understanding the many functions of children’s talk in different contexts. In systemic functional linguistics, activities such as storytelling, news talks, debates, interviews, meetings and reading information books have

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

their own terminology, discourse and genres. For example, when a teacher describes the parts of a caterpillar, this entails scientific descriptive language which provides information, and when a teacher tells a story or narrative, this involves characters, dialogue and imaginative made-up worlds. Teachers can observe the many different functions children use in oral language. The language functions can also be used in programming for a variety of oral language activities. Halliday’s seven speech functions are shown in Figure 2.5 with examples added. Figure 2.5 Halliday’s seven speech functions Function Example

Explanation

Instrumental ‘Can I have the cup?’

‘I want’ language as a means of getting and satisfying personal needs.

Regulatory

‘Do as I tell you’ controlling the behaviour, feelings or attitudes of others.

‘I want to go home now.’

Interactional ‘You want to play?’

‘Me and you’ getting along with others, establishing relative status. Also me against you—establishing separateness.

Personal

‘I can draw.’

‘Here I come’ language to tell about themselves, awareness of self, pride.

Heuristic

‘How does this work?’

‘Tell me why’ learning new things and testing knowledge.

Imaginative

‘You be the princess.’

‘Let’s pretend’ creating new worlds, making up stories, poems.

Informative

‘I’ll tell you about the caterpillar.’

‘I’ve got something to tell you’ communicating information, descriptions, expressing propositions.

In systemic functional linguistics, both the language and the situation work together as a two-way process. The language itself carries information about the situation in which it occurs, and the situation, in turn, shapes the language used. For example, the following interaction shows how language and situation work together. Person 1: We go now! Person 2: When I’ve finished my work. In the example, both the language used and the situation carry meaning. We are able understand that Person 1 is probably a child trying to regulate or control Person 2. Person 2 is an adult busy working. Systemic functional linguistics may analyse the example by exploring the field, tenor and mode of language in the social context. • Field is the subject matter (the child wants to go somewhere while the busy adult refuses). • Tenor is who is involved and how they relate to each other (a young child and parent). • Mode is the spoken language used (it may be written language or gestures).

Oral language

As another example, think of an email invitation to an end-of-year party. The field is the subject matter—a party. The tenor is the relationship between people—friends, and the mode is the electronic email. In preschool and school, the different learning areas or subject areas have their own terminology, discourses and genres (Askeland & Maager 2010). Even the grammar is different in subject areas—for example, in narrative, ‘Once upon a time’ is past tense in a story while in science, present tense is used in a book on caterpillars: ‘Some scientists think caterpillars can probably ...’ Askeland and Maager write that all subject areas or learning areas have their own terminology, and children are fascinated with learning and classifying words. Classifying words is important in the world of science, society, technology and other subject areas. For example we classify words when we talk about flowers: we talk about daisies, buttercups and roses. When we talk about insects we talk about blowflies, mosquitoes and ladybirds. In science and other learning areas, we describe things and also the reasons why things are as they are. This is known as causality and there are many words for causality (because of, therefore, the reason for, as a result of, etc). Other features of the various subject area discourses are contrasts and alternatives, and this occurs in words and phrases such as this but not that, the opposite of, however, instead of, either this or that, on the other hand, etc). Another interesting feature in the discourse of science and other leaning areas is modality. Modality is the space between ‘yes’ and ‘no’ or positive and negative. Modality is shown in modal verbs such as can, may, must, will, shall and by modal expressions that show probability, usuality, obligation and inclination such as perhaps, most likely, possibly, probably, certainly, usually, always, sometimes, supposed to, allowed to, willing to. Young children need time to develop modality. Askeland and Maager write: For young children, things either are, or they are not. Only later will they be able to explore the various kinds of indeterminacy in between. In subject-oriented dialogues in kindergarten, children can be trained to see how this indeterminacy can be realised. When a child goes into subjectoriented discourses later, it is important to know about linguistic realisations for modality and also to know that there are nuances in relation to the representation of a fact. (2010, p. 80)

Young children understand much about the nuances of language, and this can be observed in dramatic play when they take on roles such as: ‘You be the baby and talk like a baby’, ‘I’ll be the teacher and you do what I tell you’ and ‘You can just be the Dad’. Once children understand that language itself can be explored and this idea is taken on board, then all kinds of language can be investigated and language itself can be treated as an ‘object of contemplation’ not just a tool for communication.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Oral language genres or text types Building on the work of Halliday (1975; 1985), several spoken and written language genres or text types were developed (Derewienka 1990, 2011). The spoken language genres explore language at the text level with a text framework and language features. Oral language texts can be used by teachers when planning language activities. Children can create their own recounts, narratives, reports, expositions or arguments and so on. Each genre has a particular purpose and particular language features.

1 2 3 4 5 6

ecount: To retell or recount events, usually in chronological R order. Narrative: To entertain, to tell a story. Procedure: To give instruction or directions on the way to do things. Explanation: To explain phenomena or how something works. Report: To classify, describe and then provide information on something. Exposition or argument: To argue or persuade to a point of view.

There are many oral language text types, such as interviews, jokes, play scripts, advertisements, small-group work and meetings. In oral language activities, children can recount or retell a trip or an excursion. They can tell narrative stories using a framework of orientation, problem and resolution. They might use the procedure text type to describe how to make pancakes or how to construct a model. They may explain how something works such as a battery. They may report to the class on topics such as cats, tadpoles or silkworms. They may present points in an exposition persuading others to a point of view. (See page 54 for oral language activities for more on the features of various genres.)

Developing language

Figure 2.6 Some oral language text types Oral language text types

Purpose

Text framework

Language features

Description

To describe the characteristics or features of a thing or event

Features of the object— SCUMPSmay be used: size, colour, use, material, parts, shape

• nouns • variety of adjectives • action verbs • figurative language, e.g. The blue boat is like a fish

Personal response

To book, artwork, play

Recount (factual or literary)

To retell a series of events

Orientation Events in order Evaluation (optional)

• descriptive language • past tense • words that tell where, when, with, whom, how

Narrative

To entertain, amuse or instruct

Orientation Problem or complication Series of events Resolution

• characters and setting are described using nouns and adjectives • time words used • action verbs in the complication and resolution

Procedure

To instruct someone on how to do something

Goal Materials Method evaluation

• verbs usually at the beginning of each instruction • words that tell how, when, where, whom

Report

To classify and/or describe

Generalisation/classification Description Summary

• technical language • simple present tense • generalised terms

Explanation (factual or literary)

To explain how or why something occurs

Phenomenon Explanation sequence

• technical language • use of words to establish cause/effect sequences, e.g. such as, because, as a result

Exposition

To persuade by arguing one side of an issue

Thesis Argument – Point – Point

• use of first, second, in conclusion • because

Discussion

To examine issues from more than one perspective

• words that express judgments • descriptive language

• use of thinking verbs, e.g. feel, believe, hope • use of connectives, e.g. on the other hand, however

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Learning about language: grammar Young children in school and preschool are learning the discourse of school, and this involves talking about language. At school, children learn to be aware of and define what is a word, a letter, a vowel sound, a sentence and a text type (narrative or information) and this metalinguistic awareness is necessary for school success. Young children learning second or third languages often have metalinguistic awareness or ways to talk about language by saying ‘You don’t say it that way in English’. Young bilingual children may not be able to articulate the differences in syntax, meaning or sounds, but they are aware that language has grammatical rules and that language is used in particular contexts. In the early years of school, knowledge of grammar is useful; however, grammar is only used in context, when sharing a book, reflecting on oral language statements or questions and in dramatic play and other activities. Grammatical terms are useful when the teacher reads a book about how animals move and the children create a list of words describing movement. Classifying the words by explaining that they are verbs or action verbs is useful for the children’s thinking about language. Figure 2.7 explains some grammatical terms, and judgments about what terms may be useful in the classroom relate to knowledge of the children in the class. Worksheets of grammatical terms will not help children’s literacy development. However, teachers’ knowledge about how language works provides insight into young children’s phenomenal language abilities and growth in the early years of school. In the first years of school the terms noun, verb, adjective and sentence may be useful.

Oral language

Figure 2.7 Grammatical terms and examples Grammatical terms

Meanings

Examples

Adjective or adjectival phrase

A word or phrase that adds meaning to a noun

wonderful, those, black, round, with the long hair

Adverb or adverbial phrase

Adds meaning to a verb, adjective or other adverb

quickly, very quietly, like a horse

Auxiliary verb

Part of a verb group, helping verb, shows tense or mood

I have written.

Clause

A group of words with a finite verb

Tom has six dogs.

Cohesion

Linking of ideas in a speech, sentences and paragraphs

The name, Sam, is the name of a boy in my class.

Conjunction

Joining word in a text

and, but, if, so, or

Finite verb

A verb that has a subject

Sam ran.

Inflection

A suffix added to a noun or verb to show tense or number

es, s, ing, ess, ed, ly

Modals

Indicate a degree of definiteness

Low modality: might, could, may High modality: must, will, ought

Modality

Modality or degree of certainty can be expressed through nouns, adjectives, adverbs

Nouns: possibility, necessity, requirement Adjectives: possible, necessary Adverbs: perhaps, maybe, never

Mood declarative imperative interrogative

To make a statement To give a command To ask a question

The dog is hungry. Go to bed. Are you hungry?

Noun

Refers to places, people, things, concepts

Melbourne, man, tree, space

Phrase

A group of words without a finite verb

the yellow star, a big hole

Preposition

Connecting word showing the relation of a noun to some other word (many are highfrequency words)

to, with, across, in, up, around, down

Pronoun

Word that stands instead of a noun

he, she, we

Sentence

One or more clauses linked together. In written language a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark

The dog chased the cat up the tree.

Subject and predicate

The subject is the agent or subject of the verb. The predicate contains the finite verb and its modifiers

The dog = subject chased the cat up the tree = predicate

Tense present past future

The verb usually indicates when the action occurred

Present: I think ... Past: I thought ... Future: I will think ...

Verb

Is a process or action. There are saying verbs, action verbs, feeling verbs, thinking verbs, wanting verbs, having verbs, being verbs

skip, said, like, think, wish, had, was

Voice active passive

In the active voice the subject is the doer; in the passive voice the subject is acted upon

Active: The dog chased the cat. Passive: The cat was chased by the dog.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Connections between oral language and literacy development Oral language is linked to literacy; however, spoken language does not provide a neat, sequential base that can be easily mapped to written language (Hill & Launder 2010). Oral and written language often differ in the use of vocabulary, syntax and conventions.

Vocabulary In oral language, meanings can be expressed through gesture, facial expressions and intonations, and the articulation of nouns may not be essential. However, in written language meanings must be achieved through the use of explicit language, and the grammatical use of sentences. In oral language, a sentence fragment could be ‘Sit over there’, accompanied by a gesture. In the written sentence ‘Tom sat on the chair’, the subject ‘Tom’ is identified as well as the object ‘chair’. Oral language vocabulary

Written language vocabulary

Sit over there ...

Tom sat on the chair.

ral language is contextual, relies on gestures and is often a sentence fragment. In written O language, the subject and object are identified.

Syntax The syntax of written language is different from that of oral language. For example, in the book Where the Wild Things Are, we read about Max who ‘sailed off through night and day and in and out of weeks’, which is a lyrical use of language with many lexical items. The syntax of written language contains more embedded clauses, saying verbs and direct speech. Oral language

Written language

We walked for charity on Sunday.

The charity walk will raise money on Sunday.

Nominalisation occurs where a verb is changed to a noun. sounds

letters

intonation, stress, pitch

unctuation and capital letters, underline and p bold font

We hid the book.

The book was hidden.

Objects are placed first in a sentence in written language. That cat chased a bird.

The cat from next door was chasing a bird.

I n written language there is an increased number of lexical items such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.

Oral language

Reference conventions or mechanics Written language contains letters to represent sounds, as well as punctuation and various font styles to represent intonation, stress and pitch. Sections or new ideas are represented in written language with headings, paragraphs and words to show the sequence of ideas, for example, first, second, last and summary. Oral language

Written language

sounds

letters

intonation, stress, pitch

unctuation and capital letters, underline p and bold font

e xpressions to indicate topic changes, e.g. now, right, right then

eadings, new pages, paragraphs, h sections or chapters, words such as first, second, summary

Oral language and literacy research

Teachers who use interesting and varied words help to create a vocabulary-rich environment …

Researchers have studied aspects of oral language, such as phonology and vocabulary, to find neat precursors predicting later literacy development. However, Snow and Van Hemel (2008) write that various oral language and literacy components are of obvious importance in their own right and that arguments about their predictive relationship to each other or to later developmental outcomes are unnecessary. While there are differences between oral language and written language, an NICHD (2005) study concluded that oral language is important in its own right for ‘learning to learn’. Importantly, oral and written language are different ways of knowing (Halliday 1985) and different oral language functions allow children to think and access knowledge in different ways (Halliday 1975). Oral language exerts pervasive, long-term and indirect influences on later reading development (Dickinson, Golinkoff, Hirsh-Pasek 2010). Studies have shown that rich language experiences before school play an important role in developing children’s literacy and vocabulary skills in the later years of schooling. Dickinson and Tabors (2002) found the scores that kindergarteners achieved on measures of receptive vocabulary, narrative production and emergent literacy were highly predictive of their scores on reading comprehension and receptive vocabulary in 4th and 7th grade. Other research strongly supports the findings that children’s language and literacy skills in kindergarten are strongly related to later academic success (Snow et al 1991; Cunningham & Stanovich 1997). Snow and Dickinson (1991) found that exposure to varied vocabulary, opportunities for extended discourse and cognitively and linguistically stimulating oral language experiences in the early years, are related to later literacy success.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Oral vocabulary Knowing the ‘right word’ is vital if one is to communicate information clearly. Large vocabularies have long been known to be linked to reading success (Anderson & Freebody 1981). They are also a signal that children are building the knowledge base about the world that is so critical to later reading comprehension (Neuman 2001).

Opportunities to be part of conversations that use extended discourse Extended discourse is talk that requires participants to develop understandings beyond the here and now, and that requires the use of several sentences to build a linguistic structure, such as explanations, narratives or pretend talk.

Home and classroom environments that are cognitively and linguistically stimulating Children are most likely to experience conversations that include comprehensible and interesting extended discourse and that are rich with vocabulary when their parents are able to obtain and read good books and when their teachers provide classrooms with a curriculum that is varied and stimulating.

A vocabulary-rich classroom Teachers who use interesting and varied words help to create a vocabulary-rich environment—a classroom in which children are exposed to and encouraged to use a variety of words. An example of how conversations can support vocabulary learning is provided below when a teacher talks with children engaged in dramatic play. Child:

I’ll check the oven.

Teacher:

What temperature does it have to be put at? When you put on the oven, you have to put it at a certain temperature to see how hot it is. So, you might turn it to 100 degrees, or 200, or 300, or 400, or 500.

Child:

500.

Teacher:

500? That’s usually the hottest, and that’s b roiling. (Dickinson & Tabors 2001, pp. 240–41)

The teacher introduces various interesting words and gives brief explanations of each. She intentionally focuses on fostering language development, aware that children’s vocabulary has an impact on later learning.

Oral language

Dickinson and Tabors (2002) hypothesised about whether the home environment or preschool makes the difference. To do this they developed several hypothetical situations to investigate: high-home/low-preschool language and literacy environments and low-home/high-preschool language and literacy environments. What they found in their research was that a child with a high-home and low-preschool combination would score below the mean for vocabulary, emergent literacy and narrative production of a story. The low-home/high-preschool mix would score well above the mean. The implication from this research is that excellent preschools can compensate for homes that have well below average language and literacy support, at least as reflected in the kindergarten skills. Early childhood teachers play a major role in supporting children’s longterm development. Asking open-ended questions, repeating and extending children’s utterances, and modelling advanced vocabulary have all been linked to accelerated performance on measures of language comprehension and expression, alphabet knowledge, and phonological awareness (Justice, Mashburn, Hamre & Pianta 2008; Wasik, Bond & Hindman 2006).

Factors that affect language acquisition The preschool and years before school are important, and the most critical period of all for language development is within the first 36 months of a child’s life (Vukelich, Christie & Enz 2002). There are several factors that can affect language acquisition in the preschool years.

Gender differences Do girls learn to speak earlier and faster than boys? Do girls talk more than boys? Is it inherently within girls’ nature to talk more? Are girls set up and wired to talk more than boys? These questions are raised continually in preschools and schools. It is commonly known that people tend to ‘coo and cuddle’ and talk and have face-to-face interactions with girl babies more than boy babies. People tend to jiggle and bounce boy babies and to communicate verbally with girls. Does this mean that girls are socialised to talk and boys are socialised to be active and action oriented? It is not clear whether boys are wired or programmed differently to girls. Is it nature or nurture or possibly a combination of both? The most i mportant question has to do with stereotyping boys and girls because all girls are not the same, nor are all boys the same.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Different socioeconomic groups Research studies have documented some of the differences in language acquisition and level of language proficiency between low and middle socioeconomic groups. Hart and Risley (1995) estimate that by age 4, children from professional families have had a cumulative total of 50 million words addressed to them, whereas children from very low income families have been exposed to 13 million words. The children in the high-income group had more than three times the exposure to words and this is a tremendous advantage. Most mothers apparently spend a lot of time cuddling and holding young children, but research shows that middle-income mothers are more likely to imitate their children’s language attempts such as ‘Ma ma’, ‘Me give’ and this may stimulate children’s brains to attempt even more language. These mothers spend a lot of time verbalising and responding to their children’s oral language as well praising their infants’ and toddlers’ attempts at speech. More research is needed to explore how and why these differences occur.

Cultural and linguistic diversity

Children who speak one or more languages at home and learn English at preschool and school will become bilingual or multilingual.

In some cultures, children’s early attempts at vocalising are ignored, and when children are carried around a lot, mothers may pay more attention to physical movement than to vocalisation. In some cultures, children are picked up quickly the moment they make a sound, whereas other cultures encourage the child to express their needs through spoken language. Children who speak one or more languages at home and learn English at preschool and school will become bilingual or multilingual. Learning English as a second language takes place in much the same way as learning English as a first language:

• • • •

Children are active language learners and problem solvers. They need explicit teaching of skills and strategies. Learning needs to be connected to children’s worlds. Teachers need to analyse and reflect on what teaching strategies are effective.

Some children learn English by memorising phrases or short sentences— ‘Can I have a drink?’, ‘Can I have a …’—then they begin to construct sentences creatively, using new vocabulary and new syntax. (See Chapter 17 for more on the developmental stages of children learning English as a second language.)

Oral language

Medical problems A common childhood problem is ‘otitis media’—an inflammation and buildup of fluid in the middle ear—which, if left unchecked, can cause hearing loss with resulting speech distortion and language delay in the preschool years. Some of the following features may indicate that a child has otitis media: unclear speech, use of gestures rather than speech, irritability, tugging at ears, fever, earaches, turning up the radio or television, frequent requests for direction and repetition of information.

Language disorder and delay Some children have physical or neurological language disorders. Physical language disorders include articulation difficulties involving the palate, tongue or the mouth. Neurological disorders may relate to processing and interpreting sounds. When children are learning to speak they may experience temporary problems in development such as stuttering or speaking too quickly or too slowly. Articulation can be affected when children lose their teeth and have difficulty producing the /f/, /th/, /v/ and /s/ sounds. The /r/ sound can also be difficult to pronounce as it demands coordination of the tongue and mouth. If a child has pronunciation difficulties over a period of time, then a speech therapist will be needed to diagnose and suggest programs to help remedy the problem.

Oral language assessment Oral language assessment can take the form of assessing vocabulary, assessing syntax or sentence structure and assessing retelling. Thus, oral language can be assessed at word level, sentence level and text level.

Oral language assessment: vocabulary Teachers can create simple tasks to assess children’s receptive vocabulary knowledge by making cards with photographs or drawings of common vocabulary items and then asking children to show or point to particular words spoken by the teacher. Using cards with four similar items, teachers can assess finer discrimination between specific vocabulary. For example, children’s knowledge of colour could be assessed using a card with four boxes with an illustration in the colours red, yellow, blue and green in each box. To assess children’s vocabulary knowledge of body parts, pictures of an ear, a nose, an eye and an arm could be used. An animal card could have a picture of a horse, a cat, a dog and a pig and the child might

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

be asked to point to the horse. Where possible, avoid having words with similar beginning consonants as this can be distracting. The child is asked to: Point to ... [red] or Show me. ... [green] Pictures to use for a beginning vocabulary assessment can include four items within the ten useful vocabulary categories shown in Figure 2.8. Figure 2.8 Ten useful vocabulary categories

colours

shapes

animals

body parts

food

transportation

school activities (reading, painting)

clothing

community places and people

household objects

Teachers can use vocabulary assessment cards to gain an understanding of children’s word knowledge. This can have an impact on the choice of vocabulary experiences to present to children and it also informs teachers about the type of instructions the child may be easily able to comprehend.

Assessment: observing language functions Teachers can observe and assess children’s use of language in different activities. Figure 2.9 Language functions Name: Sam Instrumental

Sand play ✔

Regulatory Interactional Personal

✔

Heuristic Imaginative Informative

✔

Book centre Science

Art

Outside play

Oral language

Observing the child talking in different settings

• • • •

In which settings does the child use more or less oral language? Is the child attentive during discussions when other children or the teacher are speaking? With which children does a less talkative child communicate the most? In what ways does the child adapt and adjust language to new situations and settings?

Assessment: sentence repetition Purpose This simple oral language assessment (see Figure 2.10) task has several purposes:

• • • •

to assess the child’s recall of spoken sentence forms to observe the child’s attention and listening to assess the child’s hearing and attention to assess the child’s retention of sentence meaning and to assess speech production.

The sentences have a simple structure similar to that in emergent and early reading books. If children have difficulty with this task, the teacher will need to explore further aspects of the child’s language development. It may be that a speech therapist is required to provide special support. Or, the task might provide information about the child’s attention and concentration—at school, children are required to listen and follow instructions and at times engage in assessment activities which may not be part of their previous experiences. There are a more complex tasks for exploring children’s language performance, using a range of sentence repetition tasks, in Clay (1983) and Kemp (1987).

How to use the assessment Say: ‘I’m going to say some sentences. Listen carefully, because I want you to say each sentence after me, as exactly as you can.’ You could direct the child to focus on a section of your clothing—shirt, button, or so on—while the sentences are given, so that lip-reading is avoided. Then say: ‘Listen now for the first sentence and say it after me.’ I like fish and chips [Child repeats] Good. Now say this one: Jack gave me a book [Child repeats] Good. Now say this one: I dropped my ice-cream.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Repeat any part of this introductory session as you think fit, and use the exercise to help the child to relax. Present each sentence once only. You may want to use a tape recorder to help later in assessing the child’s responses. If the child cannot do the task satisfactorily, reflect on the possible reasons. It must not be assumed that the child’s inability to repeat sentences is, in itself, a reason for concern. Sentence repetition assessment must be placed within a context of other, and subsequent, language/reading assessments. Figure 2.10 Assessing sentence repetition Assessing sentence repetition Name: Name of teacher: Date: If child’s repetition of sentence is accurate, tick ‘Yes’ 1

The kittens / can play.

Yes/No

Child’s response:

The little girl / has a red dress.

Yes/No

Child’s response:

The lions roared / because they were hungry.

Yes/No

Child’s response:

The cat waited for the mouse / to run out of its hole.

Yes/No

Child’s response:

5 Total

Oral language

Scoring the assessment The child’s repetition of the sentences should be assessed according to whether the phrases were repeated exactly. If the child makes two or three attempts, record the last attempted complete sentence. If you have any doubts at all about the child’s ability to hear or reproduce particular sounds or words, the assessment tasks for phonemic awareness may be given (see Chapter 6).

Assessment: narrative Narrative skills have been identified as playing an important role in academic achievement, not only for sharing time and story writing but also as foundation skills for later literacy development (Roberts 2008, Snow & Dickinson 1991). To assess oral narrative skills, three photographs or illustrations with a simple plot can be gathered, for example a dog lying down, then chasing a cat, then bumping into a tree. The child can be invited to look at the pictures and tell what the story is about and it is best if the narrative is recorded, transcribed and coded. A simple coding scheme can be used to provide a score that consists of four items, with a maximum score of four points. Criteria for coding the child’s oral narrative: • Is the narrative sequential (beginning/middle/end)? • Does the narrative have a goal or problem? • Does the narrative have a resolution? • Are there any embellishments such as adjectives or other descriptors?

Teaching strategies for encouraging language development Teachers can encourage children’s spoken language through play, through reading books aloud, and through conversations. When teachers read books aloud that engage children they can pose questions that promote discussion. In the following example, the teacher reads a fantasy book about a child who finds a dinosaur named Dandy and brings it home to live. The dinosaur is overwhelmed by the loud noises he hears around him. The teacher uses extended discourse to encourage the children to analyse the dinosaur’s reaction and to recognise and describe the emotion of fear. Teacher:

How do you think Dandy feels, Susan?

Susan:

Bad.

Teacher:

Why?

Susan:

Everyone take a look at the picture.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Teacher:

I think he not only feels sad, he feels very—

Children:

Happy.

Teacher:

I don’t think so. What did Dandy do when the truck came?

Todd:

Shook.

Teacher:

He was scared—he shook. And what did he do when the airplanes zoomed overhead? And when the train roared by? Did Dandy like loud noises?

Children:

No!

Teacher:

How is Dandy going to feel with all this?

Children:

Bad. Sad.

Teacher:

Not only sad. What else?

Children:

Mad!

James:

Scared!

Teacher:

You got it, James! He’s going to be very scared! (Dickinson & Tabors 2001, pp. 190–91)

The teacher’s role in extending children’s vocabulary is crucial. How can teachers encourage children to share ideas? What kinds of questions can teachers ask to generate talk? Interestingly, children often engage in extended discourse more if the teacher talks less. The benefits of having more teacher listening is that teachers may be better attuned to children if they listen more and children also gain in language development because they have to put their ideas into spoken language.

Playful language and early literacy development When children are engaged in play they can also be viewed as being in the zone of proximal development—in play, it is as though they are a head taller than themselves, engaging in risk-taking, and achieving higher levels of cognitive functioning. Play activity generates levels of feedback under conditions of less risk. Children can modify their problem-solving strategies, correct their mistakes, rethink their plans and achieve higher levels of performance. Play offers varied contexts for acquiring literacy skills as well as acting out the various social roles associated with literacy. In imaginary play, players can become part of a discourse community where meanings are communicated through gestures, words, scripts, roles, rules and other symbolic tools. Wood (2004) provides an example of how children play with words, rules and various roles when she writes of three girls aged between 31/2 and 4 years of age in the home corner.

Oral language

Home corner bedtime stories

(Sophie comes into the home corner, alone. She speaks into a mobile phone.)

Sophie:

Going to bed now Mummy. It’s night time. Got dolly. Goodbye.

(Sophie lies down, pulls the sheet over her and goes to sleep. Tasha and Beth come into the home corner. Tasha sits next to the bed.)

Tasha:

I’ll be the Mummy. I’ll read the bedtime story. (Chooses book from the nearby shelf.)

Beth:

I’ll read the story.

Tasha:

No, I’m the Mummy. You be the Daddy.

Beth:

Daddies can read stories.

Tasha:

No. Mummies read stories.

Beth:

Well my Daddy reads me stories.

(Tasha reads a pop-up book showing different insects.)

Tasha:

Now let’s see. Here’s the naughty spider and he’s popping out for some dinner.

Sophie:

Don’t read me spiders. I’ll get bad dreams. (From Wood 2004, p. 27)

Play in literacy-rich play centres helps build connections between oral and written modes of expression.

In this vignette, children understand the discourse of bedtime, for example, knowing about and negotiating roles and rules, reproducing cultural knowledge about bedtime routines, challenging gender stereotypes, conveying meaning through symbolic actions, understanding that print conveys meaning, and acting as readers. Play in literacy-rich play centres helps build connections between oral and written modes of expression. In dramatic play with peers, children often use more complex syntax and longer sentences. They also use metalinguistic skills to describe how language works and what language is appropriate. This is an important step in language learning, as children recognise that spoken language is a tool for representing meaning and that written language can also be used to represent meaning. Play may be the place where children first begin to experiment with narrative—with a beginning, different characters, setting a problem, then providing a resolution.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Dramatic play A literacy-rich play centre might include the following ‘real-life’ centres and props to promote literacy-related play. If children are surrounded by literacy-related materials they are more likely to use this in their play.

• • • • •

Office centre: paper, pens and pencils, computer, keyboards, telephones, whiteboard, files and folders, books relating to the kinds of business performed by the office, e.g. travel books Restaurant: menus, bills and receipts, order forms, cash register, check-out scanners, EFTPOS and swipe cards, advertising posters, recipe books Building construction: plans, development applications, paper and pencils for recording building tasks and lists of equipment and materials, books about architecture Highway: safety signs for traffic, street signs, billboards, police note-taking equipment, mobile phones Shopping centre: paper, pens and pencils, food packages, food signs and prices, cash register, check-out scanners, swipe card machines.

Three decades of research into the connections between play and early literacy has found a strong relationship between pretend play and literacy (Roskos, Christie, Widman, & Holding 2010). Pretend play includes symbolic play, dramatic play, socio-dramatic play. This is associated with representation of meaning and is shared with literacy, for example, symbols representing meaning. Pretend play involves pretence actions including object substitutions and transformations, pretend language where language is used to negotiate and maintain play including meta-talk play, and pretend comprehension such as the ability to understand someone else’s make-believe intentions. Play does depend on careful adult support.

Oral language

Support for language development through teacher talk The way the teacher and adults communicate with children is vitally important—it is a two-way process. Early childhood teachers listen and extend the conversations of children. Teachers’ talk includes descriptions, instructions, expression of personal thoughts and feelings, questions, statements, explanations and responses. Often the teacher talks too much, and children are not given the time or the opportunity to express ideas. It can be hard, but sometimes adults have to bite their tongue and not put words into the children’s mouths. Adults can try to:

• • • • • •

avoid monopolising the conversation provide opportunities for children to talk ask questions only when they do not know the answer avoid closed questions that just require a one-word answer give children enough time to get the words out listen to children.

SCUMPS The SCUMPS framework is used to help children with object description. SCUMPS is an acronym for Size, Colour, Use (what the object is used for), Materials (what the object is made of), Parts (what parts the object has) and Shape. The teacher can make charts with pictures, for example, items of different sizes, colours, types of materials and parts of an animal as a clue for children to use adjectives to describe objects. SCUMPS can be used to remind children of different questions that can be asked:

• • • • • •

S How big is it? C What colour is it? U Who uses it and for what purpose? M What material is it made from? P What are the main parts? S What shape is it? Why is it that shape?

This can be used as a mnemonic for children to use when describing objects such as a toy, when giving news talks, and in ‘What am I?’ and ‘I spy’ games.

Open-ended questions An important way to encourage children’s talk is to ask open-ended questions about what the child is doing or saying. For example, ‘Tell me about this’, ‘How did you make this?’ ‘What makes you think that?’, instead of closed questions, such as ‘Is this a tower?’ or ‘Do you like making things?’

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Listening to a child’s conversation about something that is important to them and then asking open-ended questions will prompt more language use.

New words Use new words where possible. Roskos, Tabors and Lenhart (2009) suggest that vocabulary is learned in context gradually over many encounters with a new word again and again. They suggest that adults use new or unusual words whenever possible such as ‘I’m famished, let’s stop for some pizza’ or ‘That dog is a stray dog because he’s roaming around without a leash.’

Sharing and show-and-tell Sharing time, or show-and-tell, is where children bring something from home to talk about. Show-and-tell has stood the test of time because children like to talk about experiences or items from home that are meaningful to them. The SCUMPS framework is useful for describing objects. To vary show-and-tell:

• • • •

place objects in a bag and encourage children to guess the item bring in a surprise item to share with the children organise topic-based show-and-tell, for example pets or artwork link show-and-tell to writing by having the child dictate a caption to place beside the item discussed.

Using everyday opportunities Everyday routines are times when teachers can introduce new words, as shown in the following examples.

• • • •

Greeting time: This is a time when teachers can have informal conversations with children when they first arrive. Snack or fruit time: Children can talk with each other or with the teacher. Group time: Children learn some of the pragmatic rules such as taking turns, listening to other people and asking questions. Activity time: Children can discuss what they are making and doing, and can learn to ask each other questions.

Scaffolding children’s language There are many ways to scaffold children’s language development so that new vocabulary and syntax are introduced.

Oral language

Expansions The adult restates the child’s language and expands it to introduce new words or new syntax. Child:

Dog sleep.

Adult:

Yes the dog is sleeping. He’s tired.

Extensions The adult restates the child’s comments and provides more information. Child:

Dog sick.

Adult:

The dog is very sick.

Child:

Dog sick.

Adult:

The dog has a cut leg.

Repetition The adult repeats all or part of the child’s comments.

Child:

Dog sick.

Adult:

Yes, the dog is sick. The dog is sick.

Parallel talk The adult describes the child’s actions. Child:

Dog sick.

Adult:

Sammy is looking at the sick dog.

Self-talk The adult describes actions or thoughts aloud. Adult:

I feel sorry for the sick dog.

Vertical structuring The adult uses questions to encourage the child to produce longer, more complex sentences. Child:

Dog sleep.

Adult:

Where is the dog sleeping?

Child:

Dog on chair.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Fill-ins The adult says a sentence that prompts the child to complete it. Adult:

The dog is sleeping because he is …

Child:

Sick!

Reading books aloud There is a strong connection between having stories read aloud and children’s language development.

Reading books aloud is one of the best ways to introduce new vocabulary and syntax. There is a strong connection between having stories read aloud and children’s language development. Some children prefer to listen to information books, and these texts provide vocabulary and the use of scientific language. Rereading old favourites is important, as children learn the books off by heart and then find it easy to match spoken words with the written word. The close adult–child interactions also spark discussion about the ideas as well as the pictures. Children may also ask questions, and adults can respond with further open-ended questions such as ‘What else do you think the hungry caterpillar could eat?’, ‘Do you think you are like the hungry caterpillar?’, ‘What part do you like best?’ However, too many detailed questions can stifle children’s interest in reading, which should be primarily for enjoyment.

Book-talk packs It is possible to create book-talk packs to encourage children to retell the book and create new narratives. Book-talk packs contain a book placed in a zip-lock plastic envelope with props that support language play and dramatic retelling of the story. For example, the book Who Sank The Boat? by Pamela Allen can be packaged with plastic farm animals such as a sheep, cow, pig, donkey and mouse, as well as a boat. Children can retell the story by placing the animals in the boat. Other animals could be added for children to create extended versions of the tale. Another suggestion is for children to create the animals with clay or plasticine and float the boat on water, adjusting the animals’ size so that the mouse really sinks the boat. Other suitable books include The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle, The Green Sheep by Mem Fox, Hairy Maclary by Lynley Dodd and Brown Bear, Brown Bear by Bill Martin. Cumulative books work well, for example Mr Gumpy’s Outing by John Burningham, The Great Big Enormous Turnip by Alexei Tolstoy, The Story of Chicken Licken by Jan Ormerod, The Gingerbread Man by Jean Richards and The House That Jack Built by Rodney Peppe. There are also many cumulative counting rhymes and song books that can be used such as ‘Ten in the Bed’, ‘Five Little Monkeys’, ‘This Old Man’ and ‘The Farmer In The Dell’.

Oral language

Describing a picture Describing different pictures can be a very beneficial activity for oral language development. Cut out pictures from various sources such as magazines, advertisements and old books and have children describe them. Use pictures with increasingly more complex themes for this purpose. You will need to prompt children to elaborate on the descriptions of their pictures through questioning. You might ask questions such as: ‘Who (or what) is in the picture?’, ‘What is its size?’, ‘Tell me about the colour of the picture’, ‘When and where does the picture take place?’, ‘Tell me about the shape of the picture’, ‘Tell me more about the background’. You should be able to describe the picture fully, based on what the child or children have told you. Later, ask the children to make up a story based on the picture.

Oral language text structures and features Many different oral language genres and text types can be introduced in the early years. For example, news talk is usually a recount with a particular text structure and language features. Modelling or demonstrating the structure of news talk, guiding children with words such as who, where, when, what and how can scaffold children’s oral language. Learning how to ask questions in ‘I wonder?’ activities provides opportunities for teachers to explicitly teach the format of questions, and many children require this kind of clear, explicit teaching. The oral language activities in Figure 2.11 demonstrate the organisation and the language used in some different oral language genres. Interviews, joke, riddles and dramatic plays are other genres, and these can also be explored as teachers and children learn about language together.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Figure 2.11 Some oral language activities, text structure and features Oral language activity

Text structure and language features

Example of activities

News talk

Recount (who, where, when, what, how) Orientation Event Event Event

Recounting the news from the weekend Photo Story comments with photographs Recounting school events

Personal response

Description, may be technical language, focus on descriptive vocabulary Use of first person ‘I’ to describe thoughts, feelings and observations

Responding to a book, film, television show using comparative language, personal feelings and thoughts

Storytelling

May be a narrative, recount, retelling Orientation (who, where, when) Series of events or/and problem, conclusion Descriptive vocabulary

Puppet plays Storytelling traditional tales such as The Wide-mouthed Frog Readers’ theatre with masks and puppets Family and community stories

I wonder ...?

Explanation Phenomenon is outlined in a question, e.g. I wonder how kites fly? Explanation Explanation Summary

‘I wonder..?’ charts can be set up when reading information texts Children’s questions can be listed and answers or explanations provided under the question

Report

Report General classification Information Information summary May have a compare/contrast framework

Oral report on a topic usually prepared in advance so the material is organised and comprehensive

I made ...

Procedure Materials Methodology

Description of objects, experiments in science, paintings, constructions made in craft, art, activity

Debate

Exposition to persuade or argue one side of an issue Organising information into an introduction, points of evidence, conclusion Technical vocabulary and data may be used to provide scientific or logical argument

A debate with a topic for, e.g. Goldilocks was a thief Team 1: three speakers for affirmative Team 2: three speakers for negative Chairperson, timekeeper and adjudicator who decide on the winning team

Source: Based on Derewienka 1990, 2011, and Western Australian Department of Education and Training 2006

Oral language

Taking roles in oral language One idea that helps make the genres and features of language clear to children is to use different roles in oral language activities. For example, even in the first year of school, young children are able to learn the roles for conducting class meetings where there is a chairperson, recorder, encourager, organiser. Each role is carefully introduced and children are given turns at each one. Rather than imposing the roles, the teacher invites children to explore what a meeting looks like, sounds like and feels like, then the behaviour of roles for the particular social activity are explored and the features added to information charts. It is best to begin with a few simple roles and behaviours, and practise these. Figure 2.12 Roles used in a class meeting

CHAIRPERSON Says: ‘Good morning everyone’ ‘The first item on the agenda is ...’ ‘Any comments ...’ chooses a person The next item is ...’ ‘Any comments ...’ chooses a person Closes the meeting: ‘The meeting is now closed.’

RECORDER Checks off names of people present Writes names/initials of apologies Writes notes from the meeting

ORGANISER Makes sure meeting starts and finishes on time Gets agenda ready on chart or whiteboard Makes sure people are ready sitting on chairs or floor Reminds people of time and to move on to the next point

ENCOURAGER Asks: ‘Does anyone wants to add an idea?’ Positive comments: ‘Good idea.’

Chapter summary Language is vital for three reasons: children need to learn language, they learn through language and learn about language. As children learn language they become aware of sounds (phonemes), words and word order (syntax) and meaning (semantics). Pragmatics is the social use of language which has to do with selecting language to suit a particular purpose, and vocabulary or lexicon is knowledge about words and word meanings. From birth onwards, infants and toddlers experiment with sounds,

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

words and word order and by the time they are 3–4 years old they have a large vocabulary. By the time children begin school they have a vocabulary of between 2500 and 4000 words. Children’s preschool vocabulary is highly predicative of reading and writing in later schooling. The early childhood teacher is important for extending children’s oral language, learning about language, learning through language, phonemic awareness and writing skills. Language involves meaning making and serves in many different functions: to satisfy personal needs, to control others, to interact socially with others, to express ideas about self, to explore new things and test knowledge, to use the imagination and to communicate information. There are several spoken language genres with associated features that teachers can use with children: recounts, narratives, procedures, explanations, reports and arguments. The teacher’s spoken language program may reflect different theoretical orientations about how children learn, which will affect the kinds of activities they provide. In many early childhood settings, play in real-life play centres stimulates the use of language for a range of purposes. The activities planned to extend children’s language include reading aloud, dramatising stories and storytelling, as well as posing questions and scaffolding children’s language.

CHAPTER 3

Homes and communities

‘It takes a village to raise a child’ ‘A child does not grow up only in a single home’ ‘A child belongs not to one parent or home’ ‘Regardless of a child’s parents, its upbringing belongs to the community’

(African proverbs)

Teachers need to learn about children’s homes and communities in order to make connections between what children already know or are interested in and what they need to learn to be readers and writers.

The changing family The traditional idea of a family is one in which there is a father, a mother and some children. However, many family structures do not match this pattern. Some children live with their grandparents. Some children live in families with step-brothers and sisters and a step-mother or father. Many children live in two houses, spending one week with the mother and one week with the father. Some families are extended, with aunts and uncles, or in some cases friends, living in the house. Some children live with foster families and others are adopted either from families within the same culture or from countries and cultures very different from where they are attending school. Some families speak English at home and others speak Chinese, Malay, German, Spanish or one or even two of over hundreds of other languages. Some families may be fluent in several languages but insist on only speaking only English at home and at school. Other families choose to send their children to culturally specific schools, for example a Korean school or Greek school. The parents or caregivers may be commercially employed and have little time for leisure, or they may be unemployed. The traditional roles of father working and mother at home are changing, with a large percentage of mothers now working outside the home.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Research into involving parents and families It is well recognised that families play a central nurturing and educational role in their children’s lives, particularly in the early childhood period (Swick 2009; Reese, Sparks & Leyva 2010; Bennett & Tayler 2006). The concept of parent involvement is broad, and is open to very diverse interpretations (Jeynes 2003). Many parent programs have moved away from a ‘deficit’ view of families and parenting styles according to membership of particular societal groups and are examining home and school practices from perspectives that consider similarities and differences rather than deficit (Heath 1983; Hill & Nichols 2009; Marsh 2003). The beliefs and values that early childhood educators have about early literacy are reflected in their approaches to their work with parents (Hill & Nichols 2009). When early literacy is perceived to be a process of evolving participation in social practices, educators view children as ‘competent and capable users of oral and written language’ (Hill & Nichols 2005, p. 9). Therefore, working with parents involves parents sharing their knowledge of the literacies used at home, and the parent program uses and builds on the strengths of these family literacies rather than constructing them as deficit. There are many programs worldwide that aim to support literacy and numeracy development in young children and the quality of the implementation of programs is important (McElvany & Van Steensel 2009). There are five well-researched programs that have been quite successful in their aims: Abecedarian Program, Perry Preschool Program, Peers Early Education Partnership (PEEP), Chicago Child-Parent Centers, and Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY). According to Evangelou and Sylva (2003), the foundations of effective interventions are:

• two-generational: include parents as well as children • non-stigmatising: avoid labelling ‘problem families’ • multifaceted: target a number of factors, not just education, or health or parenting

• locally driven: based on consultation and involvement of parents and local communities • culturally appropriate and sensitive to the needs of children and parents • centre-based programs have reported positive results compared to home-based programs.

Literacy in different families The highly influential study by Heath (1994) explored different family and community literacy practices in a white middle-class neighbourhood,

Homes and communities

a white fundamentalist Christian working-class neighbourhood and an African-American working-class neighbourhood. She observed focus children in their homes and communities, and at school, and noted similarities and differences in the participation practices in these two sites. The three communities were named Maintown, a white middle-class community, Roadville a white working-class community, and Trackton a black working-class community. The research study showed that the children of the Roadville and Trackton communities were less successful than Maintown children at school, yet both communities placed a high value on success at school. What does this mean for teachers? Heath’s ethnography of the three communities shows the critical influence of home cultures on ‘ways of taking meaning’, and the interdependence of talk and social interaction in the ‘ways of taking meaning’ from print. The concept of the home culture is the culture the children learn as they grow up:

The ways of ‘taking from books’ are as much a part of learned behaviour as are ways of eating, sitting, playing games, and building houses.

[T]he culture children learn as they grow up is, in fact, ‘ways of taking’ meaning from the environment around them. The means of making sense from books and relating their contents to knowledge about the real world is but one ‘way of taking’ that is often interpreted as ‘natural’ rather than learned (Heath 1994, p. 73).

The ways of ‘taking from books’ are as much a part of learned behaviour as are ways of eating, sitting, playing games, and building houses. Secondly, each community’s way of taking from the printed word and using this knowledge depends on how children learn to talk in their social interactions with caregivers. There was little or no validity to the timehonoured dichotomy of ‘the literate tradition’ and ‘the oral tradition’ as talk and engagement with print were interdependent. The key concept which draws together ‘ways of taking meaning’ from written sources across communities is that of literacy events. Familiar literacy events for mainstream preschoolers are bedtime stories, reading cereal boxes, stop signs, and television ads, and interpreting instructions for commercial games and toys. In such literacy events, participants follow socially established rules for verbalising what they know from and about the written material. Each community has rules for socially interacting and sharing knowledge in literacy events (p. 74).

… in other communities school ways are just an overlay placed on top of the hometaught ways and may even be in conflict with them.

School-oriented parents or mainstream parents in the years before school give their children—through modelling and specific instruction— ways of ‘taking from books’ which seem natural. In some communities, the ways of schools are very similar to the ways learned at home; in other communities school ways are just an overlay placed on top of the hometaught ways and may even be in conflict with them. Heath suggests that the preschool reading experiences of mainstream middle-class children often immerse the child in knowledge of the interrelationships between oral and written language, between knowing some-

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

thing and knowing how to label and display this knowledge. In general, it has been assumed by educators that whatever it is that mainstream school-oriented homes have, these other homes don’t have it; thus these children are not from the literate tradition and are not as likely to succeed in school. The following is a condensed account of the three communities.

Maintown Children growing up in mainstream communities like Maintown are expected to develop habits and values which show their membership in a ‘literate society’. The children learn certain customs, beliefs and skills in early enculturation experiences with written materials; the bedtime story is a major literacy event which helps set patterns of behaviour that recur through the life of mainstream children and adults. Children have years of repeated practice with talking about books and taking meaning from books. They know how to display or show the teacher their skills and strategies, and have learned to listen and wait for cues from the teacher that signal when it is appropriate to display this knowledge. Heath comments that children in the years before school have been enculturated into: All those habits associated with ‘what’ explanations Selective attention to items of the written text Appropriate interactional styles for orally displaying all the know-how of their literate orientation to the environment. This learning has been fine tuned and its habits are highly interdependent. Patterns of behaviours learned in one setting or at one stage r eappear again and again as these children learn to use oral and written language in literacy events and to bring their knowledge to bear in school-acceptable ways (p. 79). 1 2 3

In Maintown there is a focus on what-explanations. What is the word? What is the book about? And children have learned to pick out topic sentences, write outlines and answer standardised tests which ask for the correct titles for stories and so on. They have internalised diverse ways of talking about and taking meaning from books.

Roadville Adults in Roadville believed that teaching children the proper use of words and understanding the meaning of the written word are important for success. Adults repeat the learning of literacy events they have known as children—for example, they might talk about how their parents had insisted they ‘read it right, say it right’. Children are not encouraged to move their understanding of books into other situational contexts or to apply it in their general knowledge of the

Homes and communities

world around them. There are lots of skills activity books and workbooks on colours, shapes and letters. Children are given practice in the linear sequential nature of books, on skills such as beginning at the beginning, staying in the lines for colouring, drawing straight lines to link one item to another, writing answers on the lines, keeping letters straight and matching the cut-out letters to diagrams of letter shapes. The differences between Maintown and Roadville are substantial. Roadville parents do not extend literacy events beyond book reading. They do not connect items or events in the real world to similar events in a book. Any fictionalised account of a real event is viewed as a lie. Roadville’s church and community life admit no story other than that which meets the definition internal to the group. Children are not taught to decontextualise their knowledge of fictionalised events known to them and shift them about into other frames. Heath writes that when the children from Roadville go to school they perform well in the initial stages of the three early grades. They often know portions of the alphabet and some colours and numbers, can recognise their names, and tell some of their address and their parents’ names. They will sit still and listen to a story, and they know how to answer questions asking for what-explanations about the book, such as ‘What happened?’ But when the teacher finishes reading a story and asks questions that go beyond the book such as ‘What did you like about the story?’ or ‘How would you change the ending?’ relatively few of Roadville’s children answer. When asked what they would have done if they had been Billy [story’s main character], Roadville children most frequently say ‘I don’t know’ or shrug their shoulders.

Trackton In Trackton, children learn by experience about what things mean. One parent said, ‘Ain’t no use me tellin’ ’im: learn this, learn that, what’s this, what’s that? He just gotta learn, gotta know; he sees one thing one place one time, he know how it go, see sump’n like it again, maybe it be the same, maybe it won’t.’ Parents do not believe they have a strong tutoring role in this learning. They provide the experiences on which the child draws and reward signs of their successfully coming to know. Children are presented with almost continuous communication which is heavily reliant on context, and quite different from school language. When adults read, they may do so in pairs or in a group. One person reading aloud, for example from a brochure on a new car, decodes the text, and displays illustrations and photographs, and listeners relate the text’s meaning to their experiences, asking questions and expressing opinions. Then the group as a whole may summarise the written text to construct a meaning from the brochure.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Trackton children may not have learned to label, list features and give what-explanations, for example, when teachers ask ‘What is happening on this page? What is the main idea? What does the person feel?’ The children may need to have the mainstream or school habits presented in terms of familiar activities with explanations related to their own habit of taking meaning from the environment. ‘Natural’ things such as distinctions between two- and three-dimensional objects may need to be made explicit to help them learn the stylisation and decontextualisation which characterises books and much of school learning.

Bedtime reading Heath studied the bedtime story as a literacy event which often involves questions and answers about print. In print-based book reading, children learn to label a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional object. The arbitrariness of the picture, its decontextualisation, and its existence as something which cannot be grasped and manipulated like its ‘real’ counterparts is learned through the routines of structured interactional dialogue in which mother and child take turns playing a labelling game. In a scaffolding dialogue, the mother points and says, ‘What’s the x for?’ and the child vocalises and/or gives back a nonverbal signal of attention. The mother then provides verbal feedback and a label. Before the age of 2 the child is socialised into the IRE sequences (initiation-reply-evaluation) repeatedly described as the central structural feature of classroom lessons. Teachers ask their students questions which have answers already specified in the teacher’s mind. After the student responds, the teacher provides feedback, usually in the form of an evaluation. Training in the ways of responding to this pattern begins very early in the labelling activities of mainstream parents and children. Heath’s broad conclusion is that middle-class homes and school classrooms share some important participation practices, or what she calls ‘norms of conduct’ (p. 236). These mainstream norms include:

• • • •

linearity as a means of organising space and time (e.g. the use of hour-by-hour schedules) the privileging of expert knowledge the formalisation of rules for group activities voluntariness in social activities

The link between these broader norms and more specific literacy practices can be seen, for example, in the privileging of expert knowledge. Heath noted that in middle-class homes and classrooms, secondary sources such as encyclopedias are valued and have authority over information gained through immediate social networks such as family members and the community (unlike in the two working-class communities). This association of

Homes and communities

print literacy products with valued knowledge is a key foundation of school approaches to learning, not just of literacy but of all subjects. Those who don’t have these forms of competence are then considered to be d eficient. Australian researchers Cairney and Ruge (1998) also found that children from families that constructed power relations and knowledge in similar ways to those operating in the classroom were advantaged at school. However, these differences did not fall out neatly along socioeconomic or cultural lines, as with Heath’s study. There were examples of working-class families where parents employed school-like pedagogies in facilitating their children’s learning and there were professional families in which parents allowed their children greater participation rights than they were granted in the classroom, which in some cases disadvantaged these children.

Indigenous literacy The literacy outcomes for indigenous children are lower than those for other community groups (Commonwealth of Australia 2005). Family interaction patterns in indigenous communities may be different from the interaction styles in school. Children are often encouraged to be independent, self-reliant and resilient to teasing and bullying, and to take care of younger members of the family (Malin, Campbell & Agius 1996). Unfortunately, these family interaction patterns may be misconstrued by outsiders from a different culture, with different values. For example, encouraging independence can be construed as children being inadequately supervised or disobedient. Along with different child-rearing practices, the degree to which indigenous students are socially included and supported within the organisation of the classroom can have significant implications for their health in the longer term Malin (2002). According to Malin, the broader societal picture is lived out in the microcosm of the classroom. She writes that a lack of control over destiny and social exclusion promotes stress hormones which, in turn, affect health. Malin explains the stressful situations that occurred for Naomi, a 5-year-old Aboriginal child in a mainstream school. Many incidents pointed to her social exclusion, including the behaviour of other students towards her, particularly after she had received a reprimand, when they would make faces at her, move away from her, declare that they would not play with her, or refuse her requests to play with them. Sometimes she would offer them food or money in an effort to win their friendship. Often the teacher’s behaviour also excluded her. For example, on one occasion, after not having correct answers endorsed, Naomi asked the teacher if she liked her work. The teacher interpreted this request as Naomi bragging and ignored it. After being ignored for a sustained period, Naomi retali-

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

ated with an angry outburst, telling the three children with whom she had the most positive relations that she hated them and their work. Through the year, the teacher ignored or failed to understand Naomi’s efforts to share jokes with her or chat with her. It was apparent that Naomi lacked credibility with the teacher, who often double-checked on assertions Naomi made about what she had done outside of school; the teacher’s low expectations of Naomi resulted in her sending another child on errands with her; and also resulted in her double-checking that Naomi’s competent work was indeed hers. Two years after these events, when Malin questioned Naomi about whether she remembered sitting in ‘time out’ with her face to the wall, she commented that the experience had been a ‘horrible’ one for her. Naomi’s experiences of invisibility and lack of recognition and validation of achievements are consistent with the ‘invisibility syndrome’ which can be experienced by African-American students. Such an experience is stressful and can provoke a range of emotions including disillusionment, anxiety and anger. Shaw and Smith (1999) explain that social exclusion results in the receiving of limited access to resources, not only of the economic kind, but also the resources which come from living within a society—such as educational opportunities, social networks and social support. Both the receiving of low levels of social support and being socially excluded are associated with higher stress levels. Flinn (1999) found that factors such as punishment, conflict and social exclusion contributed to heightened cortisol levels in children, with an associated increase in flu and colds. A common and perhaps epidemic problem in indigenous communities is hearing loss due to otitis media, a middle-ear infection which persists if untreated. Otitis media may affect the development of auditory discrimination and processing skills and, as a consequence, may reduce phonological awareness, short-term auditory memory skills, auditory sequential memory skills and thus numeracy and literacy skills.

Teaching styles Understanding the different funds of knowledge is important for teaching indigenous children, and there are particular styles of pedagogy that may be more successful than others when teaching indigenous children. An example of a successful teacher was Mrs Banks as described by Malin (2002). Mrs Banks’ pedagogy was ‘visible’, that is, explicit and interventionist. She expected that each child would improve their academic skills and explicitly communicated this to them. Most of the day was spent on literacy and numeracy with little time for videos or physical education, and no free time for colouring or playing activities, and yet the children were engaged and enjoyed their work.

Homes and communities

In addition, Mrs Banks’ students felt confident in themselves, their identities and their ability. Her pedagogy incorporated the student, not only in the class, but also in the larger, urban mainstream school. She helped the children to understand that different teachers have different expectations of children’s behaviour and that they must show respect to all teachers. Mrs Banks also fostered links with the children’s homes in a number of ways. They all knew their own and the others’ ‘country’ of origin and the nature of their relationships with one another. Visitors to the class were commonplace. Mrs Banks knew the families well, visited them regularly and continued her contact with them long after the children left her class. She brought the children’s culture into the classroom, implicitly, in the ways that she used discipline and in the interpersonal interactions that were nurtured. Malin writes that Aboriginality was embedded in the mundane aspects of classroom activities and relationships; Aboriginal identities were tacitly reaffirmed in the taken-for-granted ways in which people related to each other and to the group. The social and cultural inclusion in Mrs Banks’ class extended beyond the class to the school and broader community. In sum, the children in Mrs Banks’ class would be educationally supported, enjoy learning, be relatively stress free and in the longer term, if this was sustained, health promoting. The form shown as Figure 3.1 could be used to gather information about each student in your class to discover the various important relationships in their lives.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Figure 3.1 Building literacy together

Childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name: Names of people at home (M=mother, F=father, S=sister, B=brother, U=uncle, A=aunt, F=friend, SF=stepfather, SM=step-mother, GM=grandmother, GF=grandfather, O=other) Name

Who takes care of the child?

Who talks with the child?

Who reads to the child?

Who helps with homework?

Who plays games with the child?

Who watches television with the child?

What does your child like to do best?

M, F, U â&#x20AC;Ś

Homes and communities

Making home–school connections Local funds of knowledge Finding out about community funds of knowledge is a crucial idea, particularly if the teacher lives her life outside of the community in which she or he teaches. Making connections between children and their families is a way to make the curriculum meaningful for children. Families and communities can have differing ‘funds of knowledge’. Moll et al. (1992) describe ‘funds of knowledge’ as the tools, strategies and activities families engage in to live their lives. Funds of knowledge are not just banks of ideas. Children develop funds of knowledge in activities such as shopping, food preparation, family celebrations and sporting events. Funds of knowledge are not taught directly, but come from shared activities with families and communities and the children very often ask questions and pose problems to solve as they engage in these activities. Building on children’s funds of knowledge and learning from family members—such as hearing about the work of a brother who works in a restaurant or a grandmother who paints tiles to sell or a father who is a singer in a band—are ways that families can contribute to and extend the literacy curriculum.

Finding where the child ‘is at’ The first step a teacher needs to take is to find out where the child ‘is at’. Sociocultural theorist McNaughton (2002) explains this concept as recognising and building on children’s current knowledge and skills. This is where the local community and family funds of knowledge become important. However, the understanding works both ways. If neither the teacher nor the learner can figure out where the other ‘is at’, the dynamics of the relationship can produce very negative results. McNaughton writes of studies of learners making slow progress where it was found that neither teachers nor learners understood each other’s perspective. Unless one of the parties attempts to change this, it is almost as though both teacher and learner conspire in a downward spiral of more and more limited learning and teaching. This downward spiral of losing more learning is what is known as the Matthew effect: ‘For those who have will be given more. Those who do not have, even what they have will be taken away from them’ (Matthew 25:29).

Building on the familiar Building on the familiar is linked to making connections to children’s worlds. McNaughton discusses this idea when he writes about the importance of teachers building on the familiar with instructional programs

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

that incorporate features of some familiar expertise which may have been situated in out-of-school activities. He suggests that if teachers incorporate features of activities that the children know already then there is a transfer of learning that occurs as a consequence of this ‘incorporation’ (McNaughton 2002, p. 27). For example, children know the names of the people in their families, extended families and communities so it is possible to generate a long list of names that can be written down. These names are central to their identity. They become a resource for teaching letters of the alphabet as letters are matched, traced, written on card, and matched with magnetic letters and written words. The names can also be used for compiling simple texts such as ‘Sara is a girl’ or ‘Nik is my brother’. This bank of words can then be used to make new sentences. Children have become skilled linguistic problem solvers and form masterers in their out-of-school activities. Many have developed good skills in deconstructing text types. For example, when reading food packets at the supermarket they can quickly determine which are cereal packets, which are sweets and which are biscuits. Teachers can build on this out-of-school linguistic problem-solving, asking children to bring food packages from home and using these to explore letters, high-frequency words, letter fonts and the marketing techniques used to get people to buy the product. Building on this, children can be exposed to a wide range of written language genres as well as many spoken language genres such those on radio and television, football commentary, news reports, cartoons and DVDs. They can learn to analyse these genres and treat language as an object of contemplation, and not only as a tool of communication. By so doing, they are learning to deconstruct the language and layout features of a range of different texts. Building on the familiar means finding out what children can do out of school and using this as a vehicle for literacy learning. The things they are interested in, the games they play and the activities they engage can be incorporated into the literacy program. On a simple level it may be that the child needs help with letter identification, and in his out-of-school time for a treat his family loves going for a walk in a nearby park. Leaflets, advertisements or posters about national parks would be a great source of letters that can be categorised in various ways or cut out and rearranged to make words and sentences. Another example is a child who is keen on a particular football team and goes to the game each week. The names of the football teams are always printed in the local paper and this can be used in a variety of ways, to learn how to read and write new vocabulary such as uniform, football, umpire, goal, kick and so on. If the child needs help with spoken language such as forming simple sentences, then talking about the football team may be the place to start. Chances are the child has lots of information to share about his or her team.

Homes and communities

Computer games, DVDs, visits to friends, fishing expeditions, fixing things, making pizzas, holidays and shopping are all possible out-of-school activities that children have lots of knowledge about and can be used in lots of innovative ways. It is important to gather information about children in ways that suit the community. Home-learning stories can be created by families using digital photographs to show family celebrations, family members and favourite weekend activities. The home-learning stories can be made into a big book or a display for others to share. The forms in Figures 3.2 and 3.3 may be carefully modified to gather information. Figure 3.2 Getting to know the children in your class

Dear Please help me to get to know your child Please return this form as soon as possible. What does your child like to do and talk about? What are some of the places that your child visits often? What language(s) does your child speak? What different languages do members of your family read and write? Do you read with your child at home? What kinds of books does your child like? What are your familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s favourite TV shows, DVDs, cartoons and authors? Does your child read TV advertisements or shop catalogues? Does your child play on the computer? Does your child like to write and draw at home?

Source: Based on Owocki & Goodman 2002

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Figure 3.3 Getting to know more about families Dear ______________________________ Please help me get to know more about your child ____________________ What does your child do well? What changes (health, maturity, interests) have occurred in your child’s life over the past few months? What areas of school life do you think your child will enjoy or already enjoys? What areas of school life has your child expressed negative feelings about? What goals do you have for your child this year? What special needs (academic, social, personal or language) does your child have? In general, how is your child’s self-esteem? Do they believe in their abilities? Where does your child go after school? What are your child’s favourite after-school or weekend activities? What else do you want me to know about your child or about you?

Connecting home and school The following mini case studies, based on Hill et al. 1998, are about Erin, Christianne and Pete who were all in the same classroom in the first year of school. There are some similarities between Heath’s research into three communities and these case studies. Think about the funds of knowledge that teachers could draw out to promote literacy development with each of these children.

Homes and communities

CASE STUDY

— Erin at home Erin is the youngest of five children and both parents were unemployed. Erin’s mother, Eva, suffered from clinical depression and Erin’s father, Steve, decided to resign from his job to look after her. Both parents were regular visitors to the school attended by Erin’s older siblings. Steve was chair of the school council. Erin always accompanied her parents when they dropped off and picked up her older siblings. Erin’s mother said she was ‘bored stupid’ at home and wanted to go to school. In the girls’ bedroom there were two bunks and three shelves of books. On these shelves were the children’s collection of about 50 Golden Books and about 140 Lollipop Books. Eva bought the Lollipop Books, which cost about $2.00, each time she went to the supermarket and she also kept the girls’ books neatly organised from easy texts to the more difficult Enid Blyton books. Eva said that Erin knew all the books off by heart. Erin had learnt the books off by heart because the older children in the family had read them to her many times and they insisted on word-perfect reading.

CASE STUDY

— Christianne at home We first met Christianne when she was 4 years old. Her preschool years were spent between her parents’ house and her grandmother’s place, both of which she considered home. Her grandmother, Yaya, a Greek woman, read Greek story books to Christianne and translated English songs such as ‘Jingle Bells’ into Greek so they could sing together. Playing school was important for Christianne because her mother, Robyn, was a primary school teacher. Even when she began school, Christianne was aware of the concept of ‘homework’ from watching Robyn, and would join in by doing her own ‘homework’ such as colouring in. Robyn consciously prepared Christianne for school by introducing literacy activities. Christianne was encouraged to learn her letters by looking at a pictorial alphabet board. Games such as ‘I spy’ were used to teach initial sounds. Her mother taught her word families: Cat was her first word. I said ‘Well what happens if we change that first letter?’ So we learned the ‘at’ words. Then I’d say ‘What’s going to happen if we change that letter?’ And then I tried mat and rat working on that word family.

The above discussion on domains of development reveals that children’s lives are grounded in the environments they inhabit. These environments are important influences on their development. When there are commonalities between them, children have the opportunity to develop and practise repertoires that link one environment to another, and moving from

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

one such microsystem to another can be relatively unproblematic. When there are differences, however, children are involved in negotiating ‘how to be’ in the different microsystems.

CASE STUDY

— Pete at home Pete’s extended family is large—there are uncles, aunts and grandparents related to Pete’s mother living in the same suburb. Pete’s father’s family lives in another state and he has not had much contact with them. The family has weekly get-togethers and the family laughs and jokes a lot. In fact the tale they tell, with some amusement, is about last year when Pete was 4. He was playing with a cigarette lighter, and set his bed alight by accident. He wouldn’t come out from under the burning bed because he thought he would get into trouble. The house burnt down and the family lost everything—photos, furniture, books and all kinds of mementos—but no one was hurt. Now there are few books in the house and not much furniture and fortunately, his mother commented wryly, one good thing the family did was get household insurance which enabled them to rebuild. Pete’s father is very keen on building model Harley-Davidson bikes and is drawing a large motor bike mural on Pete’s bedroom wall. He and Pete don’t read much but they love racing and fast cars, going to the drag racing together and both have motor bikes for ‘bush bashing’. Pete rides his motor bike over the paddocks near his house. Pete and his father watch lots of television, mainly sports and the Foxtel Discovery channel. They have computer games like Nintendo and they play these games together. When Pete watches his father make motorbike models or work on the mural in his room, the interactions are demonstrations, not verbal instructions. Pete’s father said he shows Pete how to do things, whether it’s drawing or making models of motorbikes. Pete’s mother said that Pete has a mind of his own and if you can show him, not tell him what you’re trying to say, then he’s happy. Pete’s parents claim that children learn through experience and it doesn’t matter how much you tell them, they have to learn through their mistakes. The parents do not believe they have a strong tutoring role in this learning—they provide the experiences on which the child draws and they reward signs of their successfully coming to know. The parents had a view of ‘Let them be kids while they can’ and being a kid meant playing outside with wheel toys, or inside playing with computer games or watching TV.

The funds of knowledge A–Z The following is a brainstormed list of possible items, events and everyday activities that teachers can use to connect the children’s funds of knowledge in families and communities with school literacy.

Homes and communities

A Alphabets Make an alphabet frieze. Cut out letters and pictures of objects from catalogues and magazines, and paste the cut-out letters and pictures of objects that begin with the letter onto squares of paper. An alphabet book can be made using plastic folders with plastic sleeves inside. Inside each plastic sleeve the child can place lolly wrappers and other packaging saved from home, as well as pictures from magazines and catalogues. For example, in the Cc page there might be pictures of carrots, a Crunchie bar wrapper, a Coco-Pops box, the label from a tin of celery soup and so on.

B Books Visit the local library and borrow a variety of books on topics that will interest the children. Select information texts as well as story books, as many children, especially boys, prefer to read books on topics such as animal welfare, fixing and making things or cooking. Such community resources are likely to contain material of local interest that can be read together.

C Comics Comic books contain pictures and words, and can be found in the newspapers as well as comic books. Comics can be read aloud, or cut up into frames and made into games and puzzles to be remade or to change the storyline. Children can draw comics and make up new versions.

D Digital camera Many families have digital cameras and print out their photographs to make books about visits, celebrations and family holidays. Children could make ‘holiday books’ and tell the story or give information about the photographs in ‘show-and-tell’. They could dictate the words and have parents or caregivers write them down.

E Environmental print The pictures, symbols and words in environmental print such as street signs, car number plates, signs at shopping centres or petrol stations, billboards, traffic signs and brand names on cars, clothing and other items can be used to teach children to read print.

F Food—recipes and food packets Cooking together with a recipe, or just talking about what to cook and how to cook, teaches children vocabulary about ingredients and the processes used in food preparation. Shopping for food also provides written signs

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

and symbols where children experience how symbols, either alphabetic or numeric, can communicate information.

G Games Many games and activities linked to television shows and movies are available free of cost in supermarkets or larger department stores. Alternatively, visit your local toy library and borrow from a wide range of literacy games and activities.

H House maintenance Some families like to renovate and repair at home, using knowledge passed on from family members or DIY manuals. The diagrams and instructions are useful for learning to read and write. Encourage children to take an active and safe part in these activities.

I Internet Many children with access to computers like to search the internet to find answers to their questions. Children are reading computer screens and the various symbols and logos, as well as using the computer keyboard where they may recognise upper- and lower-case letters, numerals and other symbols.

J Junk mail The catalogues and advertising leaflets that come into homes and schools can be used to make word walls and posters, and added to folders of what children can read. These folders can be used as a portfolio of ‘I can read this’, to store all the symbols and logos the children can read, for example those on milk cartons and pizza leaflets.

K Knitting, sewing and knots Many families engage in knitting and sewing clothes. Some use books or manuals and others may share information by talking about it. The patterns and instructions can be shared at school as well as the different design choices. Knots are used in gardening, in fishing when the line is tied and in many household tasks. The types of knots can be discussed and perhaps the instructions about how to tie knots could be read together.

L Library The community library is a resource available to most families and it is a place where DVDs, talking books, the internet and books of all descriptions can be accessed for very little cost or no cost at all. Many libraries have regular programs for babies and toddlers and the librarians themselves are involved in storytelling activities.

Homes and communities

M Movies There are often spin-off products from movies targeted at children. Some of the books or booklets produced may be just at the right time and at the right level to get children to want to read and write. Associating reading and writing with a great experience at the movies is an excellent idea.

N Newspapers Newspapers are relatively inexpensive and can be used for many different literacy activities, from cutting and pasting to searching for information about TV programs, the weather or local events. Newspapers are a cheap source of paper for children to draw and scribble on and it doesn’t matter if it gets torn. Children soon learn the difference between paper to draw on and good books.

O Other literacy things Make a game of finding other literacy-related things in the community and environment. Collect bus and train timetables, signs in shop w indows, advertisements on community notice boards, opening times to the local library, oral stories, traffic signs, recycling signs and so on.

P Pasting Provide children with a scrapbook to paste in a range of pictures cut out of newspapers, magazines and junk mail. This will enable you to have a chat about the pictures in their book while you are also developing their oral language skills.

Q Quizzes Ask children to think of two or three things they know about their local community, and to make up questions related to this information. The questions could then be combined in to a class ‘community quiz’.

R Restaurants Restaurants and fast-food stores often have placemats and napkins that children can draw on or play games with. Collect menus for children and cut up their pictures and words.

S Shopping, supermarkets, signs Products in supermarkets usually have brightly coloured labels and use a range of different fonts to describe the name of the product and product details. There are often promotions with large posters and banners and these can be used in literacy. Many children’s parents work in retail, and talking about items for sale, and how they are advertised and marketed

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

may be information that children hear at home. Bringing the shopping topic into school could take the form of setting up a shop or inviting parents to talk about their work.

T Talk, dialogue, conversation, vocabulary Talking with children is a taken-for-granted ‘fund of knowledge’ in communities (Moll et al. 1992). Parents, grandparents and other family members share ideas about fixing household appliances, maintaining cars, shopping, cooking and other domestic matters. The more interesting words the child hears on a range of topics, the more likely they are to have a good sized vocabulary.

U Under, up and over Make literacy fun and look for ways to include language in everyday things. Go to the local park and use directional language to move under, along and over the equipment. By using language in context, children expand their vocabulary and understanding of the meaning of different words. When you are out walking, always look up to see what signs you can see and talk about them with your child.

V Video to book Children enjoy viewing TV programs and videos or DVDs. Tap into this enthusiasm by letting children view a particular program and then read the book/s as well. There is a lovely video version of The Borrowers by Mary Norton which would suit older children, while younger children would enjoy the Hairy Maclary stories by Lynley Dodd. You could also read the books first before viewing the video.

W Write Children learn by seeing things modelled for them. Let children see things such as words, stories, poems, lists and notes. Provide appropriate writing materials for them to use and allow time for them to explore print.

X Boxes Milk cartons, pizza boxes, biscuit boxes and other boxes found around the home provide a lot of words and pictures. You could compare these different products and find out what is the same and what is different.

Y Yes ‘Yes’ is usually a positive response and can be used over and over again as children extend on the literacies used at home. It is important to respond positively to what children notice in the environment and share reading and writing at school so that children’s ideas are encouraged.

Homes and communities

Z Zoos and other excursions Children gain a lot from new experiences. Take children on a trip to the zoo or just a walk to the local park. Talk about what you are doing and seeing. Children could write about the experience or make a simple book using photos taken on the trip.

Literacy experiences at home Reading to children

By showing an enjoyment of and engagement with books, parents transfer literacy skills and a love of reading to their children.

Parents reading aloud to children is an important source of information for children about print and letters and the characteristics of written language. By showing an enjoyment of and engagement with books, parents transfer literacy skills and a love of reading to their children. Parents who show that reading is fun, who keep the story moving with a ‘semantic’ rather than a ‘decoding’ orientation, and who encourage questions and humour when reading tend to have children who are more fluent and positive about reading (Snow, Burns & Griffin 1998). Children who learn from their parents that reading is a source of enjoyment persevere if they encounter difficulties. As well as reading aloud, telling stories, singing songs, chanting nursery rhymes and playing rhyming games also promote a positive attitude to literacy. Intervention programs where parents are engaged in storybook reading strategies that enhance interaction with the child reveal that children’s concepts about print scores and receptive language scores increase. Books read aloud introduce children to more rare and unusual words than do conversations or television. Those whose parents keep reading to them continue to develop comprehension skills, particularly when their parents talk to them about the books and stories. Snow, Burns and Griffin write that: The breadth and depth of a child’s literacy experiences determine not only how many and what kind of words she or he will encounter but also the background knowledge with which a child can conceptualise the meaning of any new word and the orthographic knowledge that frees that meaning from the printed word (1998, p. 219).

Reading with children can be enhanced if parents use a technique called shared reading and dialogic reading, where parents ask questions and expand on the child’s responses to a book (Hay & Fielding-Barnsley 2007).

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Listening to children read It has been found that parents listening to children read is important in fostering high achievement in school. It is also important for parents to discuss homework, and to make dictionaries and encyclopedias available. Teachers can inform parents about how to listen to reading and the questions that can be asked afterwards. For example:

• •

•

Encourage your child to read independently If your child doesn’t know a word you might say: ‘Have a go and see if you can work it out.’ ‘Read the sentence again.’ ‘What word could fit there?’ ‘What is the first letter?’ After reading you can talk about the book together, asking: ‘What part did you like the best? Why?’ ‘What did you learn?’ ‘Do you have any questions about the book?’

Helping children at home Figure 3.4 provides some suggestions that could be given to parents if they ask how they can help their children learn to read and write. Figure 3.4 Parents helping young children at home

Helping your child at home When walking or on public transport • Point out and read signs • Talk about timetables • Read shop signs • Point out bus stops • Use a street directory or GPS • Play ‘I spy with my little eye’ When out shopping • Make shopping lists together • Check recipes for ingredients • Talk about what to buy • Point out the names of products • Show and talk about various brand names • Examine catalogues together, compare items and prices • Cross off items on a list • Read some of the product ingredients

Homes and communities

At home • Use removable labels or a blackboard to leave notes • Read television guides • Read favourite books together • Read recipes aloud • Make photograph albums with titles and captions • Arrange CD, video and DVD collections • Play computer and board games together • Email friends and family together

Chapter summary The challenge for early childhood educators is ‘to see the task of making connections not as one of getting rid of the diversity that they encounter in the make-up of their populations, nor of dealing with diversity as something that has to be coped with, but rather as one of incorporating diversity to the advantage of effective pedagogy’ (McNaughton 2002, p. 31). Building quality connections between home and school requires educators to explore the worlds of children, their activities, practices and funds of knowledge. Literacy is not just print or language; it also includes the ways in which meaning is represented in signs, logos, music, animation and forms of multimedia. The notion that the rules for producing different kinds of texts—whether spoken, written or visual—are somehow natural, universal and accessible to all is not substantiated by the research into home and school communities. Rather, the arbitrary rules for reading and producing different genres are community-specific and situationspecific. Once teachers take on board the idea that language and reading are community-specific and situation-specific, then all kinds of language can be analysed and explored. The development of this awareness that language is an ‘object of contemplation’ enables teachers and children to develop ways of working with literacy with greater power to reflect on how language can be used in a range of different situations. Parents and caregivers can support language and literacy at home and in the community by using community funds of knowledge and linking this to school literacy. Reading and talking about books together enhances interactions with the child, and builds vocabulary and comprehension skills. There is no better activity to build literacy than reading aloud to young children.

Part 2

Scaffolding literacy Âdevelopment

Teachers can support children to become independent readers and writers

CHAPTER 4

The literacy program

Instruction has persistently separated reading from writing in a way that would be insufferable in learning to listen and talk. The two modes form an integral nexus of learning around common processes, and this, too, may readily be reflected in teaching.

In a scaffolded approach to literacy there is a place for the teacher to model, share and guide and encourage independence in reading and writing.

(Holdaway 1984, p. 3)

This chapter describes how the many parts of a literacy program work, and explores how teachers can scaffold children’s literacy learning, moving from total teacher control—demonstrating, explaining and teaching about how reading and writing works—to having children read and write independently, which is the goal literacy teachers aspire to for all their children. In a scaffolded approach to literacy there is a place for the teacher to model, share and guide and encourage independence in reading and writing. For example, when the teacher reads aloud to children, the books may well be beyond what the children can read themselves yet this experience will provide rich vocabulary and syntax patterns that children may use later. The teacher will take full control of the reading, providing a model of how the reading process works. In shared reading with a big book, the children can join in with the teacher, chanting and reading the chorus or refrain. The book may be chosen because it is an old favourite and has lots of repetition or it could be a new book. Then in smaller groups the children may have guided reading sessions with their teacher and again careful teacher scaffolding enables the children to increasingly take control. Independent reading occurs when the child selects books to read independently. Table 4.1 shows where all the components of a comprehensive literacy program fit (Hornsby 2000). On the left-hand side the teacher provides maximum support, demonstrating and modelling to children. As the child gains more control the teacher shares and guides reading with children. On the right-hand side the child takes full control by reading and writing independently.

The literacy program

Figure 4.1Â To-with-by TO

WITH

Teacher reads to children

Shared reading

Guided reading

BY Independent reading

Word work, phonology and language experience Connecting writing and reading

Teacher provides maximum support

Modelled writing

Shared writing

Guided writing

Child takes full control

Independent writing Source: Adapted from Hornsby 2000

Reading aloud The teacher reads aloud to the class from a range of text types including literature and information books. The purpose is for children to engage with texts pitched at a more complex level than they can read. The texts may be selected to show how writers develop character, setting and plot in fiction, or how they organise information in factual texts. Longer texts such as simple chapter books can be read over several weeks, and favourite texts can be reread. Apart from allowing children to engage with powerful literature and information texts, teacher read-aloud provides syntax models, vocabulary and meanings that children may not hear in everyday conversations but which then become part of their talk and writing. They begin to speak and write using the figurative language and complex sentence structures they have heard when the teacher reads aloud.

Shared reading When picture books are read aloud the pictures may be viewed by the whole class, but because of the size of the book the children cannot normally engage with the print. Shared reading is where enlarged books are used to explore the conventions of print and the reading process. It is usually a whole-group activity and, although it is led by the teacher, children can participate in the reading in various ways, including choral reading and readersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; theatre. The focus for shared reading might be to learn how to read various text types, how to solve problems in identifying various words, or, at the sentence level, ways in which punctuation and grammar are used to communicate meaning. The texts in shared reading can

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

be above the children’s independent reading level because there is group support for an individual reader. The large texts used in shared reading make it possible for children to see the print and the illustrations. The teacher focuses on the meaning and enjoyment but increasingly draws children’s attention to the print and how it works by using a pointer beneath the words being read (Parkes 2000).

A format for using shared books The shared book activity is usually fast paced and may take 15 minutes each day.

1 2 3 4

Read together one or two favourite big books selected by the children. This could include one or more of the following: a chant, a poem or a book. Teaching opportunities from the revisited big books might include exploring vocabulary, phonics, comprehension, fluency or writing. Introduce a new book and read it through for enjoyment. Activities might include follow-up on teaching opportunities from the revisited book or an activity based on the new book: for example, children could read books independently, engage in writing by innovating on the structure of the book, or undertake code breaking, meaning making, text user or text critic activities (see page 87).

Shared book teaching opportunities Here are six lesson plans for working with a big book based on the story of the Gingerbread Man. These sessions will need to be adapted to suit the children in the classroom. The activities involve all language modes: reading, writing, speaking and listening.

Lesson 1 Shared reading: introducing the book This introductory lesson focuses on reading the book aloud for enjoyment and on sharing a passion for reading with children. Before reading Ask children if they know the story of the Gingerbread Man. Show children the cover of the book and ask, ‘What can you see in the cover illustration?’ Say, ‘The book is called The Story of the Gingerbread Man. What do you think it will be about? What do you think is going to happen? Who else do you think might be in this book?’

The literacy program

Note that when a book is being shared it is not necessary to talk through it before reading. During reading When a book is being introduced to a group of children, it is helpful to read the book once and sometimes several times to give children an overview. Reading 1: Enjoy sharing the book together. It is best not to interrupt the flow of reading at this stage so that children gain an appreciation of the whole book. Reading 2: Read the book again and discuss the characters: Old Woman, Old Man, Cow, Dog etc. Reading 3: Read the book again and focus on specific teaching opportunities to do with phonics, vocabulary and comprehension. After reading Some children may read through a small version of the book again, listening to an audio version.

Lesson 2 Revisiting the book: using the book to teach c omprehension Select from the following questions to help develop children’s comprehension strategies. These questions focus on using the text and the illustrations to understand the book. Some questions call for literal interpretations and others require children to infer meaning. Some questions engage the reader as a text critic. Questions may be asked about selected pages. ‘What happened to the Gingerbread Man?’ ‘Why did he run away?’ ‘Which other characters chased him?’ ‘Why do you think they chased him?’ ‘What do you think the Gingerbread Man is made out of?’ ‘What makes you think that?’ ‘Was it fair to chase the Gingerbread Man?’

Lesson 3 Revisiting the book: using the book to teach phonics Select from the following questions to help develop children’s understandings of phonics. The focus is on exploring word families and syllables. Read the story. Cover up the word man from the word family—can, fan. Ask the children to reread the text. ‘What word from this word family would fit here?’ ‘What other words do you know from this word family?’ List these on the board. Choose another couple of pairs of words and do the same thing. You could develop an activity sheet to help children with a follow-up activity.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Choose another page. ‘What words from the same word families can you find on this page?’ Look at another word family on these pages. Ask the children to read the text and locate these words. ‘What other words belong to this word family?’ List these on a sheet of paper to keep adding to as more words are found.

Lesson 4 Revisiting the book: using the book to teach vocabulary Focus again on the type of text—narrative (story). Discuss how different text types require different reading. Reread the story of the Gingerbread Man for increased fluency. ‘Find the word mountain. What helped you to work this out?’ ‘Look at the word can’t. This contraction is made of two smaller words.’ ‘What could the two smaller words be? What other contractions do you know?’ List these on the board.

Lesson 5 Revisiting the book: using the book to improve fluency Revisit the book, focusing on reading in a phrased and fluent manner.

Lesson 6 Revisiting the book: using the book to teach writing Select from the following written language conventions to help develop the children’s understandings of these concepts. Ask the children to find the quotation marks. ‘Who is talking?’ Discuss the apostrophes and what they mean (possession and contraction). Point out the question mark in the text. ‘What is this? Why do we use it? How do we read questions?’ Point out the commas in the first verse. ‘Why do we need commas? What do they do?’ Point out the ellipsis (...). ‘Why did they use an ellipsis here?’

The literacy program

Using the four roles of the reader for teaching opportunities The teaching opportunities are based on the four roles of the reader: meaning maker, code breaker, text user and text critic. These are identified throughout the text.

Being a meaning maker This focuses on literal, inferential and interpretative comprehension of the text (i.e. reading on the lines, between the lines and beyond the lines in the pursuit of meaning). The activities provide discussion points that children can consider and respond to using evidence from the text to support their point of view.

Being a code breaker This focuses on the vocabulary used in the text, particularly on the highfrequency words, word awareness and vocabulary. It also explores phonemic awareness, phonics and writing conventions focusing on punctuation and grammar.

Being a text user These questions focus on the form or genre of the text and its purpose. The type of text affects the fluency and expression with which the book is read. The children will also explore how and why they might use the book.

Being a text critic These questions are designed to enable children to develop ways to critically analyse the book. The children need to refer to the book and their own experiences to justify and explain answers.

Early–emergent and early shared book experience

The bedtime story The bedtime story is the key thought behind shared book experience which was developed in research in classrooms over 25 years ago by Holdaway (1979). According to Holdaway, the bedtime story is based on visual intimacy with print where the adult makes powerful connections about print with the individual child. It is this powerful, engaging, shared, adult–child connection that is the basis for shared book experience. The other aspect of bedtime reading that underpins shared book experience is the child’s repeated requests for favourite books, asking to hear them read aloud again and again and gradually joining in with familiar parts of the book.

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When the teacher reads aloud to a large group of children in a classroom they are unable to see the print clearly, so this is why enlarged print and illustration becomes very important. According to Holdaway, as long as there is a collective shared spirit there is no reason why a large class cannot learn together. Group experiences have always been powerful modes of learning; in initiation ceremonies, church services and festivals, and playground games and rhymes, learning and ways of learning are passed down in experiences that are intensely meaningful, communal and shared. Holdaway goes on to describe shared book experience as cultural learning which is non-competitive. He writes that children enter into cultural learnings ‘to be like other people—to be significantly human—and they have nothing at all to do with excelling for the purposes of personal power’ (p. 64). Holdaway describes the bedtime story routine as the place where the parent reading aloud is able to ‘display the skill in purposeful use’.

The first description of shared book experience When shared book experience was first described by Holdaway in 1979, he described working in a kindergarten class with 5-year-olds where the teacher would prepare for the first two weeks of the school year by selecting 20 or so books that were known to be favourites with the children with the hope that 10 or 12 would become real favourites. The teacher would enlarge three or four of these books so that the print could be clearly seen from 4 or 5 metres away. Often the teacher did not illustrate these enlarged books, preferring to hand this task over to the children. Also, in independent reading time, the children were encouraged to reread the original with a particular focus on the illustration. In the first half-hour literacy lesson the teacher would begin by singing one or two favourite songs or nursery rhymes. Next the teacher would read aloud one of the selected books, such as The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle. The songs and the reading aloud were designed to engage the whole group in a passionate love of language. An enlarged book such as The Three Billy Goats Gruff would then be introduced. The first enlarged books usually had a strong narrative storyline and some repetition that drew the children into predicting and participating, even on the first reading. The teacher used a pointer and even on the second repetition the children began to join in with ‘Trip trap, trip trap! Who’s that tripping over my bridge?’ After the enlarged book was shared, the children wanted to dramatise the story and this gave the teacher ideas for future sessions. The lesson concluded with another book read aloud—also selected because the teacher expected it to be a favourite and requested to be reread on other days.

The literacy program

The next session The next day the literacy session began with a song whose lyrics were enlarged and written on a big chart, followed by another book of favourite children’s literature read aloud. Next the second enlarged book was read, such as The Gingerbread Man with its wonderful refrains of ‘Run, run as fast as you can, you can’t catch me I’m the Gingerbread Man’. Then the class requested a rereading of book that was read on the previous day, The Three Billy Goats Gruff. The children wanted to read the book with the teacher pointing to the words, and also act it out. To conclude the session the teacher read another book that she hoped would become a favourite.

Fast-paced sessions The sessions were fast paced as the children engaged with a song or chant, listened to a selected piece of literature read aloud, read an enlarged book with the teacher and joined in and perhaps dramatised some of the book, and finally listened to another new book. At this emergent reading phase the small books were not levelled texts but the original literature that had been enlarged and the literature, songs and nursery rhymes selected by the teacher.

Independent reading The big books and the original books were available in the classroom for children to read in independent reading time. The idea was to encourage children to want the books read and to request them reread time and time again just like bedtime story procedures. Some of the books that were enlarged in the original development of big books included: There Was An Old Lady Who Swallowed A Fly; The Tailypo; The Owl And The Pussy Cat; Brown Bear, Brown Bear What Do You See?; The Three Bears; The Gingerbread Man; The Three Billy Goats Gruff; One Wide River To Cross; and My ABC. Holdaway wrote that children need security and predictability, and that sessions should follow the same format each day. • Tune-in with verse, song, chant— favourite and new with enlarged print and charts • Reread favourite books usually by request but sometimes planned—learning reading skills in context, exploring syntaxsubstitution, simplification, extension, transformation, innovating on verse and story structure • Teaching opportunities from a previously introduced book such as alphabet study and games, riddles, puzzles, vocabulary games, exploring writing and spelling • Introduce a new story for enjoyment

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• •

Independent reading where individuals and groups explore old favourites, play at being the teacher and children teach each other Expression in the form of related arts and drama activities— painting, mask making, puppetry, mime or writing to innovate on a literary structure, often with the teacher as scribe.

At this emergent phase, the children are exposed to up to 40 books a month and very soon some streak ahead, reading small caption books while others are only just connected with print. In three months they had read 60 books, 20 poems, 10 songs and a chant or two. Shared book remained a whole-class activity. Holdaway saw great potential in the big books. Apart from requested rereading, the children could become involved in talking about written words, making predictions, finding little words in big words and innovating on the text by creating a new text based on the book’s structure. One of the first activities is to have children predict vocabulary in the big books by using the meaning or pictures. For example, the teacher makes a big chart based on a favourite rap or chant: Old Noah once he had an ark And finished it when it was dark The animals came in one by one, And Jonah played the big brass __________ The animals came in two by two, The alligator lost his __________ The animals came in __________ __________ __________, The ostrich and the chickadee. The animals came in __________ __________ __________ The story goes on for four pages and the words are predicted by the children and written down by the teacher. Children then make further predictions and this time there is an emphasis on problem solving with phonics. Extracts from books are enlarged and the children encouraged to predict what the missing word might be: We will play at j__________ So the frog j__________ Other important aspects of shared book included repetition, using the listening post, pace, positive teaching, the phonetic principle, pointing and masking print, language experience, and innovating on literary structure. The repetition of reading was considered very important and some children needed more repetitions than others. The use of the listening post with taped recorded readings was popular and according to Holdaway it was ‘the second most important invention for literacy after the book’. The pace of the lesson was snappy and if children’s attention flagged the

The literacy program

teacher cracked up the pace. The tone was positive, acknowledging the children’s contributions, saying ‘yes’ or ‘could be’ when the children predicted rather than ‘no’. Letters were introduced very carefully, beginning with the most contrasting letter–sound associations /m/ and /f/ and the children were encouraged to find these letters in books. In the first few weeks, the letters ‘b’, ‘g’, ‘s’ and ‘t’ were introduced, followed by the rest of the initial consonants and consonant blends. The importance of pointing to words was stressed and there was meticulous attention to directionality and word-by-word matching. Overhead transparencies were used with cardboard slides to pull across to allow focus on words and letters. The cardboard mask was also used to help children focus on particular print-based teaching points.

Innovating on literary structure Innovating on literary structure developed from Bill Martin’s Instant Readers and entails analysing the structure of stories and poems to create original versions of old favourites. Usually the teacher writes the new version, dictated by the children, on a chart. For example Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? develops into an innovated text with careful scaffolding when the teacher deletes the adjectives: __________ Bear, __________ Bear, What do you hear? I hear a __________ bird. ______ing to me.

Huge Bear, Huge Bear What do you hear? I hear a tiny bird Singing to me.

Another example of a useful text to innovate on is the chant Beans, Beans, Beans by Lucia and James L Hynes. Baked beans, Butter beans, Big fat lima beans, Long thin string beans— those are just a few. Green beans, Black beans, Big fat kidney beans, Red hot chile beans, Jumping beans too. Pea beans, Pinto beans Don’t forget the shelly beans. Last of all, best of all, I like jelly beans.

____ hands, ____ hands, Big fat____ hands, Long thin ____ hands— those are just a few. ____ hands, ____ hands, ____ ____ ____ hands, ____ ____ ____ hands, ____ hands too. ____ hands, ____ hands Don’t forget the ____ hands. Last of all, best of all, I like ____ hands.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Shared book is a joyful experience with rich texts, and it is important to use it in conjunction with guided reading of smaller levelled books. Holdaway points out that shared book experience procedures help to relieve some of the teacher’s strain from hectic, joyless guided reading sessions—sometimes with four different groups—because it injects lively group learning and enjoyment.

The language experience approach The language experience approach (LEA) became popular in the 1970s (Allen 1976) when children began to read texts composed from their own oral language. Children first dictate a story about a personal experience to the teacher who writes it down. The teacher reads the story back to the children and then gives them the opportunity to read it themselves. Children can illustrate the story and perhaps compile a book or a class book of stories. Language experience is based on the following principles:

• • •

What I can think I can say. What I can say can be written down by myself or others What is written down can be read by me and by others.

Language experience comes from the experiences of children, their homes and communities. Many children like to talk about then have the teacher write their dictated stories about their holidays and weekend activities. This can become monotonous so it is important to arrange rich experiences such as trips to the zoo or bringing tadpoles and frogs into the classroom. These experiences then provide topics to discuss and write about. In New Zealand, Silvia Ashton-Warner wrote the book Teacher in 1965, about working with rural Maori children using the language experience approach. She found that the beginning reading books published in England and supplied to the school in the 1960s had little to do with the children’s lives, with sentences such as ‘John, see the house. “It is my house,” said Sally’. To engage the children, Ashton-Warner provided them with words that powerfully engaged them, words from the centre of their deepest fantasies—kiss, fight, beer, hit, Mum, aeroplane, fast, car, blood, skeleton (Holdaway 1979). These once-seen-never-forgotten words established an initial vocabulary for both reading and writing, and were written down on cards in a personal file for the children. Sometimes the cards were all mixed up and children had to find their own cards to read to each other and their friends.

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Language experience in practice A language experience lesson might begin with oral language about an exciting experience such as a trip to a port to see the ships. The teacher asks open-ended questions to generate ideas: ‘What did we see? What did you like best? What was the most exciting?’ After some discussion, the teacher can write down what the children say on a large chart or whiteboard. Charts allow the children to read the words and also refer to them at a later date, especially if they want to use some of them in their own stories. It is important to write down quickly and legibly what the children say with as close a match as possible. Some teachers write the children’s name next to what they say to make it easier to identify who said what. ‘We saw an oil tanker and it was huge.’—Sarah ‘I saw a tug boat pulling a container ship.’—Dan After several sentences have been written, the chart is read again by the teacher and then the children can reread it together. Sometimes children can read the sentences that they contributed. A pointer can be used to show the children left-to-right directionality and word-to-word matching. The sentences can be copied into a class book that could then be illustrated by the children. There are many opportunities for teaching from the language experience chart and some words can be copied onto cards for matching games. Another form of language experience is individualised where, after discussing experiences, the children dictate them to the teacher who writes them down. The children can then copy the teacher’s writing. Some teachers prefer to have the children illustrate the experience before writing as this can focus their ideas and what they want to say. After oral discussion in a whole group or small group of younger children, the teacher could write down the key words or vocabulary on a chart and place an illustration next to them—for example ship, tugboat, water, dock, conveyor belt. Dictating key words may be useful for older children as they can refer to these words when compiling their own writing. Language experience is an important part of an emergent reading program, and over several months the distinction between language experience and book experience diminishes. Gradually, as children are exposed more and more to the language of books, words, idioms, structures and intonations creep into the language experience stories of the children. They began to want to copy words or phrases from their favourite books.

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Figure 4.2 Language experience texts

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Digital language experience (D-LEA) makes use of digital cameras to record experiences (Labbo, Eakle & Monterro 2002). Children may use a digital camera to take photographs that are printed out and displayed, and they can dictate the language experience story to accompany the photographs. This can later be made into a book for the children to read or into smaller books so that each child has a copy to take home to read with their parents. In some classrooms, the children use Kid Pix to create slide show presentations of their experiences using digital photographs, print and sound to represent their experiences.

The value of language experience The language experience approach is useful for making connections between oral language and written language in meaningful ways for children; however, it overlooks an important idea that oral language is not the same as written language. Oral language takes place in particular social situations where intonation, facial expressions and gestures contribute to the meaning. Written language has developed conventions to avoid ambiguity and to clarify meanings that may be provided by gesture and vocal tone. Also, the conversations about everyday events often deal with just that, everyday events such as visits to friends on the weekend, whereas written language is more difficult to produce and is often about more memorable events written about in words that convey special and exciting meanings. Language experience has an important part to play, but rich literature experiences and learning from information books provide vocabulary, new syntax patterns and meanings not found in everyday conversations. As Holdaway (1979) states: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;If the labours of learning to deal with written language are to be thought worthwhile by the learners, they must be rewarded by special meanings and satisfactions such as those stemming form exciting stories or patterned languageâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (p. 29), and I would add information books as well.

Guided reading Guided reading involves a teacher working with a group of four to six children reading individual copies of the same text. The texts are selected by the teacher to be at the childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning level (see page 96). They have some challenges, and the teacher prepares the children to use a range of problem solving strategies to read the text. The texts used over successive sessions should have a careful gradient of difficulty. A procedure for guided reading follows.

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Before reading

Selecting an appropriate text The books for guided reading are selected by relating them to the children’s reading behaviours. They might also be selected to challenge the group in a particular way. Many teachers find that it is important to read the text through before the session, noting any features of structure, vocabulary or syntax that could be difficult or unfamiliar. These features may provide a teaching focus.

Getting children ready for reading The teacher may have selected the book to challenge the group in various ways. The topic of the book and the title are discussed. Often titles are catchy concepts where redundancy has been stripped so it is necessary to discuss the title and what the topic of the book might be. The teacher connects the book to the children’s prior experiences, makes connections to other books read, and may provide a simple experience to enable children to develop ideas related to those in the book. For example, if the book is about a dog she could set up a conversation about children’s pet dogs. Too much talk at this stage can be confusing and take away from the topic of the text so it is necessary to select a focus and only talk about what is necessary for the children to undertake the reading successfully.

Talking through the book This is where the teacher talks through the plot of a narrative or the organisation of a factual book. Any new vocabulary is used in sentences. For example, if skeleton is a new word the teacher uses this in a sentence such as: ‘Birds have a skeleton. A skeleton is made of bones.’ If the word haven’t is met for the first time, the teacher uses this word when talking through the book. Talking through the book provides support, which is also a form of scaffolding, and this enables the readers to use their own world knowledge while drawing on cues in the book. Talking through the book alerts the group to the importance of different text formats or book genres that require different ways of reading. To introduce the book, teachers may ask children to:

• • •

summarise the storyline talk through each page telling the story from the illustrations ask questions that cue the readers to the sentence structure.

For example, in preparation for a book about measuring, the teacher might ask questions to draw attention to the book’s question-answer sentence structure. The teacher and the small group rehearse the book without the children actually hearing the text being read. Sometimes it

The literacy program

helps to repeat the words a child may say if the words are a model of the sentence structure to be read. This is also the place to clarify any confusion or ambiguity about the book. Figure 4.3 Guided reading

During reading Children read the book individually. The teacher observes the child’s reading behaviours and may select an additional teaching focus based on these observations. Prompts can be used to encourage children to integrate visual, phonological, syntactic and semantic cues. These prompts are designed to help the reader solve problems and include: ‘What do you expect to read?’ ‘Does that make sense?’ ‘Well done. You made it. That makes sense.’ ‘What would sound right here?’ ‘Make your mouth ready to say the words.’ ‘Check the illustration.’ ‘What is the same about this word … and [another unknown word]?’ ‘Which page will you read first?’ ‘Which way will you go?’ ‘As you read match the words with what you say.’ ‘Check the beginning of the word.’ ‘It could be, but look at the first letter.’ The teacher moves from child to child, hearing small sections of the text read aloud. This allows them to make some assessment of progress. The teacher may note a child who is having particular difficulty with the text and set aside time later to take a record of reading behaviour with that child.

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

The teacher prompts the children into active constructive reading of the text by linking the book to other experiences, asking questions such as ‘Have you ever done that?’, ‘Have you ever felt like that?’ Sometimes the teacher uses a pause to encourage the child to search for information without telling the word quickly. Sometimes an analogy is used, for example to guess the word other by saying it’s like the word mother. Questions and prompts like this are not just to arouse the child’s interest or motivation. They are signals that reading requires active interaction with texts and brings relevant experiences and knowledge to the child’s ‘context in the mind’ (Clay & Cazden 1992).

After reading

Teaching opportunities The selected teaching focus provides additional support after the children have read the book with the help of the teacher. It is useful to select only one or two main teaching points for each guided reading session. Teachers should ensure that, in time, the teaching opportunities selected allow children to develop the reading roles of meaning maker, code breaker, text user and text critic. The teaching focus will be planned but it should also be adjusted to respond to the children’s reading behaviours and the text being read. For example, it may be important to plan the discussion of new written language conventions such as the use of an exclamation mark, but be alert to children’s unexpected responses to texts as these show learning in action. Some groups may need to attend to similarities and differences in highfrequency words like with and which. In some texts, phonemic awareness could be a teaching focus, for example discussing the /sh/ in fish. In other texts making analogies between the known word fish, and unknown words dish, wish and swish may be opportune.

Literacy learning centres Literacy learning centres allow children to practise and consolidate the reading behaviours they have been introduced to in the guided reading sessions. Providing activities which are closely related to the book allows children to engage with the same book for a number of sessions.

The literacy program

Independent reading The purpose of independent reading is to build fluency and motivation for reading. Children are encouraged to read texts at their independent reading level so that reading is practised and fluency increased. The child is challenged to read on their own for a sustained period of time. Figure 4.4

Writing Modelled writing In modelled writing, the teacher writes on a whiteboard or chart showing how a writer uses words, sentences and text types to record ideas. The teacher might demonstrate various purposes for writing, for example, to explore and express an idea, to report, to explain, to organise points in an argument, to list ingredients and record instructions.

Shared and interactive writing Shared writing is usually a whole-group activity where the teacher leads the class in exploring ways to write various text types, construct more complex sentences and check spelling and grammar. Often big books, using a variety of text types, are used as a model for the shared writing session. The children interact with the teacher and each other and contribute to the writing by sharing the pen. Shared writing builds confidence within a group, and can be the starting point for guided writing.

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Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Guided writing Guided writing involves individuals or small groups of children writing a range of text types. The teacher may provide mini lessons to demonstrate a particular aspect of text type, grammar, punctuation or spelling. Guided writing is linked to reading, and various text types are used as models. Children might use writing frames or templates as a scaffold for writing.

Independent writing The purpose of independent writing is to build fluency and motivation, and is a time to express ideas and experiment. Children can write their own creative pieces. Independent writing provides chances for using different text types and encourages children to investigate and practise a variety of written forms.

What does the literacy program look like? The literacy program should contain opportunities for language experience, shared book, guided reading, modelled writing, shared and guided writing and independent reading and writing. Figure 4.5 Example of a week-long literacy program

9.00â&#x20AC;&#x201C;10.30

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Shared book: The Gingerbread Man

The Gingerbread Man and smallgroup work

Language experience about a topic of interest Teacher models writing

Shared book

Text user activities based on shared book

Comprehension using a cloze activity

Children recount experiences and write and draw

Concertina books to explore plot and characters

Code breaker: direct speech Readersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; theatre to explore direct speech

Make a gingerbread man as a whole class

Introduce shared book/narrative

Other learning centre activities Guided reading in small groups

Activity: writing direct speech Other learning centre activities

Guided reading in small groups

Write the procedure for making the gingerbread man

Learning centre activities

Other learning centre activities

The literacy program

Chapter summary Support is provided to children so that they are developing in the zone of proximal development. The activities move from teacher controlled to child controlled. In a scaffolded approach to literacy there is a place for the teacher to model, share and guide and encourage independence in reading and writing. Although when the teacher reads aloud to children the books may be beyond what they can read themselves, this experience will provide rich vocabulary and syntax patterns that children may later use when speaking and writing. In shared reading with a big book the children can join in with the teacher. The book might be selected because it is an old favourite and has lots of repetition or it may be a new book. Guided reading sessions take place in small groups, and again careful teacher scaffolding enables the children to increasingly take control. Independent reading occurs when the child selects books to read independently. In modelled writing, the teacher demonstrates how to write while talking aloud. In shared or interactive writing the teacher shares the pen with children as they write a text together. In guided writing there is careful scaffolding of the text so the children write with support. In independent writing the children write their own texts. The teacher also uses word work, including phonological awareness, phonics and vocabulary. Word work is used for both reading and writing. Language experience involves the children writing and reading what they have written. Language experience links both reading and writing.

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CHAPTER 5

Children’s literature

‘Few children learn to love books by themselves. Someone has to lure them into the wonderful world of the written word; someone has to show them the way.’

(Prescott, cited in Trelease 1984, p. 48)

Reading aloud We read aloud because we want children to fall in love with books and language, and to delight in the rhythm and rhymes, and the vast array of words and sounds. We want them to be transported to another time and place, to hear about amazing characters, and find out how others live and think. We want children to see us as adults enjoying reading, laughing along with them, getting drawn into the drama and suspense, and providing them with the key they need to learn to read—desire. Desire, described by Trelease as the ‘magic ingredient’ (1984, p. 30), is not something we are born with, but something planted by parents, teachers, older siblings and others. Teachers who read aloud to their classes demonstrate what fun reading can be: there are no expectations, no tests involved, no grades to be given, no scores to be marked, just the simple pleasure of sharing a book. Children who are read to by their families will also enjoy being read to in class, but more importantly, the teacher can also ‘capture’ those children who have not yet been introduced to the joys of a book.

The benefits of reading aloud

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Children imitate what they see and hear, therefore families that value books and read—for both pleasure and information—are more likely to raise children who value books and reading. Such families tend to frequent libraries more, have a variety of reading and writing materials on offer, and also read aloud to their children as part of their bedtime ritual. Thus

Children’s literature

by the time their children enter school they have already been immersed in a language-rich environment, are aware of the uses and function of language, and have been introduced to a wide variety of rhymes and stories. Children who are read to from an early age are far more likely to be early readers and become successful long term-literacy learners. Research into the effects of shared reading reveals that reading aloud supports language and literacy development (Aram 2008; Bus, Van Ijzendoorn & Pellegrini 1995). Shared book reading develops children’s vocabulary and grammatical development (Wasik & Bond 2001), print skills such as left-to-right direction, letter names (Justice & Ezell 2000), and comprehension development (McGee & Schickedanz 2007). Reading aloud or shared reading supports many important areas including children’s vocabulary development, syntax, listening comprehension, print engagement and early reading behaviours. Young children develop comprehension skills when they engage with picture books as they wonder about the characters’ actions and make inferences about message of the book. Schickedanz and McGee (2010) suggest shared reading has longterm effects in the area of young children’s listening comprehension. The books read aloud may be paper- or screen-based; however, it is the way they are read to children and the interactions between the adult and the child that influence the outcomes of shared reading.

Reading to babies In recent years various programs, literacy advocates, libraries and authors have been encouraging families to read to their children right from birth. While babies may not understand the story, they enjoy the closeness with the person reading and the sound and rhythm of the reader’s voice. The warmth and security of the physical contact, the one-on-one attention they receive, the soothing, happy or excited sounds they hear and the pretty pictures they see, all help to introduce babies to the joy of books and reading. Thus, time spent cuddled in the arms of a loving adult hearing the wonderful sounds of a story helps to create a lifetime love of reading. In a study of mothers and babies 8–12 months old, Makin (2006) describes mothers encouraging their babies to actively participate in the book reading, supporting them to see themselves as people for whom literacy is part of who they are and what they do, and that literacy itself as enjoyable and personally meaningful. Take a minute and look up YouTube for ‘babies reading’; there are many videos uploaded by parents showing how young babies and toddlers interact with books and their parents. It is the quality of the interaction that is the key factor. Books with simple illustrations, bright colours, words that rhyme, sound effects and repetition are perfect for babies and toddlers. Nursery rhymes with their wonderful use of alliteration, assonance and nonsensical words delight young children and continue to do so for many years.

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Reading to 2-year-olds Children will always enjoy narratives, whether they are based in fantasy or reality, but they are also extremely curious. From about the age of 2, children begin to ask numerous questions about familiar things in their lives, about how things work and where things come from. Information books help to answer many of these questions and help keep pace with the child’s learning. Information books written for this age group are full of fun with wonderful illustrations, while still being extremely informative. There are countless books written about all the things that fascinate children—animals, machines, babies, nature, night and day (and every other kind of opposite), ABC books and books about counting. Literacy skills, maths skills and science skills can all be enhanced along with social, emotional and language development, simply by reading picture books.

Reading to 3- and 4-year-olds As children reach the age of 3 or 4, they begin to ‘read’ the books themselves. They tell their version of the story using snippets they have memorised, together with their own words. Such actions need to be praised and encouraged as they build confidence and increase self-esteem. Children particularly enjoy reversing the roles and telling adults the story instead. Children will begin to be aware that the text on a page tells the story and may follow the words with their finger, but wordless picture books are also important to share, allowing the ‘reader’ to invent their own adventures. But whether a picture book, nursery rhyme, non-fiction book or poem, they need to be books that ‘make children sit up and take notice, laugh, and ask “Why?” … involve them deeply, and lift them out of the here-and-now to a place of wonder’ (Butler 1988, p. 200).

Levels of narrative complexity Selecting books that are targeted to children’s developing skills will enhance the power and pleasures of reading to young children. Dwyer & Neuman (2008) reviewed the scientific evidence for the age-appropriate selection of books. Research has shown that certain features of text—format, illustrations, language, text features and topic—play an important role in enhancing children’s understanding and interactions with books. Goldsworthy (2010) suggests shared reading that has a sequence of simple personal narratives such as going for a walk, shopping and doing the washing, moving on to narrative fiction such as Where’s Spot? (Hill 1980) and then, depending on the child, moving to more complex plots such as If You Give a Mouse a Cookie (1984). Making sure that books are ageappropriate will help to ensure that children have a rewarding experience with books.

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Figure 5.1 Levels of narrative complexity Level of narrative

Structure and features

1. Simple description or captions

Everyday events with nouns such as animals, food, people, clothes, shapes, body parts. May be labels or lists. Adjectives such as colours, shape, texture Verbs: saying verbs, action verbs

Example

Title: Washing Line Author: Jez Alborough Publisher: Walker Books

Suggested teacher talk Vocabulary: word meanings Connect by asking questions and talking to connect: text-to-self, text-to-text and text-to-world

2. Simple stories with sequence of events

Sequence of events Adverbs: first, second, last Connecting words then, next Predictable and cumulative sequences

Vocabulary: word meanings Retell the sequence: first, next, last Have objects for the retelling of the story

3. Simple problems and solutions

Characters: who Setting: where Problem: what (feelings, emotion, reactions) Actions or steps taken: how and why Conclusion: what (feelings at the end; reactions)

Vocabulary: word meanings Focus on story structure: orientation, problem, conclusion Retell the story using puppets, objects Draw/make the story and talk about it

4. Characters have goals to solve problems

Story grammar: characters, setting, problem feelings, actions taken, conclusion, feelings at the end Characters have goals and there is a cause and effect sequence More descriptive detail

5. Stories with character plans

Characters think and problem solve Characters have a problem and make a plan to act Words: think, feel, wish, plan, want Conclusion: character achieves plan or learns to be happy with self

Title: The Rainbow Fish Author: Marcus Pfister Publisher: NorthSouth Books

Title: Elmer Author: David McKee Publisher: Harper Collins

Vocabulary: word meanings Listening comprehension: Literal: on the lines Inferential: between the lines Critical: beyond the lines

Vocabulary: word meanings Comprehending more complex stories Focus on the problem, the goal and the outcome Alternative conclusions may be suggested

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Level of narrative

Structure and features

6. Stories with different points of view

Narrative structure and told from two or more viewpoints The thoughts, feelings and actions of several characters are explained Point of view first person narrative—different characters tell the story Complex story, multiple episodes and complex themes

Example

Suggested teacher talk Vocabulary: word meanings. Focus on point of view two or more characters on a topic Act out with characters using dialogue

Source: Based on Goldsworthy (2010), Dwyer & Neuman (2008), Stadler & Ward (2005), South Australian Department of Education & Children’s Services, Talking Literacy Project, 2008 http://www.decs.sa.gov.au/svpst/pages/resources

Guidelines for reading aloud • • • • • • • • •

Read aloud every day. Mix old favourites with new books. Select books based on children’s interests and events or topics of study. Become familiar with the story and practise reading it. Make sure everyone can see the book and see you reading it, and that you can see everyone. Introduce the story briefly. Read clearly and dramatically, using your voice and body to portray characters and convey mood. Show the illustrations as you read. Know the story well enough so you can look at the children frequently and share your responses with them.

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Literature and picture books ‘What is the use of a book’, thought Alice, ‘without pictures …’ (Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland)

Picture books—where words are wonderfully inadequate without pictures and pictures inadequate without words. (source unknown)

Literature can be defined as writing and illustration which is concerned with exploring the value and meaning of human experience by imaginative recreation in language. It is highly valued by an individual or group of people, and can include stories and poems written by children in the classroom, which are often very important to the class and teacher. Literature, if we use this definition, is subject to society’s views and the views of individuals. At particular times in history, certain kinds of writing have been highly regarded but have later lost favour. For example, the writing of several centuries ago is less highly valued today. What it is that constitutes literature, then, may range from the award-winning literary book of the year to the classroom-published stories of primary school children (Hill 1986).

Literate language and reading aloud Literate language sounds as if it is ‘written-for-others’ and is a highly decontextualised expression of meaning through choice of words. Literate language is often distinguished from other kinds of talk by its distanced and mediated relationship to context. The concept of ‘literate language’ is characterised by a range of features: consciousness of audience beyond the immediate participants, abstraction and commentary on the process of text production or metalinguistic language. Young children can demonstrate an understanding of the literate register—the language of books—even before they have developed competence in writing. They are able to adjust their text production to suit the different relationships between text producer and audience that are characteristic of oral and written language. In other words, they can produce both more and less decontextualised texts. Their ability to do so correlates with exposure to book-reading experiences, either at home or in their preschool setting. Unfortunately for some children, their neighbourhood preschool or early childhood centre may not offer such experiences. This may account for their lower scores in the literate register.

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Emergent reading using predictable materials CASE STUDY

— Jennie Four-year-old Jennie listened and watched the pages turn as the preschool teacher read the story she had heard over and over again. When Jennie heard the words ‘and Drummer Hoff …’, she cried out ‘fired it off’. Jennie is processing the printed page in the same way as a competent mature reader. She is employing predicting, sampling, confirming and disconfirming strategies as she responds to the predictable language structure of the book. Later Jennie may take Barbara Emberley’s Drummer Hoff and read it to herself or a friend. She will point to the lines of print with her finger, pause at each page and look at the picture, and at times she may trace each word as she speaks it aloud. Jennie is learning that reading is not only a lot of fun but it is also a way to communicate and share experiences with another, be it a large audience or an audience of one.

Jennie is already involved in the process of reading as a meaninggaining, problem-solving activity which increases in power and flexibility the more it is practised (Clay 1979). Jennie is also developing hypotheses about words and their meanings and is developing strategies for improving her predictions about possible phrase and sentence combinations. She is not yet at school but she is already learning the powerful strategies of mature reading (Holdaway 1979). Learning the conventions of print related to the act of reading or to reading-related tasks are discussed by Mason (1982). These conventions include:

• • •

knowledge of how to hold a book, turn pages and direct one’s eye while reading knowledge of terminology such as book parts (e.g. front page), location terms (top, bottom), actions (make a circle, underline), size (a big or little word) and reading words (letter, word, sentence). knowledge of rules and procedures for tasks such as reading, printing, writing and spelling.

Children may reread various predictable patterns in books. One of the simplest patterns is the repetitive structure in which a certain phrase or sentence is repeated at various parts of the story. In a more complex repetitive cumulative structure, a word, phase or sentence is repeated in each succeeding episode and each time a new word, phrase or sentence is added to the sequence. This repetitive cumulative structure is found in the tale There Was An Old Lady Who Swallowed A Fly. Many predictable materials are based on sequences of cardinal and ordinal numbers, as in Ten Little Indians. Alphabet rhymes, days of the week, months of the year, colours and other common cultural sequences are often incorporated into rhymes with pattern sequences which make up predictable materials.

Children’s literature

Some predictable materials include a sequence of words or events, which makes it possible to predict what comes next, as in The Three Billy Goats Gruff and The Little Red Hen. Jennie, at 4 years old, is already a reader. She has a large sight vocabulary of high-frequency words such as said, the and was. Predictable materials not only increase the child’s acquisition of sight vocabulary but they encourage the use of context when encountering unfamiliar words. Reading predictable materials also helps create confidence and more positive feelings about reading aloud.

The power of narrative The narrative structure of picture books can play a central role in how we structure our world. Hardy (1968, cited in Spilka 1977) suggests that all human beings’ constructions of reality are, in fact, stories that we tell ourselves about how the world works. She suggests: We dream in narrative, daydream in narrative, remember, anticipate, hope, despair, believe, doubt, plan, revise, criticise, construct, gossip, learn, hate, love by narrative (p. 31).

Stories help children to explain, interpret and understand their emotions. Through literature, children extend their experiences and the boundaries of their vision. Many enthusiasts of children’s literature echo the words of Chukovsky, the Russian poet, who tells us that a child’s understanding is enhanced through good stories which: consists of fostering in the child, at whatever cost compassion and humanness … this miraculous ability to be disturbed by another being’s misfortune, to feel joy about another being’s happiness, to experience another’s fate as our own (Chukovsky 1963).

Narrative can be a vehicle for opening up discussion about ethics, morality, justice and oppression. Texts are not neutral, and all carry a moral and political position which can be explored with children.

Picture books and early reading Picture books offer young children the visual context and additional information that is conveyed in longer novels through complex language. Many beginning readers do not have the reading skills to unlock complex concepts so the picture book provides this information. Picture books provide an aesthetic adventure combining both visual and oral language experiences. Most teachers and all teacher librarians have a collection of favourite picture books.

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Using picture books in the literacy program:

• • • • • • •

allows children to make contact with other people—people like themselves and people who are different allows children to examine and question people’s motives, moral conflicts and values at a safe distance encourages children to think aesthetically and creatively use their imagination enables readers to ‘travel’ to different places and times develops children’s understanding of the power of written and spoken language and how it works extends children’s ideas and understandings of relationships shows that we can relate to others on lots of different levels— that people are multi-faceted, quite unlike fairytale character stereotypes.

All children from birth through to 12-year-olds and older love to hear books read aloud. They also like the opportunity to choose their own books to read, and time to talk about the books with others in the class. Somehow picture books are still popular alongside super-fast-paced tele vision shows because children want to hear the words read aloud and be visually entertained at a more reflective pace. Children even like to watch books being read aloud on television.

Picture books, vocabulary and grammatical development Literature provides a range of new vocabulary and syntactic patterns. Carol Chomsky (1972) found a high correlation between a child’s use of language and previous exposure to literature. The unusual syntactic patterns, figurative language such as metaphors and similes (for example ‘she was a spider-like creature’), rhyme, rhythm and well-developed plots, characters and settings all provide opportunities for the child to reflect on how language works to create images and ideas. The evidence for vocabulary development linked to shared book reading is clear. In a study of rare words used in print, television and speech Hayes and Ahrens (1988) found that children’s books have nearly double the number of rare words per 1000 words than college graduates talk to friends. Children hear more rare words in shared reading than in everyday talk. Children’s books have more rare words to build children’s vocabulary than many children’s television programs.

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Figure 5.2 Rare words in oral and written language (per 1000)

I. PRINTED TEXTS Abstracts of scientific articles 128.0 Newspapers 68.3 Popular magazines 65.7 Adult books 52.7 Children’s books 30.9 Preschool books 16.3 II. TELEVISION TEXTS Prime-time adult shows Prime-time children’s shows

22.7 20.2

III. ADULT SPEECH Expert witness testimony College graduates talk to friends/spouses

28.4 17.3 Source: Adapted from Hayes and Ahrens (1988)

Picture books and reading development Understanding book language starts with listening to books read aloud as a baby. As more and more books are read aloud the child encounters different plots and literary styles. Children learn how to approach a book. Some are read quickly like the short stories of Paul Jennings. Some are read slowly because the complex sentence structure forces the reader to pause in order to grasp the meaning.

Picture books and bibliotherapy Many teachers find literature a useful way to deal with talking about issues such as divorce, adoption, child abuse and the death of a parent. In bibliotherapy, children read stories on these themes, which provide useful strategies to help them deal with such problems, safely within the pages of a book.

The multiple readings of picture books The picture book Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak invites multiple readings and interpretations. It creates a fantasy mood with the pictures growing larger as the fantasy grows. Max, the main character, is

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a little boy sent to his bedroom by his mother. He has an adventure, tames the wild things and returns home to find his dinner still hot. The fantasy cannot be told in words alone as the illustrations are integral to the words, the images growing larger and larger as the complex adventure unfolds. The story cannot convey the wildness of the ‘wild things’ and Max’s power as he tames them with a roll of his eyes. The illustrations, combined with carefully chosen language, create a fantasy adventure where children experience Max’s amazing power over wild things in a way counteracting the powerful adult mother who can control and punish at will. The book also has an underlying literary structure, and this can be analysed as a way to further understand the text. Many narratives have a story structure like the following:

•

Orientation: This is where the characters and setting are introduced. Max is introduced as a ‘wild child’ and is punished, maybe unjustly. He sails away to the land of the wild things. • Problem: This is the challenge or challenges for the character(s). Max’s challenge in the plot is to tame or control the wild things. • Resolution: Here the loose ends are tied up. Max returns home victorious to find his soup still hot. The plot follows the cyclical quest of many adventure stories and movies such as Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back, The Wizard of Oz, Hook, and The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. The genre or form of literature in a picture book can vary from humorous, historical, biographical, realistic, fairy/folk tale, predictable repetitive books, alphabet and counting books, nursery rhyme and riddle books.

What makes a good picture book? The picture book of the year is chosen by a committee of children’s literature experts. They take a number of factors into account.

Factors to consider Theme The theme is the author’s purpose for writing the story. The theme should be worthwhile and relevant to children’s interests. Some of the main themes in picture books are accepting yourself as a unique person and people loving you for yourself, growing up and accepting responsibility, overcoming fear and dealing with conflict.

Children’s literature

Character The character should grow throughout the story. Stereotyped characters like the witch in Sleeping Beauty do not change. Many picture books use anthropomorphism, where an animal has human characteristics: they feel jealous, cry, have temper tantrums and lose things like some of the characters in Blinky Bill or Winnie the Pooh. Effective characterisation shows people as having several facets or sides to their personality—selfishness combined with deciding to be selfless and taking risks to overcome fear. A strong character in a picture book in not just good or bad. We see or read about their thoughts, understand their actions and see and hear them speak. Setting The setting is the geographical location and the time—either past, present or future—where the story takes place. If the book is historical it should be authentic. If set in a particular place, the details should be accurate. Sometimes fairytales and picture books use setting to create a mood by using symbolism:

• • • • • • •

Forest—the unknown, evil or darkness Tunnel—a journey of self-discovery Lamb—new life Blossom trees—new life Sunshine—light, goodness Sunset—end of the story Mountains—obstacle to overcome.

Plot The plot is the action. At a simple level, the plot contains an introduction to the characters and settings. Next a problem occurs, which the character(s) work to overcome. Finally the problem is resolved. The development of events is usually chronological, although sometimes there are flashbacks. The excitement or engagement with the book occurs when the main character experiences a struggle and overcomes conflict. Picture book conflict can be person against person (good guys/bad guys); person against self (learning self-control or changing behaviour); person against society (new to the neighbourhood, school or country); and person against nature (being lost in the forest, wilderness or desert). Plots can have different patterns of action:

•

Predictable repetitive plot: where a child can predict what a character will say or do:

‘Quack, quack,’ said the duck. ‘Meow, meow,’ said the cat.

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• • •

Common plot: introduction > problem > resolution Quest: hero begins journey > test one >test two > test three > heroic return Episodic: self-contained chapters > rising action > building suspense > final climax

Episodic books can also make use of ‘cliffhangers’ where peaks of action occur throughout the book, usually at the end of chapters. The whole book will still be working towards a final climax, but the suspense along the way is irresistible, with each chapter ending at such an exciting point that a reader simply has to read on.

Point of view The story can be told in the first or third person, or by an omniscient narrator. The perspective will vary, depending on whose voice is heard. First person is popular with young readers.

Illustrations Are the illustrations relevant to the story? Is the mood created appropriate? Is the technique one that combines well with the storyline? Illustration techniques include watercolour, wax resist, acrylic, collage, pen and ink, wood cut, stitchery and cross-hatching. There are novelty picture books with cut-outs, concertina lift-outs, cartoon style and paper sculpture.

Format and layout The format or shape of a picture book is important. Should it be square or rectangular? How big should it be? The illustrator decides where to place the text. How big should the illustrations be? Should the layout be the same on each page? How much text should there be on a page? A picture book is a work of art. Each page and the flow of the book, from page to page, is considered.

Language style This refers to the way the author uses words and sentences. Characters should use believable language when they speak. Some books work best when read aloud, because the combinations of words create powerful images. Books that do not have an effective use of language can be ignored! Book language such as ‘A frog, indeed! exclaimed the king’ helps to build a repertoire of language children can use in their own reading and writing of stories.

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Figure 5.3 Checklist for evaluating picture books EVALUATING PICTURE BOOKS 1. Characterisation

Do we care about the characters?

Are the characters multidimensional?

2. Plot

Is there a conflict?

What is the conflict?

Person against self

Self against other

Self against society

Self against nature

Is there a satisfactory ending?

What is the pattern of action?

Predictable repetitive plot

Common plot

Quest Episodic 3. Setting

What place is the story set in?

Is the setting effective?

What time is the book set in—present, past or future?

Are the behaviour, clothing, beliefs and values consistent with the setting?

4. Themes

What is the theme?

Good versus evil

Be true to yourself

Growing up requires risks

5. Point of view

Who is telling the story?

First person

Third person

Omniscient narrator

6. Style

How is the mood created by the words selected, the rhythm and the rhyme?

7. Illustrations

Do the text and illustrations work together? (e.g. Where the Wild Things Are)

Is there an imaginative quality of the art? (e.g. Voices in the Park)

Do the illustrations reflect, extend and enrich the text? (e.g. Shrek)

Do the pages flow from one to the next and draw the reader’s eye along? (e.g. We’re Going on a Bear Hunt)

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More on the artistic devices in picture books (adapted from Prince 1998)

Most picture books come with a standard 32 pages, or 16 double-page spreads, limiting both artists and authors in what they can present. Each word and every detail within the illustrations are carefully chosen to evoke the appropriate response. Often it is the illustrations rather than the words that provide the details of character, setting and in the case of Rosie’s Walk, even the story itself. Nodelman (1988, p. 221), writing of text and illustrations, comments ‘each speaks about matters on which the other is silent’. Hunt (1996, p. 175) points out, that ‘illustration alters the way we read the verbal text’. Lukens (1990, pp.141–7) talks about the various ‘devices of style’ (e.g. figurative language, understatement, symbols and puns), as well as ‘devices of sound’ (e.g. alliteration, assonance, rhyme and rhythm), that are available to authors of children’s literature. Such devices help create atmosphere within a text. Devices of style, however, are also available to the artist to create mood and atmosphere and evoke various emotions. Line, texture, colour, perspective, point of view, the overall layout, format and use of space are some of the artistic devices available. Line Line is a vital element to any illustration. Line can refer to the line of perspective, outline and shape as well as various hatching techniques and is used to represent mood, distance, movement and emotion. Square solid forms suggest stability and strength. Rounded figures suggest cosy, comfortable characters. Vertical lines represent height and lack of movement such as a forest scene. Horizontal lines denote calmness and peace like the ocean. Jagged, diagonal lines suggest a loss of control, danger and extreme emotions (see Hiawyn Oram’s Angry Arthur). Curved lines represent fluidity and unpredictability, such as the wind or swirling snowflakes. Hatching and cross-hatching are techniques used by artists such as Ron Brooks in John Brown, Rose and the Midnight Cat. Here the subdued tones and cross-hatching add to the impression of night-time scenes. Texture Texture is represented through the artist’s choice of medium. Collage is particularly effective, such as Jeannie Baker’s actual leaves and bark, or in books which use paper and material instead (see Patricia Mullins’ V is for Vanishing). Blobs and streaks of paint or the transparency of watercolours also add to the texture of the illustration, as does the surface the artist chooses to work on.

Children’s literature

Colour Colour is used to reflect the mood and emotion of the story. Lighting and shadow, the density of colour, the tone and the choice of colour all add to the overall effect. Colours can be bright and happy or dark and gloomy, with the media chosen adding another dimension, for example, the transparency of watercolours may provide a dreamlike quality as opposed to the density of oil paints. Perspective Perspective helps give a picture depth and dimension. Perspective can suggest a journey or movement across vast distances, and although illustrations are two-dimensional, perspective and positioning help give the picture a three-dimensional quality.

Point of view Point of view positions the reader in relation to the action on the page. Where the reader is looking from the ground up, the focus of the page is given added height and power. The reader feels very small and insignificant looking at a huge monster from ground level. Alternatively, the reader may be placed in the dominant position, allowing one to see the ‘whole picture’ from high above, indicating the greater understanding the reader has over those in the story. Cross-sections allow another point of view to be explored. The vertical aspect may be shown, for example, the creatures seen above and below the water line. Bringing the reader face to face with a character allows an understanding of the emotions and thoughts of that character. Thus point of view can be changed both literally and psychologically.

Design Design and the overall layout and format of the book also add to the story. The size of the book itself, the use of windows or frames around a picture, where the text is placed in relation to the illustrations, and the use of white space are all features of design. Beatrix Potter insisted her books remain in miniature, for children’s little hands to hold, making for a very personal experience. Graeme Base’s Animalia is just the opposite—large enough to invite the reader right inside. He also varies the text and makes the typography itself a part of each illustration. Maurice Sendak’s Where the Wild Things Are purposefully uses a landscape format, taking the reader along for the adventure. In this book, frames around the pictures grow along with Max’s imagination and expand until the illustrations fill the whole page. They shrink again as he returns to reality—although never quite to the same extent, representing his now expanded life experience and understanding. Beatrix Potter, on the other hand, used

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unframed windows to display her illustrations, giving us just a glimpse into her magical world. Sendak also uses the effect of bleeding—where a part of the picture ‘bleeds’ out of the frame onto the page. In Where the Wild Things Are it suggests a growing imagination, but can be used to draw attention to a particular feature instead, as in Narelle Oliver’s The Hunt. Here each new creature bleeds onto the page, indicating the continuation of life and the story and showing the reader what to look for next. Julie Vivas, one of Australia’s most well-known illustrators, was trained as an animator and thus provided only the characters, leaving other artists to fill in the background. This explains her ability to make fabulous use of space, placement of characters, body stance and facial expression. The lone figure of Hush in Possum Magic, longing to be visible again, is accentuated by placement on the page and the choice of soft muted blues. The overall design of each page allows emphasis to be placed on certain characters, settings or important features of the story. A character placed within the illustration helps portray the thoughts and emotions experienced by that character. A partly hidden character shows there is a surprise in store and, depending on the use of colour, this could be fun or scary. A small figure in a vast landscape indicates isolation, loneliness and despair. Paul Jennings’ The Fisherman and the Theefyspray contains a good example of this. When the mother is left alone in the ocean, most of the page is black, indicating total despair, with a single shaft of light penetrating the depth and darkness. Jane Tanner, the brilliant and much sought after illustrator of this story, makes use of all these devices of style to produce a spectacular book. The colours show the beauty of nature and the underwater world, and her positioning of figures gives a sense of the vastness of the ocean. However, the calmness of Tanner’s ocean scenes is violently disrupted when the baby takes the bait. The sudden change to dark colours and the diagonal lines of the fish darting away express panic and fear, in sharp contrast to the tranquillity created on other pages. Charles Keeping, a master of mood and atmosphere, uses dark sombre colours to reflect Joseph’s moods in his story Joseph’s Yard. Only flashes of colour appear throughout, expressing Joseph’s fleeting moments of happiness and joy. Keeping uses vertical lines to emphasise Joseph’s sense of loss, loneliness and despair, and diagonal lines to show the fierce winds and snowfalls. Quite the opposite is Janet and Allan Ahlberg’s Each Peach Pear Plum. Here warm, happy colours present a cosy atmosphere to their young audience. Characters are rounded and rosy-cheeked to evoke a sense of comfort and friendship, and the use of vignettes (miniatures) allows the audience a further glimpse into this fantasy world.

Children’s literature

Involving children in exploring and analysing literature The books the teacher selects to read aloud also influence the books children choose to read themselves. Reading books aloud allows the teacher to demonstrate processes that pairs or groups of students may engage in later. For example, when reading books on princes or princesses, teachers might read traditional versions of fairytales and ask questions such as: ‘What words in the text tell you about the princess or prince?’, ‘What was the problem in this story?’ A possible modification of this proforma for group or individual work for young children could be:

• • • • •

Children may read the books with reading partners and question each other on princess features. Pairs may read a collection of princess parody books and present the ways these books differ to the class. Pairs may write their own parody of a princess story. Pairs may brainstorm lists of characters left out of traditional princess stories. Pairs can complete a chart of stereotypic features and nonstereotypic features in princess parody tales.

In all discussions about picture books, simple structures such as think/ pair/share will encourage more talk. Interviews of characters by children, panels and activities such as 20 questions all increase the amount of discussion. Figure 5.4 Exploring and analysing children’s literature Title of story Characters Describe the character Illustrations Problem Resolution

Pictures and words in narrative picture books Many picture books ‘create a playing field where the reader explores the experiments with relationships between words and pictures (Wolfenbarger & Sipe 2007, p. 274). According to Wolfenbarger and Sipe there are at least five ways that words and pictures interact in narrative picture books:

• •

symmetry—the words and pictures are on an equal footing complementary—each provides information

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• • •

enhancement—each extends the meaning of the other counterpoint—words and pictures tell different stories contradiction—beyond different narratives, the words and pictures seem to assert the opposite of each other.

Visual analysis of picture books When words and pictures work together, complementing and enhancing each other, there are opportunities to develop children’s critical analysis of the visual design features of picture books such as the colour, size and shape of the illustrations, front and back covers, the end papers, title page and so on. In the book The Napping House (Don Wood & Audrey Wood), children notice that the colour of the book changes over time, beginning with dark end paper and moving to bright sunny colours. The images provide the words with colour, shape and form that they would otherwise lack. Reading images and words simultaneously, children move across and through artists’ and authors’ carefully designed forms and content. The perspective of the illustration reveals the point of view or who is telling the story. Many teachers explore how vectors or directional lines focus attention, for example, when the ‘wild things’ looked at Max the children were shown that the ‘wild things’ deferred to Max as their king. The foreground and background also contribute to the visual story. Figure 5.5 Visual analysis of picture books Colour

Mood and emotion Cultural significance such as the meaning of red, gold and black in various cultures

Perspective

Depth and dimension Point of view

Vectors

Directional ‘lines’ to focus the reader’s attention on various aspects such as the direction of the eye gaze to make the reader notice an object

Foreground

Giving power by positioning, for example the important elements are placed at the front

Background

Creates the setting or scene and can show less important objects or people

Counterpoints and contradictions It is when the words and the pictures tell different stories or interrupt the regular narrative pattern that picture books can be an even richer resource for critical literacy.

Children’s literature

Counterpoints Counterpoints occur when the words and pictures tell different stories and an example of this is Come Away From the Water Shirley (John Burningham). In this book, one page shows the words and pictures from the parent’s point of view and on the opposite page is Shirley’s fantasy world. So we can read the parents’ story with cautions to stay clean and tidy in words and pictures and Shirley’s story as a vivid adventure which her parents have no idea about, and we can also explore Shirley’s relationship with her parents. Contradictions When the traditional narrative structure is interrupted—as in many postmodern picture books—the author works against a linear storytelling pattern. This is where the story may begin as a traditional narrative and then the author or the characters take over and change the traditional story. For example in Wolves (Emily Gravett), the wolf pursues the rabbit, with the wolf getting larger and larger, until near the conclusion the rabbit disappears, presumably eaten. In the last pages, the author steps in and writes that there should be an alternative ending. With scraps of crumpled paper from a torn-up earlier draft of the story, the author creates a happier ending. Similarly in the award-winning book The Three Pigs (David Wiesner) the pigs take over the story and make their own adventure. In The Stinky Cheeseman (Jon Scieszka & Lane Smith), many fairytales are bent out of shape and recur in a new telling of the fairytale.

Many new picture books fall into the category of narratives that contradict or rework the traditional narrative. Such books include the True Story of the Three Pigs (Jon Scieszka & Lane Smith) from the wolf ’s point of view and Voices in the Park (Anthony Browne), told from various points of view. Books that present different points of view offer opportunities for teaching critical analysis by using questions to which young children can relate, for example: Who is telling this story? What is the author’s message? What is left out? What is the author trying to get me to think?

Critical literacy Critical literacy involves the analysis and critique of the relationships among texts, language, power, social groups and social practices. It shows us ways of looking at written, visual, spoken, multimedia and performance texts to question and challenge the attitudes, values and beliefs that lie beneath the surface. Critical literacy includes:

• •

examining meaning within texts considering the purpose for the text and the author’s motives

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• • • • • • •

understanding that texts are not neutral, that they represent particular views, silence other points of view and influence people’s ideas questioning and challenging the ways in which texts have been constructed analysing the power of language in contemporary society emphasising multiple readings of texts—because people interpret texts in the light of their own beliefs and values, texts will have different meanings to different people having students take a stance on issues providing students with opportunities to consider and clarify their own attitudes and values providing students with opportunities to take social action.

Figure 5.6 Reading to children

Children’s literature

Storytelling Another way of immersing children in literacy and creating a languagerich environment is to share stories. Human beings have always told stories; folk tales, fairytales, myths and legends are all part of our oral history. Traditionally, stories were told to pass knowledge on from one generation to the next. Stories of hunts and battles were used to thrill and inspire and give meaning to the world. Such stories were often accompanied by song or dance, or drawings in the sand, but the art was in the telling itself. The hands, voice and facial expressions were used with artistry and skill to stir the imagination and evoke powerful emotions. Through stories, tellers connect with their listeners, transporting them to another time or place; they pass on information and, of course, provide entertainment and pleasure. The mass production of books and printed material has led to a rapid decline in the art of storytelling, but many would argue it is making a comeback. Telling stories is completely different from reading aloud. There are no pictures or text to focus on, props such as puppets or a toy may make a brief appearance, but just as it was in times gone by, the art is in the telling. Smyth (2005, p. 11), talks of the voice, body, hands, face and particularly the eyes as being the tools of a storyteller. The eyes can be very powerful, creating surprise, wonder, fear, happiness and sadness, and be used to make contact with every listener. How the voice is used also adds to a story: the tone can reflect the mood of each tale, the volume adds emphasis and drama and ensures you capture each audience member, and the pace adds meaning and effect. However, the telling is also done with silence: pausing for effect can be a powerful tool—it builds suspense and gives the audience time to think and reflect. Stories can be told to all ages, but sharing stories with young children is particularly rewarding. Storytelling helps develop language and literacy skills, expands children’s vocabulary and comprehension skills, and helps them become more active listeners. Children are introduced to the complexities of the English language as well as being able to delight in its rhythm, rhyme, exaggeration, alliteration and onomatopoeia. Louise Phillips, from the Australian Storytelling website, says that stories can help children develop:

• • • • • • • • •

an understanding of human nature an understanding of feelings an awareness of the role characteristics people assume an understanding of sequence language skills (vocabulary, grammar, syntax and pronunciation) their attention span and their ability to listen their ability to follow instructions their ability to cooperate with others an understanding of concepts (Phillips 1996).

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A story stirs the child’s imagination, allows them to experience many emotions, and encourages their own creativity—for anyone can be a storyteller. Stories can be based on everyday life, actual events, myths and legends, fairytales, children’s picture books or made up entirely. Stories can be inspired by a memory, an event, a smell, a toy, or someone else’s tale, and everyone should be encouraged to tell their stories. Children particularly like to hear stories about things, people or places they know—especially themselves. Stories about when they were a baby, when they did something clever, or about their own families or pets have children squirming with delight. They also like to be involved: they can chant with you, call out a repeated line each time, or dance if the story calls for it. Children also enjoy hearing personal stories about the adult storyteller—when they did something silly or embarrassing, when they were young, or when something funny happened to them. Stories with humour, sound effects, lots of repetition and characters with funny voices are always appealing. Stories from other cultures can be particularly inspiring, not to mention educational. Stories from indigenous groups lend themselves perfectly to telling, since they have always been told, and it is only recently that they have been written down and published. Such stories need to be chosen with care though, as telling stories of sacred places may offend, and where possible the tribal group should be acknowledged as the traditional owners of the tale. Children need to know that stories are told in every corner of the globe and have been passed down for hundreds of years, but choosing the right story for the ages, interests and attention span of the group is particularly important. Stories shared with young children need to be simple and clear with quick action and a happy resolution, especially if the story is scary or sad. Tellers need to choose stories they enjoy themselves as they need to be told with joy and enthusiasm. Storytellers should know their stories well, but not memorise word for word, to ensure the story flows. Stories are dynamic and ever evolving, almost with a life of their own, as they change each time they are told.

Types of stories to tell There are many different types of stories. McKay and Dudley (1996) write that the most important consideration when choosing a tale to tell is whether you like it enough to tell it with enthusiasm. Stories should communicate a need to be told. Some of the different categories of stories available to storytellers are:

•

fables—short moral stories not based on fact, using animals as characters, such as Aesop’s Fables: ‘The Fox and the Grapes’, ‘The Lion and the Mouse’ and others

Children’s literature

•

• • • • • • •

fairytales—the best-known are Grimm’s fairytales about imaginary folk, such as elves, giants, witches, gnomes and fairies. Closer to home is ‘Mary and the Leprechaun’, by Irish-Australian writer John Kelly folk tales—traditional stories in which ordinary people gain special insight, transforming them and enabling them to overcome extraordinary obstacles, for example The Magic Orange Tree & Other Haitian Folktales by Diane Wolkstein legends—stories based on the life of a real person in which events are depicted as larger than life, for example the stories of Robin Hood, or King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table myths—stories about gods and heroes, explaining the workings of nature and human nature, for example the Greek myths parables—fictitious stories told to point to a moral, for example, ‘The Sower and the Seed’ from the New Testament personal stories—life stories from your own or your family’s experience religious stories—historical and philosophical stories based on a particular culture and religious persuasion, for example, the story of Lazarus from the Bible tall tales—exaggerated stories, often humorous such as fishing stories, or Australian bush stories like ‘The Loaded Dog’ by Henry Lawson traditional tales—stories handed down orally from generation to generation, such as the Polynesian stories.

Tips for telling stories • • • • • • • •

Choose a story you enjoy and make it come alive. Have fun! Build up a repertoire of different types of stories from many different sources that you can call on at any time. Practise well beforehand, know the plot and sequence, and what parts to emphasise. Practise using your eyes, body and hand gestures to add expression. Practise using your voice—tone, volume, pace—as well as creating character voices to provide expression, humour, suspense and drama. Plan how you will create mood, evoke emotions and involve the audience. Make sure the story suits the audience, their age, interests and emotional level. Decide if you need props, but remember it is you and the story you want your audience to focus on, so keep them simple:

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• • •

a bag of ‘tricks’ with things to tell a story about, for example. toys, artefacts, puppets a special hat/cloak/jacket that helps you ‘become’ the storyteller candles, coloured cloth and so on to make the storytelling place a special one.

Choosing and using children’s literature Award winners and children’s choices Children’s literature specialists select books based on literary merit, but when children are asked about the book they like best they choose different books from adults. In the United States the International Reading Association and the Children’s Book Council have over 10 000 children evaluate the books published during the year. This evaluation, described by a children’s literature researcher, shows that children:

• • • • • • •

choose books with fast-paced plots like lots of detail—detail interests them more than specific topics like lots of description of setting and character, particularly in novels like all kinds of plots—cause-and-effect plots do not dominate do not like sad books seem to like books that teach a lesson but not overly didactic moralising like warmth in books—they enjoy books where the characters like each other, express their feelings in things they do and say, and sometimes act selflessly.

Beginning readers, who may be aged 3 to 6 and sometimes older, like comical stories about seemingly realistic family situations, traditional folk and fairytales, humorous animal stories, stories that develop emotional experiences, action-filled fantasies, counting books, rhymes and riddles. Many young readers aged 5 to 8 like realistic stories about families, friends, school and personal problems. Animal stories, fast-paced adventures, folk tales and humorous stories are also favourites. All readers appear to like information books about health and animals, and biographical stories about sports stars. Teachers may find that children also read comics, cartoons and catalogues and these, too, are an important part of the literacy curriculum.

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Dialogic reading Dialogic reading is a way of expanding adult–child interactions with books. It has been shown to greatly increase children’s long-term oral language development and the process of early literacy (Arnold et al. 1994). The adult—either parent or teacher—encourages the child to talk about the book read. The book can be read many times, up to four times in one week. The adult encourages any attempt by the child to talk. Dialogic reading is based on the principles shown in Figure 5.7. Figure 5.7 Dialogic reading Goal for the child

Procedure for the adult

Noun labels

Ask ‘what’ questions, not ‘yes/no’ pointing questions

Attribute and function labels

Follow the child’s answers with questions (colour, parts, or what object is doing or what it is used for)

Turn-taking

Repeat what the child says to indicate child is correct

Multi-word expressions

Ask open-ended questions: ‘What is going on here?’ ‘What do you see on this page?’

Story and picture structure

Expand what the child says and model slightly more advanced language

Have fun

Praise and encourage Have fun

In dialogic reading, the adult encourages the children or child to talk about the book and, particularly, what the child wants to talk about. The adult shadows the children’s interests; however, to keep the flow of enjoyment, at times simply reads the book, and pauses now and then, but the idea is to talk whenever possible. Dialogic reading can be used to enhance children’s language and literacy development and can be modelled to parents. The benefits are an increase in oral language, particularly vocabulary and comprehension, scaffolding of children’s emergent literacy and greater enjoyment of books.

The classroom library Classroom library books need to be changed regularly and can be selected around children’s interests or themes. Duke and Bennett-Armistead (2003) suggest the books read aloud to children follow a genre-diversification framework—one-third narrative including personal recounts, onethird information genres and one-third other genres such as poetry and biography. The teacher may read a variety of genres over several days. They do not advocate a ‘genre a month’, as children need to draw on a

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number of different genres for their work, and revisit many things as they grow and change. The genre-diversification framework for selecting texts is used in language arts as well as in content areas.

Top literature teaching activities

Readers’ theatre In readers’ theatre, the children divide up the text to read aloud. They might read the direct speech of a character and have a narrator read the indirect speech. The can read sections, pages or paragraphs in turn. Readers’ theatre can be practised several times so the performance is polished or it can be more informal and casual. Sound effects and character masks can be used. Good books for beginning readers’ theatre include traditional tales such as The Gingerbread Man and The Three Little Pigs.

Chalk talk In a chalk talk one child reads or tells a story while the other draws the events that occur. Crayons or markers can be used instead of chalk, and interactive whiteboards can be used instead of paper. Chalk talk stories are best if they are rehearsed, so the main parts of the story can be illustrated in sequence as the story is being read or told.

Roll movie A roll movie consists of several pieces of paper joined together and rolled through a cardboard box that has been cut out to resemble a television set. Children illustrate each event in the story on separate pages then join the pages in a long roll. They can take it in turns to read the story while others wind the story through the box, page by page.

Puppets Puppets are used in telling and retelling stories. They can be simple cardboard pictures on a stick, for example when retelling Brown Bear Brown Bear, or more complex such as a caterpillar than turns into a butterfly to be used with The Very Hungry Caterpillar.

Story maps After listening to a story children, children draw the events that occur in sequence. For example, for Little Red Riding Hood, they might draw Red Riding Hood leaving home, meeting the wolf, going to grandma’s house and finding the wolf, and the wolf running away when the hunter comes.

Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s literature

Figure 5.8 Examples of story maps

Making books There are several kinds of books that children can make. Concertina books are made from an A4 sheet folded like a concertina with the events drawn on each section of the folded paper. An A4 sheet can be folded in four and cut to make pages. Small or larger pages can be stapled together and pages can be cut out to make shapes such as circles, triangles or rectangles.

Other books by the author Finding other books by the author can lead to comparing similarities and differences and to more reading of similar books, for example try books by Pamela Allen, Mem Fox, Tomi dePaola, Eric Carle, Dr Seuss. For more ideas go to the Internet School Library Media Center http://falcon.jmu. edu/~ramseyil/index.html

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Award-winning books

Children’s Book of the Year Award (Australia) www.cbc.org.au The first Australian Children’s Book of the Year Award was made in 1946. A category for picture books was created in 1952 and for early childhood in 2001. The judges assess entries for the awards primarily for literary merit, and they also consider quality of illustrations, book design, production, printing and binding. Picture books category 2011: J Baker, Mirror, Walker Books, and joint winner N Greenburg, Hamlet, Allen & Unwin 2010: G Rogers, The Hero of Little Street, Allen & Unwin 2009: K Dunstan, Collecting Colour, Lothian Children’s Books, Hachette 2008: M Ottley, Requiem for a Beast, Lothian Hachette Livre Australia 2007: S Tan, The Arrival, Lothian Books 2006: A Lissiat, The Short and Incredibly Happy Life of Riley, Lothian 2005: A Lester, Are We There Yet? A Journey Around Australia, Viking, Penguin Books 2004: J Grant (illustrated by Neil Curtis), Cat and Fish, Lothian Books, Melbourne Early childhood category 2011: J Ormerod, Maudie and Bear, Little Hare Books 2010: L Shanahan, Bear & Chook by the Sea, Lothian Children’s Books, Hachette 2009: B Graham, How to Heal a Broken Wing, Walker Books 2008: A Blabey, Pearl Barley and Charlie Parsley, Penguin 2007: L Gleeson, Amy & Louis, Scholastic Press, Scholastic Australia, illustrated by Freya Blackwood 2006: D Niland, Annie’s Chair, Viking, Penguin 2005: M Fox, Where is the Green Sheep?, Viking, Penguin Books 2004: P Allen, Grandpa and Thomas, Penguin

Caldecott Medal (US) www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/caldecottmedal/caldecotthonors/caldecottmedal.cfm The Randolph Caldecott Medal is awarded annually to the artist of the most distinguished American picture book for children and is administered by the Association for Library Service to Children. 2011: P Stead (illustrated by E Stead), A Sick Day for Amos McGee, Roaring Brook Press 2010: J Pinkney, The Lion & the Mouse, Little Brown Books for Young Readers 2009: B Krommes, The House in the Night, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

Children’s literature

2008: B Selznick, The Invention of Hugo Cabret, Scholastic 2007: D Wiesner, Flotsam, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 2006: C Raschka, The Hello, Goodbye Window, Hyperion Books for Children 2005: K Henkes, Kitten’s First Full Moon, HarperCollins Publishers 2004: M Gerstein, The Man Who Walked Between The Towers, Roaring Brook Press/ Millbrook Press

Elizabeth Mrazik-Cleaver Award (Canada) www.ibby-canada.org This award was established in 1986 in honour of Elizabeth Cleaver (1932– 1985), a well-known Canadian illustrator, and is presented annually to a Canadian illustrator whose work on a new book is deemed both original and worthy. 2010: J Flett, Owls See Clearly at Night: A Michif Alphabet (Lii Yiiboo Nayaapiwak lii Swer: L’Alfabet di Michif), Simply Read Books 2009: Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (illustrated by O Lipchenko) Lewis Carroll, Tundra Books 2008: La Clé (illustrated by Angèle Delaunois), Éditions de l’Isatis 2007: The Owl and the Pussycat (illustrated by Stéphane Jorisch), Kids Can Press 2006: J Clark (illustrated by K MacDonald Denton), Snow, Groundwood Books 2005: The Lady of Shalott (illustrated by G Côté), Kids Can Press 2004: Un Chant de Noël (illustrated by S Poulin), Dominique et Compagnie/Les editions Heritage

Kate Greenway Medal (UK) www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk The Kate Greenaway Medal was established by the Library Association in 1955, for distinguished illustration in a book for children. It is named after the popular 19th-century artist known for her fine children’s illustrations and designs. 2011: G Baker-Smith, FArTHER, Templar 2010: F Blackwood, Harry & Hopper, Scholastic 2009: C Rayner, Harris Finds His Feet, Little Tiger Press 2008: E Gravett, Little Mouse’s Big Book of Fears, Macmillan 2007: M Grey, The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon, Random House 2006: E Gravatt, Wolves, Macmillan 2005: C Riddell, Jonathan Swift’s ‘Gulliver’ (text by Martin Jenkins), Walker 2004: S Hughes, Ella’s Big Chance, The Bodley Head, 2003: B Graham, Jethro Byrde - Fairy Child, Walker Books 2002: R Platt (illustrated by Chris Riddell), Pirate Diary, Walker Books 2001: L Child, I Will Not Ever Never Eat a Tomato, Orchard Books

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New Zealand Post Book Award (NZ) www.nzpostbookawards.co.nz The New Zealand Post Children’s Book Awards (formerly the AIM Children’s Book Awards) recognises the excellent range and quality of New Zealand children’s books published annually. Picture book category 2011: M Mahy & D Elliot, The Moon & Farmer McPhee, Random House 2010: K Mewburn & R Driscoll, Old Hu-Hu, Scholastic New Zealand 2009: S Sutton & B Lovelock, Roadworks, Walker Books 2008: J Cowley & G Bishop, Snake and Lizard, Gecko Press 2007: K Mewburn (illustrated by A Teo and J O’Reilly), Kiss! Kiss! Yuck! Yuck!, Scholastic 2006: B Brown & H Taylor, Booming in the Night, Reed 2005: K De Goldi & J Colley Clubs: A Lolly Leopold Story, Trapeze 2004: P Allen, Cuthbert’s Babies, Penguin 2003: D Elliot, Pigtails the Pirate, Random House 2002: J Cowley (illustrated by Chris Mousdale), Brodie, Scholastic

Chapter summary Teachers and parents can read books aloud that are at a level beyond what children can read independently. Reading aloud builds children’s enjoyment of books, literary language, vocabulary and knowledge about how to read. The language in books may be highly decontextualised or removed from the here and now and this is different from spoken language. Good picture books have several features that all work together to be effective. The characters, plot, setting, point of view, illustrations and format must capture children’s interest and imagination. The visual techniques used in the illustrations can be analysed for colour, texture, line, perspective, design and point of view. Storytelling is a more intimate way of engaging children with story and this, combined with props such as puppets, toys and other dramatic artefacts, helps builds children’s love of language. Award-winning books can be explored as well as books by favourite authors. If a child hears a book read each day, by the age of 5 they will have heard 1825 stories.

CHAPTER 6

Phonological awareness

‘When I use a word,’ Humpty Dumpty said in rather a scornful tone, ‘it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more nor less.’ ‘The question is,’ said Alice, ‘whether you can make words mean different things.’ ‘The question is,’ said Humpty Dumpty, ‘which is to be master—that’s all.’ Alice was much too puzzled to say anything, so after a minute Humpty Dumpty began again. ‘They’ve a temper, some of them—particularly verbs, they’re the proudest …’

(Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland)

Young children’s language development is playful, and occurs at an awesome speed. Babies begin to play with the sounds of spoken language from birth. Within the first few weeks, babies distinguish and prefer the overall sound pattern of their own native language to that of other languages (Berk 2003). Within a few months they coo and experiment with making sounds, and they respond to the sounds in the environment. They soon begin to make fine distinctions between sounds in human language such as ‘ma’ and ‘da’. These small sounds are called phonemes, and they are the smallest speech sounds that can be perceived.

Phonological awareness and early literacy Phonology refers to the sound structure of speech and the way the sounds of language operate and are produced.

Phonological awareness refers to the ability to mentally manipulate words, syllables and sounds in spoken language (Goldsworthy 2010). The relationship between phonological awareness and later reading and spelling abilities is well documented (National Early Literacy Panel 2008; Gillon 2004). The phonological aspects of a language include intonation, stress and timing as well as attending to words, syllables and phonemes. Phonological awareness of intonation, stress and timing is involved when children listen to nursery rhymes, jingles and songs. Refrains such as those in The Three Little Pigs are effective because of the stress and emphasis placed on particular words and the importance of the timing for saying the refrain.

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The wolf huffed And he puffed And he blew The house down. The individual words huffed and puffed sound the same except for the initial phonemes /h/ and /p/. Enjoying rhymes, noticing sound differences (huffed and puffed) in words and clapping the beat of syllables are indications of phonological awareness. Phonological awareness can develop through word play with sounds in language like ‘scary hairy fairy’, and this captivates many young children. This captivation with sounds continues as children listen to and repeat jingles, nursery rhymes and popular songs. Their awareness of and fascination with sounds enables them to identify and play with rhyme, alliteration, words and sounds that are part of their spoken language. If we pay attention to children’s spoken language—how they speak and what they are aware of in spoken language—then we will have useful information to build on when they begin to learn to read and write. When children begin to read and write they require an understanding of how the sounds of spoken language work.

Phonemic awareness Phonological awareness is the umbrella term and involves stress and intonation as well as phonemes. Phonemic awareness is a specific term that focuses on small units of sound that affect meaning, such as the three phonemes /d/, /o/ and /g/ in the spoken word dog. Phonemic awareness is the awareness that phonemes exist as abstract and manipulable components of spoken language, and is a small but important part of learning to read and write. Measures of preschoolers’ levels of phonemic awareness strongly predict their future success in learning to read, and this has been demonstrated not only for English, but also for Swedish, Spanish, French, Italian and Russian …[Phonemic awareness] may be the most important core and causal factor separating normal and disabled readers (Adams 1990, pp. 304–5).

Several reviews of scientifically based research studies have highlighted the importance of phonological awareness and phonemic awareness. The National Reading Panel (NRP 2000) recommended five essential components of reading instruction—phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. The National Early Literacy Panel (NELP 2008) identified the early precursors of school success in literacy and found that children’s phonological awareness was predictive of later school success in decoding, spelling and comprehension.

Phonological awareness

Phonemic awareness is the insight that every spoken word can be conceived of a sequence of phonemes.

But do children learn to be aware of phonemes in phonemic awareness training programs or in rich language activities with conversations about topics of interest to them? Dickinson, Golinkoff and Hirsh-Pasek (2010) argue that oral language is pervasive and multidimensional in the way it affects later literacy development. Oral language includes phonological awareness, and it is tempting to implement narrow phonological programs to boost early literacy development. However, such programs do not attend to the broad language structures and rich interactions needed to learn to read and write. Research by Dickinson and Sprague (2001) documented the rarity of children’s extended conversations in kindergarten. When extended conversations did occur, the researchers found that two aspects were associated with positive end-of-kindergarten language assessments: the teachers’ use of rare words and their ability to limit how much they said and, hence, listen to what children were saying. Rich discussions about topics or themes of interest to children, plus attention to how language works and the sounds of language, not only encourage awareness of phonemes but also vocabulary development and comprehension—which all play a part in early literacy development. Phonemic awareness is also required for invented spelling in early writing (Richgels 2002, p. 149). Hearing that there are words with spaces between them is important for early writing, where there are physical spaces between words, and linked to this is awareness of syllables within words such as breakfast or pony. Word awareness and syllables are important for breaking the flow of language into word segments. Awareness of similar sounds—as at the beginning of words such as beach and ball—is necessary for learning the sound-and-letter correspondence of initial letters in phonics. Rhyme at the end of a word such as day–away or fly–buy also helps with word identification in reading and being able to write words not seen before. Finally, being able to hear the sounds in words such as beach, which sounds like /b/ /e– / /ch/, helps children to learn letter–sound relationships. Phonemic awareness is the insight that every spoken word can be conceived of as a sequence of phonemes. Because phonemes are represented by the letters of an alphabet, an awareness of phonemes is the key to understanding the logic of the alphabetic principle and thus to the learnability of phonics and reading (Snow, Burns & Griffin 1998, p. 52). Phonemic awareness is a necessary prerequisite for phonics instruction. Many conventional phonics programs were built on the assumption that children had phonemic awareness—for example, when a teacher says, ‘The letter “s” represents the sound /s/’. But if children don’t have phonemic awareness they are unable to use this information about letter ‘s’ and sound /s/. However, once instruction in reading and writing begins, both phonemic awareness and print knowledge increase. The more children read and write, the more their knowledge of letters and sounds develops in an interactive process.

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So it is rich language discussion about topics of interest to children that is important. Through such discussions children learn language, learn through language and learn about language. Learning about language means attending to the sounds of language, which includes phonemic awareness as well as language structures such as syntax and language meanings.

Phonemes in English Figure 6.1 The common phonemes in the English language / a / cat / A / Kate / aw / caught, fought / b / bat / ch / chug / d / dug / e / bed / E / bead / f / feed / g / got

/ h / hot / i / hit / I / height / j / Jake / k / cake / l / lake / m / make / n / win / ng / wing / o / cot

/ O / coat / oi / boy / oo / look / OO / flute, shoot / ow / shout / p / pat / r / rat / s / sat / sh / ship / t / tip

/ th / thing / TH / this / u / cut / U / cute / v / vine / w / wine / wh / whisper / y / yes / z / zoo / zh / treasure

Note: In this table the / A / notation is used for the long vowel sound. Elsewhere in this book the /a– / notation is used. Source: Adapted from McGee & Richgels 2004

Any phoneme list is dialect sensitive and sounds can be pronounced differently in other places. In Figure 6.1:

• • • •

there is no ‘c’ sound as ‘c’ usually spells /k/ (cat) or /s/ (city) there is no ‘q’ sound as ‘qu’ usually spells the two sounds /k/ + /w/ (quick) there is no ‘x’ sound as ‘x’ usually spells the two sounds /k/ + /s/ (box) or the /z/ sound (xylophone) some phonemes are combinations of others. The /I/ phoneme is really /ah/ + /E/. The /oi/ phoneme is /O/ + /E/. The /U/ phoneme is really /y/ + /OO/ in cute.

Figure 6.1 has 40 phonemes, although many sources give 44 as the number of English phonemes. The list does not include the schwa sound for the vowel sound in an unstressed syllable such as about, button, roses; however, the schwa sound is the same as the short ‘u’ sound in /uh/ in cut. Other lists include the vowels followed by /r/ which slightly changes the way the sound is pronounced.

Phonological awareness

The development of phonemic awareness Phonemic awareness is the consciousness that phonemes exist as abstract manipulable components of language. It is the conscious attention to the sounds in words. For example, most babies make phoneme distinctions between speech sounds, and can discriminate very early on between ‘ba’ and ‘pa’ which have one phoneme that is different. Babies begin to practise the phonemes of their language, quickly moving on to the abilities to produce them in speech. As young children develop, they become so fluent with oral language that they learn not to attend to the individual phonemes, which frees them up to concentrate on the higher order meanings and the nuances of language. They only need to go back and remember the phonemes when they begin learning to read an alphabetic script. And here ‘we must learn to attend to that which we have learned not to attend to’ (Adams 1990, p. 66). Children develop an increasing awareness of the phonemes in spoken language as they begin to attend to words, syllables, rhyme and alliteration. Words Phonemic awareness involves awareness of words and word spaces in oral language. When children speak they usually do not concentrate on the fact that they are producing individual words. For example, a child might say ‘We went to the beach’, but when beginning to write they may write: Wewettthebech As children develop awareness of words and sounds, they learn that words have spaces between them. This awareness of words and of the spaces between them in spoken and written language is helpful for spelling, writing and reading. Syllables Some words have one syllable or beat like cat and Ann while others have two or more syllables like can-dle and San-dy. Becoming aware of the syllables in words helps children to write and read compound words like birthday and words with several syllables like umbrella. Rhyme When children become aware of rhyme they understand that the terminal sounds of words agree, or rhyme. Many children enjoy chanting raps and jingles and noticing the words that rhyme. For example, one of the main appeals for children of the

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Dr Seuss books is the rhyme. Research suggests that knowledge of the rhyme in traditional nursery rhymes is related to the development of more abstract phonological skills and emergent reading abilities (Maclean, Bryant & Bradley 1987). However, raps, chants, jingles and popular songs can be used in the same way to explore rhyme. Some teachers prefer to use onset and rime when exploring words that rhyme. The teacher may say: ‘What is the first sound in dog?’ Child: d Teacher: What is the last sound in dog? Child: og Onset is the consonant before the vowel, ‘d’. Rime is the vowel and other letters in the syllable ‘og’. This is done orally. See page 247 for more on onset and rime. Alliteration Alliteration occurs when two or more words of a word group begin with the same sound. To develop awareness of alliteration the teacher might ask ‘What is the first sound you hear in these words: book, bed, baby, bottle; or lovely licky lollipops?’

Analysis of phonemes Analysis of phonemes means the actual isolation of sounds in words. For example, the teacher may explore children’s understanding of phonemic awareness by saying particular words and asking children to listen for and identify beginning, middle or final sounds. This is a complex activity and sometimes completion of the task relies on having a good memory rather than on the child’s ability to hear sounds. Some teachers talk about ‘stretching’ words to hear their sounds more clearly: www-eee-kkk. When children begin to write and invent the spelling of words they learn to stretch out words like ww-ee-kkk-e-nn-ddd when writing the word weekend.

Phonemic awareness levels of task difficulty There are several levels of difficulty in phonemic awareness, and the following is a summary of phonemic awareness tasks in order of difficulty.

1 2

Hearing sounds in words when listening to rhymes, jingles and chants. Oddity tasks where children hear rhyme or alliteration of sounds. The child focuses on the components of sounds that make

Phonological awareness

3 4 5

them the same or different. For example, ‘Are these words the same or different: cat – cat, dog – dig?’ Syllable splitting where words are subdivided into syllables. In these tasks children must hear and produce sounds in isolation, for example kit-ten, bot-tle. Phoneme segmentation tasks where words can be analysed into a series of phonemes, for example h-a-t and b-a-g. Phoneme manipulation tasks where children can add, delete or move any designated phoneme and regenerate a word from the result. For example, ‘What word would we have if we took the /s/ from smile? If we added /t/ to rip what word would we have?’

The last two levels, phoneme segmentation and phoneme manipulation, are generally unattainable by children who have not received formal reading instruction in preschool and school.

Assessing phonemic awareness The following assessment tasks are usually used with children aged from 4 to 6 years. The phonemic awareness tasks are given orally, and children listen to the tasks. They are useful for finding out whether children are aware of the sounds in words and then for planning teaching that relates to what children need to learn.

Quick assessment—phonemic awareness The assessment procedure shown in Figure 6.2 can be used to assess children’s awareness of the spoken word, syllables, alliteration, rhyme and sound segmenting. Each item scores one point if correct.

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Figure 6.2 Assessing phonemic awareness

Word: Place a counter for each word you hear

Fay has a big black dog. Correct response: 6 counters Syllable: Clap at each syllable or beat in a word.

finger man pony Correct response: 2 claps, 1 clap, 2 claps Alliteration: Tell me what is the same about these words.

four

fingers five

Correct response: ‘They begin with the /f/ sound’ Alliteration: Tell me the word that does not have the same first sound.

sun sat dog Correct response: dog Rhyme: Say a word that rhymes with these words.

fish dish day say Correct response: any ‘ish’ word and any ‘ay’ ‘eigh’,’ a-e’ word or word with the long ‘a’ sound. Phoneme: What sounds do you hear in these words?

fin happy Correct response: / f / / i / / n /; / h / / a / / p / / e– /

Score:

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Word differentiation assessment (adapted from Kemp 1987, pp. 62–5)

Purpose The word differentiation assessment requires the child to listen to the teacher as pairs of words of similar sounds are read aloud. Children are asked to detect similar initial, final and medial sounds within complete words. Hearing the sounds in words is necessary for building an understanding of the relationship between letters and the sounds they represent. Procedure The child listens to the pairs of words (see Figure 6.3) and, on a copy of the response sheet provided (see Figure 6.4), marks ‘S’ if they believe that the words in the pair sound the same, or ‘D’ if they are perceived as sounding different. The response sheet is placed in front of the child, who writes their name and the date in the places provided. The teacher says: ‘I am going to say two words at a time. Sometimes the words will be exactly the same. Sometimes the words will be a bit different. If they sound the same, I want you to put a ring around “S” on your sheet. If they sound different, I want you to put a ring around “D” on your sheet. Let’s have a practice run.’ The teacher continues: ‘Point to P’ at the top of the first column. Now listen to the two words: me ... may (leave a pause of 2 seconds between the words). Were they the same or different?’ If the child says ‘Different’, the teacher says: ‘Yes, they were different. Show me where you would draw a ring around “D” for “different”.’ The teacher continues with the remaining two practice pairs. The teacher then says: ‘Now we will go ahead with the rest. Listen carefully to each number, then draw a ring around “S” if the words sound the same or “D” if they sound different. I will start with number 1 and will keep going all the way through the list. Put your finger on each number as I say it, so that you will keep up with me.’ The teacher should produce the sounds clearly but with no exaggeration, keeping pitch, tone and volume the same, and as even as possible for each pair. The teacher should be seated directly in front of the child, who will generally be looking at the response sheet. If the child is inclined to look at the teacher’s lips say: ‘Look at the picture/point on the wall behind me when I am saying the words.’ Note that in some cases the listener may depend on watching the teacher in order to differentiate consonants. Keeping moving through the sections A, B and C, depending on the child’s ability to attend. Take breaks if necessary.

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Scoring At the end of the session, correct the child’s responses and list the wrongly identified sounds. If the numbers or types of errors appear to indicate that there is a weakness in sound differentiation, the teacher should arrange immediately for further assessment of hearing by a speech pathologist. Figure 6.3 Observational record for word differentiation Section A (phonemes: vowels) Practice P1 me … may P2 that … that P3 send … sand 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

seal … sell saw … saw pen … pan put … pot seat … sit down … down hole … hail car … car top … tap men … man who … how much … march

Section B (phonemes: vowels and consonants)

Section C (phonemes: consonants)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

bat … boat roof … rude then … den fool … fool not … not than … then cheap … cheat few … view took … take fetch … hedge choke … joke chip … chip pay … they

glass … class dips … dips drain … brain glue … grew brink … drink grab … grab lids … lids sprout … sprout dry … try pride … cried size … size beeps … beats grace … grapes paid … fade props … prods

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Figure 6.4 Word differentiation response sheet Name: Name of teacher: Date: Practice: P1 S P2 S P3 S

Level: 1

D D D

Section A Section B 1 S D 1 S D 2 S D 2 S D 3 S D 3 S D 4 S D 4 S D 5 S D 5 S D 6 S D 6 S D 7 S D 7 S D 8 S D 8 S D 9 S D 9 S D 10 S D 10 S D 11 S D 11 S D 12 S D 12 S D 13 S D

Section C 1 S D 2 S D 3 S D 4 S D 5 S D 6 S D 7 S D 8 S D 9 S D 10 S D 11 S D 12 S D 13 S D 14 S D 15 S D

Using pictures—phonemic awareness Teachers may prefer to use pictures and ask the child to identify the first sound in the word (see Figure 6.5). Children may not be able to write the corresponding letter, but they may be able to say the first sound in a word. The teacher can ask: ‘What sound does each picture start with?’ and then write down the sound.

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Figure 6.5 Pictures to identify initial sounds

Name:______________________________________________________ Date:________________________ What sound does each picture start with?

In-depth assessments The following six assessments can be given individually to assess all aspects of phonemic awareness. Assessment of phonemic awareness has to do with the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hearing of sounds and the child should not see the words. Use the example provided as a demonstration of how you want the child to respond. For each correct response, the child scores one point.

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Awareness of words Say the sentences, and ask the child to repeat the sentence and also put out a counter or a token for each word. For example, ‘I can see the dog’ (5 counters). Sentence

Counters

Score

This is fun I can see the cat There is rain on the grass Here is a blue flower The rabbit is eating a carrot /5

Awareness of syllables Say the word. Ask the child to repeat the word and clap on each syllable. For example: fishing (2 claps). Word

Claps

Score

finger dish sandwich holiday five /5

Awareness of alliteration Say the phrases. Ask the child to say what is the same about the beginning sound in the words. For example: Billy’s big ball (/b/). Phrase

Beginning sound

Score

Peter pats peacocks Happy hippo hit his head Fay’s five fantastic fish Cass catches coconut cakes Rosie’s rabbit ran /5

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Awareness of rhyme Say the word pairs. Ask the child to repeat the words and say if the words rhyme. For example: dog, log (yes). Words

Rhymes?

Score

red, bed nose, rose dog, cat went, tent man, monkey /5

Onset and rime Say the words. Ask the child to repeat the words and say the sounds that are the same in the words. For example: nut, cut (ut). Words

Sound

Score

fish, dish he, she can, man send, bend thin, shin /5

Segmenting phonemes Say the words. Have the child tell you the sounds in the word. For example: mat (/m/ /a/ /t/). Word

Sounds

Score

fat / f / / a / / t / ship / sh / / i / / p / long / l / / o / / n / / g / keep / k / / eâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; / / p / he / h / / eâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; / /5

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Detecting phonemes The children’s responses in the assessment in Figure 6.6 will provide information about the preferred strategy for discussing the sounds they hear in words. Do they say the sound? Do they spell or do they chunk the word into onset and rime? To begin, ask the child to listen to the word carefully. Say: ‘Listen to this word and say the sounds you can hear: dog. Yes, /d//o//g/. Now listen to these words and say the sounds you can hear.’ Do not let the children see the written words, as this is an auditory assessment to see how children detect phonemes in words. The teacher says the word, not the sound. The sounds are included for reference only. Figure 6.6 20 words for assessing phonemic awareness Say the word cat / c / / a / / t / pin / p / / i / / n / top / t / / o / / p / nose / n / / o– / / s / me / m / / e– / with / w / / i / / th / go / g / / o– / tough / t / / u / / f / went / w / / e / / n / / t / hunt / h / / u / / n / / t / ship / sh / / i / / p / jump / j / / u / / m / / p / by / b / / i / moon / m / / oo / / n / keep / k / / e– / / p / ape / a– / / p / jam / j / / a / / m / green / g / / r / / e– / / n / pine / p / / i / / n / chicken / ch / / i / / ck / / e / / n /

Record child’s response

Score

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Teaching activities Phonemic awareness has a part to play in the preschool curriculum when, although children may not be formally learning to read and write, they are engaging in language play, rhyme and rhythm. In the preschool and in the early years of school the challenge is to make awareness of phonemes engaging and interesting. Phonemic awareness can be taught through playful activities such as rhymes, rhythms, songs and games, and through the language that children bring to school. Phonemic awareness does not have to be an additional programâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;it should be an integral part of the literacy program where teachers and children pay attention to the sounds of language alongside other literacy activities. Many teachers support children to learn phonemic awareness by using pictures or images of objects or just the spoken word. If written letters or words are used, the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attention is likely to go to the symbol rather than focusing on the auditory sound.

Rhymes and songs Children enjoy chanting raps and jingles and noticing the words that rhyme. Traditional nursery rhymes can be used to talk about words that rhyme and words that begin with the same sound, and children can also clap the rhythm and clap the syllables in words. Raps, chants, advertising jingles and pop songs can be used in the same way to explore rhyming words, alliteration and phonemes. See Figure 6.7.

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Phonological awareness

Figure 6.7 Rhymes and songs for phonological awareness Strong rhythm This Old Man Hickory Dickory Dock Humpty Dumpty To Market, To Market The Bear Went Over the Mountain Are You Sleeping? Down by the Station London Bridge is Falling Down This is the Way the Farmer Rides Ride a Cock Horse to Banbury Cross Mary Had a Little Lamb Body part Heads Shoulders Knees and Toes This Little Pig Went to Market If You’re Happy and You Know It Finger plays Incy Wincy Spider Little Peter Rabbit One, Two, Three, Four, Five Once I Caught a Fish Alive Open Shut Them Round and Round the Garden Where is Thumbkin?

Clapping rhymes Miss Mary Mac, Mac, Mac Action songs Grand Old Duke of York Here We Go Up, Up, Up A Sailor Went to Sea, Sea, Sea The Wheels on the Bus Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star Johnny Works With One Hammer Songs Three Blind Mice Row, Row, Row Your Boat Jack and Jill Lullaby Hush Little Baby Cumulative and subtractive Five Little Ducks There Were Ten in the Bed One Man Went to Mow…

Paying attention to words

Making different sounds and listening Have children attend to and identify sounds you play on a tape recorder or produce with the help of musical instruments. The children listen carefully, with their eyes closed, and raise their hands when they know what the sound is or where it comes from. You may want to use tapes with animal sounds or make sounds by clapping, closing the door, or using the pencil sharpener or the stapler. You could record some sounds at home (telephone, alarm clock, doorbell, footsteps, drips, cars, dogs, cats, birds).

It doesn’t make sense For this activity, you modify some well-known rhymes, riddles and stories by reversing, substituting and swapping words. The children are invited to listen carefully and identify the part that has changed. For example:

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Twinkle, twinkle little bat Three blind dogs Humpty Dumpty sat on a car

Whisper your name Have one child become the listening child. Tell that child the name of another child in the classroom, and then blindfold the listening child. All the other children should stand in a circle and whisper their own names. The listening child is guided around the circle, listening for the name of the child that was told to them. When they hear the selected name, the listening child acknowledges the child and they change roles.

Describe a picture Describing different pictures can be a very beneficial activity for oral language development. Cut out pictures from magazines, advertisements and old books, and have children describe them. Use pictures with increasingly more complex themes. You may need to prompt children to elaborate on their descriptions: ‘Who or what is in the picture? What is its size? Tell me about the colour of the picture. When and where does the picture take place? Tell me about the shape of the picture. Tell me more about the background.’

Dramatise a story Read a simple or familiar storybook to the children. After the reading, distribute some materials that refer to the story and help children dramatise what has been read. For example, after reading Goldilocks and the Three Bears, designate some space with chairs and a table to be the bears’ house. Place three plates on the table. Encourage the children to use their own words, along with the book’s dialogue, to elaborate on or extend the story.

Rhymes and alliteration Four- and 5-year-olds love to recite rhymes and produce rhyming words. The ability to produce words that begin with the same initial sounds (alliteration) typically develops in older 4-year-olds and young 5-year-olds. The following activities are appropriate for children who are still developing rhyming skills.

Let’s rhyme! Invite children to produce words that rhyme with the words you present. Real or made-up words can be used. For example: cat—hat book—hook car—far face—lace rose—hose map—nap

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Alliteration book For this activity, the children think of things that start with the same sound and draw or find pictures to represent these objects. You can then create a book based on these drawings or pictures. There are many alphabet books available and these can be displayed for children to use as examples. Alligators ate all apples Brown bears bicycling Crazy cats calling coyotes

Classroom feast Invite children to participate in the preparation of a classroom feast. Have them think of fruits, vegetables and other foods that start with the same sound as their names. These will be the ‘foods’ that they bring to the feast. For example, Sarah will bring soup, salad, celery and sandwiches. Mark will bring milk, macaroni and meatballs. Then have the children draw and colour the foods they will bring to the feast, collect the drawings and place them on paper plates at the table. Children find their seat at the table based on the ‘food’ served. After you finish the feast, you could staple the drawings together and create a class book entitled ‘Our Feast’.

Can you rhyme? Rhyming words can also be presented in sentences. Introduce this game by reading several rhyming phrases aloud, emphasising the rhyming words. Children should complete each rhyme aloud. For monitoring purposes, individual responses should be requested. For example: A cat wearing a A mouse that lives in a A goose with a tooth that is A pig that is dancing a Some kittens wearing some

(hat) (house) (loose) (jig) (mittens)

Making a rhyming big book This activity can be done for 15–20 minutes each time you work on the rhyming book. Select a different word each day about which to make a rhyming page. At the top of the page, glue a picture of a selected word (e.g. bat). Then display a variety of pictures you have cut out of magazines or colouring books, and ask the children which of these words rhyme with bat. Glue the pictures that rhyme with bat on that page, and write the word under the picture. Children can also draw pictures of rhyming words. Compile the finished pages into a big book to be used in class for reading and writing.

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Rhyming poem Write a popular rhyming classroom poem on chart paper, and share it with the class. After the children have heard it read aloud many times, ask them to find all the rhyming words. Write them on chart paper and display it in the room. Next, have children think of other rhyming words, and add these to the list. Children could take one of the rhyming lists and draw pictures next to it.

The ship is loaded with … Have the children sit in a circle, and make sure you have something to toss (e.g. a bean bag). To begin the game say: ‘The ship is loaded with cheese.’ Then toss the bean bag to someone else in the circle. This person must make a rhyme from the sentence. For example: The ship is loaded with peas [fleas, trees, bees, keys] The ship is loaded with logs [dogs, hogs, frogs]

Awareness of syllables

Hearing syllables Hearing big chunks of sound is easier than discovering single sounds. Ask children to clap the parts they can hear in a few words they know well. Choose words of one and two syllables at first, and later three or four. Repeat this activity from time to time as opportunities arise.

Word box Prepare a box with different objects or little toys for children to select, one at a time. Invite them to pick an object and then clap or pronounce the name of the object segmented into syllables. For example: ba-na-na pen-cil

rab-bit

cake

Make sure the objects you include have different numbers of syllables for added practice.

Pass the bucket This activity is a variation of the word box activity. To add some variety to the work with the syllables, place the objects you have used before in a bucket (or you could use picture cards). Then ask the children to sit in a circle and pass the bucket around. You may want to have all children select an item from the bucket or you could do it randomly (for example, when the background music stops like in musical chairs). Each child who picks an object or card from the bucket has to segment the syllables in the name of the item. The other children then blend the

Phonological awareness

spoken syllables to come up with the object’s name. Then all the children clap the syllables in the word and/or sort the items into groups based on the number of syllables in the name.

Garden time Mark the floor with masking tape to create three columns. Then place one, two and three sticky notes at the top of each column (these represent the number of syllables). You will need plastic fruits, vegetables and flowers (or you could use pictures). Ask the children to sort the items by syllables. For example, a carrot would be placed in the column with two syllables (two sticky notes). A plum would be placed in the one-syllable column and a potato would be placed in the three-syllable column. An alternative would be to use toys, different toy cars or other objects.

Clapping names One way to teach syllable awareness is to start by clapping the syllables in the children’s names. This is a good activity because it starts with something very familiar. Next, progress to clapping syllables with two-and three-syllable names of objects in the room.

Identifying, segmenting, and blending phonemes Once children have developed the phonological concepts of rhyming, alliteration and syllable division, they will begin to understand that there are segments of sounds within syllables—called phonemes. Phonemes are important because they are the units of sound represented by letters. The following activities require children to identify initial and final phonemes and to segment and blend phonemes.

Picture sorting for initial and ending consonant sounds

Closed sort Use picture cards for this activity. Draw three columns on a sheet of paper, and paste pictures of two objects with different beginning sounds at the top of the first two columns. Leave one column blank for pictures that don’t fit. Have children sort through the picture cards for words that have the same beginning sound as the two pictures. Then put pictures with neither sound in the third column. Children can sort again for ending sounds.

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Open sort Ask children to use picture cards to sort where they see a pattern. Some children will sort for meaning, such as the concept of animals, while others will look for initial or ending consonants.

Guess what I’m thinking! Challenge children by inviting them to guess words you are thinking of. Give them clues that refer to either the initial or the final sounds of the words as they try to guess. Stretch the sounds for emphasis, for example: ‘I’m thinking of something that begins with /m-m-m-m-/. It’s an animal with a long tail.’ ‘I’m thinking of something that begins with /t-t-t-t-t/. It is red and goes in a salad.’ ‘I’m thinking of something that ends with /f-f-f-f-f-f-f-f/. It has one syllable.’

What sound? This game is played like Concentration. Use picture cards, and have children match pictures that begin with the same sound. If there is a match, the child keeps playing. When the child misses, a different child has a turn. Children can sort the cards based on initial sounds to begin with.

Letter–sound boxes Put together a series of plastic containers with a picture attached on the outside. Next, assemble a collection of objects such as toy farm animals, zoo animals or other small objects. Children can place the objects in the relevant container by using the picture to identify objects that begin or end the same way. A check sheet can be provided.

Comparing beginning sounds 1 Read out pairs of words and ask children to compare them. Have the children nod their heads—‘yes’—if the words begin with the same sound and shake their heads—‘no’—if they do not begin with the same sound.

Comparing beginning sounds 2 Read out pairs of words and ask children to compare them. If the words begin with the same sound, ask children to nod or hold one finger up to indicate ‘yes’. If the words do not begin with the same sound, ask them to shake their heads or hold two fingers up to indicate ‘no’. Progress to comparing three words, but use pictures to relieve the load on memory.

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carrots, cabbage weed, gift sick, chop jump, jag dip, talk

vase, bear you, year catch, cap time, dance road, rip

Comparing ending sounds Ask children to compare the ending sounds in words, giving the thumbsup signal if the words end in the same sound and the thumbs-down signal if the words do not end in the same sound. Again, start by comparing two words. Progress to comparing three words when children are successful with two words. ship, soap hat, pan itch, beach work, walk farm, barn

pass, pace bug, take tub, ripe build, paid wash, reach

Comparing middle sounds Ask children to compare the middle sounds in words. Start again by comparing two sounds. Tell children that you are going to say some words, and they should listen to the middle sound in each word. You could tell them, for example, that the words will either have the /a/ sound or the /i/ sound. Again, they use signals to indicate whether the sounds are the same or different. cat rack tan drip pin hip ran lap it flip

Picture sorts Collect picture cards. Be sure to go over the pictures with the children so there wonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be any confusion. Have children sort the pictures according to beginning, ending and, finally, middle sounds.

Blending word parts This activity should be done as a circle game. Have children sit in a circle on the floor and listen carefully as you say words in parts. Then ask: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;What word did I make?â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Increase the difficulty of the words as the children become more proficient with the task. Remember that this is an auditory activity.

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d-o-g b-a-ke p-aw sh-e d-i-sh w-a-sh b-all b-oy sh-o-p m-ou-se c-a-m-p l-ea-f

Blending phonemes with pictures Find pictures of three-phoneme words, and cut them into two or three parts, depending on the number of phonemes in the words. Ask children to move one part of the picture at a time as they say a phoneme. They can then put all the parts of the picture together to say the word. Some examples of pictures that you can use are: fish moon dog leaf ship cat jet pick fork

Say the sounds Select different objects or use picture cards. Ask the children to name the items first so they are clear about what they represent. Then, have them produce the words, one sound at a time. This is a good activity to use with the ‘Move It—Say It’ strategy. Children move chips or counters when they say a sound. Be sure to select appropriate cards that will represent words of increasing difficulty in terms of the number of phonemes they contain. For example, start with two- and three-phoneme words until the children are successful. Move from pictures in the Say the Sounds activity to just saying the words. Ask children to move their chips for each sound. Below is a list of words and the number of sounds. Be sure to switch between two, three and four sounds so children are not used to one phoneme. Remember—this is an auditory activity. size shave odd oat shop

[3] [3] [2] [2] [3]

choose each miss nice night

[3] [2] [3] [3] [3]

flat best ski cats pump

[4] [4] [3] [4] [4]

risk fox sleep sat shoot

[4] [3] [4] [3] [3]

Elkonin boxes Some children find it extremely difficult to hear the initial sounds in words. They listen hard but only focus on the final sound. The following activities (based on Elkonin 1973) can be undertaken to help children become aware of all the sounds in words. Once children are aware of the sounds in the spoken word they can write them down, but initially it is important just to focus on the auditory nature of sounds in words.

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Prepare a series of cards with pictures or photographs of objects. Some teachers prefer to use actual objects such as a cup, ball, pen and so on. Next prepare some square cards for each sound: one square, two squares, three squares and so on.

Take a picture card and say the word very slowly so the sounds are separated but still one word: c … u … p. Ask the child to say the word slowly. You could use a mirror and ask the child to look at their lips and tongue as they say the word. Children put out counters in the appropriate boxes to indicate how many sounds they have heard.

Detecting the initial sound This is a good activity to play in a circle as a game. Have the children listen as you say a word. Then, ask them to repeat it. Next, have the children say the word without the beginning sound. For example, say ‘lime’, then say: ‘Now say lime without the /l/.’ [‘ime’] Say ‘fish’. ‘Now say fish without the /f/.’ [‘ish’] Remember to say the sounds and not the letters. Play this game many times, until the children are comfortable with dropping the beginning sounds. As they become more proficient, proceed to more challenging words. Some examples are as follows: Cake without the / c / Meet without the / m / Song without the / s / Ball without the / b / But without the / b /

ake eet ong all ut

List without the / l / Shin without the / sh / Shrub without the / sh / Thread without the / th / Mask without the / m /

ist in rub read ask

Detecting the final sound Next, play the game and ask the children to drop the ending sound. For example, say ‘sleep’. Now say, ‘sleep’, without the /p/.’ [‘slee’]. Some examples are as follows: Meat without the / t / Rake without the / k / Card without the / d / Time without the / m / Felt without the / t /

me ray car tie fell

Bike without the / k / Pave without the / v / Lake without the / k / Soak without the / k / Boat without the / t /

bye pay lay so bow

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Other phonemic awareness tasks

Phoneme segmentation tasks In phoneme segmentation tasks a child can be given a wooden stick and asked to tap out the number of phonemes heard in a one-syllable word. For example, given the word mat, the child should tap three times, once for each phoneme /m/ /a/ /t/. The Russian psychologist Elkonin developed a similar task (1973) where the children were asked to lay out counters in boxes to represent each phoneme in a word spoken by the teacher. For example they would lay out two counters for the word he for the two phonemes heard and three counters for the word hen for the three phonemes heard when the word is spoken. he hen The Elkonin task generates a visual and discussable record of each childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effort to work out the sounds in words. Some children have problems with hearing phonemes in words like cat as the phonemes run together, and it seems that there is no way of knowing that cat has three phonemes without somehow learning that it is a fact that the word has three sounds.

Phoneme manipulation tasks In these tasks a child could be asked, for example, to say a word like hill without the /h/, saying ill. They may be asked to say monkey without the /k/, making the word money; nest without the /s/, making net; or pink without the /k/, making pin. These tasks require all manner of memory skills and mental gymnastics, and their place in enhancing early reading and writing is not clear.

Within syllable splitting tasks Many educators claim that syllable-splitting tasks are easier than phoneme segmentation tasks because children are asked to break off the first phoneme of a word or syllable. For example, a teacher asks the child to say the first sound in bear and the child says /b/. Next the child is asked to say what is leftâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;ear. This intersection between syllable splitting, c-at and phoneme segmentation /c/ /a/ /t/ is where a current debate in phonics is taking place. c at / c / / a / / t /

onset and rime individual phonemes

Phonological awareness

Several teachers and researchers question whether children can more easily analyse spoken words into phonemes or whether onsets and rimes are easier to manage. One argument is that onset and rime is a more natural way to make analogies from known words to unfamiliar words than sounding out phonemes (see Moustafa 1997).

Blending tasks In blending tasks, the teacher can blend phonemes, for example /m/ /a/ /p/ and the children then identify the word map. Blending phonemes to identify words is necessary for reading proficiency. In segmenting, the word map may be spoken and then the children segment the word into phonemes: /m/ /a/ /p/. Segmenting is necessary for spelling and writing. Blending and segmenting are reversible processes.

Oddity tasks In phoneme oddity tasks the child is presented with a set of three or four spoken words and asked which one is different or doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t belong. Sometimes the child is asked to listen for the first sound of the word: sill pop pan pin Sometimes the last sound: doll hop top Sometimes the middle sound: pin gun bun These tasks require the child to compare and contrast similarities and differences and not break up words.

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Chapter summary Phonological awareness, or the awareness of the sounds of spoken language, is an important factor in early reading and writing. It refers to the sound structure of speech and the way the sounds of language operate and are produced. The phonological aspects of a language include intonation, stress and timing as well as words, syllables and phonemesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the units of sound that are represented by the letters of an alphabet. Phonemic awareness is a part of phonological awareness, and refers to the awareness that phonemes exist as abstract and manipulable components of spoken language. It focuses on the small units of sound that affect meaning. Awareness of phonemes is the key to understanding the logic of the alphabetic principle and thus to the learnability of phonics and reading. Measures of preschoolersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of phonemic awareness strongly predict their future success in learning to read. Children develop an increasing awareness of the phonemes in spoken language as they begin to attend to words, syllables, rhyme, alliteration and analysis of phonemes. There are several levels of difficulty in phonemic awareness tasks. It is important to use whole texts such as books, poems and rhymes to show how phonemic awareness can be used in a rich language and literacy programÂ.

CHAPTER 7

Reading development

I saw a billboard by the side of the road. The sight could not have lasted very long; perhaps the car stopped for a moment, perhaps it just slowed down long enough for me to see, large and looming, shapes similar to those in my book, but shapes I had never seen before. And yet, all of a sudden, I knew what they were; I heard them in my head, they metamorphosed from black lines and white spaces into a solid, sonorous, meaningful reality. I had done this all by myself. No one had performed the magic for me. I and the shapes were alone together, revealing ourselves in respectful dialogue. Since I could turn bare lines into living reality, I was all-powerful. I could read.

(Alberto Manguel describing how he learned to read at about 4 years of age, in A History of Reading 1996, p. 6)

Manguel described his ‘ah ha’ experience as something he had done all by himself. However, on previous pages he wrote that his nurse had explained the letters and that he and his nurse had read and reread a simple book with words like The boy runs. He could read the simple words ‘the boy runs’ but there was no pleasure, no surprise in this experience. It was the realisation that the black lines and white spaces were signs to be comprehended, deciphered, translated into meaning that was the true ‘ah ha’ experience.

What is reading? Reading is the process of constructing meaning from print and from other symbols.

Reading is the process of constructing meaning from print and from other symbols. When you read this book, are you sounding out each letter in the words or are you sampling the print and anticipating what will come next? Think about how you read when reading this adaptation of a traditional tale. Once upon a time Polly Wolly baked a beautiful thick-crusted pizza for her seven hungry children. ‘You are a very wonderful Pizza,’ she said. ‘When you are cooked we will eat you.’

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When the Pizza heard this he was afraid. He jumped out of the pan and rolled out of the door and down the road. Soon he met Doggy Poggy. ‘Hello Pizza,’ said Doggy Poggy. ‘Why are you rolling so fast? Slow down. Stop for a minute.’ ‘No way Doggy Poggy,’ said Pizza. ‘I ran away from Polly Wolly and her seven hungry children and I must run away from you too.’ Once you became familiar with the language style, you probably did not read each word. After the first line, you probably just sampled some words—predicting what words would come next. You read on, and only if the story stopped making meaning would you go back and reread the individual words. Maybe you have heard versions of the story before. Perhaps you can predict what will happen next. Reading involves not just the print and the illustrations, but also readers bringing to the process their knowledge of the world and their past experiences. Readers’ eyes move along the line of words and then can go back to check, looking for connections between what the reader knows and expects to see on the page. The reading process does not involve reading every single letter, and that is why proofreading is so difficult: when you are very familiar with the ideas you hardly need to read the words at all. Try to read the following where words and letters have been left out: When the Pizza ……. this he was ……. He ……… out ……. the pan and ……. out of the door ……. down the ……… Soon he ……. D …… Poggy. ‘Hello P……’ said Doggy Poggy. ‘Why are y…… ro…… so f…. Slow d…. St.… for a m…….te.’ Can you construct meaning when words and letters are missing? What did you use to read the story? The syntax? The meaning? Some of the words and letters? If you had a problem with a word, how did you work it out? What strategies did you use? According to Clay (2002) ‘all readers, be they five-year-old beginners working on their first books or effective adult readers, need to find and use different kinds of information in print and combine the information that they find in print with what they carry in their heads from their past experiences with language’ (p. 14). The kinds of information include:

• • • • • • • •

knowledge of the world the possible meanings of the text the sentence structures of language rules about the order of ideas, or words or letters the words often used in language the alphabet special features of sound, shape and layout special knowledge about books and literary experiences.

Reading development

The cues from meaning, structure, sound and print When children attend to the actual print itself, they use several sources of information known as cues. Readers combine this information to read. Semantic cues are meanings that come from knowledge about the world, from books heard read aloud and from personal experiences. If a child comes across the words ‘thick-crusted pizza’ for example, they associate this with their experiences. If a child has not had these experiences then the meaning is difficult to come by. Syntactic cues come from the structure or syntax of written language. The word order or syntax affects how we read. The syntax pattern in ‘Sam kicked the ball’ would sound correct to the reader, whereas ‘Ball kicked Sam the’ would sound incorrect. Graphophonic cues are the individual letters or ‘graphs’ and the phonemes associated with the letter. Patterns of letters have to be recognised by sight and then associated with sounds. Visual information is important for word meanings, for example the words wait/weight and read/red have different letters and different meanings. In the following example, a child uses several cueing systems to read: Child: ✔ ✔ pie /pizza/sc ✔✔ ✔ ✔ angry Text:

When the Pizza heard this he was afraid.

The child used semantic knowledge and some graphophonic cues such as the first letter of the word to read the word pie and then self-corrected, probably looking again at the letters in the word and noticing ‘zz’. The child read angry instead of afraid and did not self-correct, perhaps because both words are of a similar length and made sense in the story.

Active problem-solving Reading is active problem-solving because a reader has to search for, use and check against each other, several integrated sources of information:

• • • •

the text meaning—semantics the sentence structures—syntax the sounds—phonology the letters, illustrations, format and layout—visual. Effective readers use information from many sources as they match their thinking to that of the author of the text. They read for meaning and anticipate what the print will say, and when the text doesn’t make sense they call on a range of strategies, asking questions such as ‘Does that still make sense?’, ‘Can I say it that way?’, ‘Does it look right?’ ‘Is that what I expect to see?’ Sometimes they will use visual information like letter–sound associations or words already known. Sometimes they will use a word they already know to get to a new word. Sometimes they will use clusters of letters and words that are chunked into phrases. While doing these things, an effective reader will stay focused on the meaning.

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Figure 7.1 Reading and active problem-solving

Sense, meaning Does it make sense?

Visual cues Does it look right?

Letters/sounds expected What would you expect to see?

Structure, grammar Can we say it that way?

Source: Clay 1985; Clay & Cazden 1992

Concepts of print As children begin to learn to read, they develop their understanding of how print works.

As children begin to learn to read, they develop their understanding of how print works. These concepts of print include book handling such as holding the book the right way up, turning the pages from left to right, beginning at the top of the page and reading from left to right, and the return sweep—moving eyes back to the left-hand side of the page to read the next line. They involve understanding that the print relays a message and that printed words are read the same way each time, as well as knowing the difference between a word and a letter. And they also include the knowledge that words and the spaces between words, the punctuation and capital letters plus the layout of pages with print and illustrations all convey meaning. Punctuation such as commas, capital letters and full stops affect the meaning of what we read. For example, compare ‘We had tomato, pizza, apple and cake at the party’ with ‘We had tomato pizza and apple cake at the party.’

Assessing concepts of print The emerging concepts of print assessment tool in Figure 7.2 can be used as a guide to the types of behaviours and the suggested prompts that a child may use when reading. It is important to use a book that is familiar to the child. The teacher either chooses the book or asks the child to choose. You may read the book through together, then observe the reading behaviours if the child wants to read independently. Emerging concepts of print behaviour can also be observed during shared and guided reading. Each correct item can be given one point, making a maximum score of 27. This checklist provides a direction for teaching plans, and can be used several times in the beginning to emergent stages of reading.

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Figure 7.2 Emerging concepts of print assessment Concepts of print

Prompts

Date

CONCEPT OF BOOK Cover of book

Show me the cover of the book.

Show me the front of the book.

Show me the back of the book.

Title

Where is the title?

CONCEPT OF TEXT Print tells a story

Show me where the book tells the story.

Concept of a word

Can you point to a word?

Can you point to two words that are the same?

Point to each word as you read.

Do the words you read match the words on the page?

Concept of a letter

Can you show me a letter?

What are the names of some of the letters?

DIRECTIONALITY Beginning at the front and finishing at the back

Where do we start reading the book?

Where do we finish reading the book?

Left to right in a sentence

Which way do we go when reading?

Concept of top and bottom

Show me the top of the page.

Show me the bottom of the page.

Left to right page turning

Which way do we turn the page?

Return sweep

Where do we go when we get to the end of the line?

Concept of first

Show me the first word on the page.

Concept of last

Show me the last word on the page.

Concept of middle

Show me the middle of the page.

MECHANICS Capitalisation

Where is a capital letter?

Punctuation

Where is a small letter or a lower-case letter?

Full stop

What is this? (point to full stop)

Comma

What is this? (point to comma)

Question mark

What is this? (point to question mark)

Quotation marks

What are these? (point to quotation marks)

Score

/27 /27

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The development of reading skills and strategies Reading skills are such things as automatic recognition of high-frequency words or recognition of letters of the alphabet. Strategies are the way a reader makes use of cues.

Sampling, predicting, confirming and self-correcting Reading is a process of sampling, predicting, confirming and self-correcting from various information sources. In the beginning the text is Âsampled and various visual features such as letters or sight words are searched for and selected. The reader then makes predictions about the meaning of the text based on their prior experiences, similar experiences with books, oral language, and knowledge of syntax and semantics. If the predictions are confirmed, that is, if the cues or information sources check out then the reader moves on to sample the text, predict and confirm. If the confirmation does not check out then the reader self-corrects by rereading and sampling, predicting, confirming until meaning is achieved. The reading strategies are what Clay (2002) calls a self-extending system. [I]t is what the novice reader is putting together, and what competent readers have achieved when they are about to move into silent reading and massive amounts of recreational reading. Given a knowledge of some items and some strategic awareness of how to work on print, the reader can apply what he knows to similar items, and has a way of working on new items. We do not need to teach him the total inventory of items (p.Â 35).

Reading is a problem-solving process where strategies and information sources are used to figure out the meaning of print. Children are problemsolvers. They are learning how to learn and are testing out their theories of how print works. On one day they may use the initial letter in a word to predict, and confirm the word using other information sources. They might use this strategy again the next day or in several daysâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; time.

Reading development: beginning and early-emergent Reading development begins at birth when babies listen to books read aloud, and continues throughout the years before school and into the school years. In the years before school there are phases known as beginning and early-emergent reading, and in schooling there are the emergent, early, transitional and extending phases. Some children begin school at the beginning phase and others begin at the early or even transitional phase. The phases are not age related and are a guide only.

Reading development

Beginning reading—babies and toddlers For babies, life is a series of sights and sounds, taste and touch. To be wrapped in the loving arms of an adult, listening to the fun words of a rhyme or story and seeing brightly coloured pictures before them begins a child’s journey to an often lifelong love of books. Babies revel in the closeness and one-on-one attention, and in the wonder, surprise and joy expressed in the face of the reader. They are mesmerised by the sound of the adult’s voice and the pictures on the page. For babies who are read to regularly, books become a natural part of life and favourites are soon chosen. As they grow and gain more control of their arms and hands, books are grabbed, smacked and sucked with glee, as they try to join in the fun. These actions, along with the babbles and squeals that accompany them, are a baby’s first attempts at ‘reading’. Figure 7.3 First attempts at reading

By the time children have reached the age of 3, their speech is easily understood and they are surprisingly adept at many tasks. They begin to question the world around them more and thus enjoy a wide range of nonfiction books, and they enjoy inventing stories for wordless picture books

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… many have realised that the black marks on the page mean something and will even point to the text as they ‘read’, just as an adult does.

as well. For those exposed to books, ‘reading’ becomes a regular part of their day. There will be many favourites that 3-year-olds can recite almost word for word and they will happily tell you what good readers they are, but what is apparent is that they are beginning to attend to the text as well as the pictures. Although an understanding of letter–sound relationships may not appear yet, many have realised that the black marks on the page mean something and will even point to the text as they ‘read’, just as an adult does. As babies become toddlers, they will ask to hear their favourite rhymes and stories over and over again. Toddlers can easily follow simple storylines and they laugh in all the right places, show concern and worry if a character is in trouble, and then squeal delightedly at the conclusion. They really are the perfect audience. Now that they are more in control of their speech and actions, their own ‘reading’ endeavours continue, as they turn the pages and ‘tell’ the story as part of their play, demonstrating their understandings of the use of language. Even though the story may make no sense to someone listening, toddlers put expression in their voices and faces, they pause, add emphasis to exciting words and phrases and will finish with a flourish, just as any adult reader does. Children naturally develop language through their interactions with others, but books involve children with words and sounds that are not part of everyday conversations. The concepts, sounds, people and places they are exposed to in books are far beyond what children experience in everyday life and yet they make strong connections with them. Nursery rhymes and songs, a vast array of sounds, nonsense words and poems all add to the experience and enable children to see just how and why language is used. As their speech develops, they will happily join in with repeated lines and familiar phrases and include them in their own ‘reading’ attempts.

Early-emergent book reading As children reach 3 and 4 years of age, they begin to pay attention to the print. Sulzby (1985) explored children’s early attempts at reading favourite books and found that there was a developmental pattern. Children in the early-emergent phase start to tell the story by looking at the pictures and slowly they begin to pay attention to the print. The way they read also changes from sounding like storytelling to sounding like reading. The following is a condensed list of Sulzby’s story reading categories (based on Sulzby & Barnhart 1990 in Vukelich, Christie & Enz 2002 p. 76).

• •

Attending to pictures, not forming stories—the child looks at the pictures in the book, labelling or making comments about them. Attending to pictures, forming oral stories—the child looks at the pictures and weaves a story across the pages. However, the child’s intonation sounds as if she or he is telling an oral story. The listener must be able to see the pictures to follow the story.

Reading development

•

Early-emergent readers use multiple sources of information concurrently.

Attending to pictures, forming written stories—the child reads by looking at the book’s pictures, and the child’s wording and intonation sound like reading. The listener does not usually have to see the pictures to follow the story. Attending to print—the child attends to the print rather than to the pictures when attempting to read the story. The child may use only selected aspects of print (e.g. letter–sound relationships), or may read conventionally.

Several studies highlight the importance of other modes of meaningmaking associated with book reading. Elster (1994) found that earlyemergent readings of preschoolers were a sequence of reading and talking episodes where a combination of reading and talk strategies were used. The children combined visual cues from pictures; they drew on their memories, experiences and knowledge base and on the social interactions with a listener long before beginning to attend to print. The features of the book being read, including the importance of the illustrations, predictable language patterns and changing print formats, influenced the strategies they used. The adult listeners were used as a resource as the children moved from dialogue to monologue and from non-narrative to narrative language. Elster pointed out that early-emergent readers use multiple sources of information concurrently: pictures, print, social interaction, memory of teacher-led discussions, attention to text language, and understanding of oral and written language conventions. Elster found through micro analysis of young children’s reading and talk about particular books that these different sources of information were chosen and combined situationally by readers in response to the book, the child’s memory and social interaction. Further studies of book reading have explored textual features that influence emergent reading. Young children were found to read narrative and expository texts differently (Pappas 1993). There is evidence that early-emergent readers do have control of a repertoire of registers, with a variety of language used in a specific social setting—speaking in an informal register; writing in a scientific register—and they can apply them to different text genres. Duke and Kays (1998) report on a study where the teacher read information books aloud to 4- and 5-year-olds for three months. At the end of three months the children made substantial gains in their knowledge of several key features of information book language. When they were asked to pretend to read an unfamiliar wordless information book they used the appropriate information book language. These read-aloud sessions of information books also led to high levels of engagement, great enjoyment and spontaneous interactions with the text. It would appear from research on emergent book reading that children use dialogue about the book, the genre and features of the book and their familiarity with written and spoken language registers to create meaning from texts.

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Reading development: emergent, early, transitional and extending This section describes the stages of reading development that may take place when the child is in school. Many teachers organise books into levels of difficulty so that children get sufficient practice from several texts at their instructional or learning level. Teachers can use the text features in Figure 7.4 to select appropriate texts and a possible teaching focus for guided reading instruction. The stages of reading development are emergent, early, transitional and extending. In the emergent reading phase children are beginning to read for meaning while attending to directionality, word-to-word matching, reading known words and locating new words. They begin to pay close attention to print, noticing many features of words and letters. The early reading phase builds on and extends the emergent phases by slowly increasing the complexity of concepts in the texts, syntax and vocabulary. In the early phases the length of the sentences and the text increases and the placement of text on the page varies. In the transitional and extending phases of reading the texts should first of all be good stories that build mileage and provide practice. The reader has to orchestrate the use of multiple cues and is consolidating a large repertoire of problem-solving strategies. The levels of text difficulty are based on:

• • • • •

complexity of concepts in the texts complexity of syntax and vocabulary length of text size and placement of text on a page the amount of contextual support in the illustrations.

Reading development

Figure 7.4 Text features used in books with a gradient of difficulty Emergent Direct match between text and illustration High-frequency words The word count ranges from 0 to 50 Simple storyline Range of punctuation Familiar oral-language-like structures

Early Concepts are familiar More text types are used The text length increases There are longer sentences Different syntactic patterns More of the story is carried in the text Illustrations still offer support but this is beginning to diminish The placement of text on the page varies

Transitional The books at this level begin to deal with topics that increasingly go beyond children’s experiences There is a range of fiction and information texts The sentence length and syntax varies The layout and placement of text varies There are diagrams, other graphic features and a variety of illustrations The conceptual load is increased

Extending There are more complex stories and a greater conceptual load is required Narratives have more complex plots and characters More information details in information texts There is a larger variety of text types Less illustrative support is provided Use of more complex text features Text varies in sentence length and structure

Emergent reading behaviours The emergent reading behaviours described on the following pages are just some that teachers may observe.

Emergent text features The levels have a careful gradient that slowly increases in complexity. At these early levels, children attend to word matching, directionality, known words and locating new words. They begin to pay close attention to print, noticing many features of words and letters. The levels have a careful gradient that slowly increases in complexity. The texts work to create

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steady reading progress by drawing the reader’s attention to increasingly complex print features. Difficulty levels are based on:

• • • • • •

complexity of concepts in the text length of text amount of text on a page size and placement of text on a page the amount of contextual support in the illustrations the complexity of syntax and vocabulary.

The books are organised in levels so that children get sufficient practice from several texts at their instructional level. Figure 7.5 Emergent reading behaviours Knows where to start Understands concepts about the written code, that print records a message Moves through the text from front to back Understands left-to-right across the page and return sweep Can point to the title and author Can point to top and bottom of a page Knows the concept of a word Knows the concept of first, next and last letter/ word Can identify upper- and lowercase letters Identifies sounds in spoken language Can identify first, last, next sound in spoken language Can identify punctuation: comma, question mark, exclamation mark, quotation mark, full stop, sentence Story and picture matching Noticing and interpreting detail in pictures Matching word-by-word, indicated by precise pointing Can make initial sound and letter match, and oneto-one sound and letter match in written language Can identify letters of the alphabet Can identify some some high-frequency words

Predicts what makes sense Makes links between prior knowledge and texts Integrates several cueing sources Searches illustrations, print, structure or memory for meaning Understands some text form and genres Uses ‘book language’ Pays close attention to print, noticing some features of letters and words Maps several sounds to letter/letter clusters in writing Maps letters/letter clusters to sounds in reading Understands one-to-one matching of spoken and written word Self-corrects when reading Notices similarities and differences in words and letters Locates familiar and new words Persists in problem-solving Selects appropriate books Remembers familiar sentence structures Uses knowledge of syntax as a source of information Self-monitors by using word-by-word matching, noticing known words in a text, or noticing mismatches in meaning or language Explores the author’s message in a text

Features of emergent level 1

• • • • •

There is a direct match between text and illustration. High-frequency words are used throughout the text. Book language is used but some books may have ‘oral-languagelike’ vocabulary and syntax. There is a simple storyline. Most books have one line of text.

Reading development

• • • • • • •

The format is consistent. The layout is easy to follow. There is ample space between words so children can point and read. Print is regular and easy to see, and clearly separated from the pictures. Text is always printed on a white background. Illustrations promote further discussion. A range of punctuation is used: capital letters, full stops, exclamation marks, question marks.

Figure 7.6 An emergent level 1 text: Ice-cream (1998–2011) written by Frances Lee, photography by Michael Curtain, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, pp. 4–5

Features of emergent level 2 Many features from level 1 are repeated in level 2. Additional features include the following.

• • • • • • •

Sentence length begins to vary. Texts often have two lines of print on a page—one sentence with a return sweep. The text is predictable and repetitive. A new sentence structure or twist may be introduced on the last page. Illustrations support and extend the text. Book handling behaviours such as left-to-right directionality, one-to-one word matching and searching for meaning in the pictures continue to be supported by the text. The possessive case is introduced, for example man’s hat.

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Figure 7.7 An emergent level 2 text: Grandpa’s House (1998–2011) written by Sarah Prince, photography by Michael Curtain, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, pp. 4–5

Features of emergent level 3 Many characteristics from level 1 and 2 remain. Additional features include the following.

• • • • • • • • • •

Longer texts are introduced. There is increasing variation in sentence structure, book format and layout. There is an increase in the number of repeated words in a book to provide reading practice. Repetition, refrains and predictable patterns of text are used. There are opportunities to attend to initial letters and word endings. The core of high-frequency words is increased. Direct speech is introduced. Illustrations still provide support for text although the format of pictures begins to vary. There may be one or two illustrations on a page. Illustrations prompt further discussion.

Reading development

Figure 7.8 An emergent level 3 text: Butterfly (1998), written by Jenny Feely, photography by Michael Curtain, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, pp. 2–3

Features of emergent level 4 Additional features include the following.

• • • • • • • • •

The text extent increases. One to five lines of text may appear on a page. Print may appear on both left and right pages but is clearly separated from the illustrations. Phrasing is supported by print placement and line breaks. Frequently encountered words are used more often. Texts use patterns and repetition; others support prediction through use of oral-language-like structures, which may be repeated. There is increasing variation in language patterns, requiring children to attend closely to print at several points. Longer sentences use simple and easy-to-understand syntax. More of the story is carried in the text, but illustrations still support and add to the text.

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Figure 7.9 An emergent level 4 text: Tickling (1998–2007) written by Greg Lang, illustrated by Bettina Guthridge, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, pp. 8–9

Features of emergent level 5 Features include the following.

• • • • • • • • • • •

Concepts continue to be within the children’s experience and any challenging new ideas have both pictorial and text support (through repetition). There are between one and five lines of text on a page. There is increasing variety in sentence length and structure. New words introduced are often repeated and words used in earlier texts are repeated. Complex high-frequency words are used such as under, over, on. There is frequent use of direct speech including a pattern of ‘asked’ and ‘said’ in question-and-answer dialogue. Contractions are used often. Inflections ‘ing’ and ‘ed’ are used. Punctuation includes quotation marks. Maps or diagrams may be introduced. In factual texts the text extent may be less because the conceptual load is often higher.

Reading development

Figure 7.10 An emergent level 5 text: Tadpoles and Frogs (1998–2011) written by Jenny Feely, photography by Michael Curtain, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, pp. 6–7

Early reading behaviours Early reading behaviours include knowledge of how print works, and strategic thinking about making meaning from texts. Print concepts include understanding what a word is and what a letter is, directionality of print and the terms first, last, top and bottom which are used in explaining print layout and placement. Strategic thinking involves integrating several cue sources, searching for meaning and self-correcting, and changing the type of reading to fit different text genres such as fiction and factual texts. Figure 7.11 shows some early reading behaviours that teachers may observe.

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Figure 7.11 Early reading behaviours Concepts of how print works

Strategic thinking

Knows where to start

Predicts what makes sense

Knows that the print records a message

Makes links between prior knowledge and texts

Moves through the text from front to back, left-toright across the page

Integrates several cueing sources

Makes a return sweep

Searches illustrations, print, structure or memory for meaning

Can point to the title and author

Understands several text genres

Identifies top and bottom of a page

Uses ‘book language’

Understands the concept of a word

Pays close attention to print, noticing some features of letters and words

Knows the concept of first, next and last letter Understands the concept of upper- and lowercase letters

Can map sounds to letters/letter clusters in writing

Identifies sounds in spoken language: first, last, next sound

Uses one-to-one matching of spoken and written word

Understands punctuation: comma, question mark, exclamation mark, quotation mark, full stop

Self-corrects when reading

Can match story and illustration Notices and interprets detail in illustrations Matches word-by-word, indicated by precise pointing

Can map letters/letter clusters to sounds in reading

Can make analogies between known words and unfamiliar words Notices similarities and differences in words and letters Locates familiar and new words

Makes initial sound and letter matches and oneto-one sound and letter matches

Persists in problem-solving

Can identify letters of the alphabet

Remembers familiar sentence structures

Can identify many high-frequency words

Uses knowledge of syntax as a source of information

Selects appropriate books

Self-monitors by using word-by-word matching Notices known words in a text, or notices mismatches in meaning or language Explores and critiques the author’s message in a text

Features of early levels 6–8 Complexity of concepts in the texts:

• • •

The concepts are usually familiar. Topics begin to extend children’s knowledge. There is an increase in the range of text genres to include different fiction and factual genres.

Complexity of syntax and vocabulary:

• • • • •

There is increased variety in vocabulary and syntax. The amount of book language increases. Punctuation includes commas, full stops, exclamation marks, question marks and direct speech. High-frequency words are extended and used often. Direct speech continues to provide oral language patterns.

Reading development

Length of text:

• • • •

The amount of text on a page increases. The amount of text on a page varies from one line to eleven lines. The text extent is longer when there is repetition. The text is shorter when the conceptual load is more complex.

Size and placement of text on a page:

• • • • • •

Print size remains constant. Different placement of text on a page is introduced. There is clear spacing between words and sentences. Line breaks are designed to support fluent reading. Print appears on both the left- and right-hand pages. Different fonts and font sizes are used within the illustrations.

The amount of contextual support in the illustrations:

• • • • •

Most of the story is carried in the illustrations. The illustrations correspond to the text. There is increasing variety in the types of illustration. Combinations of illustration may be used, for example photography and drawing. Diagrams are used to label and organise information.

Figure 7.12 An early level 8 text: Animal Skeletons (1998–2007) written by Jenny Feely, photography by Michael Curtain, illustrated by Liz Cogley, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, pp. 10–11

Features of early levels 9–11 Many of the text features from levels 6–8 are repeated and the texts become a little longer and more complex.

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Complexity of concepts in the texts:

• • •

The topics are slightly more complex, but still easy to understand. There is an increase in the range of fiction genres to include folk tales, realistic fiction, raps and rhymes and cumulative stories. There is an increase in the range of factual texts to include information reports, instructions and explanations.

Complexity of syntax and vocabulary:

• • • • • • •

Sentences may contain one or two ideas. There is more variety in vocabulary and syntax. The amount of figurative language increases. A full range of punctuation is included. High-frequency words are extended. Direct speech continues to provide oral language patterns. There is an increase in the use of inflectional endings ‘-ed’, ‘-ing’, ‘-s’.

Length of text:

• • • • • •

The sentences are generally a little longer. Sentence length is varied, with some short and some long sentences. The amount of text on a page increases. The amount of text on a page varies. The text extent is longer when there is sentence and phrase repetition. The text is shorter when the conceptual load is more complex.

Size and placement of text on a page:

• • • • • •

Print size remains constant. There is more variety in text placement with some pages having one line of text and some having several lines. There is clear spacing between words and sentences. Line breaks are designed to support fluent reading. Print appears on both the left- and right-hand pages. Different fonts and font sizes are used within the illustrations.

The amount of contextual support in the illustrations:

• • • • •

The illustrations remain supportive but more attention to the print is required. There is increasing variety in the types of illustration. There may be several illustrations on each page. Combinations of photography and drawing may be used. Diagrams and maps continue to be used to label and organise information.

Reading development

Figure 7.13 An early levels 11 text: The Stubborn Goat (1998–2007) written by Jenny Feely, illustrated by Meredith Thomas, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, pp. 8–9

Transitional reading behaviours In transitional reading, children are moving towards becoming more fluent and they have a wider repertoire of problem-solving strategies. The use of multiple cues to get meaning becomes closely orchestrated. Many of the text features from levels 9–11 occur in transitional texts, and the texts become a little longer and more complex. The more children read, the more practice they get with orchestrating the use of multiple cues to find meaning. Figure 7.14 A transitional level 17 text: The Lonely Troll (1998–2011) written by Shelley Jones, illustrations by Meredith Thomas, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, pp. 10–11

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Extending reading behaviours Books at the extending phase of reading may have several ideas in the plot and are often episodic. If the text is episodic there is often repetition of text. The sentences are generally longer and there is variety in sentence length. There are usually between four and eight lines of text on a page, although sometimes there can be up to eleven lines with an illustration on the opposite page. The reader has to rely on the text to find the meaning as there is less support in the illustrations. New vocabulary and new concepts are introduced at an increasing rate. There is a variety of text types or genres introduced, and the idea that texts are used in different ways becomes even more important. Readers are encouraged to integrate information from multiple sources, and to read fluently. At this level, the children may choose to read silently but will revert to reading aloud if the text becomes difficult. Figure 7.15 An extending level 23 text: Graeme Base: Writer and Illustrator (1998–2010), interviewed by Eleanor Curtain, photography by Ross Tonkin, Eleanor Curtain Publishing

Some cautions about text levels While levelling books enables teachers to carefully scaffold children’s reading behaviour, the text levels discussed above have fine distinctions of difficulty and in the classroom it may be more pragmatic to use larger groups, for example:

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Reading develoment

Emergent

levels 1–2

Approx. 4.5–5.5 years

levels 3–5

Approx. 5.0–5.5 years

Early

levels 6–8

Approx. 5.5–6.0 years

levels 9–11

Approx. 5.5–6.0 years

Transitional

levels 12–14

Approx. 6.0–6.0 years

levels 15–17

Approx. 6.5–7.0 years

Extending

levels 18–20

Approx. 7.0–7.5 years

levels 21–23

Approx. 7.0–8.0 years

Text levels can provide a scaffold for supporting children’s reading development and they are useful guides for this purpose. When measuring reading progress with book levels it is important to keep in mind that the interval or gaps between levels are not equal. There is quite a jump between level 2 and level 3, where children move from two lines of text to three or more. On the other hand, there is a very small degree of change between levels 11 and 12 as the child begins increasing their repertoire of reading strategies. Comparing a child’s reading behaviours in levels 1 and 2 with levels 11 and 12 with the expectation of showing equal distance in literacy growth is unproductive.

Records of reading behaviour Taking a record of reading behaviour helps teachers to find books at an appropriate learning level for children. The learning level of a particular text is the place where children benefit from teacher guidance. Records of reading behaviour are written on a transcript of the text, providing the teacher with a clear indication of the words that the child has read. The records can be used for analysis and for reporting to p arents.

Recording reading behaviour A record of reading behaviour is taken by:

• • •

selecting a book at the child’s learning level that the child has not yet read asking the child to read the book carefully marking the child’s correct responses and miscues on a transcript of the same text.

The notations in Figure 7.16 can be used (based on Clay 1993; Kemp 1987; Goodman & Burke 1972).

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Figure 7.16 Taking a record of reading behaviour

Response Action correct

Notation

check the word

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Can you see my eyes?

miscue

write the spoken word above the word in the text

Can you see my eyes?

insert the spoken word using a ^

Can you see my ^eyes?

omission

place a line above the word left out

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Can you see my eyes?

repetition

write R after the word(s) repeated

✔ ✔ ✔R ✔ ✔ Can you see my eyes?

attempt

the word attempted is written above the word

insertion

asks for help

write A above the appeal

✔ ✔ ✔the ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ big ✔

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ e ey Can you see my eyes?

✔ A ✔ ✔ ✔ Can you see my eyes?

Analysing the record of reading behaviour The child’s performance can be evaluated using the following scoring s ystem.

Count only the running words in a text. Running words do not include titles and subtitles, and so on. 2 Count as one error: • miscues • omissions • insertions • told words (words supplied for the reader) • no response • each word in a skipped line. 3 Count a skipped page as one error and subtract the word count for that page from the total word count. 4 Count proper nouns read inaccurately only once. Count other words read inaccurately each time. 5 Do not count as errors: • words the child self-corrects • words the child repeats • words that are pronounced differently in the child’s dialect. 6 Calculate the percentage accuracy by subtracting the total number of errors from the number of running words and then dividing by the number of running words. For example, six uncorrected errors in a 90-word text would give an accuracy rate of 93%. 90 – 6 = 0.9333… or 93% 90 This process is simplified if you take the first 100 running words.

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Reading development

Figure 7.17 Accuracy chart for 100 running words Uncorrected errors

1 2 3 4 5 6

99 7 98 8 97 9 96 10 95 11 94 12

8 9

Uncorrected errors

% 93 92 91 90 89 88

Consider the percentage accuracy for each record of reading behaviour to determine whether the child is reading at the appropriate learning level. Easy: 95–100% Instructional: 90–94% Difficult: below 90% Analyse the individual miscues to make a prescription for specific concepts and strategies you will explore with the child. Record the self-corrections made by the child. Do not count these as errors. The self-corrections help to identify the strategies the reader is using when reading.

Analysing the reading strategies—errors and self-corrections The analysis of the record of reading behaviour reveals the information the reader is attending to. The errors and self-corrections provide information that is useful for planning teaching activities. Strategies used Errors Were the errors visual? Were the errors syntactic? Were the errors meaning-based? Self-corrections Were the self-corrections visual? Were the self-corrections syntactic? Were the self-corrections meaning-based? Did the reader use all information sources?

Reading is a problem-solving activity and the methods that children use to solve problems provide a ‘window’ into the child’s mind. Effective readers do not always read perfectly. Sometimes readers make errors that are not detected and at other times, when the reading doesn’t fit or sound right, the reader self-corrects. Young readers are learning how the written code works and they are busy matching the written code to spoken language patterns, and in these beginning stages their accuracy with reading provides useful information for book selection and ways to support their development.

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The errors and self-corrections that a child makes are important indicators of reading development. According to Clay (2001) self-corrections occur when the reader misreads a text and, without prompts or signals from another reader, stops and corrects the error. The self-correction may come from the reader’s awareness that what they have just read was not quite right or did not fit their knowledge of the world. Readers work on several cues from the text—the story or meaning, the syntactic or structural information and the visual which includes the relationship between letters and sounds. Teachers can observe the child’s self-corrections and work out ways to support the child’s progress. If a child makes errors based on visual cues for example: ✔ cub ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ from the dog The cat ran away the teacher gains information about the child’s use of initial letters as a main strategy for problem-solving in reading. The reading may look visually similar but it doesn’t make sense. Were the reading errors visual? If a child reads the word shot for shop the word has visual similarity but does not make sense. Were the reading errors syntactic? If the child reads bird for budgerigar the word sounds right in the sentence. It has the same initial letter but does not have the correct meaning. Were the reading errors meaning-based? If the reader says dog for washing the error has no visual similarity, it does not sound right and it does make sense. Did the reader use all information sources? Readers need to integrate all information sources—visual, structural and meaning. Over-reliance on one information source will affect the meaning.

An example of a record of reading behaviour In the example in Figure 7.18, many of the errors are visual. Dog is a threeletter word and the child reads boy; similarly, she reads spot for stop. There are visual and syntactic similarities in reading getting for got. The error wrapping for ripping shows the child’s amazing problem-solving skills as she tried to make sense of the sentence. The child was from Sudan, and had been learning to speak English as her second language for six months.

Reading development

Figure 7.18Â Example of a record of reading behaviour

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Reading development

Comprehension prompts In the reading behaviour analysis sheet, comprehension prompts are provided for each passage that is read. The comprehension prompts gauge the child’s understanding of fiction texts and information texts. Literal (L) This prompts the reader to recall literal information that is in the text. For example, in the traditional tale of the Three Little Pigs a literal question would be ‘How many pigs were there?’ Inferences (Int) Children interpret information by reading between the lines. For example, for The Three Little Pigs an interpretive question would be ‘Which of the pigs’ houses is the strongest?’ Inferential (Infer) These questions prompt the reader to think beyond the text to synthesise information and then provide a critical or a creative response. The reader has to link the meaning of the text to their own experiences and then evaluate or make a judgment about the text. For example, for The Three Little Pigs an inferential question would be ‘What did you learn from this story?’ or ‘Can you invent an ending for the story that is fair?’

High-frequency words There are several words that occur more than any others in children’s first reading books and in their writing. Teachers can assess high-frequency words in children’s writing or they may ask children to write the words in dictation. Some teachers in the early years of school test children to find out which of the first 50 or so high-frequency words the children require, but examination of children’s writing provides easy access to which words to teach.

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Figure 7.19 The first 60 high-frequency words

Initial 10 high-frequency words (including child’s own name)

[Child’s name] I

here is

like has

this my and a The next 50 high-frequency words

am all

are were went

was us up we not to that they no my the she see me at said saw play make look our on of like with in it

here out can

her he have for big one go get and see from you some come had

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Reading development

Figure 7.20 Word recognition assessments A and B Sight words (A) I can read these words = ✔

the and I

to was it we

he my they on went had

for

said when so

that but one

look there up she me out got with at

you all his day have go as

her saw came him back after are about very lot like can be this here play were get has come then no see am Sight words (B) I can read these words = ✔

boy

girl

mother father name school take

soon

away first been home make made down did some

them

would not

where time will

because into

going off

two took over an

from

our

could your what

found by

well which

their who night little do

man people put

only just us or if

told now yes

right live thing know from last want bring Fluency of reading Reading fluency and rate of reading are important for both reading comprehension and children’s attitude to reading. If children read slowly, taking long pauses, they tend to have difficulty understanding what they read. Slow word-by-word reading with long pauses and little attention to the syntax and punctuation can also affect a child’s pleasure in reading. Fluency improves when children have learned to read frequently used words such as the, was and is.

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Fluency can be assessed as the teacher observes the child’s reading of a book. If the reading is fluent:

• • •

words are read together in meaningful chunks, meaning that the tone or expression of the reading is more appropriate there are few examples of word-by-word reading there is attention to syntax and punctuation.

In fluent reading, the child may slow down if there is a need to solve a problem; however, the reading is expressive most of the time. Reads smoothly at an appropriate rate Reads expressively Uses appropriate phrasing Repeats word or phrases Uses punctuation

Figure 7.21 Fluency of reading is important.

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Fluency of reading rubric A fluency of reading rubric is useful for monitoring the child’s development of reading fluency. The rubric in Figure 7.22 presents indicators of development for reading aloud with clear phrasing, attention to syntax, full attention to punctuation, expression which shows the child has interpreted the text and few if any rereadings of the text. Fluency is important because it frees the child to concentrate on the meaning of the text. Less fluent readers focus their attention on decoding the individual words and they have little attention left for comprehending the text (CIERA 2001). Slow word-by-word reading is a chore and may affect children’s attitudes to reading, particularly when they have to read aloud in a guided reading session overheard by other children. To read efficiently, the reader must be able to divide the text into meaningful chunks of phrases and clauses. When the text is divided into meaningful phrases, the tone or expression of the reading is more appropriate. Some readers can read individual words in a word list quite fluently but effective reading occurs in connected text. Reading fluency is not just about automatic recall of individual words. To increase reading fluency, the reading of connected text has to take place.

How to use Ask the child to read aloud a book they have read before once or twice. It must be a book they can read at above 90% accuracy (Fountas & Pinnell 1996, p. 80). Fluency in reading will change depending on the level of text difficulty, so when assessing fluency, move to a book at the easy rather than instructional level.

Timing reading To calculate a score, time how long it takes the child to read 100 words. You could tape record the reading to make this easier. Divide the number of words by the seconds taken to read the book. 100 words = a fluency rate of 2 50 seconds

100 words = a fluency rate of 2.5 40 seconds

This procedure is only useful if it is conducted several times during the school year and the scores are compared so that any increase or decrease in fluency is apparent. For a record, use the table in Figure 7.22 and circle the appropriate descriptors. Teachers can create their own rubrics of reading fluency or, better still, the class can listen to tape recordings of fluent reading and list the criteria for reading with expression.

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Figure 7.22 Reading fluency rubric Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Reads word-by-word with frequent long pauses between words

Reads mostly wordby-word but some two word phrases and perhaps three- or fourword phrases

Mixture of word-byword reading and phrased reading

Reads in larger meaningful phrases. Phraseful reading with few word-byword slow-downs for problem-solving

No recognition of syntax

Inconsistent evidence of syntactic awareness

Evidence of syntax

Full evidence of syntactic awareness

Little expressive interpretation

Consistent expressive interpretation

Expressive interpretation evident throughout

Very little awareness of punctuation

Some awareness of punctuation

Attention to punctuation

Full attention to punctuation

Does not reread

Some rereading to monitor his/her predictions may be present

Rereading to monitor his/her predictions

Rereading to monitor his/her predictions but the reading is generally fluent

Chapter summary Reading is a process of constructing meaning from print and other symbols. Reading involves active problem-solving where a reader checks against several sources of information: semantics, syntax, phonology and the letters. There are different phases of reading development: beginning, early-emergent, emergent, early, transitional and extending. Instructional reading books can be matched to the child’s learning level, which is where a child reads at approximately 90–94% accuracy, leaving some words that still may be a challenge to read. Observing children reading and taking a record of reading behaviour provides a window into the child’s processing of print.

Reading development

Figure 7.23 Using levelled books

Many teachers organise sets of levelled books to provide information about children’s development in literacy. They organise the books into a gradient of difficulty based on the conceptual load, the complexity of syntax, the vocabulary load and the size and placement of text on the page plus the amount of contextual support in the illustrations. As well as a careful text gradient for assessing literacy progress, it is important to pay attention to children’s reading interests. Levelled books can be used to assess the child’s use of reading strat egies, for selecting children for small-group work and for selecting texts that promote reading challenges as well as scaffolding support. As well as accuracy of reading, teachers also need to observe for the child’s comprehension and reading fluency. Teachers find it useful to find out how many high-frequency words children can read by sight and write independently. Knowing how to read and write high-frequency words speeds up a child’s reading and writing.

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CHAPTER 8

Teaching reading

Give me a fish I eat for a day. Teach me to fish I eat for a lifetime.

Robert Louis Stephenson

Difference and diversity is the norm when teaching young children to read. Teaching reading is a process that involves finding out what young children’s strengths and capabilities are and adjusting teaching to maximise learning. Genishi and Dyson (2009) write that development varies widely within and across individual children. ‘Like anything related to language and literacy, assessment timelines for individual children do not follow a straight line’ (p. 136). Teaching reading does not occur in a neat linear sequence. As Clay (1975) writes: A simplification achieved by dealing firstly with letters, then words, and finally word groups (and text types) may be easy for teachers (researcers, educational program developers, and test makers) to understand but children learn on all levels at once. (p. 19)

Using the four roles of a reader Early readers learn to attend to the alphabetic code and to seek out and search for meaning. They learn how to use texts and to attend to the intention of different books. In fact, they take on four roles when they begin to read: code breaker, meaning maker, text user and text critic (Freebody & Luke 1990).

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Figure 8.1Â The four roles of a reader Code breaker How do I crack the code? (alphabet code, punctuation, vocabulary)

Meaning maker How do I comprehend the text? (comprehending text and pictures)

Text user What is the function and form of this text? (analyse the purpose and features)

Text critic What does the text want me to feel, do and think? (critical awareness of the intent and purpose)

Many teachers like to organise teaching opportunities under these four roles, allowing them to plan for focusing attention on the code, and on making meaning, exploring the text type and critical analysis. The four roles are integrated, and early readers need to understand and experience using all four roles in order to develop into fluent and Âflexible readers. For example, a reader must be able to be a code breaker in order to be a text critic; however, there is little point in being a code breaker if the text cannot be comprehended.

Code breaker Code breakers use their knowledge of soundâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;letter relationships and high-frequency sight words to decode print. Teachers can support the role of code breaker by providing opportunities for children to understand the alphabetic principle.

The alphabetic principle The alphabetic principle is the connection between the letters of the alphabet and the sounds of spoken language, and is based on the idea that written language systematically represents spoken words. In order to understand the alphabetic principle, children require some phonemic awareness and letter knowledge.

Phonemic awareness

In an interactive process, the more children read and write, the more their knowledge of letters and sounds develops.

Phonemic awareness is the conscious knowledge of spoken words and sounds in language. Children develop phonemic awareness when they become conscious of sounds in the spoken words they use, and the ability to hear and use these sounds develops from childhood right through to adulthood. For beginning readers, phonemic awareness concerns listening for words, syllables, rhyme, alliteration and phonemes. For older students or adults it might involve selecting the right word to create a mood or image in a song or speech. Phonemic awareness is necessary in order to take advantage of reading instruction. Once children become aware of the different sounds that are used to produce words, they can then use the alphabetic principle to map or link these sounds to letters. However, once reading instruction begins,

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phonemic awareness and letter knowledge both increase. In an interactive process, the more children read and write, the more their knowledge of letters and sounds develops. Phonemic awareness has a strong relationship to future reading development.

Letter knowledge Letter knowledge helps to develop children’s understanding of the alphabetic principle, although many children actually understand this principle before they have mastered all the letters or been taught letter–sound correspondences. Knowing the letter names helps children to remember their sounds, as the names help to induce the sounds. For example, when using temporary spelling, children use letter names to spontaneously produce words such as KAT (cat), PPL (people) and JRIV (drive). Figure 8.2 Letter names are used to produce temporary spelling.

Knowledge of the alphabetic principle extends children’s early reading and writing achievement. They learn to hear and write more complex consonant and vowel sounds, and as they learn to read they map sounds to letters and letter clusters.

Phonics: analogy or ‘whole to part’ phonics Phonics is the teaching of letter–sound relationships for reading and for writing. When the known word fat is used to make a link to an unknown word brat, the child is using analogy or ‘whole-to-part’ phonics to identify new words. In whole-to-part phonics children learn about word families made up of onsets and rimes. The rime consists of the vowel and any consonant sounds that come after it. The onset, if it is there, consists of any consonant sounds that precede the vowel. For example, the teacher might ask children to select their favourite words after a story has been read, and then write each word on a separate piece of card, or the whiteboard, highlighting letters representing an onset (e.g. ‘sm’-) or a rime (e.g. ‘-iles’). The teacher tells the children ‘these letters say /sm/’ or ‘these letters say /ilz/’ and places the words on the classroom word wall. As more and more words are placed on the word wall, the teacher and children can group words with similar onsets and rimes; for example, words with a ‘dr’ onset such as drink, drip and drum could be grouped together, and the ‘dr’ blend highlighted with a pen to make recognition

Teaching reading

easier. At other times, the words might be organised in word families or rimes with all the ‘-ink’, ‘-um’ or ‘-ip’ words grouped together. Figure 8.3 Onsets and rimes Word Onset Rime I — I itch — itch sit s- -it spit sp- -it splint spl- -int pie p- -ie spy sp- -y

Onset and rime are important because children make analogies with onsets and rimes in both reading and writing.

Meaning maker Meaning makers read to understand.

Meaning makers read to understand. They search for meaning in the illustrations, sentence structure and print. Teachers can enhance children’s comprehension of a text by asking questions and initiating conversations at different stages of the reading. Before children start a new book, teachers can initiate conversations that connect the text to children’s prior experiences. Connecting conversations may include:

• • • • •

building up a list of words related to the book’s topic listing questions about the text developing semantic webs, mind maps or diagrams reading a related poem or story sharing an experience about the topic.

After reading, children could retell the story. A retelling provides useful information about their understanding of the characters and events in a fiction book. If the book is factual, then the important facts can be retold. Comprehension questions can be posed to explore children’s literal, interpretative and inferential thinking.

• • •

Literal questions concern information that is explicit in the words and illustrations—on the line. Interpretive questions ask the reader to read between the lines or find clues in the illustrations. In interpretive comprehension, the meaning is implicit rather than obvious. Inferential questions ask the reader to synthesise information and go beyond the book to provide a critical or creative response.

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Text user Text users identify the form or genre of a book to determine how they will read it.

Text users identify the form or genre of a book to determine how they will read it. The purpose of a text affects its format and how it is read. If the book is factual then reading for information is a focus. If the text is a recount, the purpose is to tell what happened. The purpose of a narrative is to entertain, and an information report organises and stores factual information. The text types that many teachers find useful are recount, narrative, procedure, explanation, report and argument (see Chapter 15 for more information on the features of different genres). Most books fit one particular genre, but some books combine genres in different ways and for this reason it is important to use the features of text genres as general guidelines and not as rigid criteria. There are many teaching opportunities for making explicit the knowledge children already have as text users. The description of different text features can occur during shared book reading, during modelled writing and during guided reading. Learning to be a text user means developing a language about texts, and to do this teachers can use questions such as:

• • • •

What kind of text is this? Is this book a recount or a narrative? Is this text an explanation of something? If this text is a narrative, what is the problem to be solved?

Text critic Text critics evaluate the author’s purpose and their decisions about how the information is presented.

Text critics evaluate the author’s purpose and their decisions about how the information is presented. Text critics do more than read for truth and accuracy; they explore the intention of a text and how the text works on them or makes them feel. For example, some texts are written as advertisements to persuade people to buy something. Some texts are written to make the reader laugh and some texts are scary. Some authors write as though all children look and think the same and some authors are patronising. Text critics learn how authors make texts, and to do this they learn to read like a writer, describing how texts are constructed to get a message across. Teachers can support the role of text critic by providing opportunities for children to respond to what they read, to add their opinions to the information the author has offered, to challenge the premises put forth as true, and to publish book reviews and evaluations. Questions that prompt children to read as text critics include:

• • • • •

‘What message does the author want to tell you?’ ‘What did the author have to know to write this book?’ ‘Why did the author choose to write about this topic?’ ‘What might have been left out of this book?’ ‘Does the author think you are clever or silly?’

Teaching reading

Three steps in a reading lesson There are three main steps in a reading lesson:

•

• •

Before reading, teachers build up children’s prior knowledge and link this to the book being read. Sometimes teachers talk through the book or build up semantic webs so that the new vocabulary in the book can be discussed and classified. During reading, teachers often use prompts to support children to problem-solve and use several information sources such as the meaning, syntax or the sounds and letters to figure out the print. After reading, teachers plan a range of activities for the children to practise what they need so they can become more independent readers.

Teaching prompts during reading Reading involves drawing together information from several sources.

Reading involves drawing together information from several sources, and teachers can use the following teaching prompts during reading to draw children’s attention to the meaning, syntax and visual information in a text. Children learn to internalise these prompts, and use them to read more and more complex texts.

Meaning Prompts for attention to the meaning include:

• • • • • •

‘What would make sense here?’ ‘How can we make this sentence make sense?’ ‘Look at the picture. What could you try?’ ‘What could you say that would make sense?’ ‘Would balloon fit here?’ ‘Can you tell me what this means?’

Syntax Some prompts to support use of syntactic information are:

• • • • • • • •

‘Would we say ran or run?’ ‘Does that sound right?’ ‘Do we say it that way?’ ‘Try very. Does that sound right?’ ‘You can ask questions about word groups (nouns, verbs etc.)’ ‘What kind of word are we looking for here?’ ‘Would it be a name of something?’ ‘Could it be a word telling how you do something?’

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Visual Some prompts to support the use of visual information are:

• • • •

‘Look at the first letter. What sound might this letter make?’ ‘Check the beginning of the word.’ ‘Check the end of the word.’ ‘It could be ____, but look at the first letter.’

You might point to the first letter or letter cluster and say:

• • •

‘Do you know a word that begins like this?’ ‘What sound does the letter make in that word?’ ‘What sound might it make in this word?’

Integrating information sources Encourage the use of all sources of information. After an error or point of difficulty, select a prompt that will direct the children’s attention to the source of information they are neglecting.

• • • •

‘Does that make sense?’ ‘Does it sound right?’ ‘Does it look right?’ At the point of difficulty say: ‘Try that again. What would make sense (or sound right or look right)?’

Teaching readers to solve problems Four sources of information Readers need to use, and check against each other, four sources of information: visual—the letters, format and layout; phonology—the sounds; the syntax or sentence structure; semantics—text or illustration meaning. Readers search for and use these multiple sources of information while reading.

•

Visual information includes the attention to the print and the letters in words. Attention to visual cues can be prompted by asking: ‘What have you noticed about this word? Does the word look right?’ Phonology is the sound information the reader uses from their oral language. Teachers often trigger attention to phonological cues by asking: ‘Does that word sound right to you? Does that pattern of letters sound like this?’ The syntax or sentence structure is the cue the reader draws on from their experiences with oral language and from the book

Teaching reading

•

language from books read aloud. Teachers can focus the reader’s attention on this by asking questions such as: ‘Does it sound right if you say it that way?’ Semantics is the knowledge that coherent meaning can be constructed from a text. These meanings link to the reader’s home and community experiences and also focus on the meaning the author is communicating. Readers may ask questions about their reading such as: ‘Does this make sense? Is this what the author is trying to say?’

Deciding what cues to focus on Readers cross-check across these multiple cues to make meaning, and the teacher needs to decide what cue needs to be focused on. For example, if a child reads: ✔ grub ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ The caterpillar is on a leaf. the teacher might prompt the reader by saying ‘Look at the first letter’. This is attention to the visual cue of the letter. If, for example, the child reads: ✔ leav ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ The leaf is on a tree. the teacher might draw attention to the sound and letter relationship in the word leaf by saying ‘Is that last sound right?’ Sometimes the sentence structure or syntax may be a necessary cue in reading, for example, if the child reads: A ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ The leaves use sunlight to make food. the teacher could prompt by saying ‘Do those words sound right in the sentence?’ In the next example the meaning or semantic cues require attention. ✔ girl ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ The goat was by the gate. The teacher could prompt the reader to search for meaning by saying ‘Look at the picture. Is goat right?’

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In all these examples, the teacher prompted the reader to focus attention on the text. When the child miscued on the word leaf the teacher did not draw on extraneous cues by saying, for example, ‘Look outside. Can you see a leaf making sunlight?’ This would shift attention away from problem-solving by exploring the text.

Using a range of strategies Effective readers use a range of strategies to create a match between the visual, structural, semantic and phonological cues.

Effective readers use a range of strategies to create a match between the visual, structural, semantic and phonological cues. Readers who are making slow progress may be relying primarily on one cueing system; for example, they might just use visual cues. Some readers use semantics only, and o thers pay little attention to the words, telling the story from the illustrations. Effective reading means learning to integrate multiple cues, crosschecking, monitoring by rereading and correcting when necessary. The use of multiple cues is important for early reading and many teachers explain to children that in order to solve problems in reading, miscues will occur. In addition, the difficulty of texts prompts a reader to integrate, in different ways, the cues for meaning, visual, structure and phonology. Sometimes an illustration or diagram will be of prime importance and sometimes decoding the word will be central.

Encouraging self-monitoring Self-monitoring means checking yourself while reading. Effective readers monitor their reading at all times as they meet new challenges in texts of increasing difficulty. Emergent readers self-monitor for meaning by wordby-word matching, checking that the picture matches the meaning of the sentence and making sure the sentence they are reading makes sense. To encourage self-monitoring, teachers can observe and prompt so that children become skilled at monitoring their own reading. The following activities can be adapted to suit the strengths and weaknesses of each child.

•

To encourage self-monitoring in emergent reading, ask the child to point to each word. Say: ‘Use a pointer and make the words match the words you read’ or ‘Read it with your finger’, then ask: ‘Were there enough words?’ ‘Did the words match?’

•

To encourage self-monitoring in emergent reading and effective reading of more challenging texts, direct the child’s attention to meaning. Say: ‘Did that make sense?’ or ‘Look at the picture’, then ask:

Teaching reading

‘Did that make sense with what you read before?’ ‘Could you read that again to see if it makes sense?’

•

To encourage the child to self-monitor when meaning is lost, prompt the child to make various attempts to regain the meaning. Say: ‘I like the way you did that’, then ask: ‘What did you notice here?’ ‘Why did you stop?’ ‘Can you find the bit that was hard for you?’ ‘You did a good job of working that out for yourself.’

Teaching activities The following teaching activities begin with the very first early-emergent and emergent concepts about print and then describe teaching activities based on the four roles of a reader.

Emergent concepts of print in reading and writing Children develop many of their emerging concepts of print through the experience of hearing books being read aloud. The idea that the print carries the message can be further developed through writing and activities with magnetic letters. In these beginning stages it is always a good idea to build on the familiar. Some beginning teaching activities include starting with:

• • • • • • • • •

the child’s name reading familiar books language experience stories the words the child can write reading aloud making books sentence stems sentence making making words.

The child’s name Ask the child to write their name and provide support if necessary. As they write, talk about the idea that words and letters tell us information. Point out that a name is a word and that there are letters in a word.

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Reading familiar books Reading familiar books aloud provides a chance to discuss concepts such as the cover and the title page. All the emerging concepts of print can be discussed during or after the reading. It is important not to discuss too many concepts at once, and to keep the story flowing so that enjoyment of the book is not lost.

Language experience stories Children like to draw and then write about events that have happened to them. Sometimes children are content with drawing but it is important to encourage them to write about their illustrations. Even a few letters can be used as a starting point. Many teachers like to write out the full story sentence the child has articulated under the illustration. Then it is possible to read the sentence through together, making the point that words tell a story and that the story remains the same every time it is read. Word-byword matching and terminology such as left to right, top, bottom, first, middle and last can be used while reading texts that are familiar in content.

The words the child can write The words the child can write are a starting point for identifying the concepts of word, letter and one-to-one matching of voice and print when reading.

Reading aloud Select a picture book or big book to read, and discuss concepts such as the cover, title page, author and illustrator. As you read the book aloud to the children, hold it for them to see what youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re reading. As you read, sweep your finger under the text word by word or use a pointer for the same purpose. Repeat the same procedure every time you read aloud.

Making books Have the children make their own books by assembling some pages they have written or illustrated. Help them to create cover pages, and remind them to include title pages with their names as the authors and Âillustrators.

Using sentence stems Activities that encourage children to read and write high-frequency words help to build their reading and writing fluency. Provide sentence stems for children to complete.

Teaching reading

I like … Here is a … This is a … I can … We are going to the … I went to the …

Sentence making In order to demonstrate the concept of the sentence, first define what a sentence is (e.g. a sentence is a complete thought). Once children can make their own sentences orally, start showing them sentences in printed or written form. You could use sentence strips or big books. Use plenty of examples of complete sentences. Make sure to include activities that deal with comparisons of different sentence lengths, and evaluate children’s understanding of this concept. Also have the children show where a sentence begins and ends. Figure 8.4 The child dictates a sentence from their own experience. The teacher writes the sentence and the child, familiar with the content, can read it back to the teacher.

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Figure 8.5Â The sentences can then be cut up into separate words which are rearranged to make new sentences. (The punctuation is also cut up separately.)

Making words Cut up individual words, for example can, into letters for children to reassemble into the whole word.

Teaching reading

Teaching and learning activities Activities based on the four roles of a reader help children learn to solve problems as they read a text. Although the following activities are divided into code breaker, meaning maker, text critic and text user, in reality these roles overlap. Most of the activities are suitable for small groups and learning centres.

Code breaker In code-breaking activities the focus is on the alphabetic code, learning high-frequency words and word building. Words from the books children are reading can be used in games and activities. Many teachers have children play card games such as Concentration where children turn over cards and match them. Other card games include Dominoes, where two different words are placed on each card, and Snap or Word Families which can be played with duplicate sets of word cards. The following activities are for very beginning work with cracking the code and can be adapted to suit many different words that the children need to practise. (See Chapter 11 for more suggestions.)

Word wheel Word wheel is an activity for building words from the same word family. This activity should be used after the children have sorted pictures from different word families and have also looked through their word banks for words from the word family. To make a word wheel, follow these steps.

Cut two 15 cm circles from cardboard. Cut a wedge from one circle at the 9 o’clock spot, and write the vowel and ending consonants of your chosen word family (e.g. ‘-op’) to the right of it. Make a round hole in the middle. On the second circle write beginning sounds that form words with that family evenly around the outside edge so that only one at a time will show through the window wedge. For example, the ‘-op’ family can be formed with ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘h’, ‘m’, ‘p’, ‘t’, ‘cr’, ‘dr’, ‘pr’, ‘ch’, ‘sh’ and ‘st’. Cut a slit in the middle of the circle. Put the circle with the wedge on top of the other circle. Push a brass fastener through the round hole and the slit. Flatten the fastener, making sure the top circle can turn.

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Children operate the word wheel by turning the top circle and reading the words they have made. Figure 8.6 Word families to use for word wheels -ad -am -ag -al -ap -ab -an -ash -ax -ath -og

-om -od -ot -op -ob -on -osh -ox -oss -im -id

-it -ig -ip -ib -in -ish -ill -ich -ix -up -ut

-ud -um -atch -ant -and -ang -ank -anch -am

Variations:

• • •

Flip books can be made the same way. Children can draw pictures of the words they make. Children can make their own flip books.

Final consonant substitutions Prepare cards or collect magnetic letters with beginning letter pairs such as ‘sa’, ‘ra’, ‘le’, ‘si’, ‘pi’, ‘ho’, ‘cu’, ‘fa’ and all the consonants (you could use a different colour). Children assemble the letter pairs and consonants to form words. Encourage children to use all the consonants, in order to play with the language. Tell them that some words will be real words and others will not, and that they should let you know which are which. Some possible real-word combinations are as follows: sa (t), (d), (g), (m), (p) le (d), (g), (t) ra (g), (m), (n), (p), (t) si (p), (r), (t), (x)

pi (g), (n), (t) ho (g), (p), (t)

fa (t), (d), (n), (r) cu (p), (t)

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Detecting medial sounds with word building Determine ahead of time which words you plan to have the children build and provide each child with a set of the letters needed to build these words. Then, have children sit in a small group around you and demonstrate, for example, how to build the word hit, and then how to change hit to hot. Make one sound change at a time. You can use some nonsense words. Children can then build words using the other frames such as s___t, b___t, d___g, p___t or n___t. Figure 8.7 Examples of word sets pet pit put bit bet bat fit fat fan sit sat set pep pip pap tin tan ton lip lep lup

pot but fun sut pup ten lap

Detecting individual letter sounds and blending into words The goal of this activity is for children to segment each sound they hear in a printed word and then to blend these sounds into a word. Start with two-sound words to be sure they understand the concept, and then go to three-sound words. After they have mastered three sounds, go to foursound words. Make one line per sound on the whiteboard or interactive whiteboard and then get the letters that make up your chosen word (e.g. cat) and place them below the lines. Say, ‘What is the first sound you hear in cat?’ Place your finger under the lines as you say the word. When the child tells you the sound, they move the letter that represents that sound up onto the line. Say, ‘What’s the second sound you hear in the word cat?’ Place your finger under the lines as you say the word. When the child tells you the second sound, they move the letter that represents that sound onto the line. Say, ‘What is the last sound you hear in the word cat?’ Again, place your finger under the lines as you say the word. When the child tells you the last sound, they move the letter that represents that sound onto the line and complete the activity by blending the sounds to make the word.

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Building words Word building is a good activity to reinforce decoding and word recognition. The following is an example of a word building lesson, with the teacher modelling.

1 2 3 4

Put the word fan in a pocket chart or on a whiteboard with magnetic letters. Say, ‘This is the word fan. Read this word with me [fan]. I can change one letter of the word to make a new word’. Change the ‘n’ to ‘t’ and have children say the new word [fat]. Direct children to build the word fat, one letter at a time, and then to say the word.

Continue by having children change one letter at a time and then read the word. For example: ‘Put the letter ‘s’ between ‘a’ and ‘t’. What word did you make?’ [fast]

Say-it-move-it using letters Say a word aloud and ask the child to repeat it. Then, ask the child to say each phoneme of the word separately, while you or the child moves a letter representing that sound to lines or boxes (see example below). Start with two- and three-phoneme words. Then, mix in words with two, three or four phonemes. (This activity is extended in Chapter 11.) c

Meaning maker Meaning maker activities encourage children to comprehend what is read. There are activities that suit before, during and after reading. The idea before reading is to connect the reading to the children’s prior knowledge and using semantic webs or KWL are some of the best ideas for this. These two activities work during reading as children search for information, and after reading they can check their findings against the questions they posed initially (see Chapter 9 for more meaning maker a ctivities).

Semantic webs Semantic webs are a way of organising information into categories. For example, if children are reading a book on sharks, begin by writing the word ‘sharks’ on a whiteboard or chart and then have children brainstorm words associated with sharks. Work with the children to categorise the words into subtopics such as appearance, behaviour, young and habitat, and to then add more words to each subtopic. As the children read, they find out more information to add to the semantic web.

Teaching reading

KWL K—what I know, W—what I want to know and L—what I learned. Write these letters on a whiteboard or chart. Begin by asking children what they already know about a topic, such as sharks, or, with a fiction book such as the folk tale The Little Red Hen, what they know about the tale and list their responses under ‘K’. Then ask them to pose questions about what they want to learn or find out as they read, and list these under ‘W’. Point out that as they read, they can think about their questions and try to find answers. After reading, guide them to write the answers to their questions under ‘L’. (There is more on KWL in Chapter 9.)

Text user Text user activities encourage children to explore the text type or genre and understand the purpose of the text and how to engage with it. Many teachers help children understand the type of text before they read. Obviously children will read an information book differently from a fiction book. Fiction books are read differently as well, for example a play is read differently from a poem or rhyme. A procedure text such as a recipe for making biscuits will be read differently from a scientific report on sharks. Posing questions about different texts will help children understand how the type of text affects how it is read. Questions could include:

• • • • •

‘What kind of book is this?’ ‘How is it organised?’ ‘Has it got chapters?’ ‘Has it got a glossary or an index?’ ‘How will we read this text?’

See Chapter 15 for more ideas for text user activities.

Text critic In text critic activities the author’s intention is explored and also the way the book works on the reader. Some teachers begin with exploring catalogues and advertising leaflets to explore how words and pictures are used to create meanings and influence the reader. Some texts leave out information or tell half of the story. Some texts deliberately ignore, or forget to include, people such as children who are from different cultural groups, or of different gender or age. Examining books for fairness and equity is important for children to develop awareness of what information to trust. A little mistrust about what we read is healthy, but if too much distrust and over-analysis develops, children may have difficulty enjoying reading. Developing as a healthy reader involves being more trustful than distrustful.

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Chapter summary Many teachers find the four roles of a reader—code breaker, meaning maker, text user and text critic—useful for planning teaching activities in shared book and in guided reading. Code breaker involves understanding the alphabetic principle, phonemic awareness, letter knowledge and phonics. Meaning maker involves comprehending the text on a literal, interpretive and critical level. Text user involves identifying the purpose and text type or genre of a book or text. Different text types demand different kinds of reading. Text critics evaluate the author’s intentions and biases as well as the truth or accuracy of the information. Teachers use three stages for planning reading lessons: before reading, during reading and after reading. Before reading the teacher connects the book to children’s prior knowledge and interests. During reading the teacher gives a range of problem-solving prompts to support the reader as they integrate information from several sources: syntax, meaning, sounds and letters. After reading, teachers plan activities that use the four roles of the reader. The four roles of the reader all work together in an integrated way.

CHAPTER 9

Reading comprehension

Once upon a time, a very long time ago now, about last Friday, Winniethe-Pooh lived in a forest all by himself under the name of Sanders. (“What does ‘under the name’ mean?” asked Christopher Robin. “It means he had the name over the door in gold letters and lived under it.”)

Reading comprehension is the act of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning from the text.

(The World of Pooh)

Comprehension is understanding the meaning of what is read from the print, illustrations, layout and design. Stop to think for a moment. You are probably a very proficient reader, and proficient readers take comprehension for granted. As you read this book the written symbols create meaning. When you comprehend the words, does this mean that you are making a mental image of the information in the words? Does comprehension depend on decoding and pronouncing the words on the page? Comprehension is both of these things. Reading comprehension is the act of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning from the text. Children have to extract meaning from the printed words on the page by working out how print operates to represent words. They also need to build new meanings by integrating new ideas with old information. In doing this, they are constructing meanings. Young children make meaning from both the print and the illustrations in the texts they read, and the earlier they begin to think critically about and solve problems with information and fiction texts, the more they will be able to think about more complex texts. Children’s levels of comprehension can be observed while they read, and their miscues provide the teacher with a clue to their understanding. After reading they can be asked to respond to comprehension questions or retell the events or information in the text.

Comprehension and young children Well before formal schooling and learning to decode print, young children already have strategies in place for making meaning in their daily activi-

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ties (Dooley & Matthews 2009). They have already developed systems to process non-print information, such as knowledge about the syntax of oral language, meanings of words, the visual forms of pictures, making sense of daily activities and, importantly, understanding stories (Clay 2001). Oral language is central to reading development (Dickinson, Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek 2010) and particularly important for reading comprehension. For example, listening to and understanding a story read aloud involves familiarity with the syntax and vocabulary of oral language. Oral language has several aspects which are important for reading development—phonology, vocabulary, syntax, discourse and pragmatics (Snow, Burns, & Griffin 1998)—and we should not underestimate its importance in comprehension. When thinking about comprehension it is unhelpful to set up binaries of ‘learning to read/reading to learn’ and ‘learning to decode/learning to comprehend’ (Skull 2010). For young children, the search for meaning is central from the earliest stages of reading acquisition. Beginning readers need to integrate several information sources as they read including semantic, syntactic and graphic cues. The search for meaning—or reading comprehension—occurs in three parts of reading: before, during and after reading. Comprehension is a process not a skill. It is not a hierarchical list of sub-skills where children work on exercises and teacher-posed questions out of the context of reading. Rather, comprehension is a process where readers pose questions, connect ideas, infer meanings, and recall, summarise and evaluate information. It involves thinking strategies and being aware of thinking, or ‘thinking about thinking’. Thinking about thinking, or metacognition, allows young readers to be aware of and choose from a range of strategies to use with different texts. When young children are learning to read, teachers can model in conversation how they think as they read, pose questions, make predictions, recall and summarise. Learning strategies such as connecting prior knowledge, questioning, inferring, recalling and summarising are what reading is about. Merely decoding, without connecting to meaning, is not reading.

The interaction between reader, text and activity Comprehension involves thinking about the interaction between the reader, the text and the activity (RAND Reading Study Group 2002). The reader consists of those aspects that make us all different: our cultural experiences, knowledge, capabilities, age and gender. The texts can be in print or electronic form and of different genres from comics to information books. Each text type is made up of text features that affect comprehension. For example, reading a narrative story is different from reading a recipe book for information. The activity has three dimensions:

Reading comprehension

the purpose for reading—why readers read; the processes—what mental activity they engage in while reading; and the consequences—what readers learn or experience as a result of reading (Snow & Sweet 2003, p. 2). For example, the purpose in an activity may be to find a recipe for making pancakes. The processes include checking the list of ingredients and the consequences may involve acquiring new knowledge about different forms of pancakes. Figure 9.1 A visual representation of comprehension

The sociocultural context includes the local community and the family, and it both shapes and is shaped by the child. The sociocultural interface influences how children think of themselves as a gendered part of a social class with views of school, home and community and the value put on different kinds of texts. For example, in some families texts are to be memorised and read aloud, or read silently, trusted, set aside and revered. In other families, books are written on, highlighted and dog-eared. All the factors in the visual representation of comprehension—the reader, the text and the activity—interact within the broader sociocultural context. To improve children’s comprehension, the craft of good teaching involves knowing the readers in the classroom, knowing about different text types and text features and then planning engaging activities for the children.

Teaching reading comprehension After reviewing numerous research studies the National Reading Panel (2000) identified three elements necessary for supporting the development of reading comprehension:

• • •

vocabulary instruction active reading strategy instruction.

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Vocabulary Decades of research have shown the importance of vocabulary in children’s ability to learn to read and for later success in school (Hart & Risley 1995; Snow, Burns & Griffin 1998). Oral vocabulary is an important key to making the transitions between oral and written forms of language and reading vocabulary is important for the comprehension of a skilled reader (National Reading Panel 2000). However, it is important to grasp the idea that vocabulary, syntax and semantics all work together to support early literacy development.

Teaching vocabulary When teachers select vocabulary to teach it is a matter of deciding which words will be useful in the texts to be read and activities or topics to be explored. Beck, McKeown & Kucan (2002) developed the three-tier model for selecting words to teach. Figure 9.2 The three-tier model for selecting vocabulary words from text for teaching

Tier 3

Tier 2

Tier 1

• •

•

Tier 3 low-frequency technical words

Tier 2 words to teach, high frequency, high utility

Tier 1 known common words

Tier 1 consists of words such as clock, baby and happy, whose meanings children are likely to know. Tier 2 is made up of words that are likely to appear frequently in a wide variety of texts and in the written and oral language of mature language users. These are words whose meanings children are less likely to know. Tier 3 is made up of words such as irksome, pallet and retinue that rarely appear in text. Although these words are often unknown to children and their appearance in texts is limited to one or two occurrences, because they are often specific to particular content, children can use the context to establish their meaning.

Reading comprehension

For beginning readers, much of the vocabulary in the books they read will be Tier 1 words from their oral language. At this stage, children’s oral language and listening comprehension may be above the level of difficulty of the words they can read.

Vocabulary in books read aloud To extend young children’s vocabulary, the meaning of new words can be introduced when reading aloud from either literature or information books, and also in everyday conversations with children. Select about three new words from a book or around a topic of conversation, and introduce the words in context—perhaps by reading the book then going back to explore the words, explaining the meaning of the new words in childfriendly language and then using the words in another context. After this, the children can provide examples of the words in another context. The following steps are useful when reading aloud to extend children’s vocabulary.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Read the book to contextualise the word. Children repeat the word (‘Say the word with me’). Explain the meaning of the word in everyday language. Give examples of the word in a context other than that of the story. Children use the word in their own example. Say the word again.

For example, when reading a book on spiders the teacher might select the word predator because the meaning may be unclear to the children. The book is read and then the meaning of the word is described. Teacher: The word predator means hunter, a creature who hunts for food to eat. A spider is a predator. Lions are predators because they hunt animals like deer to eat. Can you think of a sentence with the word predator? Child 1: A snake is a predator because it catches mice to eat. Child 2: A big fish is a predator hunting small fish.

Vocabulary in everyday conversations While vocabulary instruction can occur during reading aloud, there are many opportunities to extend vocabulary in everyday conversations. In the following examples, the children were exploring the topic of water and lists of words or word walls were created to build vocabulary to describe water.

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Figure 9.3 Word walls for building vocabulary about a topic

Vocabulary in picture talk or walk-through the book As children develop as readers, vocabulary can be introduced in guided reading lessons during the picture talk or walk-through before reading the book. The picture walk-through is a conversation about the text and is used to activate the children’s prior knowledge and experience. It may draw attention to the text type and syntax and also the vocabulary used in the book. The selection of vocabulary depends on the readers and the text, and can be used again in the after-reading discussion or writing activity.

Vocabulary meanings for developing readers As children develop as readers, more Tier 2 words occur in the texts they read. These words should be not too difficult or they will be beyond the child’s ability to learn, nor should they be too easy. They should be what Stahl and Stahl (2004) call ‘Goldilocks’ words—words that are just right. The words to be taught might be useful conceptual words that are new to the children, for example conservation or reptiles. The words might be high-utility words that occur in a range of texts or in a range of learning areas in school. Word definitions can be explored and used in games and activities. There are multiple ways to teach vocabulary using graphic organisers or semantic webs to explore the meanings of the words. Many teachers use activities such as WOW (Word Of the Week) where children post new words and definitions on a word wall and place a check mark beside the word each time it is used. The winning word has the most check marks. The selection of words to teach depends on what the children know already and what words occur in texts and conversations in school. Encouraging children’s curiosity about words, exploring words and talking about words are important for children as they develop as active learners and problem-solvers.

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Reading comprehension

Teaching comprehension strategies Encouraging children’s awareness of their thinking as they read is essential for comprehension. In a review of comprehension strategies (Gill 2008; Fountas & Pinnell 2006; Harvey & Goudvis 2000; National Reading Panel 2000) the following strategies were important for active reading:

• • • • • • • •

making connections: prior knowledge and schema predicting: the meaning and content questioning: about the meaning of the text visualising: mental images and graphic organisers inferring and critiquing: reading between the lines determining importance: key ideas monitoring, repairing understanding: word solve, reread, rethink summarising; main ideas.

Comprehension strategies are thinking processes and they can be used before, during and after reading. There is no neat linear list or sequence of strategies. They are cyclical, and several strategies can be used in different sequences. For example, before reading a young reader may visualise what might happen in a book, then during reading they may again visualise and predict, from page to page, what may happen next. Then after reading, visualising may occur as the reader thinks about an alternative ending to a narrative. Similarly when making connections, the reader connects the book with their own experiences before, during and after reading. In Figure 9.4, which shows comprehension strategies before, during and after active reading, some additional strategies such as fluency are included because fluency of reading is necessary to maintain comprehension. Personal response is also included as young readers respond differently to texts both during and after reading. Comprehension strategies should be adjusted for different text types as reading and understanding a narrative, for example, demands different comprehension strategies from reading an information report.

Connect

Question

ies teg stra olve Use ord s to w

ACTIVE READING

Visualise

Fluency

l na e rso ns Pe spo re

ise ar ll m te m re u d S n a

Critique

Infer

ING

Predict

Monitor and correct

R DU

xt te d re s an plo re s Ex ctu ture u str fea

BE F

OR E

Figure 9.4 Comprehension strategies before, during and after active reading

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Comprehension strategies before reading Exploring text structures and features Before reading it is important to find out the text structure of the book, as comprehending a narrative or story, for example, is different from comprehending an information book. Before reading aloud a narrative, teachers often discuss the author, central characters and concepts. During reading they clarify vocabulary meanings and often engage children in making predictions and explaining motives and events. Afterwards they might ask children to reflect on the meaning and the message of the story (Snow, Burns & Griffin 1998). When reading information texts, teachers often engage children in activities designed to connect the text to their everyday experiences. Children may then be encouraged to predict and explain, explore cause and effect and discern the main ideas. The introduction and clarification of vocabulary may involve concept development instead of word definitions. The kinds of discussions and activities associated with each written language genre make distinctive contributions to childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s understanding of the nature, purposes and process of reading. Reading several books on the same topic using a range of text types helps children to understand that different texts are read and understood in different ways. Predict The reader can predict what the book is about from the cover. With narrative, children may suggest characters and plot, and these predictions may be listed on a chart or whiteboard. Some teachers ask children to suggest the vocabulary they may read such as straw, sticks, bricks and huff and puff. Later, these words can be checked once the book had been read. Reading information books involves prediction, and graphic organisers can be used to explore the concept of the book and the text features and organisation. For example, a book on the life cycle of a duck could begin with a graphic organiser of a life cycle. Connect Making connections involves building a bridge between what is in the mind of the reader and what is in the book. To make connections, children need to activate schemas or what is already in their head about a particular topic. Gregory and Cahill (2010) describe a kindergarten classroom where young children use hand shapes in the shape of a C to show they have made a connection to the story, a V to show they have a visualisation and a wiggling index finger to indicate a question. In this way, the strategies for making meaning, connecting, visualising and questioning

Reading comprehension

are made explicit with hand signs. The connections children make with books can be categorised into text-to-self connection, text-to-text connections and text-to-world connections. Text-to-self is a personal connection. Text-to-text is a connection to another book or movie and text-to-world is a connection to wider knowledge. Figure 9.5 Children’s questions

Question Questions can be asked before, during and after reading. Expert readers ask questions as they read and Gregory and Cahill (2010) write about young children wiggling their index fingers when they have any ‘I wonders’ about a book being read. The children’s ‘I wonder’ questions can be written progressively on charts as the book reading continues, and then the children provide answers when the book has been read. In Figure 9.5, children’s questions about the topic of water were written by the teacher and then the children read selected books to find answers. Figure 9.6 lists the information the children knew about flowers. After reading, additional information was added to a new chart.

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Figure 9.6 Children’s knowledge about flowers and information gained after reading several books on flowers

Visualise Visualising can take the form of creating a mental image of a story, object or event. It can be explained to children as ‘mind movies’ (Gregory & Cahill 2010) which can be drawn before, during and after reading. Children can then share these drawings with a peer. Other forms of visualising include graphic organisers. For example, children could draw three pictures in three-cartoon style picture frames as a summary of a book. Other graphic organisers can be used to explore the text structure and organisation of a book. A common form of visualisation involves making story maps after reading. In story maps, the children engage with the characters, events, problems and the final resolution of a story. Drawing, talking and writing a response to a book is a valuable form of visualisation. Many teachers use folded sheets of paper—in concertina folds, quadrant folds, six folds, flaps—to promote visualisation.

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Figure 9.7 Paper folds for visualisation

crossfold c-fold

crossfold concertina c-fold

concertina

Comprehension strategies during reading Readers search for meaning from the earliest stages of reading acquisition, and young children need to integrate several information sources including semantic, syntactic and graphic cues as they read.

Use strategies to solve words Children use multiple strategies to solve unfamiliar words. They use visual information such as the letters and they also use syntax to check if the word sounds right in the sentence. Semantics is the meaning of what is read, and when children try to work out or decode a word visually they also check against their knowledge of syntax and semantics.

Monitor and correct Monitoring for meaning and correcting by rereading is similar to childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s self-corrections as they read. All readers read on, predicting and confirming what they read as they move along. We are often surprised when what we predicted does not occur in the text, so we reread, recheck and rethink. Beginning readers need to use strategies such as monitoring and correcting to ensure the meaning of what has been read is clear.

Fluency Fluent reading is important for maintaining the meaning of what is read and is necessary for comprehension (Fountas & Pinnell 2006; National Reading Panel 2000). Fluency does not mean fast reading but, rather, when children are reading aloud the reading is in meaningful phrases with intonation that reflects the childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s understanding of the text.

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Comprehension strategies after reading The children might summarise the story, draw a picture or a story map, or use a graphic organiser to retell the main ideas. Some teachers use three frames or boxes for the children to draw the main ideas or the sequence of the plot. The idea is to encourage recall of only the key ideas in the book, and not to include all the details. Summarise When children summarise, the main idea of the text is important. Deciding what the main idea or message is means leaving out the details that may not have an impact on the main message. Taking notes about important ideas and information helps children create a summary. Retelling is similar to summarising and can be used to assess children’s comprehension of a text. When young children are retelling the events of or the main facts in a text, the retelling is usually ‘reading on the lines’ or literal comprehension. Infer Inferences are created at the intersection of three factors: the author’s words, the reader’s schema and the mind’s ability to merge information into a unique combination (Gregory & Cahill 2010). Inferencing is a complex idea to teach; however, children can use ‘I wonder’ charts to list questions as they read, and if the information is explicitly found in the book this can be checked off—meaning it is not inferred. If the information is not explicitly found in the book, then young children have to use their brains to answer the question. The notion of using our brains to infer what is not directly stated in the book is understood by young children, as many picture books use symbols and illustrative effects to imply meanings. The use of talking animals in picture books implies that the animal is really a person. In folk tales a rat or fox usually implies clever trickery and an elephant, memory and strength. Young children infer meanings from picture books from an early age and do not suddenly come to reading between the lines in later primary school. Critique When critiquing, children are reading beyond the lines—commenting beyond the book. When critiquing fiction texts, children think about the plot, the characters and whether the story is believable and well written. Overall, the criticism of fiction rests on whether the reader enjoys the book. The writing style, the use of illustrations and the layout of the book all play a role in judging its value and quality. In information books, the

Reading comprehension

accuracy and bias of the author might be evaluated. Some information books and websites persuade the reader to take a particular point of view and may have an underlying message, and so making a judgment about whether the view of the author is true or accurate is important.

Personal response Making personal responses to books is reading beyond the lines and commenting beyond the book. Responding personally can involve discussion and writing about the text. It can also link books to the reader’s experiences and increase engagement with books. Drama, music, writing, digital book-making and artwork can be created as a personal response to a book read.

Metacognition Comprehension strategies are thinking strategies, and occur in conversation within the classroom and small groups (Harvey & Goudvis 2000). When children become aware of these thinking strategies this is known as metacognition—or awareness and control of one’s thinking processes. Metacognition develops over time when teachers demonstrate how they think aloud about texts and also when they attend to and notice children’s thinking about thinking. Being aware of one’s metacognition or thinking process and discussing this with others demands a supportive classroom with active learning and opportunities for small-group interaction with other students and with the teacher. The impact of the emotional and instructional climate in the classroom has a strong effect on students’ performance and growth. The emotional quality of the classroom setting—the warmth of adult–child interactions, as well as the adults’ skill in detecting and responding to individual children’s needs—was a consistent predictor of reading growth. It is not just instruction—relationships in the classroom are also important (Pianta et al. 2008).

Making metacognitive thinking explicit Teaching metacognitive comprehension strategies can be made explicit when teachers think aloud and make thinking strategies transparent. Many teachers highlight metacognitive learning by helping children set goals for their reading. Once goals are made explicit, it is possible to use them to assess the children’s use of metacognition when comprehending goals, for example:

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Figure 9.8 Explicit learning goals for metacognition of comprehension strategies Our goal: We are learning to question as we read To be a successful questioner: • I think of questions before I read the text • I can write a question after reading the text

Our goal: We are learning to summarise To be a successful summariser: • I can pick out the main ideas • I can give a one-sentence summary

Explicitly teaching a new comprehension strategy When a new comprehension strategy is first introduced to children the key idea is that they develop control over the strategy. Teachers can introduce one new strategy at a time explicitly by clearly explaining what the strategy is, why the strategy is important, when it can be used and how to implement it. For example, if children were learning how to summarise a story the teacher could refer to cards with what, why, how and when written on them, in order to be clear and explicit about the strategy being introduced.

• • •

•

What: ‘Today we are going to learn how to summarise a story.’ Why: ‘Why would you want to summarise a story?’ The children discuss the reasons and these are written on the board. How: ‘Now I am going to tell you what I do when I am summarising a story and I will explain the steps to you. First, as I read I write notes about the characters, setting, story problems and resolution. Then I read back over my notes and identify the most important information to include in my summary. Then I weave the information together into several sentences.’ When: ‘We can use summarising with any story or non-fiction book that we read.’

When designing comprehension activities, Gaskin (2003) suggests that teachers need to:

• • • • •

ensure that reading comprehension activities are designed to meet children where they are ‘at’ and are conducted at a pace at which they are able to respond have children read a mix of texts that are interesting and levelappropriate, and texts that are for pleasure as well as for school tasks provide meaningful opportunities for children to practise the five to eight comprehension strategies that proficient readers use foster collaborative discussions in which interpretive and critical responses to texts are expected scaffold the comprehension activities.

Reading comprehension

CASE STUDY

— Reading on the theme of ‘water’ It was ‘fresh water’ awareness week and the teacher collected fiction and nonfiction books on water. The teacher was interested in what the children already knew about water and whether they could tell the difference between fiction texts designed to entertain—for example, stories, poems and songs—and books that provide information. To begin the lesson, the teacher taught the children a song about water and then read a fiction text about rain falling with the refrain ‘But not on me!’ One boy commented that it was a poem and it had rhyming words. Next the teacher read a big book with information about water. The children looked carefully at the photographs and followed the teacher’s finger as she pointed to the words while she read the simple text aloud. There was a lot of information about water in human bodies, how all animals need water, how the earth is made up of mostly water and how ice is frozen water. The children talked about water vapour and this vapour going up to make clouds. The teacher asked the children to find four important pieces of information about water and gave them each a piece of paper folded into four. In each of the four spaces the children could write and draw a statement or fact about water. Selecting four pieces of information and writing and drawing about these meant that they had to make choices about what was important, and because the choices were narrower the outcomes were more attainable. The simple format of using four squares for information led the children to write one sentence in each square and draw a picture. What was interesting was that the children wrote an actual sentence with a capital letter and a full stop and they did not want to stop. They looked at the books and talked about what was happening in the illustrations. Two boys worked side by side and checked off the spelling against each other. They wrote similar things and drew similar objects, checking all the time. Another boy chose a very difficult text and copied out the information. The book he was using was about experiments on how water can move up the inside of a glass, and the physics and the complex vocabulary were too difficult for him. So, rather than writing connected text, he decided to draw a very detailed diagram of water displacement. The children were able to read back what they had written and although their pronunciation was sometimes not quite correct they were very engaged. They were interested in the task and wanted to write even more. On another day the teacher decided to use the KWL teaching strategy to help the children learn to read for information. They were asked what they already knew about water, and then what questions or things they wanted to find out about water, and that is where the learning became interesting.

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Figure 9.9 Children write four important statements about water

Figure 9.10 A KWL chart about water What I know Water makes you wet. Water is rain. Water is on earth. Water is in the river. Water is ice.

What I want to learn How does water make ice? How does water come up to the clouds? Where does water go from the tap?

What I learned When it is cold, water makes ice. Water vapour comes to the clouds. It goes in a big pipe to the sea.

Once the questions were asked several books were given out. The children were given a large piece of paper and were asked to work in pairs to find out and write answers to their questions. Many of the books contained quite difficult information about water, and for these children reading at around a level 5 text it was interesting to observe what they did with books at a higher level than they normally read. To answer the questions that they had posed they needed new vocabulary, they wanted help with spelling and they tried to find words in their small dictionaries and in larger ones. Talking with the teacher afterwards she said that while the KWL strategy works well to help children develop understanding of texts, a teacher cannot take anything for granted with children. Many children learning English as a second language have to be taught explicitly about what is a statement and what is a question. Two children worked collaboratively side by side and wrote similar but different information on their pieces of paper. This kind of collaborative writing enhances learning because children can talk about what to include and what to leave out. The time spent attending to each word and letter as the children write and share ideas appears to support their reading. One of the ideas the children were exploring is that some books give information and others are fiction. To explore what is true and false the teacher and the children read many different books on the topic of water and classified them as fiction or information books. They then talked about water and made a true list and a false list about water. There was much hilarity as children made false statements like ‘Water can die’ and ‘Water can walk’.

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Activities for active reading The strategies of KWL, retelling, text cues and text frames all engage children in making personal connections between the text and their prior knowledge, support the development of higher level thinking skills, and can be used effectively to develop an awareness of narrative and expository text structures (Gambrell & Dromsky 2000).

KWL KWL is a strategy that activates children’s prior knowledge on a topic and has them pose questions that they wish to answer: K—what I know, W—what I want to learn, and L—what I have learned. The strategy can be used with information or narrative texts, in small groups, pairs, individually or with the whole class. The ‘what I know’ and the ‘what I want to learn’ are done before reading the text, as a whole class, in groups or pairs, or individually, and the ‘what have I learned’ is done after reading in pairs or individually. Some teachers add another column ‘H’—how I can learn (ask others in the class, read books, check on the internet, test out the idea myself and so on)—so they have KWHL. Figure 9.11 A KWL chart about spiders TOPIC: Spiders What I know • • • • •

What I want to learn

What I have learned

eat flies eat bugs eat moths have 8 legs use spinnerets to make webs

Text clues Before reading a book in teacher read-aloud or shared book, ask the children to predict what words will be in the book. Write these on a chart or whiteboard. When the book has been read the children can check off the words if they occurred in the book. If you think that there are words that need to be added to the list, you can add these.

Author or character hot seat After reading a book the children can ask questions of the author or a character in the book. At first the teacher can model this. For example, with the book Where the Wild Things Are the children might ask questions about writing the book such as ‘Why did the wild things let Max leave the wild rumpus?’ or ‘Why did the book end with Max going home?’ The author

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hot seat helps children understand narrative structure and can also be used with information texts to explore the author’s choice of text features and text structure. In character hot seat, children explore the characters’ intentions and infer meanings. For example, Max might be asked ‘Why did the forest grow?’ and ‘Did you really see the wild things?’

Six hats Edward de Bono suggests that many problems can be solved by putting on different hats to shift perspectives. Children can wear coloured hats to start, then once the ideas are clear, they can operate without the hats. They give brief answers to the problem according to the ‘hat’ they are wearing. White hat: information is given or relevant facts only Yellow hat: a positive ‘yes’ answer is given with reasons to support the answer Red hat: the feelings of people involved are discussed Purple hat: a ‘no’ answer, the negative view with supporting reasons Blue hat: monitors the process, encourages others, monitors time Green hat: a divergent view, something that has not yet been tried

Reciprocal reading Each of the comprehension strategies of predicting, clarifying, summarising and questioning promotes both comprehension of a text and comprehension monitoring. Palincsar and Brown (1986) developed a technique called reciprocal teaching where children are given demonstrations of how predicting, questioning, summarising and clarifying can be used to understand texts. Reciprocal reading has been modified for children beginning school (Myers 2005). A puppet can be used to represent each of the comprehension strategies, with the Wizard predicting what may happen, then as a book or section is read Quincy Questioner asks literal questions, and Clara Clarifier asks inferential questions. Finally the Princess Storyteller provides a summary. Puppets or cards can be used to identify the comprehension strategies and the use of puppets or cards produces more talk about the text, particularly for shy or reluctant children.

Roles For older children, different roles can be assigned to members of a group. The teacher, as one member of the group, might read a book while the others listen and play out their roles (see Figure 9.13).

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Figure 9.12 Reciprocal reading with group roles based on Myers (2005) CONNECTOR

CLARIFIER

Predicts what the book is about from the cover

Asks an inference question after book/ section is read

Wizard

Clara Clarifier

QUESTIONER

SUMMARISER

Asks a literal question after book/section is read

Summary of the book/section

Quincy Questioner

Princess Storyteller

Figure 9.13 Reading roles Social critic Social critic asks: • Is this book fair? • Are there stereotypes? • Are there people missing or not included in this book? • How could the book be more just and fair?

Me Me asks: • What does this mean to me? • Have I experienced something similar? • How did I feel when this happened to me? • Does this remind me of another event or another book?

Word/image finder • Asks what words were used to create a feeling or image. • Lists interesting words on paper. • Tells group about these words. • Looks up the meanings of some unfamiliar words.

Summariser • Lists events in sequence. • Puts the story into two or three sentences. • Asks others to listen and check whether they agree with the ideas in the summary.

Illustrator • Illustrates an idea or an event. • May draw a sketch, diagram, cartoon. • Shows the group the illustration. • Asks the group to talk about the illustration before revealing what has been drawn.

Manager • Manages the group. • Asks each person to predict what will happen before the story is read. • May stop the group during the reading and ask for predictions. • Asks questions at the end of the discussion.

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QAPX This is a cooperative question-and-answer activity suitable for any book or chapter and used with groups of four (if there are six then have three people provide extra information). Q—Person 1 asks a question about the reading A—Person 2 provides an answer P—Person 3 paraphrases the answer by framing it in a new way X—Person 4 provides extra information not given in the answers

Then the group rotates with person 2 asking a question.

Jigsaw This is another wonderful cooperative structure because each person feels valued by the group as having particular knowledge to contribute. There are a number of different ways jigsaw can be adapted for children to explore the world of literature.

Pair jigsaw Divide the class into pairs. Half the class (half the pairs) investigate one aspect of the narrative such as:

• • •

What sort of place is this? How is it the same as our world? How is it different?

The other half (the rest of the pairs) investigate another aspect such as:

• • •

What sort of people are in this story? Are they believable? Who does the author want us to like or feel sympathy for?

Once the information has been researched, the pairs separate and form new pairs, with each person holding different information. Pairs take it in turns to teach the new information. OO OO OO OO OO OO OO ∆∆ ∆∆ ∆∆ ∆∆ ∆∆ ∆∆ ∆∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆ O∆

Group jigsaw Use group jigsaw for children to explore a wide range of authors and then to share their discoveries with others. Have the class list authors they would like to read, then take a vote on the final list. For example, if there

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is a class of 25 children, five authors would be selected. Number the children off 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 … 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 … and randomly assign one author to each group to study—to find what they have written and some biographical details. Once the expert groups have sufficient information or the time limit has been reached they re-form into five cooperative groups with a research expert on each author. The groups share information, with each member describing information they alone in the group can provide. They could construct a poster, a play or a group poem to share with the class. When planning the groups it helps to work numbers carefully. If there are 20 children they could be placed in five expert groups of four, and reform into four cooperative groups of five to share ideas (ideas based on Aronson 1977).

Mini jigsaw Mini jigsaw is another good way to carry out an author study. Have the class select an author who has written a number of books. Each group is then responsible for studying one text, with each person in the group taking an aspect of the story to research and providing information to the group. You could make cards for each group member to select. Author biography card Find and list ten facts about this author.

Character card Draw the main character or main characters and list vocabulary to describe them. How is the setting important to the character?

Plot card List the conflicts. What choices do the characters have? Predict what might happen next.

Setting card Illustrate the setting. Research information about the setting by using atlases, street directories or other geographical reference books.

Author’s craft Find three examples of how the author uses imagery, figurative language or word play to get the reader into the story.

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When all the information is completed, have the groups compile a poster on A3 paper displaying the information and inviting other readers to read the book.

Assessing comprehension Teachers can assess children’s comprehension of what they read by using questions to gauge a child’s understanding when they retell information from the text. There are many different kinds of comprehension questions that can be asked, from simple to more complex.

Comprehension questions These comprehension questions gauge the child’s understanding of both fiction texts and information texts.

Literal … on the lines These questions prompt the reader to recall literal information that is written in the text (on the lines). For example, for the traditional tale of The Three Little Pigs a literal question would be ‘How many pigs were there?’

Interpretive … between the lines Children interpret information and make inferences by reading between the lines. For example, for The Three Little Pigs an interpretive question would be ‘Which of the pigs’ houses is the strongest?’

Inferential … beyond the lines These questions prompt the reader to think beyond the text to synthesise information and then provide a critical or a creative response. The reader has to link the meaning of the text to their own experiences and then evaluate or make a judgment about the text. For example, for The Three Little Pigs an inferential question would be ‘What did you learn from this story?’ or ‘Can you invent an ending for the story that is fair?’

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Bloom’s questions Bloom’s comprehension questions are based on six ever-increasing levels of thinking about what was read. Below is a summary based on Bloom’s work. Figure 9.14 Bloom’s classification of comprehension Knowledge: Recall of information. Comprehension: Understands the meaning and interpretation of instructions and problems. Can state a problem in own words. Application: Uses a concept in a new situation. Applies what was learned in one situation to another situation. Analysis: Separates ideas or concepts into component parts so that the organisational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences. Synthesis: Builds a new structure or pattern from different elements. Puts parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. Evaluation: Makes judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

Teachers can use Bloom’s classification of comprehension as an assessment tool and also as a teaching tool to devise generic questions which are placed on cards. The group comes to the discussion prepared to answer questions. The cards are placed face down and randomly picked up by the group members as they take turns around the circle. Group members listen to and add information or ideas not provided by classmates. The following are generic questions for a narrative text. Knowledge: List the events so far in sequential order. Comprehension: List three choices the character had. Why were some decisions made and not others? Application: Discuss a similar experience you have had. How was it similar or different? Analysis: Find examples of self/self conflict, self/group conflict, self/society conflict. Describe these for the group. Synthesis: Change a character and tell what would happen next. Change part of the plot and tell what could happen. Evaluation: What is the author’s message? Does the message help you understand why some characters and behaviour are valued and others are not? Does the message try to build a better world? Is the book successful? Why? Why not? (Based on the work of Bloom 1956 and modified by Krathwohl 2002)

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Retelling Retelling is an effective comprehension assessment tool. Retelling helps children to focus on the most relevant information and the sequence of events. It enhances comprehension for both proficient readers and less proficient readers, and it is effective because the children have to rehearse the structure and the content of the text.

Supporting retelling Some children need active support from the teacher to help them to recall the main idea and the details of information after reading. This recall often depends on the child’s attention, the content of the book being read and any connection with the reader’s previous experiences. Sometimes it helps if the child knows in advance that they will be asked to recall the information. The following points can be adapted to suit the strengths and weaknesses of each child.

4 5

Before asking the child to recall the content of the book, make sure that the material presented is interesting to the child and is at their appropriate reading level. Use the forms in Figure 3.2 to find out the child’s reading interests and attitudes towards reading. If children don’t engage with the topic or writing style or language used in the book they often will not take the time to recall the information. Children who read very slowly or too fast often have difficulty comprehending information. Activities such as readers’ theatre, shared book, partner reading and listening to books read aloud all help to build fluency. If a child has difficulty recalling the main idea and details, even though their oral reading was accurate, it may be that the child’s vocabulary knowledge is not sufficient for them to understand the words in the text. Rare or unfamiliar words should be discussed before the reading. For example, if the child could read the words ‘A crocodile is a reptile’ but could not recall the word reptile then the teacher should have discussed word meanings before reading the book. Encourage children to recall the main ideas and details from books at an easier level than their instructional level. Explain before they read that they will be asked to retell the information. Use graphic organisers like those in Figure 9.15 to help children recall information under major categories.

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Figure 9.15 Organisers such as Venn diagrams, semantic webs and category boxes can help children to recall information.

Retelling different text types Teacher modelling to show how to recall the information in books helps to make the retelling process clear. Retellings can be used to assess children’s knowledge of different text types and features. Figure 9.16 Retellings can be assessed using different text type frameworks and language features. Retelling a narrative Tell about: • main characters • setting • initiating event/problem • other important events in the story • how the story ended

Retelling a report Tell about: • the topic • the important idea • supporting ideas • summary

Retelling a recount Tell about: • orientation • events in time order • evaluation (optional)

Retelling a procedure Tell about: • goal • materials • method • evaluation

Partner work may be useful in retelling as the child has a partner to provide feedback and the listener has to stay on task when listening for the key ideas. Having children talk about what they have read appears to facilitate both reading and listening comprehension, and also helps the child to assess their own comprehension about what was read.

Retelling rubrics Rubrics can be used with retelling to assess comprehension. Most retellings focus on literal comprehension and do not assess important inferential and critical comprehension.

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Figure 9.17 Retelling rubric for young readers. Each row can be copied for the number of children in the group. Child 1

Child 2

Brief details Poor sequencing Irrelevant information Incomplete retelling Limited vocabulary Off task

Some detail, some main ideas Some ‘flow’ sequence Some information Fairly complete retelling Some vocabulary On task

All main ideas and supporting details Correct sequence Relevant information Complex sentences Extensive vocabulary On task

Brief details Poor sequencing Irrelevant information Incomplete retelling Limited vocabulary Off task

Some detail, some main ideas Some ‘flow’ sequence Some information Fairly complete retelling Some vocabulary On task

All main ideas and supporting details Correct sequence Relevant information Complex sentences Extensive vocabulary On task

Chapter summary Comprehension is the act of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning from the text. When teachers support the development of children’s comprehension they think about three factors: the reader, the text and the activity. Teaching comprehension involves building oral language and reading vocabulary, encouraging active reading and the explicit teaching of comprehension strategies. Different text types prompt children to read in different ways—fiction is read for characters and plot and information books are read to find facts and to build concepts. Teachers can assess children’s comprehension by asking questions on the lines, between the lines and beyond the lines, and also by encouraging children to retell narrative and information texts. Comprehension activities need to encourage active reading with a consistent focus on strategies that involve children thinking about their thinking. Comprehension activities can provide ways for children learn cooperatively in pairs, groups and whole classes to understand different types of texts.

CHAPTER 10

Word work: phonics

‘The Master was an old Turtle—we used to call him Tortoise.’ ‘Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?’ Alice asked. ‘We called him Tortoise because he taught us,’ said the Mock Turtle …

(Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland)

Phonics is both an approach to instruction and a strategy for word identification and spelling (Richgels 2004). It focuses on the sound–letter relationships used in reading and writing, and involves an understanding of the alphabetic principle—the idea that spoken language is made up of sounds and these sounds can be mapped to written letters. This chapter discusses what is involved in teaching phonics and the various approaches that can be taken. Phonics can be thought of as a p uzzle, and needs to be taught in classrooms that promote active investigation about sounds and letters. If teachers encourage children to investigate and puzzle out how sounds and letters work, then children are actively constructing knowledge and understanding about language. Promoting investigation is important, because even a simple idea such as that the letter ‘c’ makes a /c/ sound is not always true; sometimes ‘c’ makes an /s/ sound as in cent and sometimes ‘q’ makes a /c/ sound as in queue.

The alphabetic principle and letter identification The alphabetic principle The alphabetic principle is the idea that letters in words usually stand for specific sounds. Sounds in English are represented by a single letter or combinations of letters. For example, in the word luck there are four letters and three sounds, because ‘ck’ represents a single sound. The English alphabetic code is an amazing set of 26 letters that represent approximately 44 sounds or phonemes. Even though English is not a regular phonetic language, there is a relationship between letters and sounds and this relationship is particularly important in beginning read241

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The English alphabetic code is an amazing set of 26 letters that represent approximately 44 sounds or phonemes.

ing and writing. Many children understand the alphabetic principle well before they recognise all the letters and sounds or have been taught letter–sound correspondences. The English alphabetic code is an arbitrary, socially agreed upon set of conventions with a fascinating history. The English language has borrowed words from many other languages—for example the word gourmet is obviously French—and we cannot rely on an exact match of sounds and letters, as shown in the two words eight and ate.

What do we know about letter identification? Letter knowledge (knowing the letter names) is the single best predictor of first-year reading achievement, and the ability to discriminate phonemes auditorily ranks a close second. Furthermore, these two predictors—letter knowledge and phonemic awareness—came out ahead regardless of the instructional approach administered (Strickland & Cullinan in Adams 1990, p. 55). It is not just the accuracy in naming letters that is important, it is the ease or fluency with which children can do so. It is children’s familiarity with letters that is important. Letter identification is part of the alphabetic principle, and readers and writers in the early stages of literacy are gaining an understanding of this principle as they learn how sounds are represented in print. There are several explanations for why knowing letters is important.

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A child who can confidently recognise most letters will have an easier time learning about letter sounds and word spelling than a child who has to work at constantly remembering what is what. Children who automatically see letters as a whole will see words as patterns of letters. Children who do not will have to work out the patterns of the individual letters as well. If children gloss over the uncertain letters, they do so at the cost of needed growth in their visual vocabularies and, possibly, the correct meaning of a text. Several of the names of letters are quite closely related to their sounds. There is evidence that a comfortable knowledge of the letter names hastens children’s learning of sounds because it helps them to remember the sounds. For example, if they know that a particular symbol is called ‘b’, they can use that fact to help them remember that its sound is /b/. Knowing the letter names helps children remember their sounds and the use of letter names helps them induce the sounds. For example, they can use letter names to spontaneously produce words such as AGRE (angry), BOT (boat), JRIV (drive).

Word work: phonics

Figure 10.1 A short glossary of terms Alphabetic principle: The alphabetic principle is the understanding that spoken language is made up of sounds, and sounds can be mapped to written letters. Sounds in English are represented by a single letter or combination of letters. In the word lamb there are four letters and three sounds because ‘mb’ represents a single sound. Morphology: Morphology refers to the ways words are formed and relate to each other. The words medic, medicine and paramedic have a similar morphemic base that affects the spelling, even though the pronunciation may change. Phonemes: Phonemes are speech units that make a difference to meaning. The words cup and pup differ by one phoneme. Phonemes are usually written like this: /s/. The word pup has three phonemes /p//u//p/. Phonemic awareness: Phonemic awareness is the insight that every spoken word can be conceived of as a sequence of phonemes. Phonics: Phonics is instruction in the sound–letter relationships used in reading and writing. Phonics involves understanding the alphabetic principle. Phonological awareness: Phonological awareness is the general ability to attend to the sounds of language as distinct from its meaning. It also involves noticing stress, intonation and timing. Phonology: Phonology is the way the sounds of the language operate. Spelling: Spelling concerns the orthography or print whereas phonology relates to sounds. Spelling involves phonics and other strategies, such as common letter sequences like ‘com’ and not ‘srk’, visual strategies such as common patterns of words such as light and night and morphemic s trategies or how words represent meaning for example nation and nationality.

Teaching sounds mapped to letters Many teachers begin by teaching the most easily identified letters like ‘s’. They might teach a sequence of consonants which have distinct characteristics, for example ‘s’, ‘m’, ‘f’, ‘n’, ‘t’, ‘w’ and ‘h’ and then the vowels ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘i’, ‘o’ and ‘u’. This combination of consonants and vowels prepares the ground for word-building activities: sun sat sit

Mapping sounds to letters Many teachers use a problemsolving approach to phonics …

Many teachers use a problem-solving approach to phonics where they show children how various sounds in English can be mapped to different letter combinations. For example, when reading the story The Gingerbread Man the word giant could be written on the board, leading to exploration of how letters and letter combinations are used to make the /j/ sound: ‘g’, ‘j’, ‘dge’ and ‘ge’. Children then build lists of words that fit these letter combinations, for example giant, gym, gem, and jet, jump, judo. Figure 10.2 provides a helpful list of consonant sounds and various letter combinations.

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Figure 10.2 Consonant sounds and their letter combinations Sound

Letter/letter combinations

/ b / b / c / c / d / d / f / f / g / g / h / h / j / j / l / l / m / m / n / n / p / p / r / r / s / s / t / t / v / v / w / w / x / x / y / y / z / z

bb ch k ck qu ed dd ld dh f gh ph lf gu gue gg gh wh g ge dg dge gg dj d ll mm mn lm mb gm kn gn pn mn nn pp rr rh wr rrh ps c ss sc sch st sw tt th ght ed pt bt ct vv f ph wh cks cc u ea e ie i s ss zz x

Figure 10.3 Vowels and some of their letter combinations Sound

Letter/letter combinations

/ a / a / a– / a-e ai ay / e / ea / e– / ea ee ey y / i / i /–i / i-e igh y / o / o / o– / o-e oa ow / u / u / u– / u-e oo ue

Phonic generalisations Phonic generalisations are rule statements such as ‘An “e” on the end of a word makes the vowel in the middle a long sound’ or ‘When two vowels go walking the first one does the talking’. Phonic generalisations can be useful for clarifying aspects of a particular word under study, but one problem with them is that many rules only work 50% of the time. For example the rule ‘An “e” on the end of a word makes the vowel in the middle a long sound’ works in make, ripe and pane but not in have, give or done. The rule ‘when two vowels go walking the

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first one does the talking’ works in sheep, soap and rain but not in weight, could or blood. So teaching lots of phonics rules can confuse some children and cloud their understandings of how words work.

The content of phonics The following sequence progresses from single letter sounds and initial, final and medial positions to working with initial and final blends, digraphs and more complex vowel combinations. (The teaching of phonics is discussed in Chapter 11.) Figure 10.4 The content of phonics* STAGE 1 Letters of the alphabet

Recognise, say and write the names and the common sounds of the letters of the alphabet (s a t m p) (c i g o d) (f l u b r) (w e n h v) (k y z j x)

STAGE 2 Onset and rime word families

Recognise onsets and rimes or word families

STAGE 3 Blends Phase 1

Two-letter initial consonant blends

Phase 2

Two-letter final consonant blends

a) lower-case letters b) upper-case letters

Three-letter words in a consonant–vowel–consonant pattern, e.g. p-e-t, c-a-n ab ad ag am an ap at ed eg en et ib id ig im in ip it ix ob od og op ot ub ud ug um un up us ut

bl br cl cr dr fl fr gl gr pl lr sc sk sl sm sn sp st tr tw

ft ld lk lp lt mp nd ng nk nt py ry sk sp st ty Phase 3

Three-letter initial consonant blends scr spl spr str

STAGE 4 Digraphs Phase 1

Consonant digraphs

Phase 2

Vowel digraphs (ai a-e ay) (ee ea) (i-e ie y igh) (oe o-e o oa ow) (u-e oo ue)

Phase 3

(ow ou) (oy oi) (or au aw)

Phase 4 Other letter combinations

air, ear, ure, (er, ir, ur), short oo and other combinations such as

STAGE 5 Structural analysis

Syllabification, including compound words, prefixes, suffixes, contractions, base words

ck sh ch th th ph wh (and qu ng)

1. could

2. tough

3. new

4. bought

6. talk

7. laugh

8. fruit

and the silent letters

* This is a guide only.

5. caught

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Stage 1: The letters of the alphabet STAGE 1 Letters of the alphabet

Recognise, say, write the letters of the alphabet a) Lower-case letters b) Upper-case letters

The consonant–phoneme correspondences in English are not as variable as the vowel correspondences. Consonants The consonants occur at the beginning or end of a word, and may also occur within words. Figure 10.5 Consonant–phoneme correspondences b bat, rob j jam s sure c cat, sac k keep, seek t tell, it c cent, face l light, coal t future d doll, red m me, am v verb, love f fat, if n no, in w wet g go, dog p pill, cup x xylophone g gem, page r run, dear y yes h he s say, bus z zeal, quiz s his z azure

Consonant sounds Consonant sounds are formed when there is an obstruction of air. Most consonant sounds are easy to produce, although some children find it hard to say /l/ and /r/ as these sounds involve the use of the tongue in a curled shape which may be difficult for some children. Some consonants can represent more than one sound. The letter ‘c’ has a soft /s/ sound in city and centimetre or a hard sound in cat and cup. The letter ‘g’ has a soft sound /j/ in gym and gem and a hard sound in gate and gut. Figure 10.6 Consonants representing more than one sound Soft g

Soft c

Hard g

geranium centimetres gate giraffe cement mixer goal giant Cinderella give gingerbread city go gym circle gun

Hard c cat can cup cone cot

Word work: phonics

Vowels Vowel sounds are made in the mouth. There are no contact points between the lips, teeth and tongue. Vowel sounds The mouth takes up a different shape when vowel sounds are made, for example /a/ in apple, /e/ in wet and /u/ in under. Short vowels There are five short vowels. Short vowels in the middle of words are harder to distinguish than initial and final consonants: bit, bet, bat, but, hot.

Stage 2: Onset and rime—common rimes STAGE 2 Recognise onsets and rimes or word families Onset and rime ab ad ag am an ap at ed eg en et ib id ig im in ip it ix ob od og op ot ub ud ug um un up us ut word families Three-letter words in a consonant–vowel–consonant pattern, e.g. p-e-t, c-a-n

Onsets and rimes can be used in games and activities for children to build their familiarity with word families. Many children find dividing words into onsets and rimes is easier than splitting them into individual phonemes. The onset in a syllable is any consonant(s) that precedes the vowel. The rime consists of the vowel and consonants that come after the onset. It is relatively easy to break the onset from the rime, for example -it, s-it, sp-it, spl-it. Figure 10.7 Dividing words into onsets and rimes Word Onset Rime I — I itch — itch sit s- -it spit sp- -it splint spl- -int pie p- -ie spy sp- -y

Children can use onsets and rimes as a strategy to identify new words. For example, when meeting the unfamiliar word alight, a child who knows the word night can use a process of analogy to work out the new word. In this approach to phonics, children are using analogy by using known words to discover unknown words. It was night and the fireflies were alight.

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Onset and rime are important because children use them to make analogies between known and unknown words in both reading and writing. Figure 10.8 Common rimes -ack -ail -ank -ap -eat -ell -ill -in -ock -oke -ump -unk

-ain -ake -ale -ame -ash -at -ate -aw -est -ice -ick -ide -ine -ing -ink -ip -op -ore -or -uck

-an -ay -ight -ir -ug

There are several advantages for using onset and rime in instruction for early reading.

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It is easier to distinguish initial onsets and rimes than individual phonemes. Children find rimes easier to identify than single final phonemes. The awareness that different onsets can be spliced onto the same rime means that children can make different words. More new words can be identified using onset and rime than the relatively low individual phoneme as the unit of analysis.

Figure 10.9 Words ending with a common rime (words with initial consonant blends are in parentheses) back bake day cap bug bank cot Dick Jack cake gay gap dug rank dot kick lack fake hay lap hug sank got lick pack lake lay map jug tank hot nick rack make may nap mug (blank) lot pick sack rake pay rap rug (crank) not sick tack sake ray tap tug (drank) pot (brick) (black) take say (clap) (chug) (flank) (blot) (chick) (crack) wake way (flap) (drug) (frank) (plot) (click) (shack) (brake) (clay) (slap) (plug) (plank) (shot) (slick) (slack) (flake) (play) (snap) (slug) (prank) (slot) (stick) (stack) (shake) (stray) (strap) (smug) (spank) (spot) (thick) (track) (snake) (tray) (trap) (snug) (thank) (trot) (trick) bag bail gain bat bump can came fill gag fail lain cat dump Dan dame Bill lag hail main fat hump fan fame hill nag mail pain hat jump man game kill rag nail rain mat lump pan lame mill sag pail vain pat pump ran name pill tag rail (brain) rat (chump) tan same will wag sail (drain) sat (plump) van tame (drill) (brag) tail (grain) (brat) (slump) (bran) (blame) (skill) (drag) (frail) (plain) (flat) (stump) (clan) (flame) (spill) (flag) (trail) (train) (scat) (thump) (plan) (frame) (still)

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best bet bunk bell bit lest get dunk fell fit nest jet hunk sell hit pest let junk tell pit rest met sunk well sit test net (drunk) yell wit vest pet (flunk) (shell) (flit) zest set (skunk) (smell) (grit) (blest) wet (spunk) (spell) (slit) (crest) (fret) (trunk) (split)

dim dear bad him fear dad Jim hear fad rim near had Tim rear lad (brim) tear mad (grim) year pad (slim) (clear) sad (swim) (smear) (glad) (trim)

Stage 3: Blends When two or more letters are combined they are known as blends or l etter clusters. A sequence of consonants is generally called a cluster in linguistic writings and a blend in reading instructional materials. STAGE 3 Blends Phase 1

Two-letter initial consonant blends bl br cl cr dr fl fr gl gr pl lr sc sk sl sm sn sp st tr tw

Phase 2

Two-letter final consonant blends ft ld lk lp lt mp nd ng nk nt py ry sk sp st ty

Phase 3

Three-letter initial consonant blends scr spl spr str

In a blend, the maximum number of consonants at the beginning of a syllable is three and the third letter is always ‘r’ or ‘l’, as in stream, scrum and splurge. In English, three consecutive consonant phonemes are usually regarded as the maximum length of a consonant blend in the final as well as in the initial position. Consonant blends are usually grouped in two categories: those that occur at beginning of single-syllable words and those that occur at the end. There are some sequences of consonant sounds that never occur within the same syllable in English, such as ‘bj’ in ob/ject, ‘sb’ in hus/band, and ‘vr’ in chev/ron. Syllabic divisions automatically occur between them in multi-syllabic words. Only three consonant blends occur regularly as initial and final blends:

• • •

‘sp’ representing /sp/ as in spell and grasp ‘sc’ or ‘sk’ representing /sk/ as in scale and ask ‘st’ representing /st/ as in stage and rust

All other blends can be identified predominantly with one position or the other. In a number of cases, final blends are reversals of initial blends as are, for example, the initial and final blends in broad/barb, flop/elf and drain/hard.

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Figure 10.10Â Initial consonant blends with two letters/two sounds Grapheme Example Grapheme Example bl br cr cl dr dw fl fr gl gr pl pr

black qu break sc crust sk clip sl draw sm dwell sn flood sp free st glass sv green sw play tr proud tw

queen scare skate slow small snow speech stop svelte swim trip twin

Figure 10.11Â Final consonant blends with two letters/two sounds Grapheme Example Grapheme Example ct sect pt dz adz rb ft raft rc lb bulb rd lc talc rf ld hold rg lf self rk lk bulk rl lm helm rm ln kiln rn lp pulp rp lt salt rt mp jump sk nd hand sp nk pink st nt pant

rapt barb arc board scarf berg dark curl farm warn harp part task wasp test

Word work: phonics

Figure 10.12Â Words with initial two-consonant blends br cr dr fr gr pr st tr brother cry dress friend grade pretty sty tree bring cross drink from great present stay train brought crop draw front ground president start trip brown creek dry Friday green program stop truly brake crowd drive fruit grandma print still trick bread cream drop fright grass produce stilt truck bright crack dream free grandpa prize stint trade bridge crawl drove fresh group promise stale trap break crib drum frog grew proud stack track brave cried drew freeze grey product stump true brush crumb drill frozen grain prepare stalk trail branch crown drag friendly grab protect stem treat brick crow drank fry grape press stamp trim broom crook drug frost grand price stand tramp

bl cl fl pl sl sp gl black close flower play sleep spell glad blue clean fly place sled spend glass blow class floor please slid spot glove block clothes flag plant slate speak glimpse bloom climb flew plan slip spent glimmer blew club flood planes slowly sport glade blanket cloth float plenty slave speed glib blood cloud flat plain slow spoke gloat blackboard clear flour plate slipper spirit glue blossom clay flake pleasant slept speech glow blind clothing flew plough sleet spoon gloom blame clock flick player sleepy spear glaze blizzard climate flounce plantation slim spine gleam blaze clown flip playmate slick spin glamour

sm sn sc sk sw tw small snow scone skate swim twelve smoke snake scare skin sweet twist smell snowball scold sky swing twenty smile snail scout ski sweater twice smart snap scream skip swan twin smooth snug scat skirt sweep twig smack sneeze score skunk swell twinkle

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Figure 10.13 Consonant blends with three letters/three sounds Initial blend

Initial sound

Final blend

Final sound

scr scream, screech mpt prompt spr spring, sprite rld world str stripe, string rpt excerpt rst first

Figure 10.14 Consonant blends with three letters/three sounds within words osprey frustrate

Stage 4: Digraphs and other letter combinations Digraphs are two letters making a single sound, and can be consonant digraphs or vowel digraphs. They are combinations of consonants or vowels that represent single phonemes which neither letter in the combination ordinarily represents alone. STAGE 4 Digraphs Phase 1

Consonant digraphs ck sh ch th th ph wh (and qu ng)

Phase 2

Vowel digraphs (ai a-e ay) (ee ea) (i-e ie y igh) (oe o-e o oa ow) (u-e oo ue)

Phase 3

(ow ou) (oy oi) (or au aw)

Phase 4

air, ear, ure, (er, ir, ur), short oo and other combinations such as 1. could 2. tough 3. new 4. bought 5. caught 7. laugh 8. fruit and the silent letters 6. talk

Other letter combinations

Consonant digraphs Figure 10.15 Consonant digraphs with two letters/one sound Grapheme Example ch ph sh wh th th

child, each phone, graph ship, fish whip, thin, both then, bathe

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Vowel digraphs The vowel digraphs are pairs of letters, for example: ai aim paint retain ay gay mayonnaise ea eat peace tea teacher ee eek reel see needle oa oats road toaster There are five long vowel sounds that often have the same sound as their name: bite beat aid boat use Figure 10.16 Long vowel sounds that have the same sound as their name Phonemes

Key words

long a long e long i long o long u

ape, bait, day eat, beat, see ice, light, buy own, coat, toe use, cute, few

The oo sounds Most ‘oo’ words are pronounced in one of two ways:

• •

the sound heard in boot and boo the sound heard in book and foot

The words blood, flood and door, floor are exceptions. Vowel + consonant + vowel a…e ale, bathe, are, care e…e scene, recede, here i…e hide, confine o…e ode, hope u…e use, mule u…e rule, include

Diphthongs Diphthongs are vowels that make two sounds in the mouth, for example: oil, toy.

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Figure 10.17 Diphthongs, blends and digraphs refers to

type of sound

sounds

letters

examples

Diphthong

sound

vowel

1 or 2

boy, cider

Blend

sound

consonant

2 or 3

flip, string

Digraph

spelling

vowel or consonant

thing, keep

The schwa sound The schwa sound is heard in roses, omen and symbol. It occurs in an unstressed syllable and sounds a bit like a short /u/ sound. The schwa sound can be spelled in different ways, and is usually represented in dictionaries as ə.

Stage 5: Structural analysis Structural analysis involves making structural changes to a base word. It includes adding inflectional endings for plural and tense (like ‘-s’, ‘-ed’, ‘-ing’), prefixes and suffixes (‘pre-’, ‘un-’, ‘-less’) and compound words. STAGE 5 Structural analysis

Syllabification, including compound words, prefixes, suffixes, contractions, base words

Syllables Syllables are important for analysing the structure of words. There are as many syllables as there are vowel sounds.

•

Syllables divide between double consonants—or between two consonants. hap pen bas ket don key

•

can non tar get pic nic

sud den cin der gar den

ves sel har bour lad der

vol ley tim ber let ter

A single consonant between vowels usually goes with the second vowel. fa mous ho tel ea ger wa ter be gin fi nal

di rect po lice be fore

ti ger lo cate pi lot

ce ment pu pil va cant spi der li bel sto ry

(The previous two generalisations are often combined: divide between two consonants and in front of one.)

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•

As a general rule, do not divide consonant digraphs (‘ch’, ‘th’, etc.) and consonant blends. teach er weath er ma chine se cret a gree preach er ath lete coun try cel e brate broth er

•

The word endings ‘-ble’, ‘-cle’, ‘-dle’, ‘-gle’, ‘-kle’, ‘-ple’, ‘-tle’ and ‘-zle’ constitute the final syllable. mar ble ket tle

•

mus cle puz zle

han dle no ble

sin gle pur ple

an kle bat tle

tem ple bu gle

Drop final ‘e’ before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to a word ending in ‘e’. +ed +ing +er +est bake baked baking baker palest pale paler late later latest

•

Words that contain one vowel and end with a single consonant usually double that consonant before adding an ending beginning with a vowel. big

bigger biggest

Contractions In oral language, children both use and understand contractions. In reading they need to learn the visual patterns involved, and that a contraction: • is a single word that results from combining two or more words • omits one or more letters found in these words • contains an apostrophe which is inserted where a letter or letters have been omitted • carries the same meaning as the long form it represents but it has its own pronunciation. Figure 10.18 Contractions Words

Contraction Words

I am I‘m you are you’re it is it’s I have I’ve you have you’ve they have they’ve

can not does not was not would not could not should not will not

Contraction can’t doesn’t wasn’t wouldn’t couldn’t shouldn’t won’t

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Compound words Compound words are made by combining two words to make a different word, for example schoolhouse, barnyard, football, birdhouse, firefighter: some + thing some + one some + time

= = =

something someone sometime

Developmental pointers for attending to print reading Several features signify growth as children move towards accurate word reading (Ehri 1995). These features show how children begin to attend more and more to print.

Pre-alphabetic stage In the pre-alphabetic stage, children decode words by using a visual cue such as two eyes in the word look. They are not using the letters and sounds but the overall appearance of the word.

Phonetic cue reading As children develop phonological awareness they begin to use partial sound information in words such as the initial or final sound. At this stage a child may substitute the word goat for girl when reading.

Cipher or full alphabetic stage At this stage, phonetic cue reading sometimes becomes less efficient as children analyse the words more deeply. Some readers become very laboured, sounding out each letter in the word, but this laboured reading passes as the child is provided with more and more practice. With this, plus the use of a range of cues such as sentence structure and meaning, and a body of automatically known high-frequency words, their reading becomes more efficient.

Assessing letters and sounds

Upper- and lower-case letters In the beginning, teachers can observe childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reading and writing of letters during the activities of the classroom. The assessment in Figure 10.19 can be used to find out which upper-case and lower-case letters are easily identified by children.

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Figure 10.19Â Recognising upper- and lower-case letters

Alphabet recognition test Name:______________________________________________________ Date:_______________________________________________________ Children say the name of each letter (both lower- and upper-case). Children say the sound that each letter can make (e.g. /s/ as in sun) Letter name:

Sound

Quick phonics assessment of initial consonants Sometimes teachers need to explore how children problem-solve as they decode particular words. If children can decode quickly and effectively, then unlocking unfamiliar vocabulary will be easier. For this assessment (see Figure 10.20), ask the child to say the sound that each consonant letter represents.

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Figure 10.20 Initial consonants m

Blending sounds to make words This is a way of assessing children’s understanding of blending letters to make words. Short vowels Ask the child to blend the sounds to make the word. Start with words that have a short vowel. /r/ /e/ /d/ → red Place these words on cards for the child to blend.

red

top

sun

cat

Long vowels Ask the child to blend then say the word. The words have a long vowel sound. /l/ /a– / /k/ → lake Place these words on cards for the child to blend.

nine

rope

tune

Word work: phonics

Chapter summary Phonics is one of the information sources that children will use to identify unfamiliar words. Phonics is part, but not all, of what children need in order to read and write. The content of phonics includes letter identification, onset and rime, blends and diagraphs. Structural analysis includes exploring compound words, prefixes, suffixes and base words. Teachers can assess childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge of phonics and plan word work programs to develop their use of phonics. Figure 10.21Â Working with word families

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CHAPTER 11

Teaching phonics

We took a look. We saw a Nook. On his head he had a hook. On his hook he had a book. On his book was ‘How to Cook’.

(From One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish, by Dr Seuss 1960)

The books by Dr Seuss are based on word play and fun with words. The challenge for teachers is to make phonics enjoyable to teach and learn in the same way.

Different approaches to teaching phonics The most important idea when teaching phonics is to promote an air of investigation and exploration …

There are many different approaches to teaching the sound–letter relationships, and new methods are constantly being invented. Teachers combine and weave these methods together in many different ways. The most important idea when teaching phonics is to promote an air of investigation and exploration in order to encourage children to solve the phonics puzzle.

Synthetic phonics In synthetic phonics approaches, children blend individual letters to make words. For example, a teacher may write ‘s’ on the board and then say that this letter ‘s’ makes the sound /s/. Then the teacher writes the letters ‘u’ and ‘n’ and the children are encouraged to blend the sounds to make the word sun.

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s–u–n

Teaching phonics

VAKT phonics VAKT stands for visual, auditory, kinaesthetic and tactile senses which are used to directly teach the individual letters and sounds. The letters are traced while saying the name and sound, then blended together to make words. A program that uses VAKT is the Spalding approach (Spalding & Spalding 1962). Jj Make j with plasticine Say the sound for j Write the letter J j Trace this J

Analytic phonics Analytic phonics begins with writing on the board a word the child already knows such as leg. Next the teacher shows how the word can be broken into its component parts by saying something like ‘The middle of the word leg has an /e/, a short ‘e’ sound. The letter name is ee.’ Then a list of words with the short ‘e’ is written with the help of the children. egg wed peg shed ten

Analogy: key words Key words is an approach that focuses on teaching selected words that can be used as analogies for identifying unfamiliar words. Children are taught to read and write 120 key words with particular phonogram patterns and word parts. Five to six new words are introduced each week and the teacher provides explicit instruction on how to use key words as analogies to decode other words (see Stahl et al. 1998).

Analogy: guess the covered word Another approach known as ‘guess the covered word’ (Cunningham, Hall & Defee 1998) uses an analogy approach where the teacher writes four or five sentences on the board and covers a particular word in each sentence with sticky notes.

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I fly a A kite has a There is on a kite Flying a kite is The teacher prepares this activity by covering selected words with two sticky notes, one before the vowel and one after the vowel. The children read a sentence and then make several guesses about the word. For example, for the sentence ‘I fly a ’, the word guess could be plane, kite, rocket, jet. The word guesses are written on the board. There are generally many possibilities for a word that will fit the context and the teacher points this out. Next the teacher removes the sticky note that covers the onset, and guesses that don’t have these letters are erased, and new words that have the onset and fit the meaning are listed. When all the words that fit with the letters and the meaning are listed, the entire word is revealed. It is suggested that teachers adjust the length of the sticky notes so that children also become sensitive to word length.

Word study Word study is a spelling approach where children categorise words and word patterns by sorting words and pictures according to their common orthographical pattern. The orthographical features in words are then studied. For example, if a child is spelling ‘rane’ for rain and makes a similar pattern error in other pieces of writing, the teacher might begin instruction on long /a– / word patterns. In this approach, the teacher bases instruction on the words the children are writing but are finding c onfusing.

Making words This is an active, hands-on, manipulative activity in which children learn to look for patterns in words and learn how changing just one letter or the letter order changes the whole word (Cunningham & Cunningham 1992; Cunningham, Hall & Defee 1998). The children are given six to eight letters (either written on pieces of cardboard or as letter shapes) that will form the final word. The lesson begins with two-, three-, four- and five-letter words, leading up to a word that can be formed with all the letters. The teacher calls out possible words with two, three, four and more letters for the children to make. They then sort the words using their common spelling patterns, beginning sounds, endings and rhymes or other orthographical features. The big word is related to something the children are reading. For example, in one lesson the teacher chose the word giants because the children had read a book about giants in a guided reading session. From the

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letters ‘a’, ‘i’, ‘g’, ‘n’, ‘t’ and ‘s’, they made these words and wrote them on cards: it in an ant tan sit sag snag sang gain stain sat tag giants When all the words were made the teacher led the children to sort them into rimes. it an ag ain it an sag gain sit tan snag stain tag To conclude, the teacher encouraged the children to make other words that rhymed with the words they had found, for example hit, span, bag and brain.

Whole-to-part phonics In whole-to-part phonics (Moustafa 1997), the words for phonic analysis come from the texts the children can read, or from texts read aloud by the teacher. For example, after a teacher has read a predictable text, the children might be asked to select their favourite words in the story. The teacher writes each word on a separate piece of card, highlighting letters representing an onset (e.g. ‘sm-’) or a rime (e.g. ‘-iles’) and tells the children ‘These letters say /sm/’ and ‘These letters say /ilz/’. The words are then placed on the classroom word wall. smiles: sm

iles

In time, as more and more words are placed on the word wall, the words can be grouped into onset and rime patterns. For example, words with the onset ‘dr’—drink, drip and drum—could be listed together, with the ‘dr’ blend highlighted to make recognition easier. At other times, words are organised in word families or rimes with all the ‘-ink’, ‘-um’ or ‘ip’ words grouped together. Onsets such as ‘c’ that have at least two pronunciations—in cent and cat—can be grouped separately.

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Figure 11.1 A word wall

cent

ci ss

century message

sent

case

cymbal

cinder

lesson

sip

nose

cygnet

entrance

press

soft

horse

prance

dance

guess

silver

hose

Moustafa, in her book Beyond Traditional Phonics (1997), suggests that a flexible way of displaying words is to attach a plastic shower curtain to the classroom wall, then, as the children choose the words, they can be attached to the curtain with transparent tape. This allows for easy grouping and regrouping of words. Whole-to-part phonics is an analogy-based approach where children learn to decode words they do not know based on words or word parts they do know. For example, if a child can read me by comparing and contrasting word parts, the word she can also be read. If a child can read do and unhappy the word undo can also be read. Whole-to-part phonics (Moustafa 1997) is based on a theory of teaching reading where: • early readers read better in the context of familiar language than outside of such contexts • as children learn to recognise more and more print words in the context of familiar language, they use their knowledge of words they already recognise to pronounce words they don’t recognise • the more children read, the more proficient they become. In this approach the three most important instructional things we can do to help children learn to read are the following:

• • •

read to them, adjusting to their comprehension needs help them get started in their own reading via instructional techniques such as shared reading with predictable stories provide them with access to engaging, age-appropriate books.

Many teachers prefer to use whole-to-part phonics because they have observed that children have difficulty analysing spoken words into individual phonemes. However, the whole-to-part instructional approach relies on children having some knowledge of initial letters and phonemes.

Teaching phonics

Embedded phonics Embedded phonics occurs when teaching sound and letter relationships takes place by exploring several words in the texts the children have already read. Reading Recovery makes use of an embedded phonics approach. The idea is that children learn to problem-solve by cross-checking using several information sources. The information sources in Reading Recovery are meaning or semantics, sentence structure or syntax, sound and letter relationships, and visual which includes the letters, layout and format of the text. These multiple information sources are used by readers as they monitor their reading behaviour and self-correct if errors are detected. After the book has been introduced (the day before) the child reads the book as the teacher observes the child’s problem-solving strategies. Based on observations of the child’s reading behaviours the teacher may introduce one or two teaching points following the reading. A teaching point in Reading Recovery might be to focus on integrating several cues in reading. However, a common phonics practice is making and breaking words using magnetic letters. This is an analogy-based approach to phonics where words from the text are made with plastic letters and broken down to make new words, for example: m ake c ake b ake After the making and breaking activities, the child writes a sentencelength text with the help of the teacher. The sentence is then cut up into individual words and reassembled. There may be some additional work with Elkonin boxes, where the child is asked to place counters in boxes corresponding to the sounds heard in particular words. To conclude the lesson, a new carefully levelled text is introduced which the child reads. This new book is reread at the beginning of the next session, and a running record is taken by the teacher. The phonics instruction in Reading Recovery takes place after reading and writing connected texts, and the phonics component is highly focused to the needs of the child.

Guided reading In guided reading, teachers support children’s learning through questioning, modelling, coaching and explicit teaching. Guided reading takes place in small groups where children read texts at a similar level of difficulty. Teachers make decisions on the membership of guided reading groups based on their observations of children’s reading behaviours.

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Children also have an opportunity to engage in further word study in literacy learning centres which are organised to free the teacher to work with one guided reading group. These centres can include a writing centre, word-making centre, book-browsing centre, buddy-reading centre, wordgame centre and more. Again the focus here is on learning about soundand-letter relationships that occur in the books the children have read.

A combination of approaches and teaching strategies One study found that the notion that phonics is not being taught in whole-language classrooms is inaccurate.

Many teachers use a combination of approaches for teaching phonics, and they draw on a range of ideas and activities. One study found that the notion that phonics is not being taught in whole-language classrooms is inaccurate (Baumann et al. 1998). Teachers generally do not assume a polar, either-or approach to phonics and whole language, but instead provide children with a balanced, eclectic program involving both reading skill instruction and immersion in rich literacy experiences. Many teachers see the debates about ‘phonic skills’ versus ‘whole language’ as one that diverts attention, energy and resources from the real challenges teachers face when providing children with appropriate and thoughtful phonics instruction.

How early can phonics be taught? Successful methods of reading instruction have been developed with children at 3 and 4 years of age. The bottom line is that the role of chronological age is not one of limiting what a child can learn but of limiting the ways in which they can effectively be taught. Attention to phonological awareness has traditionally been important in the preschool years. It is how the sounds of language are taught that is critical.

How does invented spelling relate to phonemic awareness? An inventive speller plays with sounds and letters when writing and this helps consolidate phonemic awareness. The process of invented spelling is essentially a process of developing phonemic awareness. The evidence that invented spelling activity simultaneously develops phonemic awareness and promotes understanding of the alphabetic principle is extremely promising. Developing phonemic awareness through invented spelling is an important idea, especially in view of the difficulty with which some children are found to acquire these insights through other methods of teaching (McGee & Purcell-Gates 1997; Richgels 1995).

Teaching phonics

A child’s invented spelling performance may predict reading achievement as much as a year later, as measured in various ways (emergent literacy measures, word identification measures and reading comprehension measures).

Making connections The understandings about phonological awareness are best taught when they are embedded and connected with the other processes operating in concert.

The fact remains that even in carefully planned instructional programs, children take up different knowledge and skills. Even the best planned lesson will be received differently by different children. If a teacher embeds phonics in meaningful contexts, and models and demonstrates how phonics works, then one single teaching event can work on multiple levels. One child may learn a phonic generalisation, another may problemsolve using various cues, and another will solve problems they have been on the verge of solving. The understandings about phonological awareness are best taught when they are embedded and connected with the other processes operating in concert. It is this rich, interconnected, embedded knowledge that supports literacy learning. Many children play with phonemic awareness in songs, TV jingles, chants and nursery rhymes and effective teaching makes this knowledge clear. There is no one path to becoming literate but, rather, multiple paths. However, there is evidence of the need to embed early literacy in functional purposes. It is the ways in which teachers help children make connections between what is being done in the community, and the classroom reading and writing program that is important. These connections are best made as literacy is woven in and through the fabric of classroom life, school culture and peer culture activities. Literacy takes on shape, pattern and texture as it is constructed to meet a range of purposes and f unctions.

Practical ideas for teaching phonics Introductory phonics activities Phonics teaching can take place by exploring the letters and sounds in children’s names, with everyday print, or after reading a book or singing a song or jingle.

Children’s names: a way to begin Many teachers use children’s names as an engaging starting point for exploring the relationship between sounds and letters. Children’s names are important to their identity. Parents give their children a name which

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reflects gender, culture, religion, history, family names and the parents’ hopes for their child’s future. The names given for people and objects, in general, are also important for learning. Giving names to other people and objects is a way for young children to classify and order sensory experiences. Names and symbols allow people to talk about absent objects and communicate with others. Learning that things have arbitrary labels or names given to them by people is an important social and cognitive milestone. Naming allows children to find relationships between things and to talk about similarities and differences. Below are some suggestions for ways to work with names.

•

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Make two sets of cards with children’s names. These can be classified into names that begin in the same way, names that have the same sound, names that end alike and so on. Children can also play Snap and Concentration games with the cards. Write names on paintings and personal belongings. Write children’s names on card covered with plastic so they can trace and use the card as a writing model. Paint names with water outside in the playground. Use last names as well as first names for card games like Snap and Concentration. Make a ‘Who am I?’ book where children write clues to their identity and other children guess their name. Use children’s names in the classroom, such as ‘Stephen, will you …’, and encourage children to use each other’s names whenever possible. Make a class album with photographs and children’s names. Make a class book with photographs and a short description of each child in the class. Make a school-wide teachers’ book with photographs and a story about each teacher. Make a mural of the class and add names. Ask parents if they had a nickname and make list of these. Explore the meaning of children’s first names. Ask grandparents to the school to discuss the history of their name. Explore names in the community that are similar. Explore the meaning of last names for example, Smith, Barber, Taylor. Trace the history and geographical location of the children’s last names. Place last names on a map of the world to show where they may have come from. Use lists of names on birthday calendars. Write the names of group members and lists of who goes to the library or has special roles to play in the classroom.

Teaching phonics

•

• • • •

Explore patterns in children’s names by clapping the beat in the name: Jen-ny, Ti-mo-thy, Ste-pha-nie. Children can use musical instruments to create the beat. They can dance, hop or jump to the beat. Make name alliterations into a class book. Use names and a verb such as Sue sews, Jim jumps, Alex amazes. Names can also be combined with positive adjectives, excellent Emma, brilliant Bob, sensible Steve, lively Liz, kind Kate, soft Sara, elegant Eleanor and jolly Jack. Read poems about names such as A A Milne’s ‘James James Morrison Morrison Weatherby George Dupree’ and Eve Merriman’s poem ‘Spring Fever’, which has alliteration of names such as Frank frets, John jumps. Have a name change day when a sound such as /b/ is used at the beginning of each name, for example David becomes Bavid, Susan becomes Busan and so on. Change the characters in stories read aloud to the names of children in the class. Make a class address book or a class birthday book using children’s names. Make lists of names and classify them into friends’ names, pets’ names, football team names, sports star names, teddy bear names.

Using everyday print How can everyday print on street signs and advertising boards be used to teach phonics? In the following example, the teacher engages in teaching sound–letter relationships in everyday, functional literacy activities with a group of 5-year-olds (Richgels, Poremba & McGee 1996, p. 639). To begin the lesson, the teacher wrote out on a chart the poem ‘Chicken Soup with Rice’ by Maurice Sendak. This poem is about outdoor winter play on ice and eating chicken soup with rice. On a chair next to the chart the teacher placed a large institutional-size can of chicken and rice soup, and she also put a tin of soup by the poem. After discussing then reading the poem, the teacher asked the children if they could tell what she had brought in from the supermarket. The children worked out that it was chicken soup. The chicken soup was to be part of a cooking activity later in the week but now it was the context for making connections between poem print and label print. The teacher’s questions prompted children to notice letters, words and sounds and these were interwoven with discussions of the meanings and functions of written language.

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Using books Dr Seuss books are based on rhyme and word play and are greatly enjoyed by most children. To learn letters and to recognise and name the letters of the alphabet, cut out print from catalogues, magazines and leaflets to make collages. Another way sounds and letters can be introduced is known as ‘rounding up the rhymes’ (Cunningham, Hall & Defee 1998). This occurs after reading a big book or a small book aloud many times. For example, after several readings of the book Ten Little Dinosaurs (Schnetzler 1996) the teacher drew the children’s attention to the rhyming words. Ten Little Dinosaurs describes the actions of ten different dinosaurs. Five little dinosaurs playing in the street. Ankylosaurus yelled, ‘A car to beat!’ He charged into the street: squeal, screech, bleet, spleet. No more dinotanks playing in the street. As children notice the rhyming words, some of which are nonsense words, they are written on index cards and put in a pocket chart. The following words were ‘rounded up’ from several pages. bed bike mooth river peak street head spike tooth aquiver beak beat said trike booth shiver shriek spleet Next, because the focus was on words with the same spelling pattern and same sound, some words were deleted. The five sets of words that rhymed and had the same spelling pattern were left in the pocket chart. bike mooth river peak street spike tooth aquiver beak spleet trike booth shiver The next stage is critical, as it is the transfer stage where children use analogy based on spelling patterns to create new words. Some new words created to fit the spelling pattern and rhyme were: hike liver leak sweet

Using jingles, raps and rhymes Poems, songs, jingles, raps and rhymes can be used to draw children’s attention to the sounds of language. If the jingles and rhymes are written on large charts, children can explore the connection between sounds and the visual letters. When focusing on spoken language the children’s attention is drawn to the phonemes or sounds.

Teaching phonics

In alphabet raps, the children use class names combined with rhyming words to make a rap to chant read and perform. Names can have one, two or three or more syllables and the rhyming words may have to be changed to fit the rhythm. A is for Adam, apple and Ann B is for Barry, berry and ban C is for Connie, cabbage and cog D is for David, dinner and dog E is for Erin, egg and excite F is for Fay, fish and fight G is for Gus, goat and girl Songs Many well-known songs can be adapted for word play. For example, ‘Old MacDonald Had a Farm’ can be sung with a focus on initial sounds, medial sounds or end sounds (Yopp 1992). What’s the sound that starts these words: yellow, yes and yet? [wait for a response from the children] /y/ is the sound that starts these words: yellow, yes and yet. With a /y/, /y/ here and a /y/, /y/ there, Here a /y/, there a /y/, everywhere a /y/, /y/. /y/ is the sound that starts these words: yellow, yes and yet

Learning letters When children are first learning about sounds and letters, you can hold mini-sessions focusing on one letter. To begin, display books, cards and catalogues that have a particular letter as a focus. Then have children select a book for you to read aloud that focuses on that letter. For example, some books with letter a include Pat the Cat (Colin and Jaqui Hawkin, Picture Puffin), The Cat in the Hat (Dr Seuss, Random House) and Angus and the Cat (Marjorie Flack, Doubleday). Collect rhymes and jingles based on particular letters and read them aloud, noting the short and long /a/ sounds.

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Apple tree, apple tree Have apples for me Hats full, laps full Sacks full, laps full Apple tree, apple tree Have apples for me

Ants in your pants Ants in your pants Smack them, whack them Smack them, whack them Ants in your pants

Apples on the tree Apples on the tree Adam ate them Adam ate them Apples on the tree

Making and using sounds Show how the short /a/ sound is made in the mouth. Show how the long /a– / sound is made in the mouth. Find children’s names that begin with a short /a/ sound. Find objects in the room that begin with a short /a/. Find children’s names that begin with a long /a– / sound. Find objects in the room that begin with a long /a– /. Read an alphabet book aloud, either a big book or a smaller book, and point to the capital ‘A’ and lower-case ‘a’. Have children trace the letter shapes in the air. Sing the alphabet song and point to the letters on an alphabet chart as the children sing. Tell children the name of letter ‘a’ is ‘ay’ the sound can be /a/ or /a– /.

Making the sound–letter link Write words that begin with letter ‘a’ on the board underneath each other so the letter is clear, and ask children to identify the beginning letter. Write the word apple and identify the letter ‘a’. Write the word ate and talk about how the letter ‘a’ can represent several sounds. Many teachers make it explicit that the letter is written down and can be seen and named and the sound is made in the mouth and can be heard. Spoken words are made up of sounds. Written words are made up of letters. When we say the letter name of the vowels we say the long vowel sound. Many children will think that letter ‘a’ has only one sound. Point out that ‘a’ can represent several sounds in Ann, ape, again and arm. There are many ways of exploring sound–letter links.

• •

• • •

Cut up an alphabet chart and place the letters on cards. In small groups the children can arrange the cards in alphabetical order. Write words with the letter ‘a’ in arrow shapes:

add

axe

Make a chart of words that begin with letter ‘a’ from words in magazines and newspapers. Have children make the upper- and lower-case letter ‘a’ with plasticine or play dough. Make a large apple tree filled with apples with ‘a’ words.

Teaching phonics

• Make apple-shaped books for children to draw in then write •

CASE STUDY

words with the short /a/ sound. Make a list of words that have the short /a/ in the middle position. These words can be built from cards divided into onsets and rimes.

Te a c h i n g t h e f i r s t l e t t e r Jenny decided to teach the children in her class letter ‘m’ because most of the 5-year-old children were ready to participate in a formal teaching session, having had several sessions to develop phonemic awareness and taken part in discussion about the letters in their own names. Jenny found a big book about monsters and, knowing that the children had heard the book before and enjoyed it, she decided to use this book as a way into learning the letter. As she read the book, the children joined in with the chorus. Then Jenny held up a letter card—M m—and said: ‘This letter is called ‘m’. This is the upper-case letter ‘M’ and this the lower-case letter ‘m’. Can you see it anywhere in the word monster? Can you see the letter ‘m’ anywhere else on the page?’ A child stepped up and pointed to the letter ‘m’, and Jenny replied: ‘Yes that is the letter ‘m’. In monster the letter ‘m’ makes the sound /m/. Watch while I write it. The name of the letter is ‘m’ and the sound it makes in this word is /m/. Can you hear any more words that have the /m/ sound in this book? Let’s look again.’ As children found more words, Jenny wrote them underneath each other so that the letter pattern could be seen.

monster man marvellous mischief Next Jenny asked the children to write the letter ‘m’ on their hands with their ‘finger pencils’ and again on a partner’s back. ‘Now, do you know any other words that have the letter “m”?’ Jenny asked the children to think of people who had an ‘m’ in their name and also to focus on any high-frequency words that had been studied by the group. Children then added more words, and capital ‘M’ and lower-case ‘m’ were discussed again:

Mike Mrs Miller make March

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A child named Tammy called out her name and that word was also written up with the letter ‘m’ circled, and several other children also added their names:

Tammy Sam Hamish When there were many words listed on the board, Jenny asked the children to work in small groups. Group 1 children wrote down as many words with ‘m’ as they could, checking against the list on the board. Group 2 made the letter ‘m’ with plasticine, group 3 had a word hunt, cutting out and pasting the letter ‘m’ from magazines and catalogues and group 4 played a game of Concentration with picture-word cards. The next day, the children consolidated their learning of the letter and rotated through the different group activities while Jenny observed their knowledge of the letter and checked this off in her assessment folder. Jenny is always very careful to use exact terms when she is teaching. She uses the correct terms ‘upper case’, ‘capital’, ‘lower case’ and is clear about the distinction between the name of a letter and the sound it makes, for example: ‘The name of the letter is ‘m’ and the sound it makes in this word is /m/.’

A sequence for teaching letters The order for teaching letters is based on the letters that are the most constant in most words (for example, ‘m’ usually makes an /m/ sound), and the letters that are visually different. The letter–sound connection is always taught in context—in a book, song or jingle. The letter is then made explicit as the teacher writes the letter in upper- and lower-case and invites children to find more words containing the letter. When the letter has been made explicit it is put back into the context of a child’s name, in words around the room and in magazines and catalogues.

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Figure 11.2Â A sequence for introducing the sound and letter connections Phoneme

Initial sounds

Medial or final sounds

/m/

motorbike

hammock, comb

/b/

box

bubble

/l/

lizard

jelly, beetle

/t/

tadpole, tornado

butterfly

/g/

gorilla

egg

/h/

helicopter

/s/

sandwich, circle

moose, police, glasses

/k/

caterpillar, kangaroo, queen

truck, school

/v/

volcano

gloves

/z/

zebra

puzzle, vase, daisy

/p/

penguin

grasshopper

/j/

jellyfish, giraffe

sausage, bridge

/n/

nurse, knife

spanner

/d/

donkey

paddle

/r/

rainbow, write, rhinoceros

carrot

/y/

yo-yo

/f/

fox, phone

elephant, buffalo

/w/

waterfall, wheelbarrow

squirrel

/a/

ant

cat

/e/

egg

web

/o/

orange

wand

/i/

ink

lizard

/u/

umbrella

cut

/sh/

shark, chef

parachute

/ch/

cheetah

match

th/th voiced and unvoiced

mother, thorn

both, with

Vowel phonemes

Digraph

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Phonics activities from stages 1–5 Stage 1: learning the letter–sound connection

Letter hunt Give children a copy of a familiar text. It could be from a language experience story the class has written or from a book that the class has read many times. Have children circle certain letters in the text. When they reread the story in the reading group, draw their attention to the letters that are circled.

Word hunts In this activity, the children search for and circle or cut out words that contain the sounds they are learning. The words can then be written on index cards or the actual words can be cut out and pasted onto paper. Variations include having children hunt for pictures that contain sounds they are studying, or searching for words that have the same middle sound. For example, ask a child to find words that sound like sad in the middle and then add the words to lists of words on the classroom wall (word walls that are grouped according to sound—not spelling).

Letter sort This will help the children to focus on identifying one letter. Pass out word cards that include the required letter, then have the children come up and display their words in response to various prompts.

eat

eight

fast

jet the

little

sitting

something

ten

then

they

three

train

truck

two

wanted

tractor went

Prompts could include:

• • • • • •

‘t’ as the first letter (ten, two, three, to, then, truck, tractor, train) ‘t’ as the last letter (eight, at, went, fast, jet, eat) ‘t’ somewhere in the word but not in the first or last spot (little, sitting, wanted, tractor) two ‘t’s in the word (sitting, tractor) ‘t’ with an ‘h’ after it (three, they, something, then, the) ‘t’ with an ‘r’ after it (truck, tractor, train)

Teaching phonics

Star for the day Write the children’s first names on cardboard strips. Cut the strips so that long names have long strips and short names have short strips. Choose a new name each day—this child becomes the star for the day, and the child’s name becomes the focus of many activities. This is a good activity for the beginning of the year. Day 1 Put all the names in a container, and choose one to be the star. Have the other children interview this child to find out about him or her (hobbies, favourite books). You could have a list of predetermined questions that each child will be asked, written on a piece of paper. Then, write the answers that the child gives on the experience chart for use in making a class book later on. Point to the child’s name on the strip (e.g. Sam). Point out the letters needed to make the word Sam. Talk about how the letter ‘S’ is a capital letter. Have the children chant the name. Write the name on another strip and cut it up into letters. See if someone can put the name back together correctly. Put Sam’s name up in the room. Day 2 Choose another child and do the interviewing and chart-making as for Day 1. Focus the children’s attention on the name. Count the letters and discuss which letter is first and last. Point out any letters that are the same. Day 3 Draw out a third name. Do the interviewing and chart-making, following the same procedures as before. Write the name again, cut it up and do the letter arranging. Begin comparing the names up on the board so far. You might want the class to practise reading the class interviews written as language experience stories. Day 4 Follow this procedure until all the children have been interviewed, charted, chanted and had the letters of their names arranged. Variations

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• •

Write the letters of the alphabet across the board and count to see how many names contain each letter. Make tally marks or a bar graph and decide which letters are included in most of the names and which letters are in the fewest names. Make up riddles about children’s names. (This is a girl’s name. She has six letters in her name. She has two ‘e’s and two ‘b’s.) Let the children make up riddles as well. Pass out laminated letter cards—one letter to a card, lower case on one side and upper case on the other side. Call out a name

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from the bulletin board and lead the children in chanting the letters in the name. Then, the children who have those letters come to the front of the room.

Alphabet hunt For this activity, introduce a letter for study. First, the children practise making the letter and saying it. Then, they take a letter card (or magnetic letter) with them to their seats to find other words that contain that letter—in books, on the word wall and so on. Have children keep a list of all the words they find with that letter in them. As a variation, children can find the letter at the beginning of a word or at the end of a word. The words the children find can be written on cardboard and placed on a word wall.

Name tongue twisters Tongue twisters provide many word examples of the targeted sound, and the children have fun doing them. Use children’s names as much as you can (Zachary likes zoos. Sarah sighs when she sees a snake.). Do one or two rhymes each day using the tongue twisters.

• • • • • •

Have the children repeat them orally after you. The children can say them fast, then slowly, and then with some rhythm. The children can memorise the rhymes. Write the rhymes out on a chart or poster and have children underline the repeated letters with a different coloured marker. Have the children read the rhymes several times. Leave the posters up in the room, so the children can refer to them if they get confused about a letter and sound.

Consonants and vowels This combination of consonants and vowels enables children to build words that begin with the same sound: sun sat sit You can also support children to use word family analogy with onsets and rimes such as: cat fat mat sat The chart in Figure 11.3 can be copied, put on card and cut up for letter recognition games. The activities in Figure 11.4 use visual, auditory and tactile approaches to learning the letter ‘s’.

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Figure 11.3Â Consonants and vowels

s t m w f h n

a e i o u

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Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

Figure 11.4 Activities for learning the letter ‘s’

Cut out more pictures of words that begin with ‘s’

Trace the letter ‘s’ in the air with your hand. See the spider spin SSSSS

s Sing to the tune of Jimmy Crack Corn. Who has an ‘s’ word to sing with us? Who has an ‘s’ word to sing with us? Spider is an ‘s’ word that we can sing. Spider is an ‘s’ word that we can sing. Spider starts with ‘s’.

Spinning, spinning spider stay still spider

Trace and make with play dough.

Easily confused letters The easily confused sounds—for example m/n, p/b, f/v, s/z and r/w—should be introduced separately, and letters that are visually similar—for example ‘n’/‘h’ and ‘g’/‘y’—should be introduced well apart. The popping sounds /p/, /t/ and /k/ made without the voice—as in the words pet, tin and kit—are hard to hear at the beginning of words as the sound merges quickly with the following vowel. The voiced popping sounds /g/, /b/ and /d/—as in dog, bed and rid—may be difficult to identify at the end of words. Many children find it hard to say these sounds in words such as sing, where the /g/ may be left off and red, which may be pronounced with a final /t/ sound.

Teaching phonics

Games for making the letter–sound connection Some children require a lot of practice when making the letter–sound connection and these games may be useful for improving the quick recognition of letters. They are played in pairs or small groups, providing social interaction and lots of discussion about letters and sounds. They provide more interaction and learning than many dull repetitive worksheets.

Matching Cut out sandpaper letters or make letters with children by sprinkling sand on letter shapes covered with glue. The children then match two similar symbols or match the letter with a picture. As variations, children can trace and copy letters, find objects or pictures of things that begin with the sound, or match the letter with various types of print fonts, printed from the computer or cut from magazines.

Jigsaw letters Cut coloured cardboard letters into jigsaw pieces. Children then sort out the shapes and make them into letters.

Matching letter game Make two packs of cards of different colours but with the same letters and have children sort the cards into matching pairs. As a variation, deal out the cards to a small group and play Snap card games by placing the cards face up—when two cards match, the first person to say ‘snap’ takes the cards. Children could also take a card and search in books or around the room for the letter.

Grab 1 Write out the letters of the alphabet on strong card. A small group of children sit in a circle with cards placed face up in the centre. The leader says ‘Please grab the [letter name]’ and the first person to grab that card keeps it. The player with the most cards is the winner. Children can be paired so they can play the game in teams, allowing those with less knowledge of letters to also become the leader.

Grab 2 You need a set of alphabet letter cards. The pack is dealt face down, one at a time, to each player until all cards have been dealt in a similar way to Snap. The first player takes the top card in their pile and places it face up in the middle of the table. The second player turns their top card face up and places it next to their own pile. All players watch to see if any card is the same as the card in the middle. If it is, the first player to say ‘Grab’

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can take all the cards in the turned-up pile and add them to their playing set. They then put another card face up in the middle of the table, and the game continues until other players have used all their cards and one player has all the cards. The winner then begins a new game.

Fish You need two sets of alphabet cards. The cards are dealt face down, one at a time, to each player until everyone has four cards. The remaining cards are put face down in a pile in the middle of the table. Then each player picks up their cards and holds them so other players cannot see them. Each player looks to see if they have any matching cards, for example two ‘a’s. If a player has any matching cards, they place them face down on the table in front of them. When each player has done this, the dealer asks any player, by name, if they have a card that will match one in their hand, for example ‘Carlo, have you got a letter “g”?’ If the player named has the card they must give it up. The questioner makes a pair and puts it face down in front. They then ask another player for a different card. If the player doesn’t have the card they say ‘Fish’ and the questioner takes the top card from the pile in the middle of the table. The person to the left of the questioner then asks for a card, and the game continues until no one has any cards left. The winner is the person with the most pairs. Fish can also be played with high-frequency words or picture cards.

Three guesses You need a set of alphabet letter cards. A small set of cards is taken and placed face up for the group to see. Then they are mixed up and put into a pack between two players. Player 1 picks up the top card and looks at it. Player 2 has three guesses and if they guess correctly they get the card. If they don’t guess correctly the card is placed at the bottom of the pile. The other player picks up a card and the game continues. The player who has the most cards wins the game. You could use two sets of alphabet cards and the game could be won by the first person to get a matching pair.

Dominoes Make domino cards with letters instead of dots. The cards are all dealt out, and children take a turn when they can match a letter. The first to use all their cards wins. As a variation, the dominoes could have letters and pictures for matching.

Hopscotch Draw a hopscotch grid on the floor with chalk and write a letter in each square. The children throw the counter and hop into the squares, saying

Teaching phonics

the letters as they go. You could adapt this so that the child says words that start or end with that letter.

Footprints You will need paper or card for this activity. Have children draw around their feet, cut out the shapes, and write the letters of the alphabet on them. Children can then follow the footprint path as they say the alphabet. As a variation, have children follow the footprint path as they spell their names.

Lotto Organise three square lotto cards ruled up with pictures glued to the squares. You also need small cards with letters representing initial sounds to match the pictures. Children play in groups of four.

Three players have a lotto grid each. The leader holds up one of the small letter cards. The first player to call out and point to the picture on their grid that corresponds to the letter card gets that card and covers the picture on their grid. The winner has all the pictures on their grid covered. This game can also be played with letters on the lotto board, with the leader holding up picture cards.

Letter recognition Write the letters of the alphabet on cards and set them out on the floor. Have children throw a bean bag and name the letter the bean bag falls on.

Spin the skittle You need a skittle, and cards with letters. Arrange the cards in a circle. Children take turns to spin the skittle and say either the sound the letter represents or the name of the letter.

Stage 2: Onset and rime—common rimes Some teachers prefer to teach word families, where letters are chunked together—‘at’, ‘in’. Others prefer that children learn to blend each letter-

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Learning to blend sounds together is a very important step in learning to read.

sound. Learning to blend sounds together is a very important step in learning to read. Blending is a skill that needs practice. The following are several suggestions for teaching blending sequentially. It is helpful to include practice with the sounds taught in connected text.

Blending onset and rime (a first step in learning to blend) Practise with words for which the children have been taught the sounds and corresponding symbols. For example: Write the letter ‘c’ on the board and ask: ‘What is the sound?’ (/c/) Write the letter ‘a’ on the board and ask: ‘What sound does this letter make?’ (/a/) Sweep your finger under the ‘c’ and ‘a’, saying the sounds as you do this. Then say: ‘Blend and hold /c/ /a/… /ca/.’ Follow this blending lesson with a sentence in print so there is practice in connected text. There is a fat cat.

Blending the whole word strategy Print the word to be decoded for the children to see, for example: camp As you move a finger under each sound, the children blend the sounds aloud. As you touch each letter, the children hold that sound vocally without stopping until you touch the next sound. Then go back to the beginning of the word and move a finger quickly under the whole word as the children say it aloud.

Blending multisyllable words (chunking sounds) When children come to new words that are multisyllabic, they need to blend by syllable. To help them do this, remind them that each syllable contains a vowel sound. Ask them to identify the vowels ahead of time so they can determine the number of syllables. Tell children to look for chunks of words they already know. Begin by sounding out the sounds in the first syllable. When children can blend each syllable separately, have them blend the syllables together. Later, they can learn to read the syllables and put them together. For example, using the word hippo, have the children determine that the word should be divided into syllables: hip-po. Decode the first syllable and blend it together as ‘hip’. Decode the second syllable and blend it together as ‘po’. Then blend the two syllables together to make hippo.

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Word slide You will need a large piece of cardboard with two slots to allow a long rec tangular piece of cardboard to pull through easily. Write initial letter sounds on the large card and word endings on the long rectangular card. As children pull the long card through the slots, they sound or write the words they make.

Dominoes Make domino cards with three-letter words written on either side of the line. All cards are dealt out to players. Children then take turns to match their cards with the domino train. This can be adapted to all levels.

cat dog

dog bag

bag big

big can

Race track game You will need small toy cars, a die and a large cardboard ‘race track’ playing board. Word cards can be placed on the track or words written into spaces. Children begin at GO, and take turns at throwing the die. They move their cars to the corresponding space, and sound or write the word in the square they land on. The winner is the first to reach FINISH. Words from all levels can be used.

Bingo You will need a set of four different cards like the one illustrated below, buttons or counters large enough to cover the words, and a master list with all the words on the word cards. One child acts as the caller, and calls words from the master list. If a player hears a word that corresponds with a word on their card, they sound the word and, if correct, cover it with a counter. The first person to have four sections covered horizontally or vertically is the winner, and becomes the new leader.

cat rat sat

lid

bag run set lad jam bin got pat sun jug him man

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Three-letter lotto You will need a set of master cards with three-letter words as illustrated for the Bingo game above plus small cards with the same words to match the large cards. The leader holds the small cards and shows them one by one to the group. The children check the word shown with their large card and if the word matches, they sound the word and cover that word on their master card with the small card. The first player with all words covered is the winner and becomes the new leader. The leader changes each child’s master card and shuffles the small cards before beginning again. This game can be adapted to all levels.

Final consonant substitutions Have beginning letters (such as ‘sa’, ‘ra’, ‘le’, ‘se’, ‘pi’, ‘ho’, ‘cu’, ‘fa’) and additional consonant letters ready to use. Have children add consonants to the end of each set of beginning letters to form words. Encourage children to use all the consonants in order to play with language. Tell them some words will be real words and others will not—they will tell you which are real words and which are not.

Matching game You will need a large master card with three-letter words written in one column, and a pack of small cards with words with the same endings but different initial sounds. The player sets all the small cards down by the master card and matches the small card ending with the master card endings, e.g. hat–cat. This can be played with more master cards in lotto fashion, and can be adapted to all levels.

Code-breaker activities Code-breaking activities from Chapter 8, such as blending into words, building words, say-it-move-it using letters, word wheels and flip books can also be used in this stage.

Stage 3: Blends Many of the previous activities can be used with initial and final blends.

Tongue twisters using blends The following are some tongue twisters with consonant blends that children enjoy saying and illustrating. It is best to create some using people in your class or school. You can say some tongue-twister blends each day.

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Claire clawed along the cliff. Greg grew gracefully. Stephen stopped and stamped in the stampede.

Phonic strips You will need cards as for the word slide activity (see page 285). As children pull the strip through, they sound the word they make. You can use digraphs or consonant blends instead of individual letters.

at an ap ip

Toss lotto Outline a lotto grid on the ground with masking tape, and place two-letter blends in the spaces. Children throw a counter onto one of the squares and say a word that begins with that blend.

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Snakes and ladders Draw up a board like a traditional snakes and ladders board but with consonant blends written in the squares. Children throw a die and move along the spaces. They must make a word using the blend they land on. Counters are moved up the ladder if the base is landed on, and down if a snakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s head is landed on. As a challenge, children can say two or three words using the blend landed on.

Die game You will need a foam rubber die with consonant blends on each face. One child rolls the die and the group writes words beginning with the resulting consonant blend. This can be adapted to all levels.

Rainy day game You will need a large piece of cardboard or floor marked out into 10 cm x 15 cm rectangles, as well as vowel cards, initial consonant blend cards and final consonant blend cards. There should be a number of duplicates. Place the cards on the grid, one card per rectangle. A player stands on each of the four sides of the game area at a marked distance from the edge. Players take turns throwing an eraser onto the grid. After each player has had one throw they take the letter card their eraser has fallen on and, as they accumulate cards they try to form a word. A four-letter word is worth 4 points, a five-letter word 10 points and so on.

Scramble This game is similar to Scrabble. You will need small counters with initial blends, final blends and spare letters printed on with marker pen. The counters are placed face down. Children pick up six counters and try to make a word. Once the child has had a turn and used up some letters they pick up again so they have six counters once more. A four-letter word is worth 5 points and a five-letter word 10 points.

Word-making Cover a cardboard roll with a square of coloured paper. Take a piece of strong white paper and cut it into three strips 5 cm x 15 cm long, write letters on them as illustrated, and stick the strips end to end around the roll so that each can be twisted easily without being too loose. A piece of thread or wool can be tied through the roll to prevent the letters coming off and also used as a line under the word found. Children turn the strips, and say and write the words they make.

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I went shopping and I bought … You will need consonant blend cards. The leader picks up a consonant blend card, e.g. ‘tr’ and the children in a circle say ‘I went shopping and bought … [a tr word]’, e.g. ‘I went shopping and bought a trumpet.’

Initial blending substitution Using the word families from the word wheel activity in Chapter 8 (page 209), add the following blends to the beginning of each word family to make new words. For example, using the ‘-ab’ family, you can add the blends to the beginning to make crab, drab, grab, flab. Other initial blends you can use are ‘cl’, ‘gl’, ‘pl’, ‘sl’, ‘br’, ‘gr’, ‘pr’, ‘tr’.

Final blend substitutions Use the letters ‘nd’ as an ending, and add the letters ‘k’, ‘i’, ‘s’, ‘a’, ‘e’ and ‘l’ to the beginning to build the words kind, sand, land and lend. Other endings that can be used are as follows: ct mp ft nd ld pt lk sk lt st

to build to build to build to build to build to build to build to build to build to build

fact, pact, tract lamp, damp, bump, jump gift, left, lift, raft land, sand, bend held, meld, weld kept, wept, crept, slept milk, silk, bulk, sulk desk, disk, dusk belt, felt, melt fast, last, test

Word building Determine ahead of time which words you plan to have the children build, and provide each child with a set of letters needed to build these words. Then, have the children sit in a small group around you. Demonstrate how to build the word hit, and then change hit to hot. Make one sound change at a time. You can use some nonsense words as well. Examples of some word sets are as follows: pet pit put pot

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bit bet bat but fit fat fan fun sit sat set sut pep pip pap pup tin tan ton ten lip lep lup lap

Stage 4: Digraphs Many of the previous activities can be used for children practising working with digraphs in the written word.

Long/short vowel sound Children sort a deck of word cards into two piles by sound: long vowel sounds and short vowel sounds. Alternatively, you could draw up a column for each vowel and have the children sort for short vowels only. They can sort each column of words by orthographic (spelling) patterns. Remember that various spelling patterns will occur for each sound.

Making digraphs useful To teach digraphs ‘sh’, ‘ch’, ‘th’ and ‘wh’, it may be helpful to teach key words such as ship, shop, shut. You might want to add actions for the digraphs (sh-shiver, ch-cheer, etc.). If your children like tongue twisters with blends, you can make some for digraphs: Phil photographed pheasants and phantoms. Children need to be reminded that the two letters have a special sound that is very different from the sound they make when they are alone.

Stage 5: Structural analysis

What is word study? Word study is a great learning strategy for building word recognition and spelling skills. Children should be shown directly how to examine and study words for common patterns and distinctive features. However, word study must be a fun and enjoyable experience that will lead children to a thorough understanding of the word structure of the English language. Children should understand that the way words are built is not completely random. Most word parts provide us with direct clues to meaning and spelling. Learning to look at words and study them carefully will help children to develop knowledge of word structure which, in turn, will equip

Teaching phonics

them with the skills needed for attacking polysyllabic words. The whole process leads to a faster and more efficient word identification routine.

How to teach word study There are four main principles to bear in mind when teaching word study.

1 2 3 4

Children should explore words actively, and not by just looking at them or memorising their spelling. Children should connect all their new learning of word structure to already known content. Words should be presented in different meaningful contexts and at multiple times. Children should be at ease with syllables before they study morphemes in words.

Suggested sequence of word study

• • • • • • • • • • • •

initial and final consonants short vowels digraphs and blends long vowel patterns other vowel patterns consonant doubling plural endings compound words simple inflectional endings changing final ‘y’ to ‘i’ spelling patterns for the /cher/, /er/ and /el/ sounds at the end of words simple prefixes, roots and base words

Activities for word study

• • • • • • •

Word sorts Word hunts Interactive word wall Teacher modelling Word games (Wordo etc.) Word trees Word study notebooks

These following activities can be modified for various spelling patterns.

Wordo Wordo is a variation of the popular bingo game, and is an excellent way to integrate spelling and reading practice with a fun word study game. First you need to create a basic template card that can easily be reproduced each time you play. In the beginning you can start with a 3 x 3 grid that

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you will replace later with a 4 x 4 or 5 x 5 grid. Remember to include a space at the top for the children to write their names and the date of the game. Laminated cards, where children erase their work at the end of each practice/game session could also be used. However, plain photocopied paper cards can also be used as a record of spelling proficiency to track children’s growth. Before working with CVC (consonant–vowel–consonant) words and CVCe (consonant–vowel–consonant with an ‘e’ on the end, such as have) words, provide direct instruction on the word pattern, silent /e/, and practise reading pairs of words. Then pass out the blank Wordo cards and ask the children to write each word in a different place (cell) on their card. Children easily become accustomed to doing this for all subsequent games. Read the words they need to write in each table cell (9 or 16 cells), one at a time, preferably by reading from individual word cards. When all children have finished writing, they should have created an individual Wordo board for themselves, just by writing the words you dictated to them in the different cells of the table. Then shuffle the word cards and start calling out words by picking the first card each time from the stack. Children place chips, marks or counters on their card as that word is said. When the first child calls ‘Wordo’ (either three or four words in a row), they all empty their boards and start again. Figure 11.5 Example of a Wordo card with CVC words and a Wordo card with CVC and CVCe words cat man hat

topcatpinmanrunhat moptoppotpinwetrun mop cat

pot

man

wet

hat

sat

cakecat mane hatehatbasesat man topcakepinmane runhatetenbase mope toppinepintonerunbiteten mope pine tone bite

Teaching phonics

Closed word sorts In all closed word sorts, the children are told from the beginning what the distinctive word feature is for the sorting. In this example it is different plural endings in words. Ask them to look for /s/ and /es/ when they say the plural form. Make two headings by writing the two plural endings (/s/ and /es/) on index cards, then give children a stack of index cards that have words written on them in singular form. Ask children to pass the cards around the table so each one of them will end up having a handful of cards for sorting. Each child reads the word on their card, forms the plural and places the card under the appropriate heading. When children are proficient in this activity you may want to introduce subheadings in the /es/ column by spelling pattern (x, s, ss, sh, ch, tch). cap axe bun box cow mix chick bus hill pass cliff glass park dress farm dish bump crash friend brush string peach path bench bath watch

Open word sorts Compound words are fun for the children and they will like working with different single words to form new words. First, take the time to introduce the concept and share multiple examples. Choose simple words from everyday vocabulary for initial examples, e.g. nightlight, bedroom, cookbook. When children are ready for more work with compound words, give them word cards containing compound words with common parts, and ask them to conduct open sorts. Finally, arrange single words (any, time, one, how, body, etc.) in two columns, and invite children to create as many compound words as they can in their notebooks. To make the activity more fun and challenging, you can also use a kitchen timer and ask them to work as fast as they can and â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;beat the clockâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Sample word lists: anyone someone somehow baseball sunshine daytime night-time football daylight somebody nobody lighthouse somewhere outside anybody someday campfire everything earthquake everybody something everyone nightlight everywhere

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Mystery word match This is a variation of the familiar ‘cloze’ type of questioning, where the children are given incomplete sentences and asked to provide the missing words. For this activity, write the incomplete sentences on a card and give each child three ‘clue’ cards for finding the mystery words. The word cards should all contain the same base word but each one should have a different inflectional ending. Children will soon discover how the inflectional endings affect the meaning of words, and they will develop automaticity in writing words with various inflectional endings. Sample mystery word matches: The people were… exciting excited excites I ran… fast fastest Cats are… walk walks walking

… down the street.

Pattern word sort This is another example of a word sort where children look for patterns in words and decide in what words ‘y’ changes to ‘i’ and in what words it remains the same. Provide the children with the initial word cards and ask them to create corresponding word cards that contain the plural or past form for sorting. Alternatively, they can write on the back of the index cards. Similar activities work well with small groups of children. carry carried story stories hurry hurried penny pennies bunny bunnies pony ponies party parties baby babies city cities family families empty emptied turkey turkeys donkey donkeys chimney chimneys

Word tree For this activity you will need to create a tree on cardboard. Select a base or root word to place on the base of the tree in the root area. Then ask children to write as many words as they can that are derived from the base word and place them on individual branches. You can continue adding new words over the course of the session or theme.

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Figure 11.6 A word tree

medicine medicinal medical medicare paramedic

medic

Interactive word wall Introduce simple prefixes so that children understand that prefixes are placed at the front of words and have predictable meanings and pronunciations. Children then learn to use common prefixes as cues for word meaning. In order to achieve this goal, help children to discover the meaning of a few simple prefixes such as ‘un’ and ‘mis’ and challenge them to guess the meaning of new words with these prefixes. Create a ‘special’ word wall on erasable poster board where children will add new words with common prefixes. Have children hunt for words in their textbooks, newspapers and magazines. unfair unpack unusual unknown unequal unclear unlock unlike misspell misinform misbehave miscue

Content-word boards This activity focuses on word study for vocabulary development. However, in this activity the words under focus are arranged thematically. Children brainstorm and search out all the possible words related to a topic of study. In order to encourage challenging word work and vocabulary growth you might stipulate that the children can only post polysyllabic words. These can also be linked to topic areas of study or to frequently used words in children’s writing.

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Figure 11.7 Sample content-word boards

Space words

planet spacecraft gravity mission asteroids satellite meteorite sun

orbit space shuttle rocket astronaut galaxy space station moon Mars

More words for TALK

converse speak gossip discuss inform chatter warn

babble negotiate confer reason notify advise explain

Meta word sort This activity is a powerful example for children that shows how sounds can be spelt several different ways. Examples are as follows: long long long

/a– / sound (ay, a_e, ai, eigh) /e– / sound (ea, ee, e) – /i / sound (i_e, igh, y, ie, _i_)

Teaching phonics

long long

/u– / sound (o, ew, ue, u_e) /o– / sound (o_e, o, oa, ow, oe)

Let the children brainstorm words that have the long /a– / sound. Write each word on an index card and place the cards randomly in a pocket chart. After the children have thought of six to eight words, categorise the words according to spelling pattern. Underline the letters that make the long /a– / sound, and help children to blend and pronounce the words. a–e ai eigh ay make fail weight way take trail freight may base plain eight day gaze nail stay case gain rain Figure 11.8 Using a pocket chart

Letter–sound review and spelling from dictation Show flash cards of letter–sound combinations that have been taught, and ask the children to tell you what sounds the letters make. This is a review of advanced code knowledge and is an area where children often have difficulty. Some examples would be: ‘ing’, ‘ong’, ‘ck’, ‘le’, ‘igh’, ‘er’, ‘ir’, ‘ur’, ‘ang’, ‘ce’, ‘ay’, ‘ai’. The next step is to dictate words having those sounds and ask the children to spell them.

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Vocabulary webs Vocabulary webs help children to develop and extend their vocabulary related to familiar things. Select books about things that are familiar to the children, but that contain new and varied vocabulary. Turn through the book, focusing on the new vocabulary within its context. For example, when introducing the term mammal you might say, ‘All the animals in this book are mammals.’ Model the use of the term as you turn through the book: ‘This seal is a mammal. This boy is a mammal too. A mammal has a skeleton. A mammal feeds its babies milk.’ Then make a semantic web of the features of mammals. Figure 11.9 A semantic web

Feed young Have skeleton

Female has milk

Mammals Warm blooded

Give birth to young

Have hair

When the children are comfortable with the new vocabulary, provide contexts for them to use it (for example, make a poster about mammals, give a two-minute talk to the class about mammals). Review the new vocabulary often over the next few days, and read other books that use the new words. To further develop children’s vocabulary, select books about things children will be interested in, but that they will be unfamiliar with.

Vocabulary building Help children to use context cues to develop vocabulary. Use modelled and shared reading strategies to introduce new vocabulary. For example, ask, ‘What does mammal mean? How can thinking about the other words in the sentence/paragraph/page help us to work out what it means?’ Direct children to illustrations and diagrams that also provide information to help define the word. Encourage children to explain how they work out

Teaching phonics

meaning when they are reading, for example: ‘How did you know what an iceberg was?’ The child might respond: ‘I looked at the photograph. It says the iceberg was – a big white iceberg.’

Using references Select texts that will introduce new vocabulary, and then use modelled, shared or guided reading strategies to lead children to use references. For example, you might ask, ‘What does reptile mean? How could we use a dictionary to help us find out?’ Provide suitable dictionaries for children to refer to. Ask, ‘What other way could we find out?’ (e.g. asking someone who knows, looking at a chart, using a CD-ROM) Many children will like to peruse dictionaries to find new and startling words. Have them make charts and posters showing what the words mean.

Chapter summary Phonics is one part of learning how to read and write. The letter and sound relationships are important for both reading and writing, and assessing what children know about letters and sounds is important for planning the literacy program. There are many different approaches to teaching phonics including: synthetic; visual, auditory, kinaesthetic and tactile or VAKT phonics; analytic phonics, analogy, word study, making words; whole-to-part phonics and embedded phonics approaches. Many teachers combine aspects of different approaches in their phonics programs. The challenge for teachers is to support children to understand the part phonics plays in reading unfamiliar words and in their writing. Phonics can be taught in shared book and guided reading sessions as well as in modelled, shared and guided writing. Phonics activities are a way for children to practise what they know about the sound and letter relationships, and some children need more practice than others. Playing games with words while practising phonics skills may be a better solution for many children than the use of repetitive worksheets. Many teachers see the debate about phonics versus whole language as one that diverts attention, energy and resources from the real challenges teachers face when providing children with appropriate and thoughtful phonics instruction.

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CHAPTER 12

Word work: spelling

I take it you already know Of tough and bough and cough and dough? Or hiccough, thorough, lough and through? Well done! And now you wish, perhaps, To learn of less familiar traps?

Spelling is important, and children need to learn how to spell so that their writing can be read by other people.

This anonymous poem is an example of word play where the humour is based on the inconsistencies of English spelling. Teaching spelling begins with the teacher’s fascination with words, and teachers can demonstrate a fascination with spelling when they notice how words are spelled when reading aloud to children. For example, when reading about the Ginger bread Man, one teacher looked at the way the words giant and gingerbread were spelled, with letter ‘g’ making a /j/ sound. She then wrote a list of words with a /j/ sound and the class found that the /j/ sound can be represented in many different ways, such as in edge, jam and gym. Spelling is important, and children need to learn how to spell so that their writing can be read by other people. Young children’s spelling moves through several developmental stages, similar to the stages that occur in the development of writing. Invented spelling is an important early literacy skill that involves phonemic awareness, letter–sound knowledge, other oral language skills and orthographic knowledge (Ouellette & Sénéchal 2008). Spelling concerns orthography or print, whereas phonology relates to sounds. Spelling involves phonics and other strategies, such as recog nising common letter sequences (e.g. ‘com’ is common but ‘srk’ is not); visual strategies such as common patterns of words (e.g. light and night); and morphological strategies, or understanding how words represent meaning (e.g. nation and nationality).

The development of phonics in writing 300

When children begin writing, they experiment with lines and pictures. As they develop, they may move back and forth through several stages on the

Word work: spelling

way to independent spelling, and the following stages of writing are not always sequential. Young children often use temporary spelling until they achieve standard spelling, for example: YUTS A LADE YET FEHEG AD HE GOT FLEPR. (Once a lady went fishing and she caught Flipper) How the child arrived at these forms of spelling is fascinating. The letter ‘y’ has the name ‘wye’ whereas it may sound like the beginning sound in once and went. The word LADE is written as the letter names sound (Temple, Nathan & Burris 1982). When teachers have to categorise children’s writing for assessment purposes they often find neat categories are a helpful organiser of information, but neat categories don’t always fit all children. The following examples show development in understanding letter and sound relationships.

Prephonic spelling Children experiment with prephonic spelling when they use writing—such as letters, numbers and other symbols—to represent written language. They are exploring the relationships between written and spoken words. Sometimes a word is represented by a picture and sometimes by letter-like symbols. There may be the beginnings of directionality from left to right. Figure 12.1 Prephonic spelling

In prephonic spelling, written letters are based on the letter names, for example: I L N ALADE (I live in Adelaide)

Semi-phonetic spelling In semi-phonetic spelling, there is a beginning understanding of sound– symbol relationships. A word may be represented by one letter or two. Usually the initial sound, and occasionally a final sound, is represented. Often letter names are used to represent sounds, for example lIk for like. Often consonants are used and vowels are ignored, for example skl for school. Children may copy words from charts or books as well as experimenting with writing letters by associating them with sounds.

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Figure 12.2 Semi-phonetic spelling

(I like playing)

Phonetic spelling In phonetic spelling, writers record words using an almost perfect match of letters and sounds. Particular spelling of sounds can occur in a selfformulatedstyle of spelling. The rules the writer invents may not conform to standard spelling, for example wif for with. There is an increase in the use of words learnt by rote recall. Figure 12.3 Phonetic spelling

(In the holidays we …) Letters are chosen on the basis of the sound. At this stage, the child has developed an understanding of the concept of a word, for in order to spell a word a child must:

• • • • • • •

say the word mentally to themselves break off the first phoneme from the rest of the word mentally sort through a repertoire of letters to find one to match the phoneme write down the letter decided upon recite the word again in their mind recall the phoneme they have just spelt, subtract it from the word, and locate the next phoneme to be spelt match the phoneme with a letter of the alphabet, and so on, until all the phonemes are spelt.

This process is so complex that children often lose their place and forget what letter to write. Sometimes they get the first sound and last sound right.

Word work: spelling

Transitional spelling In transitional spelling, the writer begins to use a range of visual strategies such as common letter patterns. There is an increase in the use of words learnt by rote recall and a move away from relying on phonics for spelling all the words the child needs to write. Figure 12.4 Transitional spelling

Independent spelling In this phase, writers use a multiple strategy approach, at times using common letter patterns, phonics and words learned by sight. As spelling develops, more and more children rely on visual cues to check that the word looks right and whether there are other spelling alternatives. Figure 12.5 Independent spelling

As children become more proficient at using visual cues they do not rely on phonics as a major strategy.

Assessing spelling Teachers can assess children’s spelling by examining children’s writing and analysing the spelling errors. If the child’s errors show that the child is using phonic skills alone, then teaching many words that need to be learned visually is important. Such words include the high-frequency words like as, was and the.

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Hearing and recording sounds (dictation) Children’s knowledge of phoneme–grapheme relationships can be assessed with words in context. This is a more authentic form of assessment than spelling words in word lists because children spell when they write. Teachers can develop dictation sentences that include the words they wish to check children’s knowledge of. The teacher dictates one sentence slowly and the child writes the words. Score one point for each correct phoneme-grapheme. For example, Kemp (1987, p. 208) used Clay’s (1979) dictation procedure and provided the following example. The sentence was dictated to a 6-year-old: We went for our holidays to the beach. The writer’s response was: We whent fore ouw holedaes to the beech. Clay’s principle of one phoneme–one grapheme applies and an illustration of scoring is shown. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 W e w e n t f o r o u r h o l i d a y s t o t h e b e a c h W e wh e n t f o re o u w h o l e d a e s t o t h e b e e c h x x x x x x

The child’s score is (24 – 6) = 18 = 75% Three-quarters of the child’s phoneme–grapheme units were correct and the teacher can see where further instruction is needed. Teachers can create sentences of similar difficulty or increasing difficulty, and if this assessment is given several times during the year then progress can be monitored. Sample dictation passages are: Passage 1

Passage 2 Passage 3

Passage 4 Passage 5

My name is … I am going to be a … [give practice with the occupation name] My mum goes to work. She brings me to school in a car. I’m going to get a book for my birthday. I’m going to be … [give practice in writing the age number] Look at the fish in there. One of them is red. The other one is black. I told my dog to come to me. He/she does not do what I tell him/her. Sometimes he/she goes away.

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The reason for assessing children’s spelling is to analyse the errors made and then plan for instruction.

Analysing children’s spelling errors There are many possible causes of spelling mistakes, and the examples in Figure 12.6 show different kinds of spelling errors. Analysing errors provides clues to what kind of spelling instruction children need. Figure 12.6 Different kinds of spelling errors Error Analysis sent for cent

Over-reliance on limited phonics knowledge. The child does not know that ‘c’ makes a soft /s/ sound when followed by letters ‘e’, ‘y’ and ‘i’

litle for little

Omission of letters

fore for for

Insertion of letters

loin for lion

Transposition of letters

their for there

Confusion of homonym

hopeing for hoping

Does not know generalisation for dropping ‘e’ when adding ‘ing’ in words ending with ‘e’

burgular for burglar

Incorrect articulation

fing for thing

Auditory acuity

What words do children need to learn to spell? We use spelling to write. This is the main reason why children and adults must learn to spell—to write ideas and information for others to read. The words children need to learn are:

• • • •

high-frequency words words they ask for to use in their writing topic words from curriculum areas words they cannot spell.

Teachers can list the words children use in their writing. Sometimes these words are personal family words such as Bruno or Grandpa, and sometimes they follow a particular interest of the child. The teacher who knows the children in the class well knows the personal words required by particular children. The topic words come from the key words used in curriculum planned by the teacher. For example, if the group is enthralled by dinosaurs the teacher will list dinosaur topic words to be learned. Topics can relate to studies in health, society and the environment or mathematics or come from other parts of the curriculum.

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Teaching beginning spellers It is wise to teach the letter names as well as the sound each letter represents.

Some children know how to spell their name and they can easily recognise the letters from their name in other words. Some children use the letter names—Aye, Bee, Cee—and some have learnt the sounds /p/, /d/ and /g/. It is wise to teach the letter names as well as the sound each letter represents. The letter named ‘A’ can represent several sounds as in axe or aunt, and so learning the names is important because they stay the same.

Stages of learning Children learn the sounds the letters represent. They learn what a letter is and how the letters are blended together to make words. In the very early years they learn that there are spaces between words. They explore the relationship between letters, sounds and words. Children learn throughout junior primary to use a simple dictionary to locate words and recall the spelling of difficult words. Word building occurs at each step, but more and more complex word building occurs late in the junior primary years. Children learn compound words such as someone and something. They learn inflected endings such as ‘ed’, ‘ing’, ‘s’ and ‘es’. Teachers show how generalisations work for adding ‘ed’ to words ending in ‘e’ (hope/hoped) where the ‘e’ is retained. They learn that the final consonant is doubled in words that have a short vowel when adding ‘ing’, for example, digging and hopping. They learn homophones like their and there and the meanings of each. They learn to build groups of words from their morphemic bases, for example, baker, baking, bakehouse. And they learn base words plus prefix (unhappy) and base word plus suffix (happily) and inflections that reveal gender, plural and possession (the princess’s books).

Learning about syllables Learning about syllables is important for pronunciation of words that children might look up in dictionaries. Breaking words into syllables can help with understanding how suffixes and prefixes are attached to words. The rules for breaking words into syllables are:

• • •

The number of syllables corresponds with the number of vowel sounds. CV/CV The syllable break is between the first vowel and the second consonant as in the word po/ny. CVC/CVC The syllable divides between the two consonants— car/rot.

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•

Any two-syllable word ending in ‘-le’ is divided between the vowel and the consonant preceding the ‘-le’—ta/ble, can/dle.

When children learn to use the dictionary to locate words, they use the alphabet not just for the first letter but for second and third and fourth letter order. They learn to use guide words and to interpret the definitions in a dictionary. Teachers can pose questions like ‘How is a “haze” like a “mist”?’ so that children explore definition differences.

High-frequency words One way of teaching high-frequency words is to write the words on cardboard foot shapes attached to the floor. When the children come into the room they step on the words and say them. They can also play hopping games and partner games with the words. Some children have fifty or so high-frequency words under control. Figure 12.7 Emergent and early high-frequency word list a after all an and are am as asked at away back be because before big boy but by came can come could

day did do don’t down for from get go going good had has have he her here him his house how I I’m

As well as: • numbers to twenty • name and address of school • months of the year

if in into is it just keep kind know like little look looked long make man mother me my no not now of

old on one or our out over people play put ran run said saw see she so some that the then there they

this three to too two up us very was we went were what when where will with would you your

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Spelling strategies There are several strategies children can use to improve their spelling:

• • • •

phonics look, cover, write, check word building (morphology) mnemonics.

Phonics Phonic generalisations are letter sounds and combinations of letter sounds. While many teachers ask children to sound out the word using phonics, this is not always the most reliable method to use. For example, sounding the word quay does not help find out how to pronounce the word, as it breaks most of the phonic generalisations.

Look–cover–write–check Visual methods of teaching spelling often work best as children learn to recall the visual image of a word. Some useful strategies are look–cover– write–check and building word families. For look–cover–write–check children should:

• • • •

Look—look at the word carefully so they remember it. Find small words in the word. Take a photograph of the word in their mind. Visualise the word. Cover—cover it so it cannot be seen. Write—write the word from memory, maybe spelling the letters and saying the word softly to yourself. Check—check what you have written against the original.

If their attempt was not correct they should go back and start the process again.

Word building (morphology) Word building involves children understanding the structure or the architecture of words, and this is similar to teaching children about base words and suffixes and prefixes. According to Richgels (2004) words often are single morphemes: walk, hand, fast. Some words are composed of more than one morpheme: walked (= walk + past tense), hands (= hand + p lural), faster (= fast + comparative). The same is true of syllables; each

Word work: spelling

syllable of faster is a morpheme, but ran is two morphemes (run + past tense), and each of father, other and water has only one morpheme. Richgels points out that it helps to look for base words and then ask how additional parts alter meanings (teacher = teach + er, where -er means ‘one who does’), but that does not mean that word hunting is productive in understanding the morphology or structure of a word. If children look for little words in big words—for example, teacher—they will find teach, tea, each, ache, he and her, but only the first of those has anything to do with the meaning of teacher. Richgels (p. 473), continues by stating: Teachers need never use the word morpheme with children, but if they know what morphemes are and are not, their teacher talk will be free of misleading overgeneralisations, such as ‘A morpheme is a word’, ‘-er means more’, or ‘To look for words inside of words’. (In a similar manner, teachers who pay attention to phonology will not say that we mark past tense with ‘uhd’; that works for wanted, but not for walked [where the -ed represents /t/] nor for played [where -ed represents /d/].)

Morphemic word families can be lists of words with the same prefixes or suffixes, as well as words made from similar base words. unhappy careless unconstitutional useless unusual hopeless unheard fruitless unseen

Mnemonics Some words are known as spelling demons. They don’t have any phonic patterns or morphemic bases. We can use a mnemonic (from the Greek word mnemonikos) to give a clue in how to spell the word. My pal is the principal Affect has an ‘a’ for action The middle two ‘lls’ are parallels.

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CASE STUDY

A spelling lesson The children are studying animals as a class project. Introduction The teacher explains that there are many new words the class may need in order to complete their project on animals. He has pictures of animals pinned on the blackboard, and they chant an animal poem:

In come the animals, two by two. A hippopotamus and a kangaroo. In come the animals, three by three Two big cats and a bumble bee. In come the animals, four by four Giraffes at the window, and bears at the door. In come the animals, five by five Lions and tigers all started to jive. In come the animals, six by six Wolves and sheep were up to their tricks. Presentation The teacher lists approximately ten animal names on the blackboard, and points out any morphemic bases or sound–symbol relationships in the words.

hippopotamus kangaroo wolf rhinoceros giraffe bear lioness

elephant deer lion tiger

For example, lioness has the same morphemic base as lion, and giraffe has a soft ‘g’ sound. There are several consonant digraphs and vowel digraphs. The children are taught the spelling strategy look–cover–write–check. For each word, the children look, the teacher covers the word then the children write, then check the word. Practice A board game for each group of children invites them to use look–cover–write– check as they practise spelling the animals’ names. Feedback The teacher walks around providing feedback to each child on the words they are writing. Alternatively, partners can give each other a spelling quiz to see if the words have been learned.

Word work: spelling

Spelling and activities There are many spelling games and activities that can be used to help children to learn to spell (see Chapter 11 for details on these). For example:

• • • • • • • •

Wordo can be used to integrate spelling and reading practice Closed word sorts can focus on spelling plural endings Open word sorts can be used for understanding compound words Mystery word matches help children to understand inflections Word sorts could focus on changing final ‘y’ to ‘i’ Word trees can help children to understand base/root words Interactive word wall can develop understandings of common prefixes Content-word boards/word notebooks are useful for vocabulary growth

Chapter summary We use spelling to write. This is the main reason why children and adults must learn to spell—to write ideas and information for others to read. The words children need to learn are high-frequency words, words they ask for to use in their writing, topic words from curriculum areas and words they cannot spell. When children begin to spell they say the word mentally to themselves. Then they break off the first phoneme from the rest of the word, mentally sort through a repertoire of letters to find one to match the phoneme, write down the letter decided upon, recite the word again in their mind, recall the phoneme they have just spelled, subtract it from the word, and locate the next phoneme to be spelled, match the phoneme with a letter of the alphabet, and so on, until all the phonemes are spelled. Spelling for emergent readers and writers takes a great deal of effort until a bank of high-frequency words are learned. Assessing children’s spelling provides the teacher with information about what to teach. The errors can be analysed to find out what spelling strategies the child may be using. Children need to use a range of strategies to spell from look–cover–write–check to phonics, word building and, for the words that take special effort, mnemonics or memory triggers.

Websites to explore http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/660/01/ This website has lots of words that have similar spelling but different meanings. Spelling of common words that sound alike e.g, accept and except

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CHAPTER 13

The development of writing

‘Can you read, Pooh?’ [Owl] asked a little anxiously. ‘There’s a notice about knocking and ringing outside my door, which Christopher Robin wrote. Could you read it?’ ‘Christopher Robin told me what it said, and then I could.’ ‘Well, I’ll tell you what this says, and then you’ll be able to.’ So Owl wrote … and this is what he wrote: HIPY PAPY BTHUTHDTH THUTHDA BTHUTHDY Pooh looked on admiringly. ‘I’m just saying “A Happy Birthday”,’ said Owl carelessly. ‘It’s a nice long one,’ said Pooh, very much impressed by it. ‘Well, actually, of course, I’m saying “A Very Happy Birthday with love from Pooh.” Naturally it takes a good deal of pencil to say a long thing like that.’

(The World of Pooh)

When children begin writing, they can tell more complex stories than they can write. This is because learning to write—to represent language in written symbols—involves learning to use a pencil, to hold it properly and create letters, words and sentences to convey meaning to others. If we start at the beginning of children’s writing we can better understand the reasons for the inventions children make as they learn to write. Alex, aged 5, pointed to her writing that looked something like this:

CGYvjsh She read:

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Once there was a girl called Josie. It was her day. It was her birthday. Her father said, ‘It’s time to do the dishes, Josie.’ Josie had a very frustrated face as she saved the last present. It was a most peculiar shaped present. Then after breakfast she opened it up. She said, ‘Just what I’ve always wanted.’ She went into her bedroom and put her toys all in a row and said,

The development of writing

‘Abracadabra, make the toys go in a merry circle.’ But when she opened her eyes the toys were still in a line. The language in Alex’s imaginative narrative oral story is different from her everyday spoken language. The vocabulary and syntax of her story match that of the story books that have been read aloud to her. What is most staggeringly different is the variation in spoken and written language, the difference between what young 3-, 4- and 5-year-old children can say and what they can write. It seems as though the mechanics— forming the letters, writing them without reversals, getting the spelling right, writing in lines from left to right, making a written word correspond to a spoken word and holding the pencil—all combine to make a great learning feat.

Spoken and written language When young children begin writing, they learn that there are differences between the language they speak and the language they write down.

Spoken language In spoken language, the meanings are often implicit and rely on context, such as the use of gestures: ‘It’s over there, no, there’ [pointing]. The tone of voice also provides meaning, for example, anger, exasperation or sarcasm in the tone of ‘I’m waiting for you’. The stress or emphasis on p articular words will affect the meaning. For example, saying these sentences out loud with an emphasis on different words will lead to different meanings: Where have you been? Where have you been? Where have you been? Where have you been? Facial expression can affect the meaning of spoken words, for e xample, in the sentence, ‘No, I’m not upset’. Spoken language, in contrast to written language, contains many more conjunctions such as and, then and but, and also many more pronouns: he, we, they and she.

Written language In written language, the context is usually included and the meanings have to be made explicit, for example, in the sentence, ‘The large book was on the table in the hall.’ This would have to be a written sentence, as rarely would a person provide such detailed information in spoken language when ‘It’s over there’, with a gesture would probably suffice.

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In written English, punctuation, word order, simile and metaphor are used to provide meaning. The use of figurative language such as metaphors and similes is used to compare and link ideas to other objects. This can provide rich descriptions but also can make meanings hard to understand. Examples of figurative language include: ‘I’m waiting for you,’ she snapped, like an angry sergeant major. He was a bear of a man. Written language is organised into words, sentences and paragraphs, and the features of written language need to be made clear and explicit to children.

The early development of writing Most children go through predictable stages in learning to write. When young Alex began to write she represented ideas in drawing. Then she tried cursive writing (calling it scribble may underestimate children’s attempts at adult writing). Marie Clay calls repetitive squiggles and lines the recurring principle. The following examples are ways children discover how to write English.

The sign principle The sign principle develops when children realise that letters and symbols stand for something. Most 3-year-olds can associate the McDonald’s golden arches with a hamburger. Children understand that a drawing of a cat represents a cat. Then they learn that the printed word cat has none of the features of an actual cat.

The flexibility principle Next children realise that some letters are allowable and some are not. The symbol < is not a letter, but ‘T’ is. This is known as the flexibility principle. They may experiment with letters such as: e∉

∈∑E≡

Children also learn that the same letter can be written in several ways:

A a a and G g g

The development of writing

The linear principle Linear principles of directionality are quite complex to grasp. Children learn that English is written from left to right in lines that go across the page. Sometimes children are so engrossed in forming one letter that this takes over and they write this letter all over the page. Figure 13.1Â Writing from left to right

Spaces between words Many children are puzzled about where one word ends and another begins. Temple, Nathan and Burris (1982), in The Beginnings of Writing, point out that a book on architecture speaks of positive and negative space in building design. Positive space is what you put in, negative space is what you leave out. The space left between words is negative spaceâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;something left out. Many children like to put a full stop into spaces because the concept of leaving out or leaving a blank space is so difficult. Figure 13.2Â Learning about spaces between words

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Stages in children’s writing Children begin to write in literate societies by imitating the adults they see writing lists and notes, and using computers. They begin by exploring writing through play, making pretend marks on a piece of paper. There is a form of developmental continuum for playing with drawing, with an increasing number of symbols, to writing narrative and exploratory texts to convey a message. Researchers have described developmental stages of writing (Sulzby & Teale 1986) and most agree that although there are stages, they are not well defined or sequential. The following are some of the features that may be observed in stages of writing from beginning to extended writing.

Beginning writing The child might use drawing to communicate a message and then read out the message in the drawing. Writing can occur in large circle shapes or in scribble-like lines that may proceed from left to right. The child is exploring the writing they have observed when adults write in a flowing cursive form in a continuous line. Sometimes numbers and some letter shapes may appear as individual symbols. Figure 13.3 Beginning writing

Early-emergent writing In early-emergent writing, children explore the use of symbols—either drawings or letters—to represent words. The separation of pictures and letter symbols is an amazing leap in development. In the following example of early-emergent writing the teacher in the preschool had been talking about Australian animals. This child has drawn an echidna and represented the sounds in the word echidna with the letters ‘e’ and ‘k’. The child displays an understanding of directionality and placement of picture and text on a page and probably understands the concept of a written word as a separate entity.

The development of writing

Figure 13.4 Early-emergent writing

Emergent writing In emergent writing, the child begins to create more letter-like shapes. There may be spaces between the letters, and letters begin to represent sounds in words such as ‘lIk’ for like and ‘PPL’ for people. The child may begin to use sequences of letters like those in their own name. Sometimes there will be strings of repeated letters, as the child refines the way the letters are made. The writing may appear in lines from left to right. Figure 13.5 Emergent writing

Early writing In early writing, children continue to create or invent spellings of words. In invented spelling, a letter may represent a syllable such as in bcos. Children often repeat phrases and sentences as if they were practising or building confidence with what they already know. The difference between capital and lower-case letters is apparent, and spacing between words becomes consistent. Many children like to copy words in sentences as they explore their understanding of the concepts of written language, letters, words and sentences. Children know that there are different forms or genres of writing, for example, narratives and information texts.

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Figure 13.6Â Early writing

Transitional writing In transitional writing, the volume of writing increases and there may be many repetitive sentences and phrasesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;quantity not quality becomes apparent. The plots in narrative writing may be episodic and finding a satisfactory ending might be a challenge. Punctuation is well developed. Figure 13.7Â Transitional writing

Extending writing In extending writing, there is punctuation and the writing resembles that of an adult. Spelling is accurate most of the time. Children learn to use different text types that are appropriate to different audiences, for example a

The development of writing

narrative with direct speech to tell a story, a report about information, an argument to persuade someone to a particular point of view. Figure 13.8 Extending writing

How reading and writing support each other The relationship between reading and writing has been explored by many researchers. There have been many studies exploring how writing influences reading and how reading influences writing.

How writing influences reading When young children invent temporary spellings in writing they develop insights into letter–sound relationships as they grapple with various print conventions. They further explore these same relationships in books as they ‘read like a writer’ (Smith 1983), noticing and pointing out various spellings and conventions of print. Writing was viewed as the foundation of reading by Durkin (1989) and Montessori (1914). Most research on early writing and reading views the two processes as developing in concert as children use contextual, visual and auditory cues to decipher their own writing and then they transfer these strategies to the books they are learning to read.

How reading influences writing Reading influences children’s writing in several ways, as children tend to produce the structures and language features of the texts they read. Their written stories can include dedication pages, illustrations, dots to indicate continuing events, and formulaic endings (Dahl & Farnan 1998).

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Clay writes about the importance of working in an economical way where the teacher uses the child’s knowledge of reading or writing, to use either activity to support the other, for example: Text:

My Mother Likes Me.

Child (reading): My mother cooks me … (looking at the teacher) I don’t know that word.

Writing and reading do support each other and it is a two-way process …

Teacher:

(recalling the child’s writing from the day before) Yes, you do. Write it.

Child:

(starts to write l-i …) Oh! Likes.

(Clay 1998, p. 136)

Writing and reading do support each other and it is a two-way process where both shed light on each other. As Clay suggests: What is being learned in beginning reading overlaps with, and informs, what is being learned in beginning writing if it is allowed to do so. When a new entrant ‘finds’ the two letters he or she knows how to write are in his new reading book, the construction of common knowledge resources about print for literacy learning is already under way (1998, p. 135).

Writing informs reading because when young children are writing they engage in a slow analysis of what they are saying and how this is to be represented in written form. Even the careful writing of a name gives the child time to attend to the order in which the letters are placed, how the letters are placed next to each other, the idea of writing across from left to right, and the spaces between words. When writing, children are refining their developing knowledge of phonology and how sounds in language can be represented, for example ‘t’ or ‘ed’ in jumped. Writing forces their attention on the similarities and differences between the features of letters and words, and this does not occur in the quick visual scanning of words to read. If children write about topics that interest them and they have choices about what to write, then they have to select the letters and words to communicate their meaning. This is an activity which forces children to select words and choose letters carefully, based on their knowledge of the letter features. This is a more meaningful and useful activity than repetitive worksheets designed for children to identify letters. Many beginning readers like to copy out the emergent texts from first reading books, taking words from one medium and making them their own in their own written language. Sometimes children choose to make these little books because they are interested in puzzling out the relationships between letters, sounds, words and sentences. Sometimes they are interested in the layout and the illustrations and how these work in books. Teachers can keep records of what children read and how this is later represented in their writing. Both processes seem to feed off each other.

The development of writing

Reading and writing are reciprocal processes because they bounce off each other. Children can self-correct in writing to achieve the meaning they seek. They self-correct in reading in the same way to get meaning. Children use letters, words and sentences in both processes and they compare and contrast what they read with what they write.

Assessing writing Children’s writing provides a window into their thinking and problemsolving.

Children’s writing provides a window into their thinking and problemsolving. Drawing can also provide insights into the child’s knowledge of layout, book format and spatial awareness. When children begin to write as well as read, they are making links between speaking, writing and reading. Clay (2001) writes that when children read and write concurrently these activities help them to attend quite analytically to the oral language they already use. Before school, reading and writing have rather independent lives but they are most interactive at the point where instruction begins in school. For about two years they appear to share a great deal of common ground (Clay 2001, p. 17).

Early attempts to approximate writing provide valuable experiences for children. Fountas and Pinnell (1996) write: ‘At first, they scribble, produce letter-like forms, strings of letters, or their names and a few other words.’ As children’s knowledge of written language develops, they learn some high-frequency words by sight and construct other words through their knowledge of letters and sounds. Through writing they are learning to use the written symbols and how written language works. Teachers can use a range of assessment tools to collect data in order to analyse and understand children’s reading and writing development.

Assessing emergent and early writing There are three main elements to look for when assessing the very beginnings of writing: written language, ideas and text conventions. Use the Emergent and early writing assessment sheet (Figure 13.9) for assessing a sample of a child’s writing at the emergent or early phase. The teacher selects the number from 1–6 in each category that best represents the child’s writing. For example, in the category Written language, if a child writes a simple sentence, 4 is recorded. If there are several sentences then 5 is recorded. Only one number is recorded in each category. The sheet may be photocopied and placed in the child’s assessment portfolio to show progress.

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Written language In the early stages of writing, the language covers what the child knows about letters, words and sentences. Children may write lists of letters and words without spaces. At this stage any recognisable letters would score 1 point, a recognisable word 2 points and so on.

Ideas The ideas in writing score a point if the child comments that the writing says something. It may be a sign placed by a drawing or the beginning of a written name. The notion here is that the writing conveys an idea or ownership. Later the child may copy some letters or words to convey an idea and later still the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own ideas will be recorded.

Text conventions Text conventions have to do with placement and directionality. At first, children learn to write from left to right. There might not be spaces between words but the writing takes a direction. Soon children learn the return sweep and move from left to right down the page. Spaces are used between words and there is attention to punctuation such as full stops and capital letters (which may be random so donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t count these), and some children begin to use commas and question marks. At this stage, some children begin to proofread and edit their work.

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The development of writing

Figure 13.9 Emergent and early writing assessment sheet

Emergent and early writing assessment sheet Name_______________________________ Date_______________ Written language 1 Letters only 2 Word with spaces 3 Two-word phrases 4 Simple sentence 5 Several sentences with punctuation 6 Paragraph

Written Language 1

Ideas 1 Concept that signs create a message 2 Concept that writing conveys a message 3 Copies writing 4 Uses sentences such as ‘I like…’ 5 Records own ideas in a sentence 1 6 Composes several ideas Text conventions 1 Directionality left to right 2 Return sweep top to bottom 3 Spaces between words and lines 4 Punctuation used appropriately 5 Spelling, punctuation, capitalisation is checked 6 Revising, editing and checking for flow and meaning of the text Written Language Ideas Text Conventions

1 1 1

2 2 2

Ideas 2

Text Conventions 1 3 3 3

3 4 4 4

4 5 5 5

6 6 6 6

Based on Clay 2002, Kemp 1987

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Figure 13.10 Emergent writing (example 1)

Example 1 shows emergent writing and the following scores: Written language

1 2 3 4 5 6

Ideas

1 2 3 4 5 6

Text conventions

1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 13.11 Emergent writing (example 2)

To Lady Diana I am 6 Lady Diana the Queen didn’t like the bikini top Kristina C Example 2 shows development in writing and the following scores: Written language

1 2 3 4 5 6

Ideas

1 2 3 4 5 6

Text conventions

1 2 3 4 5 6

The development of writing

Assessing more complex writing When children have developed beyond simple statements in writing, and their writing is organised with a plot in narratives or sections about main ideas in information texts, then a more complex form of scoring writing can be used. Use the More complex writing assessment sheet (Figure 13.12) when assessing a sample of a child’s writing at the transitional writing phase and beyond. In this assessment sheet the child receives a summary score from 1–5 for each category: Ideas, Organisation, Language and Mechanics. The summary scores are then added to make a total score for the writing. If the child’s total score is below 10 then use the previous Emergent and early writing assessment sheet (Figure 13.9). The sheet may be photocopied and placed in the child’s assessment portfolio to show progress during the year.

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Figure 13.12 More complex writing assessment sheet

More complex writing assessment sheet Name_____________________________________ Date_______________________ Scoring: 1 never; 2 sometimes; 3 half the time; 4 mostly; 5 always 1. Ideas The ideas are original and interesting. The writing is worth reading. There is a good storyline in a narrative and a logical series of events or linked ideas in information texts. 2. Organisation The ideas are well organised. There is a clear structure in the text. There is a sequence of ideas. There is an introduction and a conclusion. The organisation of the writing fits the particular genre. 3. Language There is a variety of different sentence lengths. There is a mixture of simple and complex sentences. The vocabulary is appropriate. The language fits the particular genre: more scientific language for information texts and descriptive language for fiction. Facts are checked for accuracy. 4. Mechanics Most punctuation forms are used. Spelling is correct. Paragraphing of ideas is occurring. There is evidence of editing and revising. The writing is readable. Total score

Interpretation

Below 10: use previous Emergent and early writing assessment sheet (Fig 13.9) 10–12: fair 13–16: showing good progress 17–20: showing excellent development

Score (1–5)

The development of writing

Developing understanding of the writing process The different text types and genres read by children can act as models for them to follow when they create new texts. The writing process takes place in a social context and the support and feedback provided by the teacher and peers play an important role. Dysonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1991) work suggests that young children face many tensions between their imaginations and experiences (the world they know) and the written conventions required to communicate their meanings (the world). Young writers experiment with the symbol systems and ways of representing meaning as they are learning the forms and functions of written language. They are particularly concerned about what their friends will say about their work. The tensions between the symbolic form and social function and the self and others are at play when children write. The particular aspects of the composing process involve the following: preparation time where ideas are gathered and selected, organising the ideas, drafting, revision and proofreading, and publishing. The process of writing can be demonstrated when the teacher models writing, in shared writing and guided writing and in independent writing.

Selecting ideas The writing that the children do, whether it be shared writing with the teacher or guided writing, begins with thinking about the message or idea that needs to be communicated. If the composition is to be a letter, then the form will be important. If the children are going to compose a fairytale, whether it will be a play or a book can also be discussed. The function or purpose of the writing affects the genre that is selected.

Organising the ideas If the composition is to be a report on pets, because this is a topic of interest, then the structure of the report needs to be discussed. To begin, the class could brainstorm all the kinds of pets and organise them into categories. If the composition is a letter inviting people to visit the classroom, then the format of an invitation should be modelled and used.

Drafting Many teachers show children how to write a draft version of the text. Writing multiple drafts may be boring for young children, so the idea to focus on is getting the ideas down and then proofreading and changing the text later.

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Revision and proofreading Some children revise words as they go and, in time, learn to revise the whole text. Sometimes new words will be suggested or children may want to add an additional adjective.

Publishing For many beginning writers, the completion of the piece of writing has taken a lot of concentrated work. Many teachers think that, at the emergent and early stage, as long as there are no spelling or syntax errors, this is sufficient. Insisting on a perfect finished product each time may interfere with children’s enthusiasm for writing. Publishing does not mean that only the teacher will read the piece. It means the writing is to be shared with other readers. Publishing means creating books, displaying writing on display boards, placing the work in newsletters, showing parents and reading it to other classes.

Response and evaluation The response and evaluation is the feedback a writer gets from readers. ‘I liked the ending you wrote’, ‘Those ideas were clear’ and ‘You made me laugh’ are such responses. Evaluation can also include comments on aspects of the written product like the ideas or information, organisation of the piece, language used and the mechanics such as handwriting, spelling, layout, punctuation and grammar.

The development of writing

Punctuation, grammar and handwriting It is important for children to learn about punctuation, grammar and handwriting as their writing must be read and understood by other people. The styles of punctuation and grammar are changing and local authorities have guidelines for preschools and schools. The glossary (page 438) includes an explanation of some punctuation and grammatical terms.

Chapter summary Children learn before they go to school that writing is different from spoken language. Written language is highly decontextualised. When writing begins, children experiment with written symbols and drawing. Their writing progresses through many phases from beginning, earlyemergent, emergent, early, transitional and extending. Writing influences children’s reading as children have to slow down and think about written symbols when they are writing, and this helps them apply the symbols when they are reading. Teachers can assess children’s writing for ideas and print conventions and, based on what children can do, plan the writing program in response to this. As children’s writing develops, they begin to proofread, revise and edit and they become aware of punctuation, grammar and handwriting.

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CHAPTER 14

Teaching children to write

How do I know what I think until I see what I say. I am the world’s greatest rewriter. To write simply is as difficult as to be good.

E M Forster

James A Michener

W Somerset Maugham

Many well-known writers have commented on the writing process, pointing out that writing is a way of thinking and that writing for others to read takes a great deal of rewriting so that the message is effective (see Murray 1968, pp. 230–45). Young children at 3 and 4 years of age engage in serious authorship of books of various genres. They write information texts and narratives, and the teacher plays an important role, often sitting side-by-side with the young author, discussing their writing (Wood & Glover 2008). The teacher is vitally important in teaching writing in the years before school. Coker (2006) found that the effectiveness of the teacher in the very first year of school had an impact on children’s later writing quality and output. We write for ourselves and others, and for many different purposes: to communicate ideas, to create stories, to organise information, to make lists and notes. In the following case study, a teacher teaches writing with a real-life purpose.

CASE STUDY

Writing for authentic purposes In the classroom, the 5-, 6- and 7-year-olds with the help of their teacher, Mandy, had listed all the jobs in the classroom on a chart—and declared them vacant. Twenty classroom jobs—such as checking off the names of children attending, carrying the lunch money to the canteen, taking the green box to the library, emptying the rubbish bin, chairing the class meeting—were declared available for the children to apply for. This process of declaring all classroom jobs vacant,

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inviting children to make a formal application and then selecting people for jobs

Teaching children to write

was part of a post-school options program where young children were learning about the links between school, work and leisure. The class was a mix of Australian-born children and children newly arrived from Vietnam, Cambodia, Chile, El Salvador, the former Yugoslavia, Italy, Greece, Russia, Thailand and the Philippines. The teachers at the school have developed a c urriculum that encourages children to be enterprising, and this includes the development of communication skills, problem-solving and decision-making. The curriculum links to the community, as the process of creating and getting a job is an important idea in the local area and it is something that the children hear their parents speaking about. To begin the job application process, Mandy and the class listed all the everyday jobs they could think of. Some jobs had previously been done by Mandy or one or two children. When all the jobs were listed, Mandy talked about her own teaching job applications and the times she had been successful and the times not. She showed the children an application for a job that she had written and this acted as a model for the children. Then Mandy explained the features of the application—previous experience, skills and knowledge—and in doing this she described her previous experiences, the skills she had developed which made her suited to the job and her knowledge. Then in shared writing the class constructed a letter applying for the job of roll caller—checking off the attendance of children by calling their names. The features of an application were discussed again—previous experience, skills and knowledge. At this time it was also decided that each person’s job application would be read and selection made by a panel of the children’s peers in the classroom.

Dear selection panel, I wish to apply for the job of roll caller. I have experience in reading the share chart aloud and can call out names. My skills are a loud voice and I also can speak in different languages. I have knowledge of the class and I know people’s names. Yours sincerely Then it was time for each child to decide on what their particular strengths were and what job they really wanted. They wrote individual applications. The class selected a panel of their peers to read the applications and select the best person for the job. The panel of four was selected by secret vote on the basis of a speech delivered to the class.

‘There were four people on the panel. The class had to choose two boys and two girls. We had a panel because it wouldn’t be fair if the teacher chose the children for the jobs because she wouldn’t know what the children think.’ (Ella, 7)

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‘The people who wanted to go on the panel had to say how they would be fair and wouldn’t choose their friends. They would choose people who were responsible.’ (Sean, 7) ‘The panel had to go away when their name was up for a job. The panel read the applications and they had a big pile of ‘No’ and a little pile.’ (Vaddhana, 6) Rachel (7) was on the panel and said she felt good for the people who got the job they wanted but bad for those who didn’t.

‘Vu had to apply three times for three different jobs, maths equipment, the roll and the leader. We had to talk to Vu to help him and give him more ideas for his application. He needed to include more information.’ Rachel and Sean both applied for the job of roll caller. The panel made the decision to give the job to a boy because a girl had it last time. All the applications were accompanied by references. Children had to think of the job they were applying for and who knew them well enough to write a positive reference. The deputy principal and principal were often selected because they had high status in the school, but the children’s parents and grandparents also wrote character references.

11 February To Whom It May Concern, I have known Patrick Smith for the past year and have found him to be a responsible member of the class with exceptional balance and coordination. Patrick has proven he has the skills not only to lift the ‘Green Box’ but also to carry it to its identified destination. I have no hesitation in recommending him for the position of ‘Green Box Carrier’. Sally M. Principal Some children got a reference from their parents.

To whom it may concern, I have known Patrick his whole life. Patrick has shown that he is responsible and caring. He is a quick learner. He knows the days of the week and would be able to remember the days when he had to carry the green box. I recommend him for the position. Signed Patrick’s Dad

Teaching children to write

Vygotsky states ‘that writing should be meaningful to children, that an intrinsic need should be aroused in them, and that writing should be incorporated into a task that is necessary and relevant for life’ (1978, p. 118). In the classroom jobs project, the children were learning about the importance of written language for the purposes of writing a job application. The teacher showed them a model of a real job application and discussed the features of the genre. The children then jointly constructed a job application and, with these examples, they were able to write their own application independently. This is an example of the teacher providing maximum support and, with modelled, shared and guided writing, the child being able to take full control (see Figure 4.1). As well as writing a job application, the children were learning about creating jobs, applying for jobs, choosing referees, selecting panels of peers, delivering speeches and listening critically to these, dealing with rejection, the politics of panel selection, justice, fairness and leadership.

Writing and multimodal literacies Many teachers find that children enjoy writing with computer software programs. Programs such as PhotoStory and PowerPoint provide a mode for children to publish their writing. In the examples in Figure 14.1, children in the first year of school conducted research on endangered animals using books and the internet. Working in pairs, they selected a specific endangered animal and made brief notes about the animal and why it was endangered. They also downloaded photographs and illustrated particular information about endangered animals. The written text is a report about snow leopards, published in PowerPoint for other children to read. The teacher carefully scaffolded each step, modelling the writing process, through shared writing, guided writing and finally independent writing. Figure 14.1 An example of a multimodal text

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Teaching strategies This chapter focuses on the major teaching strategies teachers can use to promote writing with children: modelled writing, shared writing, guided writing, independent writing and language experience. Figure 14.2 Major teaching strategies for writing Strategy Features Modelled writing

• • • •

Teacher selects teaching point/s relevant to the learning needs of the children. Teacher holds the pen or demonstrates from a book or other text type. Teacher makes explicit the thinking process involved in a selected aspect of writing a text. Children observe the writing process in action.

Shared writing

• • • • •

Guided writing

• • • •

Independent writing

• The children choose the topic and write independently.

Language experience

• • • •

Teacher responds to the writing ideas generated by the children. Teacher holds the pen and acts as a scribe. Sometimes children are invited to share the pen in more interactive writing. Teacher and children share the planning and decision-making needed to construct the text. This is a collaborative process between the teacher and children, and children and children. The teacher assumes more than an equal role in which she enables children to develop and organise ideas. • Teacher provides guidance and the children’s discussion contributes to a growing awareness and understanding of what writing is about. Small group or individual instruction. This is the writing conference in action. It is a short teaching mini lesson. Children hold the pen and do the writing.

The teacher scribes the text for the children. The teacher and children discuss an event or experience. Children may engage in drawing to help focus thoughts. Children are encouraged to attempt some of the writing—they make attempts at the easy parts. • Teacher records the harder parts for the children. • The emphasis is to put ‘a press’ on the children’s language.

Teaching children to write

Teacher modelling The teacher selects a text based on her knowledge of the children—what they know and what they need to know about texts. If the class is exploring narrative, a big book using a narrative structure might be used. The class may want to explore information texts about the weather, and the structure of an information report will be important. The text used as a model will most often be a big book. The teacher reads the text aloud. In modelled writing the teacher takes a piece of paper and tapes it to the board or a big-book stand, and then models the technique they want to teach. For example, when modelling ways to begin a personal recount, a teacher might say: ‘What will I write? I know, I’ll write about the time I thought I’d won the lottery but the newspaper made an error in printing the numbers. How will I begin? A lead? What lead would grab the reader? I’ll try a few. “It was the best of times and the worst of times”. No it’s too well known. “Now is the winter of our discontent …” Heard it before. Ummmmm. “Good times, bad times, mostly I have in-between times except for June 11, 1991… You won! My stomach sank to the footpath when I heard.” Which lead works best?’ Teachers model the process of writing, talking aloud about the decisions they can make to improve the information, organisation and ideas in a piece of writing. The mechanics such as spelling, syntax and punctuation are also revised. Modelled writing can cover teaching forms, genres, appropriateness of writing for various audiences and aspects of written products, for instance:

• • • • • • • •

ideas organisation language features mechanics how to polish a piece for publication ways to learn from others like giving positive feedback seeking help, maintaining a positive self-concept, ways to write collaboratively roles to play like editor, publisher, recorder, layout and designer.

Shared and interactive writing Shared and interactive writing involve the children as participants in the writing process. In shared writing the teacher holds the pen and the children are invited to contribute ideas for the writing. In interactive writing the teacher and the students share the pen, both participating in constructing the text. If the class focus is narrative then the interactive writing will be writing a

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arrative together. The teacher might ask, ‘What will we write first?’ ‘Who n are the characters?’, and then choose one child to write the opening sentence. ‘What will the problem be?’ The teacher might select a problem and write this section. The children then take turns to write the next sentence, or just a word. The composing process involves creative work on: preparation time, where ideas are gathered and selected; organising the ideas, drafting and revision; and proofreading and publishing. This is a dynamic and creative process with the teacher and children sharing the pen, and the teacher needs to carefully select the children who write, and choose when to step in, or when to let the children go as writing takes over. The strategies a teacher uses in shared book reading have an impact on shared writing (Louden et al. 2005). In interactive writing where the children share the pen, Craig (2006) found that there were increased benefits in word identification, passage comprehension and word-reading development. In this adapted interactive writing procedure, the children constructed, with the teacher, a meaningful text on a large chart and then engaged in word building. The creation of the negotiated text led to multiple read-alouds and discussion. In the word-building activities the children were encouraged to write words and engage in analysis of the word into phonemes, and to match phonemes with letters. The interactive writing supported children’s invented and conventional spellings and also provided a rich context for developing the phonological awareness and alphabetic knowledge necessary for beginning reading.

Guided writing Guided writing involves the children writing in pairs, small groups or as individuals. It may be where children complete small sections of a whole-class project such as writing a scene in a play that will later be put together with other scenes as a whole-class production. It could be a small-group article to go into a larger school newspaper. Children could be completing writing begun in interactive writing. They might use writing frames, which act as an important scaffold for writing a range of texts.

Independent writing Independent writing is where children write on topics of their choice, perhaps in journals as responses to texts or experiences. Independent writing is where the child writes with little support from the teacher.

Language experience In the language experience approach to writing (see page 92), children create texts composed from their own oral language. Children first dictate

Teaching children to write

a story about a personal experience to the teacher who acts as a scribe and writes it down. The teacher reads the story back to the children and then gives them the opportunity to read it themselves. Children may illustrate—either before the text is written or after the teacher writes the story. Teachers often compile a book or a class book of language experience stories. Language experience is based on the following principles: • What I can think I can say. • What I can say can be written down by myself or others • What is written down can be read by me and by others. Figure 14.3 Independent writing

CASE STUDY

Little Red Riding Hood The teacher wanted to explore reading and writing a narrative. She chose Little Red Riding Hood, a folk tale that most of the children had heard before. Gather texts about the topic The children were asked to find as many versions as possible of the Little Red Riding Hood story and these were displayed in the classroom and shared in buddy reading. They read Red Riding Hood by J Marshall (1987, Dial), Red Riding Hood by K Grahame (1983, Dial) and Ruby by M Emberley (1990, Little, Brown). Select a text to read aloud The teacher chose Little Red, a big-book version of the story in play format. The plan was to explore the narrative structure in folk tales and then to have children write their own version of the story.

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Read a text model The teacher read the book aloud, and the features of the text were discussed. The teacher pointed out the play script features:

• • • • • •

the characters are listed at the beginning of the play characters’ names are written on the left side of the page the lines they read are written alongside the character’s name the use of direct speech in the dialogue the characters’ use of short pieces of dialogue to keep the plot moving the role of the narrator.

Read and write about the text features After reading the book Little Red the teacher used shared writing to create a retelling or summary of the narrative. She wrote:

Little Red Riding Hood Once upon a time Little Red Riding Hood went to visit her grandmother who was sick. On the way she met a wolf. The wolf pretended to be Little Red Riding Hood’s grandmother. In the end Little Red Riding Hood tricked the wolf and he ran away. As the teacher wrote, she talked aloud about the beginning with ‘Once upon a time…’, the characters, and the problem and solution. Next, in order to work further with the narrative structure of the story the teacher asked the children to brainstorm the sequence of the plot. First they did this in a circle and then in a simple storyboard.

Little Red Riding Hood leaves home Meets the wolf Wolf tricks Little Red Riding Hood Red Riding Hood tricks the wolf The narrative features were talked about and from the examples of how a narrative plot works, the teacher made a chart for the children to refer to. Narrative Beginning

Problem Resolution

The purpose of a narrative is to entertain, to teach or to extend the reader’s imagination The beginning describes: when where who what may happen The problem involves the main character(s) finding ways to solve the problem(s) In the resolution the loose ends are tied up and the characters usually get what they deserve

Teaching children to write

The children reread several versions of the Little Red Riding Hood story and checked the narrative features against the different texts. Interactive writing The teacher and children decided to create a new play version of Little Red Riding Hood. The teacher talked about the narrative features of beginning, problem and ending. They discussed the problem that Little Red Riding Hood faces—that the wolf tricks her by disguising himself as Little Red Riding Hood’s grandmother. The children decided to write the story as a play that they could perform. They used the narrative features as well as the features of a play script with the list of characters, the narrator’s role and comments about stage production. They talked about whether they would include everyone in the class, and so there was a chorus, music and prop people as well as the actors. It was decided that the class would divide into groups and create different versions of the play. The text was created on a large chart with the teacher and the children sharing the pen.

LITTLE BLUE HOOD Characters Little Blue Hood Bad Bear Mother Grandmother Goldilocks Rapunzel The Wicked Prince Narrator From the beginning, the teacher talked about what kind of text was being created. She invited the children to think ahead about what each character would do in the play and how the ending would be resolved. This is where the concept of reading like a writer is important, as the whole class read, revised, edited and reread as they worked together on the script. The complete script was not done in interactive writing, as the teacher suggested that small groups and individuals might like to finish their own version of the play and perform it for others. Guided writing In small groups the next day, the children wrote, read and edited the script with the support of the teacher who circled between the groups. The script was then typed up so that different small groups had their own copies. Follow-up ideas These suggestions are based on the four roles of a reader and writer (see Chapter 8):

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Day three: Create character posters, illustrating the characters and writing words to describe their physical appearance and behaviour. Day four: Rehearse the script in groups so the text is performed as a readers’ theatre. Some children make puppets to use in a puppet play version. Day five:

Code breaker focus where children analyse the grammar in texts written as a story and text written as a play. (For example, in a play the dialogue is present tense and in a story version the text is often in past tense.)

Play Story go went am was stop stopped Day six:

Advertisements for the readers’ theatre performance are posted. The children create versions of Little Blue Hood from magazines using cut-out heads and crayon and pencil bodies. Some children use computer software to create the special fonts for the posters.

Day seven: Rehearsals Day eight: Performance

The writing conference The writing conference is a way for the teacher to help a child improve their writing during guided and independent writing. There are several kinds of writing conference: individual conference, group conference and publishing conference.

Individual conferences At times, the teacher may move around the classroom conferencing with children as they go. Donald Graves, in the book Writing: Teachers and Children at Work (1983), suggests that three kinds of questions can be asked in all kinds of writing conferences.

Opening questions

• • • •

‘What’s that piece about?’ ‘How did you get started?’ ‘What is your favourite part?’ ‘Why are you writing that?’

Teaching children to write

Following questions Paraphrase what the child says so you encourage them to supply more information: ‘You said it was about your cat who was trapped in the tree?’, ‘So your brother made a mistake and called the police instead of the ambulance?’

Process questions These are designed to help the children think through the work done so far and where they will go next.

• • • •

‘What do you think you’ll do next?’ ‘Can you think of a different way to say that?’ ‘What questions do you have now?’ ‘Does the ending suit the introductory lead?’

Eventually the writer learns to use these questions to self-conference without relying on the teacher, asking questions like:

• • •

‘Where will I go now?’ ‘Is this believable?’ ‘Does this sound like someone speaking?’

Group conferences Group conferences can take place when a group of children have a similar problem or the teacher wants to teach an aspect of writing to the whole class. One of the best ways to do this is to demonstrate or model the writing process. When children read and critique each other’s writing they will imitate the teacher’s attitudes, so remembering to focus on the writing and not the person is important. Teachers might say, ‘I liked the part where the car was speeding, but I couldn’t understand the second part’. Always focus on the strengths first before giving critical feedback, and take care not to criticise the person by making comments like ‘You always write in a sloppy way’. This does not give the writer specific information about ways to improve, as opposed to a positive response like ‘Your revisions provided more information about the character and his motives’ or ‘That lead sentence got my attention’.

Publishing conference A publishing conference is concerned with talking about how to share the writing with others. Writing can be shared on classroom walls, printed in books and published online and in a range of software programs. Writing

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is usually published after the piece of writing and the illustrations have been revised and edited.

Chapter summary The most important idea when teaching writing is to ensure that children can see a purpose for their writing. There are many ways that a teacher can scaffold childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s writing development, from modelled writing, shared and interactive writing, guided writing and independent writing where the child takes full control. Children can explore written texts and, with the teacher, re-create a variety of new texts. When children engage in the reading and writing processes for real purposes, they can explore the written language code as code breakers, the meanings that texts create, the use of different text types and genres for various purposes and the ways the authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intention can work on the reader. Teachers can help children develop their writing in individual, group and publishing conferences. Helping children read and critique each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s writing can help children understand that writing may sometimes be for self, but most of the time it is for an audience of peers.

CHAPTER 15

Reading and writing different text types

A print-rich classroom invites students to engage in literacy learning. It is visually appealing and dripping with resources such as books, magazines, posters, newspapers and access to the internet. Opportunities for children to interact with all these resources are a core part of the language learning experience.

Duke & Bennett-Armistead 2003, p. 218

Most young children are fascinated by books, films and TV shows that provide information and facts. They also enjoy narratives, either realistic stories or fantasy with magic. Identifying whether a book is for information or is a narrative for entertainment can begin as young as 2 or 3 years of age.

Language features of information texts and narratives Young children are able to identify many different types of text genres, and teachers can help them to use the different language features. An information book about spiders would contain scientific vocabulary such as spinnerets, fangs and silk in sentences that are usually in the present tense and don’t include personal comments, for example: ‘Spiders use spinnerets at the base of their abdomen to spin a web made of silk.’ An information text does not need to be read from beginning to end; specific facts can be located by reading the contents page and the index. The purpose of information texts is to convey meaning about the natural or social world. They make use of timeless verbs and generic nouns. In contrast, the purpose of fiction or narrative texts is to entertain or to convey an experience. The narrative genre usually has characters, a plot and a resolution. Information books are constructed around the relationships between facts. In information texts children are asked to read:

• • • •

specialised vocabulary classificatory and definitional material text structures such as compare/contrast, problem/solution and cause/effect graphic elements such as diagrams, maps, indexes and charts.

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Figure 15.1 An example of an information text

What is done with information texts is crucial.

What is done with information texts is crucial. Effective teaching involves teachers working with read aloud, shared reading and guided reading to activate prior knowledge related to the text, establish purposes for reading, make predictions and then make connections between the text and children’s experience. On the other hand, consider the narrative text in Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak. This book has a main character, Max, who faces a problem and tames the wild creatures he meets and returns home victorious. Narratives often follow a simple circle-quest framework where the main character(s) leave home, face a challenge or challenges and then return home much wiser and happier. The language features in a narrative are usually past tense, often include dialogue and are in chronological, sequential order. Many fairytales and folk tales have a simple quest narrative structure and there are often repetitions of three—three pigs, three billy goats and events repeated three times. It is thought that these fairytales and folk tales were oral tales told to adults and children and the repetitions were used to help the storyteller remember the events in order.

What text types are useful for young children? After children learn to distinguish between fact and fiction in books, it is then important for them to understand that there are other text types such as procedures for writing recipes or giving directions. Figure 15.2 can be used to explore various text types and how to use them as models or guides for children’s writing.

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Reading and writing different text types

Figure 15.2 Text types Purposes Examples Frameworks Language features Narrative To entertain

A story, fairytale, fable, myth, poem, play, historical, biography, legend usually written using chronological events and set in the past, present or future

• Orientation • Initiating events • Complications/ problems • Resolution

• Usually past tense • Characters • Dialogue • Descriptive language • Usually chronological events

Poetry and songs To entertain

Songs, jingles, raps, ballads, limericks

• Orientation • Events • Evaluation (optional) • Orientation

• Rhyme, rhythm • Characters • Descriptive language

Description To describe the features of a thing or a phenomenon

Description of objects, phenomena such as the weather, a bushfire, person

Detailed description of the features of object, place or thing

• Particular nouns • Variety of adjectives • Action verbs • Figurative language

Transactional To maintain relationships

Cards, letters, invitations, surveys, interviews, questionnaires and often issues are negotiated

• Orientation • Negotiation • Summary (optional)

• Descriptive language • Specific participants (people and things) • Contains questions requiring a response

Recount To retell events

Newspaper accounts, diaries, letters, retelling of growing things or how ‘I’ solved a problem, autobiography and/ or biography depending on whether first person or third person recount

• Orientation • Events in time order • Re-orientation (optional) • Evaluation (optional)

• Simple past tense • Usually chronological events • Action verb • Specific participants (people and things) • Sometimes includes a personal reflection

Procedure To tell the way to do things Also known as instruction

An instruction manual, how to read a map, recipes, contracts, writing up experiments

• Goal • Materials • Method • Evaluation

• Tense is timeless • Materials listed • There are linking words to do with time: before, after, when • Detailed factual description • Refers to the reader in a general way or not at all, e.g.’you mix’, or ‘mix’

Report To classify and describe a class of things Also known as a nonlinear text

Report of a community, place, or phenomena such as the weather the skin and the heart. Can use the following structures: compare/ contrast, classify, problem/solution, question/answer

• Generalisation/ classification • Description • Summary (optional)

• Timeless present tense • Subject-specific vocabulary • Impersonal objective language • Generalised participants (people and things)

Explanation To explain phenomena

Explains how kites fly, • Phenomenon springs work, what sinks • Explanation and what floats sequence

• Timeless present tense (the kite is lifted …) • Cause and effect relationships • Some passive voice (is made by …)

Reading/writing activities The major teaching strategies of • modelling • sharing/interactive • guided and independent learning can be used

Connections to prior knowledge KWL Concept map Dictagloss Predicting

Comprehension Retelling Text clues Cloze Questions Mapping information Timelines Diaries Life cycles Flow charts

Fiction and nonfiction text features Deconstructing and constructing texts Writing frames Narrative Recount Songs and poetry Transactional Procedure Report Description Compare/contrast Problem/solution Explanation Exposition

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Exposition To present an argument for a point of view Also known as argument or persuasive text

A text that persuades by presenting a view about an issue: ‘Television is good for children’, ‘All trees must be saved’, ‘You are what you eat’

• Thesis • Argument • Reiteration

• Use of thinking verbs associated with reasoning such as because, therefore • High modal verbs: must, should • Connectives: first, second, last

Discussion

A text that presents all sides to a discussion or can present only one viewpoint Is television good for children? Should all trees be saved? Are you only what you eat?

• Thesis • Argument • Reiteration

• Use of linking words associated with reasoning such as because, therefore. • Passive voice is often used • Often personal bias is concealed

Mixed genres can be used within one text such as in post-modern texts or a collection of fiction and non-fiction genres organised around one theme/topic

A combination of frameworks

To present both sides of an argument May also argue or persuade by presenting one side of the argument. Also known as exposition

Mixed genre Narrative and forms of information texts can be combined

Deconstructing and constructing different text types Understanding how different texts work is important for both reading and writing. When children read the narrative of The Three Little Pigs they call on their previous experiences with stories that have been read aloud or told to them, many of which will have begun with ‘Once upon a time …’ and ended with ‘And they all lived happily ever after’. These narratives provide a model for children to tell their own stories.

Everyday texts Teachers can help children deconstruct the features of different kinds of texts by showing children a model of the text and then asking them to point out and describe the features.

Chip packets An everyday text that children are familiar with might be a chip packet. Chip packets are a type of genre; they usually have bright colours, a name in large print, adjectives that describe the contents, a logo or brand, a barcode, a list of ingredients, and nutritional information. Teachers can use several teaching strategies to deconstruct and construct texts: modelled reading to demonstrate the text type, shared read-

Reading and writing different text types

ing, modelled writing to show, for example, how to design a new chip packet drawing on the features that have been deconstructed. In guided writing, a template of the back and front of the packet can be provided and finally, in independent writing, the children create their own packet using the identified features. Of course not every teaching strategy needs to be used as it depends on how much support children require. Most chip packets can be deconstructed into these features using the teaching strategies of modelling, deconstructing the features, shared writing and independent writing. The same works for narratives, birthday cards, riddles, poetry and information texts.

Business cards Business cards can provide another way of exploring different text types with children. Young children are often fascinated with business cards and they collect them from different sources. Labbo, Sprague, Montero & Font (2000) write about a classroom where the children were exploring thematically connected work on the topic ‘community helpers and careers’. As part of the work, the teacher wrote a letter to the parents asking them to describe the kind of work they did. When the parents’ information came to school, some had business cards attached. For example, one child brought in a picture of his mother, a veterinarian, at work, a description of a typical day at her veterinary office, and a business card with a logo depicting a puppy and a kitten. The children began to ask questions about what a business card might look like for people in various occupations. They made a collection of business cards and talked about the features. The children then wanted to design their own cards for their future careers, using the artistic tools in the Kid Pix Studio Deluxe software package. In only about 10 minutes, the children had the opportunity to practise giving their address and phone number, to think in graphically symbolic ways as they selected stamps to represent careers, to watch their dictation represented in print on the screen, to read the business cards of other children, to stay focused, and to learn multimedia composing skills. They worked collaboratively because they had a common goal, but shared different areas of expertise as they used the computer software to accomplish particular tasks.

Explicit instruction Explicit instruction is systematic, analytic and conscious teaching about the different modes of meaning—which also includes the design elements of text. In other words, explicit teaching of text features and processes is needed to complete various literacy tasks. In the business card example, the design elements of a business card were explored by the whole class. The specific features such as the logo, size of the card, name, address

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and phone number were identified. Once the features were identified the children worked with the teacher to interactively construct a model of a business card before going off to make their own. The children engaged in critical literacy as they explored how different graphic symbols represent careers and how gold edges and colours affected the status assigned to the person’s card. They were beginning to use critical framing, which involved them standing back and viewing particular texts in relation to their contexts. This has to do with understanding how texts can position people as respected equals or in unequal power relationships. The children were also involved in transforming the text to work in other contexts or cultural sites. This has to do with developing and designing new texts by using the new skills and processes embedded in one task which can be identified and used again in another task. The transformation of texts took place as the children explored existing business cards and then discussed and designed their own cards and future careers. Figure 15.3 Example of business cards that can be created by children

Research on information texts Research reveals a paucity of information texts in the early grades (Duke 2000, Duke and Bennett-Armistead 2003). For many years there has been an emphasis on narrative text forms and this has led to few information texts in classroom libraries, on classroom walls and in classroom written language activities. Duke’s findings are a cause for concern both because of the missed opportunity to prepare children for information reading and writing they will encounter in later schooling and life, and for the missed opportunity to use informational texts to motivate children’s interest in literacy in their present lives. Of particular concern is the fact that information texts were found to be particularly scarce in the classrooms in low socioeconomic settings. Children with less socioeconomic capital were offered fewer opportunities to develop this important form of semiotic capital—the ability to read and write the graphic diagrams and specialised vocabulary found in information texts.

Reading and writing different text types

Information books are very important for developing children’s vocabulary which, in turn, affects their reading and writing development.

Duke also points out that one reason for the fourth grade slump in reading achievement, which may be more pronounced in low-SES children, may be due to lack of pre-fourth-grade school experiences with information text forms. When children read information books they need to pay careful attention to vocabulary and language features. The language of information books involves moving children into the acquisition of appropriate vocabulary and early concept establishment. Writers of information books use key words like some and many to indicate important distinctions. Huck et al. (2004) comments that effective writers make careful distinctions between fact and theory. Children need guidance in learning to recognise these fine distinctions. Information books are very important for developing children’s vocabulary which, in turn, affects their reading and writing development. Teachers attend more to vocabulary, concept knowledge and comprehension in information texts (Donovan & Smolkin 2002). In turn, parents may attend more to vocabulary and concept knowledge in information texts (Pellegrini, Perlmutter, Galda & Brody 1990). Evidence of the importance of vocabulary development is overwhelming. The research into vocabulary development by Biemiller (2004) and Hart & Risley (1995, 2003) reveals the importance of exposure to rich vocabulary in the early years, and the variation in the vocabulary development of children in high and low income groups and their future trajectories. Information books in particular are an important source of new vocabulary. Research reveals that by the end of grade 2, there is a 4000-word difference in base word vocabulary knowledge between children in the highest vocabulary quartile and those in the lowest quartile. Children with low vocabularies have a chance to build vocabularies in the early years of preschool and school, but if they fail to do this, they will continue to lag seriously behind more advantaged children. There is evidence that words are acquired in roughly the same order by most children. A number of studies suggest a gain of three words per day when teachers read books aloud several times in a week and provide explanations of 8–10 words a day (Biemiller 2004). Linked to vocabulary development is research by Becker (1977) suggesting that an emphasis in the early grades on reading skills (word identification) without emphasis on books with challenging vocabulary results in problems for the reading comprehension of many middle grade children. Those children with restricted oral vocabularies comprehend at lower levels. In the Genre Diversification Framework developed by Duke and Bennett-Armistead (2003) she suggests teachers in an early literacy program aim for:

• • •

one-third narrative genres one-third information genres one-third other genres.

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This genre diversification is within three areas:

• • •

classroom libraries the classroom print environment classroom activities.

Teachers diversify:

• • •

Information books can act as a catalyst for some children for overall literacy development.

within activities (e.g. read aloud) across the school day (science, language, arts) across the school year (themes, units).

In one study by Duke and Kays (1998) the teacher read aloud information books to children aged 4 and 5 years of age for three months. As a result, the children made substantial gains in their knowledge of several key features of information book language. When the children were asked to pretend to read an unfamiliar wordless information book they used the appropriate information book language. These read-aloud sessions also led to high levels of engagement, great enjoyment and spontaneous interactions with the text. In a research study by Caswell and Duke (1998) it was found that information texts increase boys’ enthusiasm for reading. When given the opportunity to choose books, whether at home or school, or in the library, researchers found that boys gravitated towards non-narrative forms. Boys became more involved in their lessons through activities such as reading instructions for science experiments and searching texts for desired information. When working with non-fiction texts, boys were more motivated to read and more determined to work through reading problems. Furthermore, non-fiction texts better connected with the boys’ home literacy environment which included mainly non-fiction forms. Information books can act as a catalyst for some children for overall literacy development. Children who become familiar with non-fiction texts early on may have a smoother transition in later grades when they make the switch from ‘learning to read’ to ‘reading to learn’.

The features of common text genres Many teachers find the following genres useful to teach writing (Thwaite 2006).

Recount The purpose of a recount is to retell past experiences and tell what happened. Beginning

A recount usually begins by telling the reader: • who was involved • where it happened • what happened • when it happened

Reading and writing different text types

Series of events

The series of events is usually chronological

Personal comment

There may be a personal comment to conclude

Recounts can be personal retellings of an activity, factual retellings of a science experiment or a news story, or imaginative recounts, for example ‘My dream holiday’.

Narrative The purpose of a narrative is to entertain, to teach or to extend the reader’s imagination. Beginning

The beginning describes when, where, who and what may happen

Problem

The problem involves the introduction of a complication and the main character(s) finding ways to solve it

Resolution

In the resolution the loose ends are tied up and the characters usually get what they deserve

A narrative usually begins by introducing the setting, the characters and a hint of a possible problem or complication, for example, ‘Once upon a time there were three bad goats and a kind troll’. Narratives can be fairytales, fables, legends, plays, science fiction, horror stories, myths, adventure stories, realistic fiction and cartoons.

Procedure Procedure is also known as ‘instruction’ and it describes the way to do things. A procedure is used when writing recipes, or directions for how to make something. The materials are listed, there are linking words to do with time (before, after, when) and a procedure refers to the reader in a general way or not at all, e.g. ‘you mix’ or ‘mix’. Goal

The goal describes what is to be made or achieved

Materials

The materials are listed in the order they will be used

Method

The method is given sequentially, and uses words like add, put, mix

Evaluation

The evaluation describes what an effective product should look, taste or feel like

Procedures can be manuals and ‘how to’ books.

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Report The purpose of an information report is to organise and store information about a class of things. Information reports may have a structure based on description, question/answer, compare/contrast or problem/solution. Description is the Âsimplest kind of report. More complex reports may have headings to do with, for example, description, behaviour, habitat and life cycle. Opening statement and classification

Information reports often explore a class of living or non-living things, for example tarantulas

Facts such as habits, behaviour, colour and shape are included

The information may be about different kinds of things such as different kinds of leaves

Diagrams and labels may be used

Information reports may examine how something is made or the aspects of something, such as plastic

Explanation The purpose of an explanation text is to explain how something works or to give reasons for how something came to be. Statement about the topic

An explanation begins with a statement about the object or topic

Explanation 1 Explanation 2 Explanation 3

There are several explanations elaborating on the object or topic

Explanations can be found in scientific texts, explaining how sand hills are formed or how weather works.

Exposition The purpose of an exposition or argument is to take a position on some issue and justify it. The goal is to persuade someone to your point of view. Expository texts are concerned with the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of the world around us. An exposition is one-sided, and focuses on persuading the reader to one point of view. A statement or a position

Begins with the position or point of view taken

Points in the argument with evidence and examples

Statements supporting the position are carefully selected and described Evidence and examples are given

Summary

The points supporting the position are summarised Sometimes there is a call for action

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Design features of information texts A great deal of the information contained in information texts resides in visual devices such as photographs, diagrams, maps, charts and graphs, and children have to orchestrate their reading across visual and print features. Information texts in books tend to use similar visual tools as those found on the web. Figure 15.4 Design features in information texts Locating information Table of contents Glossary Index Titles References Appendices Labels

Print Type size Font Style (italic, underlined, bold) Colour

Text organisation Chapters Headings Body text Author information Introduction Section icons Text boxes • fact boxes • think about … • did you know?

Layout Format of text Bullets White spaces Colour Columns

Visual tools Maps • relief map • road map • weather map Photographs • enlarged • close-up • camera angle Charts • columns and rows Tables and graphs • bar • line • pie Diagrams • webs • cutaways • cross-sections • trees

Drawings • realistic • interpretive • colour • black and white • scaled Time lines • circular • vertical • horizontal Captions

Information texts have both visual and linguistic modes and these modes have different orientations and ways of expressing and representing meaning (Kress & Van Leeuwen 2001; Unsworth 2001). They represent information in text boxes, labels, figures, diagrams and graphs as well as body text—in visually different ways from a narrative. The body text may be the major text and minor text may occur in captions and text boxes, and children have to orchestrate interrelationships between these two visual and linguistic modes. Information texts are an important access point to learning how to critically analyse the information that is presented. They provide time to ponder how the text has been designed and how to read print and visual information. Not only do children have to read the information in print, but they also analyse the meaning of the visual information. For example, the text shown in Figure 15.5 uses text boxes, arrows to show direction in which to read the text and to point out text features, headings and a photographic food web. This highly visual information is not only read from

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left to right but also from bottom to top and from side to side. The body text is a small section at the top of the left-hand page. Figure 15.5 Information texts represent information through print and visual devices Secondary heading

Main heading Body text

Food web

Arrows indicating how the food web works Text box

Visual support

Information texts and various web pages add another layer of complexity as children have to learn how to locate information in tables of contents, hyperlinks, glossaries, indexes, titles, references, appendices, author information, captions, labels, body text and text boxes. Not only do they have to learn how to locate information but they also need to critically analyse the content. In the search to find ways to support children as critical analysers of information texts, Wray (2006) suggests the following questions that can be used for text analysis:

• • • • • •

What is the subject or topic of this text? Why might the author have written it? Who is it written for? How do you know? What values does the author assume the reader holds? How do you know? What knowledge does the reader need to bring to the text in order to understand it? Who would be left out in this text and why? Who would feel that the claims made in the text clash with their own values, beliefs or experiences?

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•

How is the reader positioned in relation to the author (e.g. as a friend, as an opponent, as someone who needs to be persuaded, as invisible, as someone who agrees with the author’s views)?

Another useful framework is the ‘think and check’ strategy to help children learn to critically evaluate internet sites and this could also be used when exploring information books (Coiro 2007). With the amazing amount of information available it is important that children learn to question the information in texts rather than simply believing that factual information in books or online is accurate and true. Figure 15.6 ‘Think and check’ framework Think

Check

Does this sound as if it makes sense?

Be sceptical and ask around.

Where else can I look?

Conduct internet searches using key words from the topic or look in a book.

Who created the website and for what purpose?

Explore the ‘about us’ link with a critical eye.

Who is the author?

Do an internet search with the author’s name.

Who is linking to the site?

Type linked URL of the web page in questions into the search box.

Working with children: beginning research CASE STUDY

Animals The 5- and 6-year-old children in Chris Hastwell’s classroom were talking about the differences between mammals and marsupials and Marmi asked the question ‘Why does a female wombat’s pouch face backwards?’ After Marmi asked this question everyone looked at Chris for the answer and you could hear the wheels ticking over as children thought of questions such as: ‘How did the baby wombat get into the pouch in the first place?’, ‘Why would a wombat have a pouch that opens to the back instead of to the front like kangaroos, koalas and bilbies?’ The ensuing conversation about how marsupial babies get into the pouch, what they drink and then how mammals drink milk from their mothers had everyone riveted. At one point Chris was down on the floor scratching up makebelieve dirt saying, ‘Wombats dig in the soil. Where would the soil go if they had pouches that opened to the front of their bodies?’ Marmi answered, ‘The soil would go into their pouches, so they have to have them opening to the back’. Questions were flying everywhere and children were offering opinions.

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In this classroom the topic for research was animals, and for six weeks the children explored animals in the literacy session for several days each week. To conclude the topic, Chris had planned a sleep-over at the zoo where the children would go on night walks with torches before curling up in sleeping-bags in the school support part of the zoo. The research focus on animals was a part of the literacy workshop, and in the classroom there were many reference books on the topic. Some were quite complex and others were smaller books designed for guided reading. There was vocabulary relating to animals on charts, posters and books for children to refer to continually. Even complex books were tackled by children as they searched for information. The format for the sessions was similar each day. First there was a whole-class discussion where Chris built on the children’s familiar knowledge. Next there was small-group work organising and exploring information and children referred to books and charts in the classroom. Finally there was a sharing time where children read what they had written to others. Day one To begin the topic of animals with the whole class, Chris used the KWL procedure (see Chapter 9). K—What I know

W—What I want to learn

Dogs and cats are animals Some animals are reptiles and some are mammals Some animals are called marsupials

L—What have I learned?

What kind of animals are there? What do animals eat? Learn about tigers. Learn about turtles.

Next, the children brainstormed all the animals they could think of and Chris classified them on a whiteboard into three categories: birds, reptiles and mammals. Later she typed up all the words the children came up with and the class then reclassified them, pasting the words into the appropriate columns.

Birds Reptiles Mammals crows snakes dogs magpies crocodiles cats kookaburras lizards horses sparrows turtles people lions tigers whales elephants

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Day two The children created their own individual classification charts using the Kid Pix software program.

Day three Next day the children explored the eating habits of animals using a Venn diagram with pictures of meat as a heading for one circle and green plants for the other.

meat

green plants

In the overlapping section there was a heading of both meat and green plants. Kid Pix was used to create the picture headings and the pictures of animals that were pasted into the sections. Day four The next day Chris explained diagrams and captions to the children. She modelled this using a diagram with captions and pointers on a large chart that all children could see. Then the children were given their own diagram with captions and wrote down the information they had learned in sentence form. The children were able to explain that labels were words linked by a line to a part of a picture or a diagram. Chris said that labelling the features of animals was useful for learning to read and write a description in information texts. After the children learned about writing a description they moved easily into report Âwriting where description of the appearance, behaviour, habitat, the young and life cycles may be considered as organisers of information.

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To further refine labelling the children were encouraged to discriminate between similar concepts such as ‘sharp and pointy’ and ‘strong and powerful’. To encourage fine discrimination of animal features Chris, with the class, compiled a chart and the children brainstormed words to describe the features of each of these body parts. legs short legs long legs strong legs powerful legs two legs four legs no legs

coverings hair fur – grey fur, brown fur, white fur scales skin feathers – grey feathers, brown feathers, black feathers

eyes black eyes brown eyes small eyes big eyes

tails long tail short tail

claws sharp claws blunt claws Tan and Hasan were working at a table on a large sheet of paper labelling the parts of a tiger, an animal they had chosen together. Their conversation illustrates the fine discriminations the children were learning to make, the vocabulary developed and the way Chris encouraged problem-solving.

Tan:

Has a tiger got round ears or pointy ears?

Hasan:

I don’t know.

Reading and writing different text types

Tan:

Mrs Hastwell, has a tiger got pointy ears?

Chris:

I don’t know. Where could you find that information?

Tan:

In a book?

Chris:

Yes, get a book and find out.

The boys decided that the tiger has round ears after looking at more pictures of tigers in small reading books. In other conversations the children were working in pairs to label various animals—koalas, tigers, whales, fish and crocodiles.

Marmi:

The crocodile eats meat.

Jan:

I’ll write that it eats meat and fish.

Marmi:

Please don’t write it eats meat and fish because fish is meat.

The research topic of animals was absolutely engaging to the children, and each step along the way Chris introduced new vocabulary and ways of organising information that the children could use in their reading and writing. This was just the beginning of the topic of animals and it was thoroughly enjoyable. The following week, Chris decided to bring her dog to school so the children could learn more by reading, writing and researching on the topic of dogs.

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Chapter summary According to the Genre Diversification Framework, the early literacy program should aim for: one-third narrative genres, one-third information genres and one-third other genres. Young children enjoy reading and writing information books as well as fiction texts. Much of the reading and writing that is covered in later schooling concerns reading information texts, so learning the text features of information books is essential. Such features as glossaries, headings, diagrams and indexes need to be taught to young children. Many teachers use six main genre types when teaching children about different types of text: recount, narrative, procedure, explanation, report and argument. Each of these genres has a different framework and language features.

CHAPTER 16

Multiliteracies

A dynamic view of development suggests ‘[a]ctions done in this moment, in turn, set the stage for behaviours in the next second, minute, week and year’.

(Thelen & Smith 1998, p. 625)

The internet and the digital revolution are at the same level of development as the automobile was in the 1920s. What does this mean for the future education of young children? This chapter explores the new world of multiliteracies for young children, and this involves the connections between technology and literacies. The term multiliteracies covers what has also been regarded as electronic literacies, technoliteracies, digital literacies, visual literacies and print-based literacies. To be multiliterate means to be literate in printbased and new communication technologies. Multimodal texts can use several modes to communicate meaning—sound, visual and linguistic.

Multimodal texts and young children Now, more than ever, the lives of young children are saturated with multimedia, in the form of DVDs, CD-ROMs, computer games, digital music, email, text messaging and digital photography, to name just a few. This has required new thinking about literacy, and one of the ways that this rethinking has occurred has been encapsulated in the pedagogy of multiliteracies (New London Group 1996) which has expanded our view of reading, writing, speaking and listening to include the various multimedia symbol forms. In this model, computers are ‘symbol machines’ that allow young children to negotiate a complex interplay of multiple sign systems (e.g. video clips, music, sound effects, icons, virtually rendered paint strokes, text in print-based documents), multiple modalities (e.g. linguistic, auditory, visual, artistic), and recursive communicative and cognitive processes (e.g. real time and virtual conversations, cutting/pasting text, manipulating graphics, importing photographs). Texts are increasingly multimodal: print is combined with sound, movement and visual imagery

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to create complex texts that require the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;readerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; to process in multiple modes simultaneously (Bearne 2009). To be multiliterate, a person must be literate in traditional and new communication technologies and the semiotic systems used in them (Bull & Anstey 2010). The five different semiotic systems each have a grammar and terminology used to create meaning. The five systems are: linguistic, visual, audio, gestural and spatial. For example, a family video clip may have oral or written language, moving visual images, audio such as sounds or music, gestures such as facial expressions and spatial organisation to do with the characters and the camera. Semiotic theory explores how meaning is communicated through symbols, in the form of letters and words, drawings, icons of various types, photographs, colours, sound and animation or movement (Kress & Van Leeuwen 2001). As Figure 16.1 shows, emergent and early literacy is not simply a question of print-based versus electronic or digital literacies, but a consideration of the wider multimodal context of literacies. Figure 16.1Â Multiliteracies incorporate print-based literacies sign system iple odalitie s an t l s d m u M tiple iotic theor requ i y l m r e u s ning mak of e ing a ea m

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Print-based

While being multiliterate is extremely relevant to the early childhood context, Lankshear and Knobel (2003), in a review of the research into new technologies and early childhood, found a preponderance of the use of multimodal resources to promote decoding and encoding alphabetic texts. The authors affirmed that the interrelated fields of new technologies and literacy in early childhood were radically under-researched when compared to other age groups. Interestingly, the authors contend that much new learning was occurring in out-of-school settings rather than in classroom settings. This review of research alerted Australian researchers to the need for involving teachers as researchers in exploring the possibilities of new learning and multiliteracies. In other research into the integration of technology and literacy pedagogy, Durrant and Green (2000) found that there has been an overly

Multiliteracies

In most cases, the children had access to and could use information and communication technologies far in advance of the equipment that existed in many of the schools and preschools.

technical skills approach to integrating technology literacy pedagogy. This ‘skills orientation’ was outside an authentic context of situated social practice and at odds with social constructivist theories that underpin much of early childhood pedagogy. Durrant and Green’s research into digital literacies provided a conceptual framework known as the ‘3D’ view of new literacy learning to bring together three dimensions—‘operational’, ‘cultural’ and ‘critical’—that need to be addressed simultaneously to enable a holistic, culturally critical view of pedagogy. Building on the work of Durrant and Green (2000) and Lankshear and Knobel (2003), an Australian early childhood research project titled Children of the New Millennium (Hill 2010) involved 20 teacher-researchers exploring 4- to 8-year-old children’s knowledge and understanding of multiliteracies. In the first instance the teachers and researchers undertook a ‘technotour’ of children’s homes that revealed a level of use of new technologies by children which was far greater than teachers had anticipated. In most cases, the children had access to and could use information and communication technologies (ICT) far in advance of the equipment that existed in many of the schools and preschools. Children were able to go online to websites that were often linked to their favourite television shows, use search engines to find information and often played interactive games online and with games software. New ways of building on the skills and interests from home emerged when teachers engaged some children as coaches or mentors in the classroom and capitalised on children’s funds of knowledge by using software similar to that used by those children at home. This was particularly so for children with special learning needs. The pedagogies of the teachers using new technologies were inquiry-based, and autonomous investigations and problem posing and solving were promoted. The multimedia software supported the creation of animations, movies, slide shows and explorations of digital still photography and video. A framework for mapping the depth and complexity of young children’s learning with multiliteracies was developed. The four dimensions, while interrelated, provided a lens for teachers to analyse what children know about multiliteracies and help reveal the next steps in planning for learning (see Figure 16.2). The teacher-researchers found that children thrived on generating new multimodal texts and this led to the need to understand principles of multimodal meanings. For example, the use of graphics and story-making software encouraged communication and other emergent literacy behaviours as well as enhanced interpersonal interactions among learners. The electronic books in various software programs supported the development of children’s readings and rereadings and this was particularly evident with special needs children. The use of electronic multimedia options opened up an interactive world that can support children’s literacy development in a digital world and provide them with stories that may be beyond their reading level.

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Figure 16.2 The multiliteracies map Functional user • Locating, code-breaking, using signs and icons • Selecting and operating equipment • Moving between mediums: cameras, videos, computers

Meaning maker • Understanding multimodal meanings • Purpose of text and text form • Connecting to prior knowledge

Critical analyser • Discourse analysis • Equity • Power and position • Appropriate software/ hardware

Transformer • Using skills and knowledge in new ways • Designing texts • Producing new texts

The project has also revealed that the traditional content of reading and writing needs to be broadened to include the use of multiple sign systems that represent meaning.

The research showed that children as young as 3 can represent meaning with digital photographs about their learning and they can play with these photographs, importing them into slide shows, changing the layout, the colours and the shape. They can make books with photographs and their own artwork using a variety of colours and backgrounds, and these can have audio voice and sound effects and animation added to them. The project has also revealed that the traditional content of reading and writing needs to be broadened to include the use of multiple sign systems that represent meaning. Children in early childhood have always used construction, drawing or illustrations, movement and sound to represent meaning. The newer multimodal technologies merely add to children’s choice of medium to represent ideas and to comprehend the meanings in a range of texts. It has become evident that digital literacies and print-based literacy are not oppositional concepts; both are required for effective functioning in the 21st century. In fact, traditional print-based reading and writing were found to be vitally important for success in digital contexts. Writing was significantly important as a memory tool, for planning, designing and recording ideas and information. Reading was critically important for predicting, scanning, interpreting, analysing and selecting from the abundance of information. Young children are able to switch effortlessly between genres, scanning material for information, following procedures, searching by scrolling through menus, and interpreting icons and written instructions on tool bars. In other words, although reading, writing, listening and speaking are paramount, today’s students must be able to do more, as they decipher, code-break, achieve meaning and express ideas through a range of media incorporating design, layout, colour, graphics and animation.

Multiliteracies

In fact, learning to critique the digital media and consider whether the information is appropriate or accurate is far more important than ever before, considering the amount of time children are engaged with the screen. For many children, preschool and school is the only place where they can learn to question the values and intentions of the many software programs and numerous websites. Teachers have commented on the need for practical examples of strategies they can use to support children to develop a critical orientation to multiliteracies.

The increasing importance of texts Young children are surrounded by images, logos and symbols at an early age. They see advertisements with logos and symbols that represent products, teams and sports. They read signposts, signals and symbols to help them make sense of their world. They interpret these texts and make connections. They know that they can get hamburgers and fast food at the golden arches of McDonaldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. They can access computer programs by using recognisable symbols. They quickly associate shortcuts with strategies to be successful. They can access the internet by clicking on the big blue e. The colour, shape and size of the icons support users when accessing these programs. The Kid Pix icon is different from the WiggleWorks icon. The symbol for closing a program is the letter X. Arrows, dots, flashing lines and underlined text all represent different things on a computer screen. The browser â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;handâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is universal in programs and means that this section of work links to another section or website on the internet.

Design elements of multimodal texts Young children are engaged in viewing and creating multimodal texts and the Figure 16.3 provides a starting point for teachers to develop and enhance their thinking by identifying the critical elements within these texts.

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Figure 16.3 Design elements of multimodal texts Design element

Component

Linguistic design

Vocabulary

Words used to convey a message

Metaphor

ICT figurative language, i.e. recycle bin, window, cut, paste, desktop

Structure

Organisation of presentation

Delivery

How the message is conveyed

Modality

Auditory, print, video, graphics, animation

Voice

Electronic, own voice, natural speech

Music

Selected or composed music

Sound effects

Selected or created sounds

Ecosystem

Interaction of all components

Geographical

Layout and landscape

Architectural

Construction, composition and organisation

Colour

Mood and emotion

Audio design

Spatial design

Visual design

Description

Cultural significance

Gestural

Perspective

Depth and dimension

Vectors

Directional ‘lines’ to focus attention

Foreground

Giving power by positioning

Background

Creating the setting or scene

Behavioural-action

Gestures

Senses

Creating atmosphere

Body control

Positioning and movement

Emotion

Conveying feelings

Kinesics

Body movements to communicate Based on the design elements in Healy & Honan, 2004, p. 21

Multiliteracies pedagogy The following examples illustrate a multiliteracies curriculum in action. The first example shows how a teacher used children’s love of video games and developed a big book for beginning readers. The second example focuses on a reluctant reader and writer who became hooked on using the computer to read and write, and the final example shows how email connects remote and distant communities.

Multiliteracies

Engaging the video-game generation In the following case study, a well-informed teacher built on the community language and literacy resources to enhance literacy learning in a school by linking what learners had already acquired to what they needed to learn and master (Lankshear et al. 1997; Gee 1996). This example shows how the early childhood teacher used the children’s out-of-school leisure activities with video games as a way into early print literacy. The teacher used children’s fascination with the screen, realising that the visual mode may be a priority over the written mode (Kress 2000) for many children in her class.

CASE STUDY

Engaging children in multiliteracies Barb, a year 1–2 teacher, finds that responding to what engages the children in her group, such as video games and television, is a central way to make connections or to build a bridge to new learning. The school, in a very low-income area, was interested in children’s access to computers, television and Play Stations. The school conducted a survey into the community’s access to technology and found that the number of televisions, games consoles and computers (not counting pocket technologies) was far higher than the teachers had imagined. Barb found that the video-game character Mario was hugely popular in the classroom. The 5- and 6-year-old children were writing a lot of stories based on Mario, a character who jumps over walls, climbs trees and avoids all kinds of fantastic mishaps. Barb found a picture book titled Power and Glory that used the same action sequences as the Mario game. She read it to the class, and it was requested over and over again because the children absolutely loved it. They decided to make a game-book based on the picture book and a video game character. Barb suggested that everybody in the classroom should have input to how the game-book would work. She wanted the class to decide on who the main character would be, and so everyone in the class drew characters, displayed them and voted on the one who had the best features of a video game character. The favourite character was then photocopied onto every page, simulating the video game. Everyone in the class contributed by drawing background pictures for the pages. The children next wrote the text to accompany the action book. Barb discussed the form of text that was required. The children noted that they needed a lot of verbs because the video game was so action-packed. To generate the verbs they placed all the pictures along the walls of the classroom and listed other words for ‘run’, such as ‘climb’, ‘jump’. Every day they would say things like ‘I’ve got some new words that we could use’ and the words might be verbs and nouns such as ‘run up the rock’, ‘climb the wall’, ‘jump the ledge’ and ‘down the slope’.

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The game-book, called Adventures of the Poison Toad, was created. It used the language and rhythm of the video game, with vocabulary to describe the actions, for example, ‘sit on the rocks’, ‘jump the pipe’, ‘grab the key’, ‘sweep the rocks’. When there was danger or an exciting part, phrases were repeated about four times, ‘the witch appeared’, ‘the witch appeared’, ‘the witch appeared’, and ‘zap the witch’ and then the text would go onto the next page. In creating the game-book the children used their knowledge of the video game, their understanding of the encoding system of written language, different text structures and the literary purpose of the book. The game-book activity was a way to let children bring together what they knew in a single problem-solving action or process (Clay 1998). Barb was able to build on the diverse resources of the children, diverse resources that are not always capitalised on in schools. Adventures of the Poison Toad was really successful, and according to Barb, ‘it is still being dragged out this year, because the children love the rhythmic pattern of the text and like to read it aloud, and because they love the Nintendo game’.

In fact, school literacy and everyday literacy inform and transform each other.

The case study illustrates connections made between community texts and school literacy, and draws on the sociocultural theories of Vygotsky (1978), Rogoff (1990; 1994) and Moll et al. (1992). In this sociocultural view, children learn the forms, signs and functions of literacy through dynamic interaction with others who are literate in their community. The communicative symbols within the culture—television, advertisements, signs, logos, spoken and written language—are incorporated, internalised and used by the children in socially interactive situations. Teachers like Barb work to make school significant and they go beyond the classroom walls to analyse the children’s everyday knowledge. These everyday concepts from video games, television, sports and popular culture are often the ‘gateway’ to school literacy for many children and allow them to integrate home experiences with schooled literacy. In fact, school literacy and everyday literacy inform and transform each other (Moll 1990). (See Marsh 2000 for preschool literacy activities related to the popular television show Teletubbies.) Interestingly, it is only since the 1980s that neuroscientists have begun to grasp how visual images and symbolic interpretations for thinking and expressing meaning work. As the noted literacy researcher Shirley Brice Heath writes (2000, p. 122): Simply put, what amounts to visual perception carries meaning because the imagistic character of neural activity manages to link up with stored experience that gives coherence and embeddedness to primary sensory images.

When we use the internet and other multimodal literacies we move away from the narrow linear print-only expectations of ‘reading’.

Multiliteracies

Students with learning and behaviour difficulties Many teachers have explored the potential of multiliteracies to engage children with learning difficulties. Sue, a year 1 and 2 teacher, provided an example of how, in three days, a computer was used to motivate and engage a despondent year 2 student. She explained that during the week a new student had been assigned to her class. He had just come from 10 weeks at a behaviour unit. In the past 12 months he had been very disturbed, refused to go to school and over two years had successfully avoided spending much time in the classroom.

CASE STUDY

Lost in the city On Monday during writing time, the student was reluctant to sit in a chair. Sue gave him a book and he just froze; he didn’t know what to write and wanted the teacher to tell him. He needed a lot of guidance. He was virtually standing next to the teacher, dependent, and he finally got down a couple of words—and that was Monday. On Tuesday he got the idea that the students could choose topics to write about. Sue showed him where he could get some ideas for topics. He spent some time deciding between writing about his dogs or his family. He eventually chose to write about his dog. Sue said that she couldn’t read his writing. It was not a readable piece of text. The text was all capital letters joined together. However, he could tell the teacher what it said and Sue wrote it down for him. On Wednesday, the student was talking about what he might write about. He didn’t want to continue with any of the previous work. He was quite interested in a topic card in the classroom called ‘Lost in the city’. One bit at a time, he would come and tell Sue what he had written and she would ask him a few questions about what could happen next and he would go and add a bit more until he was happy with it (see Figure 16.4). Sue asked him if he wanted a go on the computer and he was a bit reluctant at first. Another child took him over to the computer and helped to get him started (see Figure 16.5). Later on, the same day, when there was some free time, he played a game with another boy and then he saw someone on the computer and he said: ‘Can I go on the computer tonight?’ In three days he had gone from being really reluctant to put pen to paper, and not wanting anything to do with reading and writing, to being keen to go on the computer to try out his new skills and write.

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Figure 16.4 ‘Lost in the city’ writing sample

Figure 16.5 ‘Lost in the city’ word-processed sample

Multiliteracies

Just having the hardware and software available doesn’t make computers useful and accessible—it is the way technology is used in meaningful, purposeful contexts that is important.

Where in the world is Humpty Doo? The next example of multiliteracies is a project based on the idea ‘My place in space’ developed by Coleen Davidge, who teaches at Humpty Doo School which is about 35 kilometres south of Darwin in the Northern Territory.

CASE STUDY

My place in space Coleen wanted the class of year 1/2/3 to correspond with another class overseas to broaden their views of cultures and the world. She read about a program where teddy bears travelled with parents and visited their work places, went on holidays with friends and sometimes travelled the world sending back postcards and letters. Coleen went to the multi-aged home page on the internet and outlined the plan and asked for expressions of interest from other schools who may like to be involved. Coleen was overwhelmed with replies from the United States, Canada, New Zealand, Italy, Australia and Germany. The children also learned to read and respond to the emails. The class decided to call their program Travel Mates and the toys that were to travel to other countries were stuffed toy Australian animals. The mates travelled in an express-post bag to another country and stayed about a month with the host class. The host class ‘helped’ each mate write letters home, take photographs, draw, and send postcards and emails to their home family. While the mate was away the children plotted their travels on maps and globes and checked emails regularly. The children at Humpty Doo brought stuffed toys in from home to act as mates and the first to leave were Kanga and Jump Roo. To pay for the postage the children had a bake sale and parents and children baked cakes and biscuits to sell to others at the school. They worked in collaborative groups responsible for advertising, setting up, selling, cleaning and banking. They made enough money to send off several mates. To prepare the mates for travel the children worked in collaborative groups of about six to organise:

• • • • • •

a travel journal to record adventures, with instructions for use a passport and a passport photo a letter of introduction from the home class to the host class information about where in the world is Humpty Doo information about the native animal travelling information in case it should become lost

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• a decorated calico bag with the host class name and address. The class was divided into seven groups (expert groups) to undertake specific jobs according to the above list. They used encyclopaedias, atlases, digital cameras, photocopiers, word processors and printers to prepare the travel documents. After having their passports stamped and being kissed goodbye by the principal and having their photograph taken by a jubilant class, Kanga and Jump Roo set off for the post office with the class in tow. Before long a mate from the United States arrived and the children took her home and took turns writing up the adventures that she had in her journal and sending emails to the class of children in the United States about the mate’s activities, such as the food eaten and visits on the weekends. More and more travel mates arrived and more and more were sent. In fact, the class had to streamline the passport and information production as many, many mates were leaving. Coleen used the jigsaw process where small groups were formed, made up of one person from each of the expert groups such as the passport group, the introductory letter group and the ‘Where in the world is Humpty Doo?’ group. Each group developed material for a particular mate, such as Snap Crocodile and Duke Platypus. Coleen wrote that the class became alive with opportunities for learning about the world and communicating with children and their families all over the world.

Fairytale: a unit of work using multiliteracies This section explores a 10-week unit of work developed to explore fairytales with children aged 6 and 7 years. Before the unit of work began, Tamra, the teacher, invited the children to map out how meaning can be communicated by using visuals, spoken and written language, audio such as music, movement or gesture (kinaesthetic) and print texts. The children made lists of different texts and ways of communicating messages and ideas in print, visual communication and so on. This beginning showed children that literacy involves many different ways to communicate.

Multiliteracies

Figure 16.6 Literacy means communicating and understanding messages

Then, in a unit on fairytales, the children started out by collecting and reading versions of Little Red Riding Hood and other fairytales. As a group they deconstructed the features of fairytalesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;hero or heroine, good versus evil, a problem or several problems, magic, happy ending. They went to see the movie Hoodwinked which tells the Little Red Riding Hood story from the perspective of the wolf, grandma, the woodcutter and Little Red Riding Hood. They then wrote a new version of a fairytale of their choice using the features and from a perspective they chose. This was written in print (see Figure 16.7). Figure 16.7 Writing a new fairytale

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The next task was to use Photostory’s free software to create a movie of their written story, using plasticine characters organised into six digital photographs. The Photostory (www.windowsphotostory.com) software enables a series of digital photographs to be converted to video. Next a voice is recorded to make a soundtrack and then, from a vast choice of musical backings, one can be added to create mood for each photograph. To explore how the perspective of camera angles, colour and music can communicate a message, the children watched Hookwinked and Toy Story and noted the different camera angles, backgrounds, colour and music to communicate meanings (see Figure 16.8). They then experimented with digital cameras, taking photos of class members to see how camera angles—close-up, eye-level, reverse angle, top down and bottom up—can change the message. Figure 16.8 Visual perspective High angle

The camera is positioned above the subject and looks down. The subject seems small, weak and intimidated. This angle is often used on the ‘victim’ in a narrative.

Low angle

The position of the camera is below the subject and looks up at it. The subject seems large, evil, powerful and intimidating. This angle is often used on the strong character: the villain in the beginning of the film, the hero towards the end of the film.

Eye-level angle

The camera is positioned at eye level with the subject. This is a common angle that shows the subject accurately. It is often used to show honesty and good nature.

Dutch angle

The camera is positioned on an oblique or crooked angle. The audience is encouraged to feel that something peculiar is occurring. It can make the audience feel uncomfortable.

The children then planned and drew a storyboard with six frames representing key events in each of their stories (see Figure 16.9).

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Figure 16.9 Storyboard of the fairytale

Next, the children made small plasticine figures of the characters in their story, designed background colours, decided on the camera angle and took the photographs. They then selected photos from their ‘my pictures file’, began the voice-over narration and added music (see Figure 16.10). They had to rewrite the narration to fit the timing of the Photostory software, and this meant learning to write and rewrite to fit a timed sequence. While they were doing this, they were learning about the choices authors and film directors make in creating multimodal texts combining visuals with audio. Figure 16.10 Audio design features

CASE STUDY

Voice

electronic, own voice, natural speech

Music

selected or composed music

Sound effects

selected or created sounds

S h u y i ’s p h o t o s t o r y An example of combining the written words, visuals and audio comes from 6-year-old Shuyi, who is from Japan and has been learning English for only two years. She was working on one computer which was connected to the interactive whiteboard, and refining her voice-over narration (see Figure 16.11).

Shuyi:

I’m going to change the talking on my photo story because the talking is too long.

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After previewing the photos, she decided to record the voice-over again. She previewed two photos and listened to the voice-over. Then she reread the story she had written.

Shuyi (aloud): OK. I need to look at this again. She then reread the narrative she had written, and recorded her voice-over again, adding parts of the narrative to match the photos so there was a clear sequence. Then she chose music for each of the photos to illustrate aspects of the story. The choice of audio involved choosing music genre, the mood and the type of band (see Figure 16.13).

Figure 16.11 Creating a voice-over to match the sequence of photos

Figure 16.12 Adding music to create a mood

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Figure 16.13 Music genres, moods and instruments Genre

Mood

Instruments

classical

anxious

orchestra

country

adventurous

piano

pop

bittersweet

twangs

rock

upbeat

synthesised

jazz

dreamy

harpsichord

Latin

sad

brass

dance

sentimental

full orchestra

The teacher showed how to add music to the photographs using the interactive whiteboard. The music genres, the different moods and the instruments used were discussed.

Figure 16.14 Using the interactive whiteboard to demonstrate how to use Photostory

Learning about the many choices available when creating multimodal texts helps children to develop skills of critical analysis. This is important, as children can then understand the many choices authors and creators have when making movies and printed texts. Tamra originally planned the unit of work on fairytales using the multiliteracies map (see Figure 16.15). The children then used a simplified version of the four quadrants to check on the outcomes of the various future units that they were working on.

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Figure 16.15 Fairytale unit plan Functional user Print-oriented • Produces a quality sentence • Attempts correct spelling • Can edit own work • Has clear and legible handwriting • Puts speech marks in correct places • Includes fairytale criteria Auditory • Speaks clearly • Uses expression in voice • Chooses appropriate sound and music to communicate a message • Can communicate through sound Visual • Can tell a story through pictures • Attempts to use different perspectives to communicate a message • Uses digital camera effectively • Uses Photostory software

Meaning maker What is a fairytale? 1. 2. Understands that music and sound can communicate a meaning

Critical analyser What is a stereotype? 1. 2. An example ... I can answer the SEQs for a fairytale: • What is the message that is being communicated through the text? • Who is trying to communicate the message? • Who are they trying to communicate the message to? • Whose opinion is it? • What questions do you have about the text? • Is anything missing from the text? I can understand whose perspective a fairytale is being told from. Example:

Transformer Chooses a suitable fairytale. Retells a fairytale from the perspective of another character Communicates it in a print-oriented way Communicates it in a visual way Communicates it in an auditory way Successfully writes a fairytale using all the criteria

Throughout this process of constructing different fairytale texts, Tamra viewed the role of critical analyser as very important. The children used SEQs (or six essential questions) to be critical analysers. These essential questions grew out of inquiry-based learning approaches where it was suggested that teachers pose questions to stimulate critical thinking, thus avoiding simple literal questions. The questions also require the child to form an opinion or make a decision and present evidence to support their opinions. Essential questions can be used with any text—visual, auditory, print. In Tamra’s class the six essential questions were:

Multiliteracies

• • • • • •

What is the message that is being communicated through the text? Who is trying to communicate the message? Who are they trying to communicate the message to? Whose opinion is it? What questions do you have about the text? Is anything missing from the text?

The six essential questions work well with narrative text, and they also work well with information texts. For example, when reading information texts children need to question the message or opinion communicated through the text. They need to think about who is communicating the information and whether anything is missing from it. Learning to ask questions about all kinds of texts stimulates comprehension and critical thinking.

Fairytale unit of work summary The children’s photo stories were all very different narratives using the features of a narrative text, a six-frame photo slide showing sequence, selected music either per photo frame or continuously throughout the story to build mood and feelings, as well as the child’s voice-over to fit the timed sequence. In the small presentations the children used linguistic, audio, visual and spatial modes of communication. The linguistic mode included spoken and written language in a narrative structure; the audio included music and voice to communicate the narrative; the visual included drawing, sculpture and colours to communicate the story; and the spatial involved layout, design and space to create the visual photo story. The children were carefully supported or scaffolded to achieve success. They were shown the importance of planning each step carefully. For example, in the beginning children were shown how to analyse or deconstruct the text elements of the Little Red Riding Hood fairytale and check this by reading numerous versions of the story. The children searched for narrative features to do with the characters’ setting, goals, problemsolving, resolution and so on. The children understood how authors play with and change aspects of the story to create a new tale. After learning how to critically analyse a text for its narrative features, they then used these features to create new texts. First they created a new fairytale in written language format. Then they made a visual story board with six frames and created three-dimensional plasticine figures of the story characters. Next they photographed the characters in various settings and moved the photographs into Photostory software in the correct sequence. They applied a voice-over and music. The stories were a culmination of 10 weeks of work. The multiliteracies map framework helped the children to understand that they were functional users, meaning makers, critical analysers and transformers,

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and this framework was used in assessing the unit of work. For example, in functional user the children were learning the code or conventions of written and spoken narrative texts plus learning to use software for digital cameras and Photostory. In meaning maker, the children focused on comprehending the literal, interpretive and inferential meanings of the actual text—either print or video—and how a text connects and affects the emotions of the audience or reader. In critical analyser, critical thinking and analysis skills related to accuracy, authenticity and the author’s message or intentions were analysed for values or moral purpose. Children also compared and contrasted versions of stories and why these stories have been told to children for many years. In transformer, they combined the structure or elements of text and created new texts using a range of different communication modes.

Discussing the issues E-books and paper books Should schools and preschools go electronic or should books be in traditional print form? Both types of books are important. E-books are becoming very popular with Google, in cooperation with several dozen research libraries worldwide, digitising books at the rate of 3000 a day. The increasing use of e-book readers means that reading is being both reimagined and re-engineered, made over creatively as well as technologically (Kirschenbaum 2007). A study comparing the interactions between mother and child reading using traditional print format and an electronic book found more complex talk took place with the electronic book (Kim & Anderson 2008). E-books have been found to be effective with children with reading difficulties and with advanced readers (Weber & Cavanaugh 2006; Korat & Shamir 2008). More research is required to explore the type of reading using electronic books on iPads and computers. Some narrative texts may be easy to access electronically, while reading for information may be better with traditional print format.

Software issues Some studies point out the advantages of technology in facilitating young children’s emergent literacy (Liang & Johnson 1999). For example, preschool children who were introduced to different types of literacy software were found to improve in their spelling and story writing and the children most ‘at-risk’ were found to benefit the most. As well as having cognitive advantages, computers have been found to be sophisticated tools of play, providing appropriate software is used. When using computers for play,

Multiliteracies

there must be a match between the child’s development and the program, as too much complexity will dull enthusiasm and too much rigidity and end-product mastery may inhibit play and learning. If computers are used primarily for ‘drill and practice’ the programs are made too easy and encourage a ‘push and see’ attitude, where no mental effort is required to reach an end state.

Organisation of technology Many classrooms in the early years of school have at least one computer and some have three or more, with networks of computers in resource rooms or libraries. One issue that has been noted in several research studies is the importance of the organisation of the classroom so that small groups or pairs can use computers (Labbo et al. 2000). Productive use of time is very important, especially if computers are used with children who are having difficulties with literacy.

Chapter summary Literacy learning in early childhood education is changing as a result of new technologies. As these become more sophisticated, the national boundaries will blur and children and teachers will depend more and more on the internet for information. Teachers and students will find themselves jumping constantly across modes of information, guided by icons. New learning and teaching in early childhood will involve multimodal thematic-connected projects and ways of integrating visual and verbal learning in the curricula of the future. However, now, and in the near future, we will see more consumer-oriented, market-dominated consumption in a world teeming with information and services. Young children are more and more becoming the target for multimodal marketing, and educators and children will need to develop very stringent critical analysis of the purposes and uses of texts. Further research into multiliteracies in early childhood education is important because technological change is increasingly redefining the nature of literacy. Reading and writing will become even more important in the future because of the increasing need to acquire and communicate information rapidly in a world of global competition and information economies. We live in a time where speed of information is central to success, and reading and writing proficiency will be even more critical to our children’s futures. There has been a plethora of research on the impact of television on children. However, the internet as a source of information, education and entertainment is set to have a far greater impact on the lives and learning

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of young children. It is essential for us to consider, for example, how interactive, game-based entertainment will affect children’s play and learning. How will new technologies transform children’s dispositions or ‘habitus’, or ways of thinking? As children play, think and learn, this learning becomes internalised as structures, schemas or ways of thinking that can be used in other contexts. How will the increasing engagement with multimodal literacies change the ways children think and learn? New technologies continue to transform the lives of young children in their home and informal learning contexts, and so an education system that is meaningful and relevant to the lives of young children in the 21st century is vital.

CHAPTER 17

Teaching English language learners

Children whose first language is not English may have limited skills in English, but they may well have well-developed language and literacy skills in their first (and other) languages.

(McNaughton 2002, p. 18)

(This chapter was written in conjunction with Lisa Nechvoglod.) Immigration brings together groups of people with different languages, social and cultural practices and experiences. In Australia there are over 240 languages (ABS 1996). Historically, Australian policy has focused on assimilation, resulting in the loss of many languages and cultural practices. However, in the early years of the new millennium society has come to view the increasing diversity more positively, and has tried to include and adapt to the changes and influences from other cultures. The cultural exchange has been both ways with many traditions and customs finding their way into the practices of the wider society and newly arrived people taking up Australian customs and incorporating them into their own cultural practices. The right to practise and feel proud of our individual and shared cultural heritage and to have our own unique language, cultural practices and experiences equally valued is something society needs to encourage and continue working towards. Orellana and Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Warte (2010) argue that bilingual childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s special forms of competence should be recognised and capitalised on or they may be lost as the children grow older. Bilingual children have important linguistic knowledge that they can use flexibly, and with increasing global flows of information and populations these skills will be even more useful.

Controversy and debate The area of teaching children English is full of controversies and debates, and this is illustrated by the terms that are used. For example, children who have English as a first language are known as L1, and bilingual children engaged in English language learning are ELL or L2. Some ELL children are engaged in English as a second language instruction (ESL) in

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programs where they are removed from the classroom, and in some classrooms all children receive instruction in ESL. In addition, in many countries children receive instruction in English as a foreign language or EFL. The approach to teaching swings like a pendulum between experiential/ constructivist orientations and teacher-centred didactic approaches. There is overwhelming evidence that one or two years of instruction may be sufficient for the acquisition of conversational fluency in English but that at least five years (and frequently more) are required for children to bridge the gap in academic English between them and their native English-speaking peers. Cummins (2000) points out three dimensions of language proficiency—conversational fluency, discrete language skills, and academic language proficiency. These three dimensions develop concurrently and are not totally independent of each other.

Conversational fluency Conversational fluency is the ability to carry on a conversation in familiar face-to-face situations. This involves simple grammatical constructions, high-frequency words and the use of facial expressions, gestures and intonation to communicate meaning. This usually develops within a year or two of exposure to the language, either in school or in the out-of-school environment.

Discrete language skills Discrete language skills involve specific phonological, literacy and grammatical knowledge that results from instruction in reading and writing. Knowledge of letters, sounds, spelling, capitalisation, punctuation and grammatical rules (such as that pluralisation can be adding ‘s’ or ‘es’ to words, and ‘took’ rather than ‘taked’ is the past tense of the verb take.).

Academic language proficiency

Just because a child has everyday conversational fluency does not mean they can read and write and talk using the academic language of school.

Academic language includes understanding the linguistically and conceptually demanding texts in various content areas. As children progress through school they have to interpret and produce increasingly complex written and spoken language. These three language proficiencies highlight several ideas for teaching. Just because a child has everyday conversational fluency does not mean they can read and write and talk using the academic language of school. Also, a child may have learned the discrete language skills and be able to decode the words in a book but this does not ensure that the child comprehends what is read. What is clearly apparent is that one or two years of instruction in English are not sufficient for success in both discrete language skills and academic language proficiency.

Teaching English language learners

It is important to note the practices for teaching a second language are largely the same as those used to teach a first language; however, there are a few differences that teachers need to consider. This chapter draws on examples of practical techniques from the various theories related to language development, as they all have some merit when teaching English to young children. The limitations and problems associated with these theories need to be acknowledged, although this is not the aim of this chapter. For more information on theory and the problems of these views, refer to the work of Jones, Diaz and Harvey (2002)—their work is a good example of a critical examination of these theories in relation to bilingualism.

Theories of language acquisition and development in young children There have been several theories relating to language development and acquisition, ranging from behaviourism and direct instruction to more child-centred constructivist approaches. It is important to note when examining theory related to literacy, or any other topic, that ‘… each view of literacy is embedded in the political, social and philosophical context of the time and has a profound influence on how children are taught literacy in the early years’ (Barratt-Pugh 2000, p. 1). A good example of this is the earlier belief that it was harmful for children to be exposed to more than one language too early in life and ‘… that there would be considerable confusion on the child’s part and that normal language development would be delayed’ (Hakuta 1986, p. 1). Today this idea seems implausible, given that more recent research has shown children flourish in bilingual and multilingual homes and schools with the proper support. Contrary to the findings of previous research, the bilingual children performed reliably better than the monolinguals on both the verbal and the nonverbal measures. The bilingual children’s superiority in nonverbal tests was more clearly evident in those subtests that required mental manipulation and reorganization of visual patterns, rather than simple perceptual abilities. A statistical analysis of the structure of the relationship between the different measures indicated that the bilinguals were superior to the monolinguals in concept formation and in tasks that required a certain mental or symbolic flexibility … bilinguals enjoy a certain advantage in ‘cognitive flexibility’ over their monolingual counterparts (Hakuta 1986, pp. 34–5).

The psycholinguistic theory of early childhood bilingualism emphasises the individual’s cognitive strategies and skills used when learning a new language and their interaction with the environment (Clancy & Finlay 2001). Psycholinguistic theory focuses on the idea that language is a system of rules, and humans are predisposed to understand these rules and generate language (Emmitt, Pollock & Komesaroff 2003). It argues

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that children and adults can produce and understand sentences that have never been heard before and therefore humans must be predisposed to generate and understand language. It is in opposition to behaviourist theory, which emphasises the idea that aspects of language have to be taught by direct instruction. Socio-cultural theory sees literacy developing from children’s social and cultural experiences, with and through their families, communities and cultures. This theory views community and family as having a positive input into each individual’s literacy experience and development and argues that these are vital for each child’s literacy development. The development of an individual’s identity is strongly linked with social interactions in their community and family. Vygotsky (1986), Heath (1983) and Halliday (1985) have all influenced the development of the socio-cultural theory. Their theories relate to the significance of social interaction between an adult, assumed to be more knowledgeable, and child, and the connections between culture and learning which support assisted collaboration between adult and child. Theories are important when thinking about teaching practices. However, it is important to highlight the idea that when children are learning a new language they are learning more than just words and grammatical rules; they are learning the social context of the new language. Teachers need to be aware, as much as is possible, of the cultural and social practices and how these affect the child. Each child’s experience of literacy is different; therefore, they have different understandings of how to do literacy, what literacy is and when certain literacies are used. They may have a different understanding of how language works and have to adapt to the new language and develop the necessary structural systems. Children ‘… work within a communication system, which consists of language structure (sound structure, inflection, syntax), content (meaning), and use (purposes of communication, appropriate forms of communication) … knowledge about meaning, language functions (pragmatics), discourse genres, and more complex syntax continue to develop during schooling and into adulthood’ (Scott 1995). There are several points that teachers who are successful in teaching English share (Genishi, Yung-Chan & Stires 2000). 1 flexibility and adaptability in the curriculum enables the teacher to accommodate group preferences, individual variation and encourages connectedness to curriculum by making it relevant and interesting to young children 2 teachers have ‘high expectations … they expect every apprentice … to become master learners’ 3 teachers encourage and value communication and relationships with their children.

These theories all tie in with the classroom practices of Donna YungChan (teacher of young children) who believes that children learn English through experience.

Teaching English language learners

Methods of teaching English to young children There are three well-known ways to teach a new language to a child or adult. Here we are talking about teaching English but these methods apply equally to any language (Hakuta & Snow 1986).

Full English immersion The ‘full English immersion’ method of language acquisition is where children are placed in an environment where interactions and information are solely in English. This means all classes are taught in English, and all support materials for classes and information in classrooms are in English. This is thought to be an effective means for teaching English to young children as they are particularly efficient at acquiring new languages. Children may also be removed from the classroom setting for one-on-one instruction in English as a means to further develop their language skills (ESL classes). This method relies on children learning English through their interaction with other children and teachers in the classroom.

Bilingual education This method focuses on the use of both the native language and English language to instruct and encourage English acquisition. Studies have shown that bilingual education actually enhances the understanding and knowledge of the first language (Lambert, Genesee, Holobow & Chartrand 1991).

Transitional approach The first bilingual approach is called the ‘transitional approach’, and begins with teaching classes in both the native language and English, with the eventual withdrawal of the native language. This withdrawal occurs when the children become more comfortable with English and feel more at ease about being able to communicate and learn in English.

Maintenance approach The ‘maintenance approach’ involves the children learning English while maintaining their own language. The foundation of this method is that the two languages have equal value and in this case English does not replace the children’s native language.

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Two-way bilingualism The third approach of bilingualism is ‘two-way bilingualism’. In this approach, all the children in the class learn both English and the native language, with approximately half of all lessons being taught in English and the other half taught in the native language. This removes the emphasis of learning a new language from the non-English speakers and values the non-English language (Arthur et al. 1996). This method is also beneficial as it provides the opportunity for all the children in the classroom to learn a new language.

Primary language The third method for teaching English involves the development of literacy in the native language before moving to either the full English immersion approach or one of the three bilingual approaches discussed above. Key concepts, knowledge and important skills are taught in the child’s native language, and as time progresses English is slowly integrated and the skills and knowledge relating to English language are also introduced. This allows the children to maintain their own language skills while using these to build their capacity to speak and understand English. According to Espinosa and Burns (2003), this is considered to be the most effective way to teach English to children. It is less threatening and daunting than full English immersion and, unlike bilingualism, it actually helps maintain and develop the children’s native language.

Practical ideas for teaching language to young children The first and most important factor in teaching English or any language to a child is the need for teachers to show respect for the child, and their native language and culture (Gollnick & Chinn 1990). This helps create a safe and nurturing environment where the child feels comfortable taking the necessary risks involved in learning a new language. Additionally, if teachers have a positive attitude, they model this behaviour and set a good example in their classroom, contributing to the development of a healthy classroom culture. Developing understanding among the other children in the class of the needs and feelings of ESL children is also very important (Arthur et al. 1996). With respect and support as the basis for classroom interaction, the following practical examples can be used to effectively teach English to children. Teachers of ESL children should strive to think of creative and fun ways to teach the children English.

Teaching English language learners

Understanding the level of language acquisition One way teachers can make children feel more comfortable is by attempting to learn some phrases in the child’s native language and, if possible, teach the other children in the class some simple greetings and responses. It is vital that teachers try to gain some understanding of the level of language acquisition possessed by the child or children in their class and also that of the child’s parents, to better assist them in their attempts to teach the child (Arthur et al. 2008). The method of teaching English should be discussed with the parents and, where possible, the parents’ preferences should be accommodated—for example, do they want their child to have one-on-one English instruction?

Involving parents Finding ways to involve the children’s parents in classroom activities is another way of encouraging and supporting the new children (Arthur et al. 2008). It is useful for parents, if possible, to be involved in explaining new concepts from the classroom to the child in their own language. This helps the child to gain a better understanding of concepts and their use, and further enhances the link between school and home (Lenters 2003). Other activities parents could be involved in include talking to the class and showing photos and artefacts from their country and culture. The whole class could also be involved in learning activities based on finding

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out about different countries and cultures—including a special food day, where foods from different countries are cooked and shared. Parents could come in and help cook if they were able. Involving parents in this way helps by placing value on the use of their native language and culture.

Assigning buddies In the initial few weeks, finding a ‘buddy’ and assigning them to any new children is very helpful. Try to find another child in the same class and of the same gender, and if possible someone who speaks the same language. Buddies can be responsible for showing the children around and explaining the routines and activities of the class in their native language, and helping the new children to adjust to the classroom routine.

Maintaining predictable routines To aid new children, either ESL or other, it is important to establish and maintain predictable routines in class (Arthur et al. 1996). Also, English language learners can have non-verbal class jobs so that they can contribute to the classroom despite the language barrier. Later, as ESL children develop more language proficiency, they can be given different jobs which require them to increase their verbal interactions with other children in the class. These jobs are important, as they help new children to feel part of the class.

Teaching English language learners

Talking to children When talking to ESL children there are a few points that are useful to keep in mind. Literacy efficiency depends on other forms of non-linguistic information to aid the language learner in their attempt to understand and gather appropriate information relating to the context, meaning and significance of the words they hear. Try to avoid any culturally specific expressions, speak slowly and clearly, using gestures and visual cues, and try to involve the child at every possible opportunity, bearing in mind that some children may be more keen than others to participate in activities and opportunities to talk. Begin with simple words and repeat and rephrase if necessary. It is also important to correct any mistakes that children make, especially when it relates to how they understand concepts or words; in these situations it is important to focus on what the child means rather than what the child is saying. Also it is important to be aware of the type of feedback you give childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;try to focus on specific correction. Also try to expand the language of the ESL child, encouraging them to try new words and ideas. Even if they experience difficulties they should always be encouraged.

Providing classroom materials It is important for ESL children to have access to a variety of texts written in their own language. These can be books, signs, newspapers or other common household and environmental print items. Do not limit these items to a particular section in the classroom; place them all around the classroom. Useful books for ESL children include concept books, as they are not culturally specific, and high-interest picture books. Books with predictable patterns of text, repetition and short rhythmic text encourage reading and enjoyment. Rhymes are also useful when teaching English as they are fun and tend to be repetitive.

Making word cards Children can make books or cards with words and pictures on them to remind them of high-usage words or words related to topics currently being studied by their class. If these are grouped together (e.g. names of animals or weather words) they help children remember the context of the word, thus aiding memory of the word and its meaning. These books or cards could include the words in the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s native language, depending on the level of language acquisition, and parents could help the teacher and child with this activity. For ease of transition into school, the teacher should try to focus initially on teaching school-related vocabulary so the child can manoeuvre around the school more easily.

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Using songs

Songs are fun and memorable and therefore useful for teaching languages.

Singing is a familiar medium for communicating with young children, as songs cross cultures and language barriers. This is also an effective method for teaching English (Genishi, Yung-Chan & Stires 2000). Children enjoy singing and the songs can be integrated into other learning activities. Songs are useful as they are sung at a reasonably fast pace and so promote natural phonological features such as linking. Repetition of key phrases or choruses in songs helps children memorise these verses and encourages them to participate. Verses may also contain chunks or sections of language that children are able to use or adapt for use in other situations. Songs are fun and memorable and therefore useful for teaching languages. Singing also makes children happy and allows them to move around and make noise, which is important for expending any extra energy and diffusing any apprehension young language learners may feel. Many songs have accompanying actions and these are fun and exciting for young children and help to keep them interested and stimulated. Songs like ‘Heads and Shoulders’ are useful as they contain information about body parts and this can be used as a stepping-stone to develop further lessons on the human body and its functions. Finally, songs encourage children to be actively involved in their learning, and this is important to help empower them and encourage positive active learning.

Making books Another useful, creative and fun classroom activity for young ESL children is the creation of their own books. Children can write and illustrate their own books and then read them back to their classmates using their memory and pictures for cues. It is easier for children to read their own books with confidence as the story is familiar and does not have any unknown vocabulary, syntax or cultural references. Alternatively, if children are too young or unable to write they can dictate the text to either their teacher or other children to write for them. This enables them to develop good links with other children and also assists ESL children’s understanding of context and culture, as they are able to use the language and ideas of their classmates to extend and develop their own language. The complexity of these books will depend on the author’s skill level, and they should include pictures and drawings as visual keys for the reader (Sutton 1998). Again, if possible, parents can be involved in translating and contextualising children’s stories. Also, parents can write any words in their native language under the English words the child is having difficulty with. This helps to give the child confidence when reading their story aloud to the class. Children should not be discouraged on any occasion from reading or writing in their native language.

Teaching English language learners

Reading aloud Storybooks, as well as home and classroom activities, can provide the context for children to construct their own narratives (Stormont et al. 2003). Read-aloud activities should be structured into classroom activities as they are vital to the development and learning of language in children, whether it is a second or first language. Where possible, children should read one story a day, taking turns to read aloud. They should be encouraged to respond to the story and ask questions about what is happening in the story, depending, of course, on the age and level of language development for ESL children. This gives the teacher an opportunity to discuss any concepts or confusing words that are in the story. Try to pick stories that are simple and repetitive, allowing children to predict text and meaning. This makes understanding easier and provides other non-linguistic guides to what is happening in the story. Recounts about familiar events or routines are useful, as they maintain children’s interest and provide some structures to help understand the story—for example, shopping or birthdays are generally familiar events to most children. Additionally, language play or manipulation of language through rhymes, jokes, riddles and tongue twisters are very useful to develop and enhance oral language skills. These forms of language manipulation are often used in other cultures and so are familiar to young children. Often rhymes, like songs, are chanted in unison and so provide a safe and risk-free, fun environment in which to practise language out loud.

Sharing Sharing is another less structured event which is useful for encouraging children to talk aloud in the classroom. Teachers must be careful that ESL children are given opportunities in a safe, supportive environment to talk and ask questions (Barnitz 1998). ESL children will probably need extra help and support from the teacher to express themselves so they can participate in sharing time. Other classmates need to be aware that ESL children may speak more slowly, make mistakes or not be able to express themselves as easily as English speakers, and they need to show patience in this situation and not discourage the efforts of the ESL children. Despite the difficulties that some ESL children may experience with sharing, it is still a useful way to enhance oral language so should be encouraged where possible. Once again, teachers can encourage ESL children’s attempts at speaking by rephrasing and repeating what they say and asking questions to prompt conversation. If children make mistakes, gently and carefully correct these, being mindful not to make the child feel inferior or selfconscious.

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Storytelling Storytelling in the classroom is very useful when teaching a language to children. Storytelling should include books about familiar events or themes. Try to include stories from the children’s country of origin, including events and cultural practices. This is vital when trying to provide an environment which is supportive and accepting of difference. Children can also be supported to tell stories about their cultural heritage. Parents can be encouraged to come to the class and tell stories about their culture and country, which not only provides enriching experiences for children but also helps children and parents build a stronger bond with other classmates and the teacher. Stories can be fun or dramatic, discuss important events in children’s lives, and explain natural phenomena. Children enjoy hearing the same stories again, and this repetition helps them learn. Themes from stories can be used as the basis for classroom learning activities, thereby extending children’s learning experiences and understandings. Stories provide rich food for the imagination of young children as well as information relating to language structure and cultural practices. Most children enjoy hearing stories and storytelling is a common cultural practice.

Encouraging collaborative activity Teachers need to organise the classroom so there are ample materials which provide opportunities for collaborative hands-on events. Thought needs to go into how children will be organised into groups, and what activities will encourage group activity and interaction. This is important, as ‘effective teaching and learning occurs in collaborative activities with teachers and peers’ and ‘collaboration as a process of inquiry also enhances the motivation to learn’ (Tracey & Morrow 1998). Children naturally want to engage with other children and so teaching them some practical words to enable interaction with other children is useful. Additionally, if there are bilingual children in the class it is useful to group these together so more able children can act as translators, and children are able to use their native language to solve problems and discuss issues. This also reinforces the view that using different languages is acceptable in the classroom. It is also useful to group together children who have varying language abilities as children learn from each other. This is supported by research carried out by Fassler (1998), who found that young children looked to the teacher and other children as their role models. Fassler also found that in a class situation children who shared the same language could support each other linguistically and culturally, enhancing their understanding and acquisition of English.

Teaching English language learners

Chapter summary It is vital that teachers of ESL children respect, support and empower children to feel proud of their bilingual skills and their efforts to learn English. Where possible, encourage the involvement of the parents or others who speak the child’s native language to participate in classroom activities. Other English-speaking children in the class should be supportive of ESL children. Always remember that children are all different and therefore learn at different rates and under different conditions. Teachers need to encourage and praise all efforts made by children when trying to learn a new language, and be aware of their interactions and any assumptions about language and culture. Remember that good literacy instruction is useful for all children, not just ESL children. Strive to c reate a positive and supportive environment where the children feel they are able to experiment and practise language skills without reprimand. It is important to be patient and supportive of children’s attempts to master English. Be creative with your classroom practice, incorporating as many different media and techniques as possible. Create an environment of respect and empathy among all children. Try to create links with parents and take their wishes into account as much as possible. Finally, empower the child at every opportunity.

Websites to explore http://www.learnenglish.org.uk/kids/ A site of games and stories to help children learn English http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/literature/children_lit.shtml Learning English through children’s literature

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Managing the literacy Âprogram

Teachers plan, organise, lead, coordinate and support childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning

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‘Let’s go and swim and play and SEE things!’ he said happily. ‘We can’t,’ said the little red fish. ‘The big fish will eat us all.’ ‘But you can’t just lie there,’ said Swimmy. ‘We must THINK of something.’ Swimmy thought and thought and thought. Then suddenly he said, ‘I have it! We are going to swim all together like the biggest fish in the sea.’ He taught them to swim close together, each in his own place. And when they had learned to swim like one giant fish, he said, ’I’ll be the eye.’ And so they swam in the cool morning and in the midday sun and chased the big fish away.

(Swimmy, L Lionni, 1968)

In the book Swimmy, the small fish wanted to swim and play and see things but they were terrified that a big fish would attack them and eat them. By swimming together, they formed the shape of a very big fish and this scared off their predators. This chapter describes how early childhood classrooms and centres can be places where children shine, and where both children and teachers are happy learning. Young children’s learning is enhanced when the wellbeing of everyone is the core idea. In a collaborative learning community, children have an increased sense of wellbeing, inclusion and acceptance of difference. Literacy learning is enhanced when intellectual conflict, discussion of ideas and quality of thinking is encouraged. In order to work towards a collaborative classroom, teachers and children need a host of cooperative learning strategies to draw on so that all children, regardless of ability, have turns to speak and listen, so that small groups work effectively and whole class procedures are agreed on.

Cooperative learning in action

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The following is an example of how a preschool teacher worked to encourage bubbly preschoolers to build something together cooperatively. Sarah, the teacher, sees cooperative learning as essential for promoting a community of learners who play and learn together. The preschool is in a community

Small groups in the collaborative classroom

where 50 per cent of parents are single mothers and most children live in low-income families. Cooperative strategies are used to promote learning in both the academic and social areas. However, cooperative behaviours do not happen overnight, even with an experienced, committed teacher like Sarah. Sarah has clear goals in her cooperative learning program which are: to model cooperative behaviour, to provide opportunities for practice, to give feedback and to explain to the children why cooperative learning is important. The following case study shows some of the challenges, the frustrations and the successes of cooperative learning—and why cooperative learning is so important.

CASE STUDY

Building together One morning, a group of 4-year-old boys were playing with waffle blocks and stickle bricks. Daniel and Angus are from Anglo backgrounds, Richard is Aboriginal and Cain belongs to a family from El Salvador. Today Sarah intervened in the play because the children were using stickle bricks in a ‘right angle’ shape and pointing them at each other. Sarah:

What do you call that?

Angus:

It’s a statue freezer.

Sarah:

How does it work?

Daniel:

Well this bit comes off and freezes people when it hits them.

Sarah:

It looks like a gun to me [raising her eyebrows]. Let’s come over here and see what else we can make from the stickle bricks.

(Sarah thought the four boys needed challenging and extending and that this would stop the repetitive ‘gun play’.) Sarah:

Can you see if you can all work together to build something where you all help each other? What could we make?

Daniel:

A car.

Cain:

An aeroplane.

Angus:

A robot.

Richard:

A man.

Sarah:

OK, let’s think. Let’s make one thing and work on it together.

Daniel and Cain:

A car.

[Each boy then proceeded to make a car with four wheels.]

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Sarah:

But aren’t you working together to make one car? One big car together? How will you help each other work together?

In the end Sarah removed the wheels so there were only four left. For quite a while Cain and Daniel had two-wheeled cars and there was no way they would share the bricks or put them together to make one four-wheeled car. There was no talk, just glaring. Richard started to cry because he didn’t get a turn. ‘How can you ask for a turn, Richard?’ said Sarah. Somehow Angus took over and placed the two pieces together to make one. Sarah nearly gave up, but after 20 or so minutes there was the most amazing car made of 30 pieces of stickle brick. The boys had begun to talk, to negotiate. Sarah took a photograph and she made this sign dictated by the group:

Please leave OUR car. We made this car together. We had to think of how to build it. We all put it together. This is our monster car we made together. ‘Note the OUR,’ said Sarah happily. (Of course in the very next second the boys collaboratively built a big gun on top of the car, but that’s another story!)

This example showed how preschoolers often play competitively as individuals and they need a lot of teacher scaffolding to move into cooperative play. The value of encouraging cooperative play lies in oral language development as well as social development, as working with others demands articulating problems and ways of solving them.

Cooperative learning is an intervention strategy When children form groups ‘naturally’ they join up with friends or people who are like them. Cooperative learning is an intervention strategy because it encourages children to play and work with people who are not friends or people who are different. We draw more on our cooperative skills when we work or play with people we do not know and we try harder to communicate and cooperate with people who do not agree with everything we say and do. In spontaneous play, children with learning difficulties and who struggle with reading, children who are different, and children who do not have well-developed social skills are often excluded. Katz (1987) suggests that young children often cannot break these negative cycles on their own. ‘The young child’s capacity to understand the cause of his or her social difficulties and to make the necessary adjustment is virtually nil. Adults must intervene to break faulty cycles’ (p. 13).

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Cooperative learning is a teaching approach that challenges the notion that the young egocentric child is the centre of his or her universe and is unaware that others see things differently. Yarrow and Waxler (1977) studied 11/2- to 2-year-olds and found that young children comfort others in pain by patting, hugging or giving an object, even putting on a BandAid. Young children do have compassion and reach out to others. It is the environment, the culture that teachers set up, that promotes cooperation, individualism or competition. Cooperative learning is an intervention in children’s learning to promote both academic and social skills. Cooperative learning has a long history.

Cooperative, individualised and competitive learning Cooperative learning can be traced to the work of John Dewey (1916) who viewed the classroom and kindergarten as a microcosm of the larger society. He saw the classroom as a strong community of individuals, aware of their interdependence as a community. Dewey claimed that children can learn the skills of cooperative living through participation in the community of the classroom and he promoted the use of cooperative learning methods in schools (Kotloff 1993; Johnson & Johnson 1991). Cooperative learning is not just putting children into groups, as this may actually increase the social exclusion of some children. There are seven differences between cooperative and traditional groups (Johnson & Johnson 1991). Figure 18.1 Cooperative groups versus traditional groups Cooperative groups

Traditional groups

positive interdependence common goals heterogeneous groups changing membership shared leadership group and individual responsibility cooperative skills are taught

no positive interdependence no common goals homogeneous groups static membership one leader no group or individual responsibility no cooperative skills taught

Positive interdependence Positive interdependence occurs when each person in the group has a part to play. Puppet plays are an excellent example of how positive interdependence can work. Children create individual puppets, assign them roles then create a puppet play. Teachers can assist with plots, scripts and music suggestions. Class projects have been popular for years because

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they foster cooperation and a sense of group spirit among children while allowing them to express themselves fully as individuals (Katz & Chard 1989).

Common goals For a cooperative project to work, the group must share common goals. For example Kotloff (1993), describing Japanese preschools, notes that cooperative activities and individual work are both promoted. She describes an aeroplane project where a small group of children began making an aeroplane in free expression time. Over a few weeks the aeroplane construction evolved into a whole-class endeavour. The children planned the aeroplane project together in discussion led by the teacher. Then, working individually or in small groups, children implemented these plans during the free play period, then met again as a class to discuss their progress and plan what steps to take next. The children discussed the aeroplane in a class meeting, and these meetings were to serve as general guides as children could incorporate their own ideas. Some children made TV screens for the aeroplane and others made seats, wings and so on. The goals didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have to be identical, as some wanted to make the TV screens and others something different. Class projects where all work together can be balanced with time to work and play as an individual.

Heterogeneous groups There are times for children to work in different kinds of groupsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;at the same level of ability such as in guided reading groups, mixed ability groups and friendship groups. When children choose to be in a group they often choose friendship groups and we often find girls together, boys together, socially less proficient together, and those rejected or neglected are not chosen at all. Children with negative social cycles of behaviour find it difficult to break out. Adults must intervene to break faulty cycles (Katz 1987). Children can be randomly grouped according to first name initials, pairedâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;boy/girl, they may match coloured cards, or match jigsaw pieces. Random grouping and changing group membership work best because children then have the opportunity to work with everyone.

Changing group membership It is important for groups to change frequently so that everyone has a chance to work and play with new people. We can use story buddies and groups of three, but pairs work best when cooperative skills are first

Small groups in the collaborative classroom

being practised. Changing groups often increases heterogeneity by ability, gender, social status, ethnic or economic background, learning styles and content preferences (Baloche & Platt 1993).

Shared leadership The idea of winners and losers permeates many cultures, and organising the group so that one person does not have control or more than one person wins helps share leadership. Rather than having one person in charge, children can take turns to contribute ideas. Katz and Chard (1989) describe an excursion where the children visited the market. When they returned to the kindergarten, a large piece of paper was placed on the floor with one set of paints. Children discussed what they saw at the market then took it in turns to paint one idea. After one had had a turn, they called on another child to have a turn. The class mural was detailed and largely in proportion, and all the teacher did was fill in some white spaces between the objects. Some teachers rotate leadership roles and some break the leadership into various roles such as materials organiser, recorder, questioner, summariser, time keeper and so on. These roles can be listed on a chart and names rotated.

Group and individual responsibility Responsibility for self and for the group is related to self-esteem and an urge to contribute to someone, to yourself or the group. To build selfesteem and to show how to seek support from peers, many teachers have feedback circles or class meetings. In feedback circles the children gather in a circle and the teacher begins by telling the group who is absent, and welcoming new people or people who have been absent. There is a focus on the importance of individuals within the group and the idea that all have a responsibility for how the group works and learns. The topics for feedback circle may be products or processes to do with writing or artwork, or a topic chosen by the group.

Cooperative skills are taught In many early childhood centres and classrooms, cooperative skills are made explicit because this is a way to promote successful group behaviours and it is also a way to access mainstream culture for all children. Teachers demonstrate turn-taking and listening, and talk about avoiding put-downs. In class meetingsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;run by the classâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;each child plays a role in rotation. The teacher acts as a coach for them and if children are unsure of how to join or work with a group, the teacher coaches from the sidelines.

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Cooperative skills range from turn-taking and no put-downs to more complex negotiation skills like perspective taking and social problem-solving. Cooperative skills do not happen overnight, nor are they something children are born with. Cooperative skills are learnt from others and we learn and relearn them at different times and in different situations. To work effectively with others we continually remind ourselves to call on cooperative skills such as turn-taking, attentive listening, making eye contact, encouraging others, negotiating, and criticising the problem not the person. Figure 18.2 Cooperative skills Forming groups • making space for people • making pairs or circles • staying with the group • keeping hands and feet to yourself • forming groups without bothering others Communication • eye contact • taking turns • active listening • using quiet voices • using people’s names • eliminating put-downs Problem-solving • defining the problem • brainstorming • clarifying ideas • confirming ideas • elaborating ideas • seeing consequences • criticising ideas • organising information • finding solutions

CASE STUDY

Group roles • observer • recorder • summariser • encourager • clarifier • organiser • time keeper • predictor • code breaker • meaning maker • text user • text critic

Managing differences • stating position or problem • seeing the problem from another view • negotiating • mediating • reaching consensus

Making cooperative skills explicit In Lyn’s early childhood classroom, teaching cooperative skills was seen to be as important as teaching academic skills in reading and writing. Making cooperative skills explicit and providing practice and feedback was a cornerstone of her teaching. Lyn modified the work of Johnson and Johnson (1990) for suggestions on how to do this. She valued partner reading as a way for young children to practise reading to one another, with the listener responding with a question about the text. But

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some of the children in the class read on and on without taking turns. Others didn’t listen to their partner’s response, too keen on getting ready for their own turn. Lyn decided to make explicit what is involved in turn-taking. She chose one small cooperative skill and the smallest group possible, a pair. Two very successful turn-takers were asked to read in the middle of a circle with other children in a fishbowl around them. The class watched: Natasha:

Who wants to go first?

Rebecca:

You have first read.

Natasha:

How much will I read? It’s eight pages long.

Rebecca:

You read the whole book.

Natasha:

[reads…]

Rebecca:

My question is … where did she find her mum?

Natasha:

In the supermarket. She was there all the time. Your turn to read another book.

After the role-play, Lyn divided a piece of paper into three and said, ‘Let’s build a Y chart about turn-taking. What does it look like to take turns? What does it sound like to take turns and how does it feel when we take turns?’ Lyn used Y charts as a way of recording explicit cooperative behaviours. The children brainstormed ideas and the resulting Y chart was displayed in the classroom to remind children to use cooperative skills. Some very complex cooperative skills like clarifying are referred to constantly by the class. Feels like Looks like

Sounds like

The cooperative skills were written on the Y chart. Looks like:

eye contact, smiling, looking at the book

Feels like:

someone is helping, happy, sharing learning

Sounds like: can I have a turn, it’s your turn now, I have a question for you Once the skill was made explicit, children practised it. Sometimes Lyn sets a time limit like ‘You have four/five minutes to read’. Then the partner listens and asks a question. Lyn walked around commenting on the positive examples of turn-taking she observed.

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I saw Sam take turns. Jerri waited till it was his turn. Natasha watched the time so both people had a turn. Lyn claims that feedback provides clear and tangible evidence about what the teacher values. If a competitive academic curriculum is valued highly, the feedback will stress who succeeded and at what level. If cooperation and supporting others are valued, time will be set aside for describing how we worked. Actions speak louder than words—if we value cooperation, the time set aside for evaluating and providing feedback on how we work is critical. She says that feedback on cooperative skills is important for three reasons:

• it improves the ways we work together • it encourages individual and group responsibility for using cooperative skills

• it maintains the focus on using cooperative skills.

Small groups and cooperative learning Learning with a partner or a small group is very effective for encouraging children to read independently and to increase their fluency. Pair and group work is especially effective if a more experienced reader works with someone who is struggling. The more proficient reader learns to describe his or her reading strategies and this increases the other child’s metalinguistic awareness of the possible reading strategies to use. Chris Hastwell, an experienced teacher who uses cooperative learning, wrote about how she sets up small-group work at the beginning of the school year. She uses small-group work with children recently arrived from many different countries who are learning to speak English and has some tips for getting started.

Guidelines for using group work Group work is valuable because children:

• • • •

support each other work at their own level work independently of the teacher experience a variety of tasks.

These groups can be:

• •

homogeneous—children working at or near the same level heterogeneous—children of different levels working together.

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It is important that:

• • •

there is a child or children who can be chosen as the leader—it does not always have to be the same person children who may have disruptive behaviour are separated (this means not having two disruptive children in one group) the teacher can remove any children who disrupt the group.

Getting started • • •

Place the children in approximately five groups of six. Choose children who you think will work together well, and nominate a leader. Write up the groups and give each group a number from 1 to 6. Put a star by the leader’s name. Explain to the class that they will be working in small groups for some of the lesson, and that there are some rules to be followed to help the group work well.

Modelling behaviour

• • •

The teacher chooses a book for each group. For the first session, choose a group to demonstrate the smallgroup procedure. Ask the rest of the class to quietly stand around the circle and watch the group working. When the demonstration is finished, discuss the steps with the children.

Reading activity rules

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Our leader helps the group. I read quietly to myself. I read my book to my partner. I listen to my partner read. We read the book together. The leader reads the activity with us. We complete the activity quietly. The leader chooses one person to share their activity or read at the end of the session in sharing time. 9 We sit quietly listening to children sharing their activity. 10 The leaders quickly report to the class about how their group was working.

Establishing routines

•

Follow the rules from numbers 1 to 5 for the first two or three lessons. Just practise the reading until the children start to func-

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• •

tion as a cooperative group. When they achieve this, continue on with steps 6, 7 and 8. Eventually all rules will be well established and followed by each group. When all groups are working, move around the groups, helping and assessing how they are working together. When you start to do the reading activities, you will need to explain the activity to each group. As you progress, the children will become more familiar with the different tasks.

Beginning guided reading When this routine is established, the teacher can take one group per l esson for guided reading. The children chosen for this group need to be reading independently at the same level, and the book chosen for instruction will be one or two levels above that. At the end of each lesson, the teacher invites individual children or the group leader to give feedback on how well they worked together, using the reading activity rules (page 407).

Lesson outline Suggested lesson outline for a 40-minute lesson, using the same big book over four lessons:

•

shared reading with a big book (approx. 15 minutes)

– first lesson—read the book to the children for enjoyment – second, third and fourth lessons—choose a focus for each lesson •

small-group work (approx. 15 minutes)

– the activity after reading can be from their small reader, or • •

from the focus of the big book sharing reading or activity with the class (approx. 5 minutes) song, rhyme or chant (approx. 5 minutes)

In the fourth lesson, you may need to give children time to finish these activities.

Some of the best cooperative learning strategies Quick whip-around A group sits in a circle and each person offers feedback on their own individual contribution. Variations include individuals commenting on their peers’ efforts, for example, the person on their left. It is important that each group member receives feedback. A quick whip-around can also be used when c hildren sit in a circle and each participant is asked to reflect on and predict the content of a big book or picture book based on the cover.

Small groups in the collaborative classroom

Numbered heads Each person in a group is allocated or gives themselves a number. The teacher or observer can pose a question and, for example, all the number 4s give a response.

Think/pair/share Use think/pair/share after a group has listened to you read aloud. The children reflect for a minute or two on a question posed by you or by a group member. These reflections can be written down. The ideas are then shared with a partner. You could ask individuals to paraphrase the ideas given by their partner. Think/pair/share can be used to gather children’s responses or to gather questions readers may pose before reading the next chapter or section. Reactions to writing, and feedback to authors about their writing can be gathered in a quick, brief think/pair/share structure. All children contribute rather than one or two more articulate children.

Think/pair/four/share Each pair joins up with another pair and all take turns retelling by paraphrasing their partner’s ideas and responses. The group of four then attempts to reach consensus by combining or synthesising ideas. A summariser may then provide a summary or consensus of ideas for the class.

Red light—green light thinking Children discuss an issue in pairs, such as ‘Television should be banned’. One person nominates to take the green-light view and the other the redlight view.

• •

The green-light view symbolises growth, creativity, energy and divergent thinking. The green-light person brainstorms, looks at alternatives and seeks new ideas. The red-light view symbolises stop lights, danger, caution, reflection, convergent thinking and examines the consequences of various ideas and actions.

This structure works best if time is set aside first for the green-light view. Once the green-light brainstorm is exhausted the red light steps in to examine the consequences of the green suggestions.

Six hats The six thinking hats structure is used in many classrooms to generate divergent thinking and perspective-taking about a text. The cooperative structure offers great possibilities for discussing both information or narrative texts. For example, the question of whether it is possible to find a

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replacement for logging trees from rainforests was discussed after reading the picture book Where the Forest Meets the Sea by Jeannie Baker. Children in randomly selected groups of six were assigned a coloured hat (either concretely or symbolically). The hats were exchanged several times during the discussion. Sometimes children wear the same hat for the whole discussion. WHITE HAT: Information, facts only, not interpretations or arguments RED HAT: Emotions, how people may feel or how the red-hat person personally feels, uses intuition PURPLE HAT: Caution, judgement, looks at the consequences of any idea or action, is critical and plays devil’s advocate YELLOW HAT: Positive optimistic view, looks at the benefits of the idea GREEN HAT: Creative, divergent ideas, brainstorms, offers something that has not been said before BLUE HAT: Encourages others, monitors the process, makes sure each person has a turn, summarises what has been said, decides if people should change hats (adapted from Edward de Bono 2000)

EEKK An acronym for sitting eye to eye and knee to knee, EEKK structure promotes face-to-face interaction. The roles of listener/speaker, interviewer/ interviewee or affirmative/negative are assigned and children can be introduced to simple debating skills. For example, after children in groups of six had read a short story, they chose to debate the question of ‘Was it right for the children to cook alone in the kitchen?’ (The issue has to have two points of view.) The group of six split into pairs. One person took an affirmative role and worked out three arguments for ‘yes’. The other took a negative role and presented three arguments for ‘no’. Affirmative and negative roles were switched so both had a turn at exploring an issue from two sides. Then the pair tried to reach a compromise or consensus. The consensus was shared by each pair back in the group of six.

Huddle Like a football huddle, groups join together to answer questions put by the teacher. You could ask the group to predict what the book will be about, to predict what will happen when the page is turned or to suggest how the plot might be resolved. Speed is a factor here and all group members contribute. Interactive huddles may pose a question to ask other groups

Small groups in the collaborative classroom

across the classroom or, as a variation, each group could huddle to generate questions for the teacher.

Piggybacking One of the most difficult things for children to do is to acknowledge the ideas of others. One way to do this is for children to learn to paraphrase the comments of a speaker they agree with and piggyback on the idea. The child might say, ‘I agree [or disagree] that …’ then add their own comments. Piggybacking is something we all do. We all piggyback on each other’s ideas and depend on others for feedback on our ideas and for ways of refining and improving our teaching.

Round table In small groups, children share one piece of paper and a marker to record several ideas or answers. Call on groups to predict what will happen to the character in a picture book. The group huddles and shares responses. Several responses or one group summary may be recorded. Another version of this is to have one piece of paper and several pens and children write one idea on the piece of paper and pass it to the next person. Children can be in teams, recording all the prior knowledge they have about a topic before beginning research or further reading.

Literature think/pair/share After reading a book, the whole class forms pairs. The children are given time to think of words to describe the feelings of one of the characters—for example, exasperated, annoyed, rushed, furious. Pairs take turns to share their ideas. You may have to help the children build up images of what the character may be experiencing.

Three-step interview Pose a problem or a question about a book the class is reading, such as Hurry Up, Oscar by Sally Morgan. Oscar is always late for school and his mum continually asks if he is ready. In pairs the children assign themselves as person A and person B. Person B interviews A, who is role-playing Oscar’s mum. ‘What is happening in your house?’ person B asks Oscar’s mum. Person A responds, then asks Oscar (person B) what is happening. They take turns to interview each other. Pairs form a group of four and paraphrase their partner’s perspective for other members in the group.

Partner reading Partners assign themselves A or B. The pairs negotiate how much they will read before discussing the text. A reads a page or several pages of a novel. Then the text is covered and B summarises what has been read.

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Person A checks for key ideas left out. Both then create a word or a picture (metaphor or analogy) to help remember the information. B then reads the next paragraph then puts the text out of sight while A summarises, and so on.

Collaborative reading script The collaborative reading script is for partners to work together to understand texts. It works with non-fiction or fiction.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Flip a coin to see who will be Partner A and Partner B. Both partners read passage 1. When both are finished, put the passage out of sight. Partner A orally summarises the contents of passage 1. Partner B detects and corrects any errors in Partner A’s summary (metacognitive step). Both partners work together to develop images, metaphors etc. to help make the summarised information memorable. Both partners read passage 2.

Repeat steps 4 to 6 with partners reversing roles.

The benefits of cooperative learning Cooperative learning increases the amount of purposeful classroom talk, encourages reflection and deeper levels of thinking, and promotes learning. Communication skills are increased as children listen to and describe their thoughts and ideas about reading and writing. Participation skills are enhanced, as all children take part.

Promotes learning Talking about the way we read and write promotes elaboration and clarification of metacognitive strategies. Metacognitive language in literacy involves the description of and the ability to reflect on and choose a range of strategies and processes we engage in as we read and write. When others in the group challenge us to prove our ideas or to clarify our meaning, we paraphrase, reorganise ideas and explain our thinking processes using several examples to get the ideas across. We may expand on how we have formed ideas about the text, substantiate our ideas by rereading particular paragraphs or invite others to reread, taking a different interpretation or different point of view. Researchers comparing cognitive gains from cooperative, individualistic and competitive classroom structures claim that children retain more, generate more new ideas and solve problems faster in cooperative groups.

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Numerous studies investigating theories of how children learn indicate that higher level thinking is promoted when children work cooperatively (Johnson & Johnson 1991).

Communication skills When children work together in pairs or small groups, both reading and writing are enriched by the children’s spoken language. When we ask another writer to clarify information, the writer has to struggle a little to understand our point of view and find the words to explain what has not been said. As writers, we may have to paraphrase a sentence and find a more concise way of presenting an idea. We may criticise the way a picture book concludes and as a group point out what is unresolved and make suggestions for other conclusions. As the speaker explains, paraphrases and searches for new examples they are also considering the listener’s perspective to better reach and contribute to their understanding.

Increased participation of all learners

Just putting children into groups does not in itself promote learning, increase communication skills or encourage equal participation.

In classrooms there are a range of academic, cultural and linguistic differences and these differences can be used as resources so that all children grow and learn from each other. In a cooperative classroom, the teacher sets aside time for learning alone and learning with others. When a question is asked, a simple cooperative structure like think/pair/share is used. In a collaborative classroom there is equity of participation. The teacher structures for cooperative learning and observes pairs and groups in action. The cooperative group is structured differently from traditional groups. Just putting children into groups does not in itself promote learning, increase communication skills or encourage equal participation. High ability group members can take over the important leadership roles that benefit them at the expense of other group members, leading to the ‘rich get richer’ effect. The more articulate may do all the talking, and since the amount of talking correlates highly with the amount learnt, the more able learn more while the less able flounder as a captive audience (Johnson & Johnson 1991). Figure 18.3 Cooperative versus traditional structures Traditional Cooperative one person speaks no think time unequal participation same children do the talking no accountability

everyone speaks time to think equal participation all have a turn everyone listens to paraphrase partner’s ideas

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Chapter summary Cooperative learning helps those who struggle and need more support, but only if the whole group or class understands that we all have different skills and resources to use for mutual benefit. Cooperative learning underpins all that occurs in the classroom, and is based on the idea that cooperative skills have to be made explicit, learned and practised and that positive feedback is necessary. Small-group work takes time to establish, and there are different kinds of groups. Sometimes children will work with those at the same level of achievement and at other times random groups should be selected so that children with different strengths learn to work together and develop leadership skills. It is important to establish rules, and ensure that activities are part of the lesson routine. Teachers must expect each group to work well.

CHAPTER 19

Planning and managing literacy learning

Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day; teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime.

Teachers plan their literacy curriculum to meet their children’s interests and needs. They arrange the classroom so that there are spaces for children to investigate their interests, combining both work and play. Teachers can find out about children’s interests in several different ways: by observing and finding out what children choose to do in their free play time, by talking with children, or by visiting homes and communities and finding out what children choose to do. Careful teaching involves finding children’s interests and then organising and designing learning that builds on this. Effective teaching involves scaffolding so that children are actively involved in constructing knowledge and is based on the following principles (see Chapter 1):

• • • • • • •

children construct knowledge learning occurs through inquiry and investigation the processes of learning how to learn and solve problems are made explicit learning leads development learning occurs in social context language plays a central role in intellectual development the zone of proximal development.

Designing a literacy curriculum There are three main ways to plan a literacy curriculum (Vukelich, Christie & Enz 2002): by subject areas, multidisciplinary or integrated. However, at times teachers use a combination of these approaches.

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Subject-by-subject curriculum In a subject-by-subject curriculum, each subject has a separate time block during the day—the literacy block 9–10.30, mathematics block 11–12, and so on. Teachers make no deliberate attempt to show how subjects are related. Children use reading books and activities only in reading time, and mathematics books and activities only in mathematics time. Many preschool teachers find a formal ‘subject by subject’ approach is not appropriate to young children’s learning. Some teachers use a subject-based curriculum and place literacy at the centre of the classroom activities, linking art, social education and science into literacy.

Multidisciplinary curriculum In a multidisciplinary approach, teachers might choose a topic for study such as bears, family, flags or pigs, and work with this topic over days or weeks. They plan all their learning activities around this topic, including all subject areas. Sometimes there are topics that must be covered such as ‘my community’ and teachers work individually or in groups to list all the activities that fit this topic. Sometimes topics such as dinosaurs are chosen because the teachers know their children will enjoy them. In the following example, the teacher planned all the learning activities during the week around frogs.

Reading centre

• • • •

Writing centre

• • •

Display books from the library on frogs Read a big book on frogs Select small guided reading books on frogs Make several phonics charts on frogs

Children write and draw about frogs on cut out frog shapes Cloze activity: Frogs are … Frogs have … legs. A frog eats … Children copy a diagram of a frog and label the parts

Maths centre

• • •

Frog counting activity on a sheet Tracing around frog shapes and finding smaller shapes Frog stacking game

Planning and managing literacy learning

Science centre

• • •

Children cut and paste pictures of frogs Children sequence the life cycle of the frog Frog matching activity where frogs of various colours and patterns are matched and names are added.

Art centre

• •

Children colour frog face masks Children make frogs from egg cartons and cardboard

The learning centres may include fun activities, but the impression is that all the activities have been forced to suit the particular topic. The children’s learning is all about frogs, with no other topic considered and many of the ‘busy-work’ activities do not require children to be engaged in learning at all. The teacher put in a lot of work making worksheets and designing activities around the topic, but what were the children learning? What learning was occurring about frogs? Imagine if the children had to do the same multidisciplinary topic again in the following year because it was decided by the school or district that frogs was a unit of study!

Integrated curriculum An example of an integrated curriculum began at a small seaside school where the 5- to 7-year-old children became interested in dolphins when a dolphin became stranded on the beach and there were photographs in the newspaper. The teacher decided to plan learning activities around this topic by listing the questions that children had already asked in the classroom about dolphins such as ‘Are dolphins safe or endangered?’ ‘How long do dolphins live for?’ ‘How big are they?’ ‘Do they live alone and what happens when they get sick?’ ‘Do they talk in dolphin talk to each other?’ The teacher used these questions to come up with what is known as an essential question. This is one broad open-ended question, in this case, ‘What do dolphins need to be safe?’ From this essential question the teacher gathered together resources such as information books, CD encyclopedias, posters and relevant websites. Then they planned a trip, with several classes, to the nearby river estuary where there was a dolphin tracking research project being conducted as well as a visitors’ centre. Children discussed their questions further in class and made a list of questions to ask the researchers. The teacher took digital photographs of the children’s visit to the research centre and recorded their interactions with the researchers and the dolphins at the centre. This was later made into a large shared book that was designed around the children’s questions which had been refined into:

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1 2 3 4 5

The integrated unit of study was a negotiation between what the teacher knew about literacy learning and the children’s interests …

What kinds of dolphins are there? Do dolphins come from eggs? Do dolphins live alone or in groups? Are dolphins endangered? What can we do to help save the dolphins?

Next, some of the children suggested that they design their school logo to incorporate dolphins. This led to the children displaying and exploring different kinds of logos and brand names and analysing what made an effective logo or brand name. The children then designed their own logos, and these were displayed. A survey was drawn up and voting took place where the children selected the logo that best suited the school and its image. The teacher was interested in movie-making and photography and she encouraged the children to photograph and take small videos of their learning. This involved the children in making a movie about what they had learned, with the children narrating their learning. This video was shown to the parents and enabled both children and parents to see some of the real learning activities that were taking place at the school. The integrated unit of study was a negotiation between what the teacher knew about literacy learning and the children’s interests and, importantly, children’s questions were central to planning the topic. The literacy instruction involved:

• • • • • • • • • •

talking about dolphins, raising questions, sharing information reading—decoding and comprehending various newspaper articles about the stranded dolphin brainstorming lists of vocabulary to describe what they knew about dolphins writing questions to guide the research process searching for information in different texts—the internet, books, encyclopedias interviewing researchers about dolphins, taking notes creating large books about dolphins analysing logos and brand names creating new logos designing surveys and analysing responses.

The literacy materials were books, the internet and CD-ROMs from the school, public libraries and home. The integrated unit was a part of the literacy program in that the teacher read aloud books, articles and information about dolphins. There were large information books about whales, dolphins and other sea creatures read together in shared reading and the features of information books— for example, contents pages, indexes, major and minor headings, captions and diagrams—were taught. There was also small-group instruction in

Planning and managing literacy learning

reading and some extended readers read books to find answers to research questions, other groups read small information books on sea creatures, and a further group had guided instruction in books at an early level and focused on vocabulary and high-frequency words. There was shared and interactive writing of many different texts, and guided writing about ways to organise information. Too often this differentiated or varied instruction can be ignored as the more fluent readers problem-solve, question and carry the agenda or the program forward at a fast pace leaving the children who require more focused instruction far behind. Also, the other subject areas such as art were incorporated as necessary, not forced to fit the topic. This approach places trust in the teachers as planners of curriculum and trust in children as curious, intelligent problem-solvers.

A subject approach to the literacy curriculum Planning a literacy program requires careful organisation. The first step is to gather information about children’s interests and knowledge about reading, writing and word work, and this can come from assessment and observation. Next, planning the monthly or weekly program involves selecting resources and materials for whole class, small-group work and individual activities. The program for one week might include teacher read-aloud at various times in the day, shared book, modelled writing, guided reading and writing, and small-group and individual activities. The week begins with discussion about weekend activities and the teacher models writing about what she did, sometimes inviting children to join her in interactive writing. Next children write and draw about a topic of interest using language experience which links talking, reading and writing—‘What I can talk about I can write about, what I can write I can read and others can also read’. Shared book with big books is used for the whole class and these books are selected for teaching the whole group important reading and writing strategies. The books must be of a high quality, meaning children will want to read and reread them and find something new to explore on each rereading. The first reading is for enjoyment, and subsequent readings are for explicit teaching based on code breaking, meaning making, text user and text critic. Activities such as making concertina books, readers’ theatre and cloze activities engage children in the active construction of and learning about texts. Guided reading occurs in small groups of children with similar reading achievements. (See Chapter 18 for more on setting up small-group work.)

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Figure 19.1 An example of a literacy program for one week Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday Thursday Friday

Shared book: The Gingerbread Man

The Gingerbread Man and small-group work

Language experience about a topic of interest Teacher models writing

Shared book

Make gingerbread as a whole class

Text user activities based on shared book

Code breaker: direct speech

Comprehension using a cloze activity

Readers’ theatre to explore direct speech

Guided reading in small groups

Activity: writing direct speech

Other learning centre activities

Children recount experiences and write and draw Concertina books to explore plot and characters Introduce shared book Other learning centre activities Guided reading in small groups

Write the procedure for making gingerbread Other learning centre activities

Other learning centre activities

The best reading activities The following are the best reading activities for small-group work:

• • • • • • • •

Pocket chart where children put words in order Matching pictures and text Cut up the sentences from books Make a small book or a concertina book Cloze activities Word finds in other books: plurals, questions, direct speech, ‘ed’ words, use of capitals Story maps or storyboards where children draw a map or plan of the book Readers’ theatre.

Class summary sheet (grouping sheet) This summary sheet is useful for recording data to be used for grouping children. The children may be grouped according to book levels and their instructional needs. For example David, Luke and Byron could be placed in a group where the instruction would focus on getting information from several sources: visual, syntax and meaning.

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Figure 19.2 Sample class summary sheet Student Date Reading level David Zac Melville Sharon Zee Jack Frances Luke Emma Jon Tyler Kylie Byron

2/2

3 4 5 3 7 9 9 2 4 6 5 7 3

The next step for instruction Tells story from the illustrations. Needs to attend to print. Is not confident. Needs to read many more books at this level to build confidence. Needs help with retelling in sequence. Self-monitoring is required. Ask if it is making sense. Needs to build fluency by reading at a lower level. Needs to monitor for accuracy. Needs to build confidence and self-reliance. Needs to focus on word-to-word matching and close attention to print. Needs to learn which books are easy for practice. High-frequency words need more practice. Does not attend to punctuation. Needs books around interests as not engaged with reading. Needs to use all information sources. Relies on visual.

Literacy learning centres Literacy learning centres can be set up in different parts of the classroom so that children can engage in a variety of literacy activities. They are for small-group work and individual learning, and they free the teacher to work with the rest of the class. Figure 19.3 Resources for literacy learning centres

Alphabet centre Word centre Writing centre • Pictures and objects for matching similar words and sounds • Alphabet charts • Plastic letters for building words • Cardboard letters • Tile letters • Foam letters • Alphabet books • Word cards for playing games • Individual letter books or beginning dictionaries

• Games, cards and CD-ROM activities • High-frequency word cards • Onset and rime word cards • Rhyming word cards • Tile letters • Tile words • Cloze with large charts • Pocket chart with sentence strips • Scrabble, Hangman (non-violent version)

• Paper • Camera • Computers • CD-ROM books and activities • Email

Book browsing centre

Interactive literacy centre

• Related books • Books children can read independently • Topic books selected around other curriculum areas • Charts with jingles, raps and poems • Large-print poem charts • Poems on cards • Poetry anthologies • Nursery rhymes and fractured rhymes • Dr Seuss books • Copies of poems for children to illustrate

• Pairs or multiple copies of books for readers’ theatre • Listening post • Interactive whiteboard for visual display and reading texts • Puppets • Felt boards

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Organisation The management of learning centres is often organised with a group work board. These can begin with one or two literacy learning centres with more centres added as children learn how to complete the activities independently. Figure 19.4 Group work board Monday Group 1

Guided reading

Writing

Group 2

Alphabet

Guided reading

Group 3 Writing Alphabet

Some teachers start small with an alphabet centre and writing centre. Other teachers have many different centres such as a game centre, a partner centre, a drama centre, a big book centre, an author centre, a computer centre, a listening centre, a storytelling centre, a media centre, a fairytale centre and a read-around-the-room centre. In some classrooms the children choose to work at different centres and the teacher calls together small groups of children for guided reading (see Morrow 1997 for more ideas). In many classrooms children are placed in several groups which rotate through activities. In the example below, on Monday, Sam’s group has guided reading with the teacher followed by a writing activity. Adam’s group has activities in the alphabet centre, followed by guided reading. Nina’s group has book browsing then a word centre activity. Will’s group has the word centre and the alphabet centre and Cass’s group has the interactive centre and book browsing. Figure 19.5 Group rotation through the learning centres Monday Tuesday Sam’s group

Guided reading

Writing centre

Word centre

Book browsing

Adam’s group

Alphabet centre

Guided reading

Writing centre

Interactive centre

Nina’s group

Book browsing

Word centre

Guided reading

Alphabet centre

Will’s group

Word centre

Alphabet centre

Book browsing

Guided reading

Cass’s group

Interactive centre

Book browsing

Alphabet centre

Word centre

Teachers can plan guided reading sessions over a one- or two-week period so that the groups meet with the teacher two to three times per week.

Planning and managing literacy learning

Activities for literacy learning centres Writing centre In the writing centre, children can make books using word-processing software, paper and pencils, crayons and markers. The books read aloud by the teacher, big books used in shared reading and books used in guided reading may be the stimulus for writing. Sometimes the writing centre activities encourage creative responses. At other times there are more structured activities where children innovate on a text. The writing centre for emergent literacy can focus on innovating on text, pocket charts and book making. All the activities can integrate writing with information technology.

Innovating on a text The sentence beginnings or stems from books read in guided reading sessions can be given for emergent readers to complete, for example: I like … I have … This is a … Can you see my …?

Pocket charts Pocket charts are strips of clear plastic in which children place cards with words written on them that have been introduced in books they have read. The children arrange the words in sentences to match an illustration. For example, the following words and punctuation marks were written on cards for the children to arrange in the plastic pocket chart. Children then wrote the sentences they created.

can you see my leg?

Book making Children create their own books by drawing pictures and writing about the ideas. Books can be created individually, or by pairs or small groups.

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Concertina books Concertina books are made by folding one piece of cardboard over and over until it opens like a concertina. These books are useful for drawing and writing about the main events in a book or for making drawings and writing the names of book characters.

Cumulative books Cumulative books start with a line of text contributed by one person. The next line of text is added by the next person and so on.

Photo stories Photo stories or language experience recounts can be made by small groups or the whole class about local community events, school events or imaginary stories with props such as dolls and toy soldiers in adventures. Digital cameras make it easy to produce these books on the computer.

Television stories Children like to write about movies and cartoons they watch and this is a good place for them to do this. They can illustrate their stories or use pictures from magazines. In sharing time the children may talk about their stories and get feedback from the group.

Story maps Story maps are maps of what happens in a narrative. Children write and draw to retell the story.

Alphabet centre The alphabet centre is for emergent and early readers. As children move through the early and extending levels of reading the alphabet centre will be replaced by other learning centres. The alphabet centre focuses on activities for phonemic awareness, print awareness and sound-to-letter relationships.

Phonemic awareness activities Phonemic awareness is the awareness of the sounds or phonemes heard in spoken language. It involves recognition of words, syllables, rhyme, alliteration and phonemes.

Planning and managing literacy learning

Clapping games Children can listen to songs and jingles read aloud on CDs or tapes and either clap for each beat or word in the songs. In ‘Clap around the room’, a child points to an object such as a pencil or a box and their partner claps the syllables pen-cil or box in the word. Becoming conscious of syllables is important when children begin to read and write words.

Picture card games Phonemic awareness picture card games focus on the sounds of the spoken word and for this reason picture cards made from stickers, magazines and catalogues are used. Snap, Concentration and Fish can be played using cards with pictures glued to the front. Rhyming Snap is played with words that have a sound that rhymes like cat, mat, sat; or sky, pie, I. It is the sound of the phonemes that rhyme and not the visual pattern of letters that is important here. First Sound Snap is played when pictures have the same initial sound such as fish, five, four, fan. More complex picture card games involve pictures or objects where one word doesn’t fit, for example in rhyme (fish, sand, dish) or in first sounds (dog, doughnut, snake, dinner).

Print awareness activities Print awareness involves learning about letter formation, different letter fonts, and recognition and matching of letters. Letters can be cut from magazines and pasted to make collages.

Sound-to-letter games Sound-to-letter games can be made by writing words and illustrating them, when possible, on cards. It is helpful if a picture cue is placed near the word.

Snap, Memory or Concentration and Fish games can be played with cards. You will need 20 to 30 paired cards. Snap games are played by pairs or small groups of children who have been dealt 5 to 10 cards. The children take turns to place a card face up on the pile. If two cards in a row match, the first to correctly call ‘Snap!’ takes all the cards. The person who wins is the one with the most cards. Once the game is over, the winner deals the cards again and encourages a new winner.

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Memory or Concentration is played by pairs, small groups or individuals. A set of 20 to 30 cards with matching pairs is laid out face down. One at a time, children turn two cards over trying to make a match. If the match is correct they take the pair. If the match is incorrect they turn the cards face down again. The winner has the most pairs and then the cards are shuffled and placed face down for the next game. Fish is similar to Snap except 10 cards are dealt to pairs or a group of children. In turns children try to make pairs of matching cards by asking other players in their group for a card. If the group members do not have a card they say ‘Fish’ and the person asking picks up a new card from a pile in the centre of the group. Card games can be played with:

• • •

words with the same onset words with the same rime words with the same vowel sounds.

Word centre In the word centre children practise making and breaking words and reading high-frequency words. The word centre is set up with a range of games and activities, and focuses on high-frequency words and analogy with onset and rime.

Card games Write high-frequency words on cards for children to play matching games like Fish, Concentration and Snap.

Making and breaking Making and breaking activities involve making a word with plastic letters such as cat then breaking the word into word families or onset and rime: c at. Next a list of at words is made. Onsets and rimes such as these can be made with plastic letters: an at dog in but pan cat log pin cut can mat frog fin rut man sat fog thin gut rat grin shut

Word sorting Word sorting games can be developed for children to sort words that have the same onset or the same rime, for example cat, sat (same rime); can, candle, cake, cot (same onset).

Planning and managing literacy learning

Word ladders Word ladders are made when children change one letter, for example: in go to pin got top spin goat stop goats step

Jigsaw puzzles Jigsaw puzzles are made with sentences containing high-frequency words.

Book browsing centre This is a centre for independent or collaborative reading of a range of texts previously introduced by the teacher. Books read aloud by the teacher, big books from shared reading and books related to the topics discussed in guided reading also may be displayed. The book browsing centre focuses on:

â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘

browsing in books books on topics of interest rereading books previously introduced in guided reading.

Types of texts should include poetry, dictionaries, non-fiction, fables, fairytales, alphabet books, photograph albums, books made by the class, big books, recipe books and other procedural texts, encyclopedias, manuals, magazines, comics, catalogues and plays. Many teachers place written stories around the walls or hang them from the ceiling. In read-around-the-classroom the children, in pairs, use a pointer and read aloud the words displayed.

Interactive literacy centre In an interactive literacy centre the children interact to practise reading and writing and to respond to texts. There are multiple copies of books for pairs or small groups to read aloud. Sometimes the interactive session involves paired reading where children of the same reading interests and skills read together. Buddy reading occurs when older children read with younger children to share stories. Sometimes a paired tutoring occurs, where children are engaged in coaching each other with reading. There may be dramatic retellings or re-enactments of the books read. The materials encourage dramatic responses to texts. Puppets and storybook characters made from felt for felt board stories are made available. There may be a tape recorder, listening post and DVD or CD-ROM multimedia presentation of a text. Children can record music or other

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sound effects to use in the dramatic retelling of the text they have read. Some classrooms have digital cameras to record children’s performances of readers’ theatre. Some classes use video to create responses to the texts read. Readers’ theatre activities can be developed where a book can be read aloud by a group of readers. The readers’ theatre may be performed for other children in the class. Groups of children can draw story maps and create group responses in murals, models and other forms of artwork.

Chalk talk In a chalk talk an individual child or small group chooses a topic to make into a story. They may write their own story to be made into a chalk talk or choose a book, television show or movie as a starting point. In a chalk talk only one or two parts of the book are told as the child does a drawing to illustrate the ideas. If a small group is doing a chalk talk they may take turns in drawing and telling the story. It may be a good idea to make sure that everyone has a job like the planner, illustrator, storyteller and materials maker. It is necessary to prepare the chalk talk by deciding on which parts of the story to tell, and it is important not to tell too much—just one event or two that are particularly interesting. The chalk talk can be told to another small group or the whole class. Whiteboards may be easier to work with than chalkboards.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Write the story if it is your own or choose a book to use in the chalk talk. Decide what parts of the story will be shown in the chalk talk. Get the things you will need, such as chalk, paper, other drawing materials. Everyone has a job, such as the planner, storyteller, illustrator, materials gatherer. Practise drawing the pictures that you will need. Make any other materials that you may need. Practise telling the story while the illustrator does the drawing. Tell the chalk talk to a small group or the whole class. Talk about how well your chalk talk was done and what you may do next time.

Readers’ theatre Readers’ theatre is the reading of a text aloud for an audience. The texts can be books or stories written by children. The books may have a chorus added so that several readers can join in and read together.

1 2

Write the story if it is your own or choose a book to use in the readers’ theatre. Decide what parts of the story will be read by which readers.

Planning and managing literacy learning

3 4 5 6 7 8

Get the things you will need like instruments for sound effects, music or masks. Make sure that everyone has a job like the narrator, props person, director, reader. Practise the reading aloud. Practise the reading with sound effects. Read the story to a small group or the whole class. Talk about how well your readers’ theatre was done and what you may do next time.

Puppets There are many different kinds of puppets—shadow puppets, glove puppets, finger puppets, stick puppets and marionettes. Shadow puppet plays can be performed behind a screen. Puppet theatres can be made from cardboard boxes or from tables turned on their side.

Felt stories Felt stories are created with characters and props made with pieces of coloured felt cut out and glued together. The characters and props are stuck onto a felt board, and removed when the character is no longer playing an active role in the story.

The steps to designing an integrated curriculum Selecting a topic Vukelich, Christie and Enz (2002) write that selection needs to be a blend of topics that are important to children and departmental guidelines. Broad topics that are relevant to the lives of children work best. Katz and Chard (1989) suggest topics like:

• • • • •

children’s homes, families and food the local community’s people and businesses important local events and current affairs nearby landmarks, rivers, hills and forests natural phenomena like weather, water, wind and air, plants and animals.

Broad topics like these help children make sense of their own personal experiences and life around them. Teachers can begin to select a topic by asking children to brainstorm what topics they want to study. Topics can be listed and then grouped if areas overlap. To prioritise the area to be studied, teachers sometimes ask, ‘What would you like to study first of all?’

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For emergent and early readers, teachers could use the survey below as an interview and write responses, or read it aloud and have the children write and draw responses. Figure 19.6Â Reading interests survey (1)

Tell me about what you like to read. (book, magazine, cartoon comic?)

Who reads to you? Who do you read to?

Who do you know who is a good reader? Tell me about this.

When do you like to read?

Who reads in your family? What do they like to read?

Why do people read?

Developing early literacy ÂŠ S Hill 2012 (Eleanor Curtain Publishing)

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The survey sheet below can be used as a whole-class survey to gather information about all the children to be used for planning topics around children’s interests. Figure 19.7 Reading interests survey (2) Name_____________________________________________________________ Date_______________________________

How much do you like reading? How well do you read? How much do you like reading at school? How much do you like reading at home? How much do you like someone to read to you?

J J J J J

K K K K K

L L L L L

What do you like to read? Name two things.

Why do people read?

What kinds of books would you like to read?

What is the best book or movie that you have seen?

What do you do if you come to a hard word in reading?

How do you know that a book is right for you?

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Determining what children already know Many teachers use the KWL or KWHL chart to list children’s questions (see Chapter 9). It is important to find out what the children already know as this can save time and avoids repeating information that the children already know. To further organise future learning, teachers and children then use semantic webs to group topics and to find what the main topic areas and subtopics are.

Planning activities or projects In contrast to the totally multidisciplinary approach, not all the subject areas need to be covered in an integrated approach. The main idea is to focus on key understandings or learning that is to be generated based on the children’s questions and their prior knowledge. Integrated learning incorporates reading and writing, and speaking and listening, all centred on topics that are of interest to the children. Other subject areas are included as it is impossible to separate science and the environment from many topics that are of a major interest to children.

Evaluation and assessment Ongoing assessment of children’s learning occurs in integrated learning. Teachers evaluate what the children have learned and need to learn next as the topic of study develops. The data for assessing the effectiveness of children’s learning can be in multiple forms. Children may create learning logs documenting their learning. The teacher can hold individual learning conferences by moving around the classroom and discussing each child’s learning and understandings of the unit. Evidence of learning can involve examining the products generated through the topic of study—children’s writing, artwork constructions, books, posters, dramatic productions. The integrated topic may involve sessions with parents where the products of learning are shared. Some teachers document the children’s learning as the topic unfolds, using digital photographs, big books and small books, with examples of children’s work all displayed for parents and the school community to see. Children are then encouraged to self-evaluate their learning and set new goals for what they want and need to learn next. The integrated curriculum is similar to other early childhood curriculum approaches, such as Project Approach (Katz & Chard 1989) and Reggio Emilia (Fraser 2000). In curriculum influenced by Reggio Emilia principles, teachers use two ideas: ‘the one hundred languages of children’ and ‘progettazione’. The idea of one hundred languages of children involves encouraging children to make symbolic representations of their

Planning and managing literacy learning

ideas and p roviding them with many different kinds of media for representing these ideas. Progettazione (planning) involves making flexible plans for the further investigation of ideas and devising the means for carrying them out in collaboration with the children, parents and, at times, the larger community.

Organising the classroom for learning It is important for children to be involved in planning the spaces and their uses in the classroom. If we wish children to take ownership of their learning, this is another way in which this can be cultivated. Discuss and list with the children the range of areas that are required in the classroom, for example:

• • • • • •

seating area reading area space for group work room for whole-class discussions display areas storage of classroom supplies.

The children could then be asked to work in small groups to design and plan the layout for the classroom. These plans could then be shared with the class and then one plan selected for immediate use. The other plans could be stored away so that they could be used in the following term, maybe with modifications. The plan for tables or desks may be in a U shape or in groups for cooperative learning activities. There may be quiet areas for book reading or a classroom library and wet areas for messy painting and work. The computer and other technical equipment can be stored near each other so they are easy to use. In the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education, the environment is said to act as the third teacher. For this to occur, a number of principles need to be addressed including aesthetics, active learning, collaboration, transparency, ‘bringing the outdoors in’, flexibility, relationship and reciprocity. Aesthetics involves transforming dark dismal places into light-filled orderly places that reflect children’s work and ideas. Active learning and collaboration in learning mean that there need to be spaces for children to construct and use materials, to work together. Transparency is a term that works at several levels—transparency of light through windows, internal glass walls and mirrors, and transparency as a metaphor for communication. Communication is about sharing information, and this is made transparent by documenting children’s work, showing work in progress. Bringing the outdoors in involves displays of natural materials. Flexibility, relationships and reciprocity involve responding flexibly to meaningful experiences that are of interest to children and the community.

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Figure 19.8Â Organising the classroom

Making childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resources for learning easily available

Planning the space for group instruction

Setting up the classroom library each week

Storing big books

Making the computer easily accessible

Storing materials so that children can collect and put away resources

Setting up play spaces like a shop or a home corner

Planning and managing literacy learning

Fraser (2000) suggests that teachers ask themselves the following questions as they organise the classroom to reflect firstly their own values and passions and secondly the principles they learned from Reggio Emilia.

• • • •

How well does the room reflect the values we have identified as important to us? What overall message will the room convey to children, parents and other visitors to the classroom? How will the environment mirror an image of the child that is rich, powerful and competent? How will the arrangement of the room reflect our respect for children, families and the community?

Chapter summary There are several ways to plan the literacy curriculum—by subject area, multidisciplinary or integrated. Many teachers use a combination of approaches. Involving children in the organisation and design of learning spaces in the classroom demonstrates to them that they are important members of the class and encourages children to be responsible for the learning resources that are available. The way the learning environment is organised reflects what teachers value and sends a powerful message to children, families and the community.

Websites to explore http://www.enchantedlearning.com/Home.html http://www.primaryschool.com.au/

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APPENDIX 1

Dolch’s list of basic sight words This list of 220 words, prepared by EW Dolch in 1936, is made up from 50 to 75 per cent of the reading material encountered by children. These words are generally known as Dolch words, high-frequency words or sight words and are ordered by frequency.

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the to and he a I you it of in was said his that she for on they but had at him with up all look is her there some out as be have go we am

then little down do can could when did what so see not were get them like one this my would me will yes big went are come if now long no came ask very an over your

its ride into just blue red from good any about around want don’t how know right put too got take where every pretty jump green four away old by their here saw call after well think ran

let help make going sleep brown yellow five six walk two or before eat again play who been may stop off never seven eight cold today fly myself round tell much keep give work first try new

must start black white ten does bring goes write always drink once soon made run gave open has find only us three our better hold buy funny warm ate full those done use fast say light pick

hurt pull cut kind both sit which fall carry small under read why own found wash show hot because far live draw clean grow best upon these sing together please thank wish many shall laugh

APPENDIX 2

Fry’s 300 high-frequency words Edward Fry’s list of high-frequency words contains the most used words in reading and writing. For more information see E Fry, J Kress & D Fountoukidis, The Reading Teacher’s Book of Lists, Prentice Hall, Paramus NJ, 2000.

First hundred a about after again all an and any are as at be been before boy but by can come day did do down eat for from get give go good had has have he

her here him his how I if in is it just know like little long make man many me much my new no not of old on one or other our out put said

Third hundred

Second hundred see she so some take that the their them then there they this three to two up us very was we were what when which who will with work would you your

also am another away back ball because best better big black book both box bring call came colour could dear each ear end far find first five found four friend girl got hand high

home house into kind last leave left let live look made may men more morning most mother must name near never next night only open over own people play please present pretty ran read

red right run saw say school seem shall should soon stand such sure tell than these thing think too tree under until upon use want way where while white why wish year

along always anything around ask ate bed brown buy car carry clean close clothes coat cold cut didn’t does dog don’t door dress early eight every eyes face fall fast fat fine fire fly

food full funny gave goes green grow happy hard hat head hear help hold hope hot jump keep letter longer love might money myself now o’clock off once order pair part ride round same

sat second set seven show sing sister sit six sleep small start stop ten thank third those though today took town try turn walk warm wash water woman write yellow yes yesterday 437

Glossary

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Adjective The part of speech that modifies a noun or other substantive by limiting, qualifying or specifying. Usually distinguished by one of several suffixes, such as -able, -ous, -er and -est, or syntactically by position directly preceding a noun or nominal phrase. Adverb The part of speech that modifies a verb, adjective or other adverb, for example, so, very, rapidly. Alliteration A device of sound, where the initial consonant sound is repeated, for example round the ragged rocks the ragged rascal ran. Assonance A device of sound, where similar vowel sounds are repeated, for example, oh no here we go. Alphabetic principle The understanding thsat spoken language is made up of sounds and sounds can be mapped to written letters. Bibliotherapy Where carefully selected reading materials are used to help solve personal problems. Bibliotherapy can be particularly powerful for children in helping them deal with issues such as divorce or death of a loved one. Capital letters Also known as upper-case letters. The large alphabetic characters that start a sentence, or begin the name of a person, town, country etc. (Printers once kept the type for capitals and for small letters in separate cases; capitals were kept in the upper half of the type case and so became known as upper-case letters.) See also Lower-case letters. Clause A distinct part of a compound or complex sentence (but not a complete sentence), containing a subject and predicate. Comma A punctuation mark ( , ) used to separate ideas within a sentence, or items/figures listed within a sentence. Conjunction The part of speech that is used to connect words, phrases or clauses, for example, and, because, but. Consonant A speech sound produced by partial or complete stoppage of the air stream somewhere in the speech organs, for example /t/, /f/, /s/. Also refers to the letter representing the sound. Critical literacy Involves the analysis and critique of all forms of texts including written, visual, spoken, multimedia and performance texts. It provides new ways of looking at texts and encourages children to question and challenge the attitudes, values and beliefs that lie beneath the surface and investigates how language practices can transform social practice. Critical literacy asks children to look at the meaning and motives of a

Glossary

text and the purpose for which it was composed. It explores how language shapes self and society and the relationship between language, power, social groups and social practices. Ellipsis (plural ellipses) Punctuation mark ( … ) used to indicate an omission of letters, words or phrases. Sometimes used to indicate there is more text to come, to encourage the reader to turn the page. Exclamation mark A punctuation mark ( ! ) used after an exclamation or to emphasise a particular word, for example, Hooray! Full stop A punctuation mark ( . ), used to indicate the end of a sentence. Grammar The syntax or the rules by which words are organised into sentences. Grammar also includes morphology, which is the use of grammatical markers that indicate number, tense, person, gender and case, for example cat, cats; prince, princess; jump, jumped. Graphophonics The relationship between the letter (grapho) and the sound (phoneme). Interjection The part of speech that expresses emotion in the form of one or two short words, for example, wow, yuk! Lexicon See Vocabulary. Literate register The language of books, literature and literacy. Lower-case letters Letters written or printed in a smaller size than their upper-case (capital) counterparts, for example, upper-case ( S ), lower-case ( s ). Lower-case letters may also differ entirely in form from their uppercase counterpart, for example, upper-case ( A ), lower-case ( a ). Metalinguistic language A language or vocabulary used to describe or analyse language. Morphology Refers to the ways words are formed and relate to each other. The words medic, medicine and paramedic have a similar morphemic base that affects the spelling, even though the pronunciation may change. Noun The part of speech that names persons, things and places and often reposition. functions as the object or subject of a verb, or the object of a p Onomatopoeia A device of sound, where words sound like their meanings, for example, bang, swish, gulp. Onset See Rime and onset. Paragraph A distinct separation of written matter that begins on a new line (often indented), consisting of at least one sentence and generally dealing with one topic, or one thought. Phonemes The sounds of language that make a difference to meaning. There are 44 phonemes in the English language. The words cup and pup differ by one phoneme. Phonemes are usually written like this: /s/. The word cat has three phonemes (/c/ /a/ /t/) and so does the word sheep because in written language letters are used in various combinations to represent sounds: ‘sh’ is one sound and ‘ee’ is one sound. Phonemic awareness The insight that every spoken word can be conceived as a sequence of phonemes. Phonemic awareness is important for understanding the alphabetic principle.

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Phonics Instruction in the sound–letter relationships used in reading and writing. Phonics involves understanding the alphabetic principle. Phonological awareness The sound structure of speech and the way the sounds of language operate and are produced. The phonological aspects of language include intonation, stress and timing as well as words, syllables and phonemes. Pragmatics The social, communicative side of language. Pragmatics involves turn taking, maintaining topic relevance, understanding gestures, tone of voice and judging what kind of language form or genre to use in different social situations. Predicate One of the two main constituents of a sentence, along with the subject. The predicate modifies the subject and includes the verb, and objects or phrases governed by the verb. For example, drove the car, in Colin drove the car. Preposition A word or phrase placed typically before a noun and indicating the relationship of that noun to a verb or adjective, for example, at, by, with, from, in regard to. Pronoun A word used instead of a noun to designate a person or thing already referred to, for example, he, she, whom. Punctuation The use of standard marks in writing to clarify meaning. Punctuation marks such as commas, full stops and semicolons separate words into sentences, clauses and phrases. Question mark A punctuation mark ( ? ) used at the end of a sentence to indicate a direct question. Quotation marks Punctuation marks ( “ ” ), also known as speech marks, consisting of one or two inverted commas placed at the beginning and end of a word, phrase or passage of text that is directly spoken by the speaker or quoted word for word from another author. Rime and onset The rime is the vowel and any consonant sounds that come after it. The onset, if it is there, consists of any consonant sounds that precede the vowel, for example: Word Onset Rime I — I itch — itch splint spl- -int pie p- -ie spy sp- -y

Semantics Is concerned with meaning. Semantics or meaning is achieved by the choice of words, word order and the tone and stress placed on words. In spoken language the facial expressions and gestures affect how meanings are communicated. Sentence An independent unit of grammar, complete in itself, with an expressed subject that contains at least one finite verb.

Glossary

Sociocultural perspective A theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behaviour of an individual or small group within a larger one. The sociocultural perspective of teaching, learning and assessment takes into account the connectedness between children’s learning and development and the social and cultural worlds in which they live. Spelling Concerns the orthography or print, whereas phonology relates to sounds. Spelling involves phonics and other strategies as well, such as common letter sequences (e.g. com is common, but srk is not); visual strategies such as common patterns of words (e.g. light and night); and morphemic strategies, or how words represent meaning (e.g. nation and nationality). Subject One of the two main constituents of a sentence, along with the predicate. The subject is the noun, noun phrase or pronoun in a sentence that denotes the doer of the action or what is described by the predicate. For example, Colin in Colin drove the car. Syntax Syntax refers to the ways words, phrases and clauses are structured in sentences—the order of the words. Some basic sentence patterns include: Subject–verb: The baby cried. Subject–verb–object: The baby drank milk. Subject–verb–indirect object–direct object: The baby gave Freda the bottle. Subject–verb–complement: The baby was happy. Upper-case letters see Capital letters. Verb The part of speech that expresses action, existence or occurrence. Vocabulary All of the words of a particular language. Can also refer to the knowledge of words and word meanings. Also known as lexicon. Vowel A speech sound produced by the tongue and lips with little or no obstruction to the air stream, for example /a/, /i/, /o/. Also refers to the letter representing the sound. Zone of proximal development According to educational theorist Lev Vygotsky, a child has two levels of performance: the first is the level that the child is capable of achieving independently, and the second is the level of performance that the child reaches with assistance. The distance between these two levels is known as the zone of proximal development.

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References and further reading

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Shaw, M, Dorling, D & Smith, GD 1999, ‘Poverty, social exclusion and minorities’, in Social Determinants of Health, M Marmot & R Wilkinson (eds), Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 211–39 Skull, J 2010, ‘Embedded comprehension within reading acquisition processes’, Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 33 (2), pp. 87–107. Smith F 1983, ‘Reading like a writer’, Language Arts, vol. 60, pp. 558–67. Smith, NB 1965, American Reading Instruction: Its Development and its Significance in Gaining a Perspective on Current Practices in Reading, International Reading Association, Newark DE. Smyth, J 2005, Storytelling with Young Children, Early Childhood Australia, Canberra. Snow, C, Barnes, W, Chandler, J, Goodman, I & Hemphill, L 1991, Unfulfilled Expectations: Home and School Influences on Literacy, Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA. Snow, C, Burns, S & Griffin, P (eds) 1998, Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, National Academy Press, Washington DC. Snow, C & Dickinson, D 1991, ‘Skills that aren’t basic in a new conception of literacy’, in Literate Systems and Individual Lives: Perspectives on Literacy and Schooling, A Purves & E Jennings (eds), State University of New York (SUNY) Press, Albany. Snow, C & Sweet, A 2003, ‘Reading for comprehension’, in Rethinking reading comprehension, A Sweet & C Snow (eds), pp. 1–11, Guilford Press, New York. Snow, C & Van Hemel, S 2008, Early childhood assessment: Why, what and how. National Academies Press, Washington, DC. South Australian Department of Education & Children’s Services 2008, ‘Talking Literacy Project’: http://www.decs.sa.gov.au/svpst/pages/resources Solsken, J 1993, Literacy, Gender and Work in Families and in Schools, Ablex, Norwood NJ. Spalding, R & Spalding, WT 1962, The Writing Road to Reading, Morrow, New York. Spilka, M (ed.) 1977, Towards a Poetics of Fiction: Essays from Novel, a Forum on Fiction, 1967–1976, Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Spodek, B & Brown, P 1993, ‘Curriculum alternatives in early childhood education: A historical perspective’, in Handbook of Research on the Education of Young Children, B Spodek (ed.), Maxwell Macmillan International, New York, pp. 91–104 Stadler, MA and Ward, GC 2005, ‘Supporting the narrative development of young children’, Early Childhood Education Journal, 33 (2), pp. 73–80 Stahl, S, Duffy-Hester, A & Stahl, KA 1998, ‘Everything you wanted to know about phonics (but were afraid to ask)’, Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 338–55. Stahl, SA & Stahl, KA 2004, ‘Word wizards all: Word meanings in preschool and primary education’, in Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice, JF Baumann & EJ Kame’enui (eds), The Guilford Press, New York, pp. 201–217. Stormont, M, Espinosa, L, Knipping, N & McCathren, R 2003, ‘Supporting vulnerable learners in the primary grades: strategies to prevent early school failure’, Early Childhood Research and Practice, vol. 5, no. 2, accessed online: http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v5n2/stormont.html Strickland, D 1998, Teaching Phonics Today: A Primer for Educators, International Reading Association, Newark DE.

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Strickland, D & Cullinan, B 1990, ‘Afterword’ in Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print, M Adams (ed.), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge MA. Strickland, D & Morrow, L (eds) 1989, Emerging Literacy: Young Children Learn to Read and Write, International Reading Association, Newark DE. Sulzby E 1985, ‘Children’s emergent reading of favourite story books: A developmental study’, Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 20, pp. 458–79. Sulzby, E & Barnhart, J 1990, ‘The developing kindergartener: All of our children emerge as writers and readers’, in The Developing Kindergarten: Programs, Children and Teachers, J McKee (ed.), Allyn & Bacon, Boston. Sutton, C 1998, ‘Helping the non-native English speaker with reading’, in Literacy Instruction for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Children: A Collection of Articles and Commentaries, MF Opitz (ed.), International Reading Association, USA. Swick, K 2009, ‘Promoting School and Life Success Through Early Childhood Family Literacy’, Early Childhood Education Journal, 36, pp. 403–406. Taylor, D 1998, Beginning to Read and the Spin Doctors of Science: The Political Campaign to Change America’s Mind about How Children Learn to Read, National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana IL. Teale, W & Sulzby, E (eds) 1986, Emergent Literacy: Writing and Reading, Ablex, Norwood NJ. Temple C, Nathan R & Burris N 1982, The Beginnings of Writing, Allyn & Bacon, Boston. Thelen, E & Smith L 1998, ‘Dynamic systems theories’, in Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical Models of Human Development (5th edn), W Damon (ed.) & R Lerner (vol. ed.), John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 563–634. Thwaite, A 2006, ‘Genre writing in primary school: from theory to the classroom, via First Steps’, Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 95–114. Tobin, J, Wu, D & Davidson, D 1989, Preschools in Three Cultures: Japan, China and the United States, Yale University Press, New Haven CT. Tracey, DH & Morrow, LM 1998, ‘Motivating contexts for young children’s literacy development: Implications for word recognition’, in Word Recognition in Beginning Literacy, JL Metsala & LC Ehri (eds), Erlbaum, Mahwah NJ, pp. 341–56. Trelease, J 1984, The Read-Aloud Handbook, Penguin, Harmondsworth UK. Tunmer, W, Herriman, M & Nesdale, A 1988, ‘Metalinguistic abilities and beginning reading’, Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 23, pp. 134–58. Unsworth, L 2001, Teaching multiliteracies across the curriculum: Changing contexts of text and image in classroom practice, Open University Press, Buckingham, UK. Vukelich, C, Christie, J & Enz, B 2002, Helping Young Children Learn Language and Literacy, Allyn & Bacon, Boston MA. Vygotsky L 1978, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Vygotsky, L 1986, Thought and Language, MIT Press, Cambridge. Wasik, BA & Bond, MA 2001, ‘Beyond the pages of a book: Interactive book reading in preschool classrooms’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, pp. 243–250.

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Wasik, BA, Bond, MA & Hindman, A 2006, ‘The effects of a language and literacy intervention on Head Start children and teachers’, Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 98, pp.63–74. Weber, C & Cavanaugh, T 2006, ‘Promoting Reading: Using eBooks with Gifted and Advanced Readers’, Gifted Child Today, 29 (4), pp. 56–63. Western Australian Department of Education and Training 2006, First Steps: Speaking and Listening Resource Book (2nd edn), Rigby, Victoria. Wilde, S 1997, What’s a schwa sound anyway? A holistic guide to Phonetics, Phonics and Spelling, Heinemann, Portsmouth NH. Wolfenbarger, C & Sipe, L 2007, ‘A unique visual and literary art form: Recent research on picture books’, Language Arts, vol. 84, No. 3, pp. 273–280. Wood, E, Willoughby, T & Specht, J 1998, ‘What’s happening with computer technology in early childhood settings?’, Journal of Educational Computing Research, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 23–243. Wood, E 2004, ‘Developing a pedagogy of play’, in A Anning, J Cullen & M Fleer (eds) Early Childhood Education: Society and Culture, Sage, London, pp. 19–30. Wood, KW & Glover, M 2008, Already ready: Nurturing writers in preschool and kindergarten, Heinemann, Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Wray, D 2006, ‘Developing critical literacy: A portrait of the 21st century’, The Journal of Reading, Writing & Literacy, vol. 1, issue 1, pp. 19–34. Yopp, HK & Singer, H 1985, ‘Towards an interactive reading instructional model’, in H Singer & M Ruddell (eds), Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading, International Reading Association, Newark DE, pp. 135–43. Yopp, HK 1992, ‘Developing phonemic awareness in young children’, The Reading Teacher, vol. 45, no. 9, pp. 696–703. Yopp, HK 1995, ‘A test for assessing phonemic awareness in young children’, The Reading Teacher, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 20–29.

Children’s books Adams, P 2003, There Was an Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly, Child’s Play (International) Ltd, Swindon, Auburn, ME. Carle, E 1974, The Very Hungry Caterpillar, Puffin Books, Harmondsworth. Carroll, L 1961, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Lookingglass, JM Dent & Sons, London. Emberley, B 1966, One Wide River to Cross, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs NJ. Emberley, M 1990, Ruby, Little Brown and Company, Boston. Ferguson, S 2003, Little Red, Simon & Schuster Children’s Publishing. Galdone, P 1979, The Tailypo: A Ghost Story, World’s Work, Tadworth. Grahame, K 1983, Red Riding Hood, Dial Books for Young Readers, New York. Ireson, B 1963, Gingerbread Man, Faber, London. Jennings, P 2003, The Reading Bug ... & How You Can Help Your Child to Catch It, Penguin Australia, Victoria. Kraus, R 1971, Leo the Late Bloomer, Windmill Books, New York. Lear, E 1978, The Owl & the Pussy-Cat & Other Nonsense, Deutsch, London. Marshall, J 1988, Goldilocks and the Three Bears, Dial Books for Young Readers, New York.

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Marshall, J 1987, Red Riding Hood, Dial Books for Young Readers, New York. Martin B 1984, Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?, Hamilton, London. Martin, B 1970–1972, Bill Martin’s Instant Readers (Level 3), Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York. Schnetzler, P 1996, The Littlest Dinosaur, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, San Diego. Sendak, M 1970, Where the wild things are, Penguin Books in association with the Bodley Head, Harmondsworth, Middlesex. Seuss, Dr 1964, Dr. Seuss’s ABC, Collins & Harvill, London. Stobbs, W 1967, Three Billy Goats Gruff: A Picture Book, Bodley Head, London.

Index

academic language proficiency 384–5 active listening 46, 49–50 active problem solving 163, 232, 243 active reading 217, 221 activities 231–6 activities based on four roles of a reader 209–13 comprehension 228–36 cooperative learning 408–12 emerging concepts of print 205–8 English language teaching 388–95 funds of knowledge 72–9 literacy learning centres 423–9 literature teaching 128–9 phonemic awareness 143–6, 148–57, 158–9, 424–5 spelling 311 teaching phonics 267–99 alliteration activities 151, 269 and phonemic awareness 137, 138–40, 197 phonemic awareness activities 145, 424 alphabetic knowledge 198, 336 principle 197, 198, 214, 241–2, 266 analogy 12, 98, 270 and phonics 198–9, 264–5 guess the covered word 261 key words 261 onset and rime 159, 199, 247–8, 278, 426 analytic phonics 261 arguments 32, 56, 410 assessment comprehension 236–40 concepts of print 164–5 letters and sounds 257–8

literacy learning 432–3 oral language 41–45 phonemic awareness 139–47 questions to ask 10 reading 183–95 spelling 303–5 writing 321–6

bedtime reading 62–3 beginning phase 5, 166 and reading development 166–8 reading 7 spoken language 24–6 writing 316, 320 beginning research 355–9 beginning spellers 306–7 bilingual children, special forms of competence 383, 385, 394 bilingual method 387 blending tasks 155, 156, 159 blends 249–52 activities 211, 258, 284, 286–90 Bloom’s comprehension questions 237 Brown’s developmental stages 26 buddy system 390, 427

character, in picture books 113 children’s literature award winners 126, 130–2 choosing and using 126 children’s names 153, 267–9, 272, 277, 278 cipher (full alphabetic) reading 256 classroom library 127–8, 433–4 classroom organisation 433–5 code breaker 87, 98, 196–9 activities 209–12 collaborative activity 394 components of language 21 compound words 137, 254, 256, 293, 306

comprehension 134, 135, 191, 195, 199 and decoding 215–16 assessing 236–40 Bloom’s questions 237 connecting prior knowledge 216 literal, interpretive and inferential questions 189, 199, 236 predicting, clarifying, summarising, questioning 221, 227, 232, 233, prompts 189 reader, text and activity 216–17 teaching strategies 221–7, 228–30 comprehension strategies after reading 199, 223, 224, 226–7 before reading 222–5 during reading 223, 224, 225 computers 367–71 impact on children 380–1 concepts of print 164–5, 205–8 assessing 164–5 early 205–8 emergent 205–8 connecting home and school 58, 70–7, 368, 389–90 connecting with families and communities 72–7, 386, 415 consonants 210, 243, 246–7, 254, 258, 278, 286 blends 249–52 digraphs 252 contractions 255 conversational fluency 384 cooperative groups vs. traditional groups 401 cooperative learning 398–400 and small groups 406–8 benefits 412–13 strategies 408–12 cooperative skills 403–6

459

460 Index

critical literacy 120, 121–2, 189, 197, 199, 215, 236, 348, 353, 355, 364, 377, 378, 379, 380 cues from meaning, structure, sound and print 163 curriculum integrated 429–33 multidisciplinary 416–17 subject by subject 416

descriptions (text type) 33, 345, 352 detecting sounds 141, 147, 157, 211 Dewey’s theories of learning 3–4 dialogic reading 77, 127 dictation 189, 297, 304 differentiated instruction 14 digital photographs 69, 73, 95, 361, 364–5, 374, 417, 424 digraphs 245, 252–3, 254 activities 290 diphthongs 253–4 direct code instruction 12 discourse 21, 31, 34, 38, 45, 46, 216 discrete language skills 384–5

early phase 5, 166, 170 reading 8–9 reading behaviours 177–8 reading development 170 writing 321 early text features 171, 178–81 early-emergent phase 5, 166 reading 7–8 reading development 166, 168–70 spoken language 27 writing 316–17 electronic books (e-books) 363, 380 Elkonin boxes 156–57 embedded phonics 12, 265 emergent phase 5, 166, 170 reading 8 reading behaviours 171–2 reading development 170 shared book experience 87–92 writing 317, 321, 323 emergent text features 171–7 English language teaching debates 383–5 methods 387–8 everyday print 267, 269, 346–7 explanations 32–3, 345, 352 explicit instruction 13, 261, 347–8 expositions 32–3, 345, 346, 352 extending phase 5, 166

reading 9–10 reading behaviours 182 reading development 170 writing 316, 318–9 extending text features 171

five essential components of reading instruction 134 flexibility principle 314 fluency of reading 134, 191–2 calculating a rate 193–4 rubric 193–4 format and layout, in picture books 114 four roles of a reader 87, 196–200, 339 activities 209–13 functional user 364, 378–9 functions of language 29–31 funds of knowledge 64–5, 67–72, 363 activities 72–7

graphic cues see visual cues grammatical terms and examples 34–5 graphophonic cues 163 group membership 402–3 group work guidelines 406–7 guided reading 82–3, 92, 95, 100, 265–6, 408, 419–20, 422 after reading 98 before reading 96 during reading 97–8 guided writing 83, 100, 164, 327, 333, 334, 336, 339–40, 342, 419

Halliday’s seven speech functions 30 Heath’s study of literacy practices 58–63 heterogeneous groups 401, 402, 406 high-frequency words 9, 166, 189–90, 195, 206, 209, 218, 256, 282, 303, 305 307, 321, 384, 426 Dolch’s list of basic sight words 436 Fry’s 300 high-frequency words 437 the first 60 190 word recognition assessment 191 home-learning stories 69

illustrations, in picture books 114, 115, 116, 117–8, 120 immersion approach 388 implicit phonics 12 independent reading 82, 83, 84, 89–90, 99, 100 independent spelling 301, 303 independent writing 83, 100, 327, 333, 334, 336–7, 340, 347 indigenous literacy 63–4 and social inclusion 63 and teaching styles 64–5 inferential questions 189, 199, 232, 236 information texts 9, 73, 222, 232, 335, 343–4, 347, 348–50, 379 and beginning research 355–9 design features 353–5 web pages 354 inquiry-based learning approaches 363, 378 integrated curriculum 417–19 designing 429–33 interactive writing 99, 335–6, 339, 419 internet 74, 129, 333, 355, 361, 365, 368, 418 interpretive questions 189, 199, 236 invented spelling 8, 300, 317 and phonemic awareness 135, 266–7

jigsaw 234–6

kinaesthetic 261, 372 KWL 212–13, 229, 231, 432

language acquisition 39–40, 385–6, 389, 391, 394 language experience 37, 90, 92–5, 100, 109, 205, 334, 419 approach to writing 336–7 stories 206, 276, 277, 424 language style, in picture books 114–15 learning level 170, 183–5 letter identification 241, 242 letter knowledge 197, 198, 242 letter–sound connection 12, 135, 169, 198, 242, 274, 300, 319 activities 276–80 games 281–3 sequence for introducing 275 levelled books 12, 92, 182–3, 195 linear principle 315

461

Index

listening to children read 78 literacy (definition) 3 literacy curriculum 415–19 week-long literacy program 100 literacy learning centres 98, 266, 421–2 alphabet centre 424–6 book browsing centre 427 interactive literacy centre 427–9 organisation 422 word centre 426–7 writing centre 423–4 literal, interpretive and inferential meanings 380 literal questions 189, 199, 236, 239 literature 83, 89, 107, 109, 110–11, 112, 116, 119, 126, 128–9, 219, 234, 411 see also children’s literature literature-based instruction 12 look-cover-write-check 308, 310 low-frequency technical words 218

Maintown 59, 60, 61 making words 205, 208, 262–3 mapping sounds to letters 243–5 meaning cues, teacher prompts while reading 97–8, 189, 200–5, 236, 269 meaning maker 87, 97, 98, 196–7, 199, 364, 378–9 activities 212–13 metacognition 216, 227–8 metalinguistic awareness 34, 406 mnemonics and spelling 309 modelled reading 82, 83, 346 modelled writing 83, 99, 100, 334–5, 337, 419 morphemes 25–6, 291, 308–9 morphology 243 see also word building multiliteracies 361 and learning difficulties 369 and print-based literacies 361–2 map 363–4, 377–8, 379 pedagogy 366–72 research into 361–5 multimodal texts 333–4, 361–4, 365–6, 368, 375, 377 children writing 333

narratives 32–3, 104, 343–4, 345, 351 power of 109–10 structure of 112

oddity tasks 138, 159 onset and rime 138, 159, 245, 247–9, 263 activities 283–6, 426 and analogies 159, 199, 247–8, 278, 426 awareness of 146–7 open-ended questions 39, 49–50, 52, 93 oral language 20, 135, 137, 166, 216, 218, 219, 255, 321 activities 54 assessment 41–2 connections between vocabulary, syntax, conventions 36–7 features 54 genres 32–3, 53 promoting 45–6, 150 structures 54 taking roles 55 vocabulary 24, 38, 218 oral language assessment 41–2 narrative skills 45 observing language functions 42–3 sentence repetition 43–5 vocabulary 41 otitis media 41

parental involvement 58–63, 69, 77–9, 87–8, 389–90, 392–5 phases in literacy development 5–7 phonemes 21, 22, 25, 133–5, 137, 148, 243, 274, 336 analysis of 138 detecting 147, 153–7 in English 136, 241 manipulation tasks 139, 158 segmenting 146, 153–7, 158 phonemic awareness 22, 87, 98, 134–6, 243, 266–7, 300 activities 148–59, 424–5 and code-breaking 197–8 assessment tasks 139–47 development of 137–9 levels of task difficulty 138–9 stages of 245–6 phonetic cue reading 256 phonetic spelling 16, 302 phonic generalisations 244–5, 308 phonics 134, 135, 158–9, 241, 243 activities 276–99 analogy 198–9, 264–5 and writing 87, 300–3 approaches 260–6 as a spelling strategy 308

content of 245–56 teaching opportunities from shared book 85–6 whole to part 198–9, 263–4 phonological awareness 28, 39, 45, 133–5, 243, 256, 266–7, 336 phonological cues 202, 204 phonology 21, 22, 24, 37, 83, 133, 163, 202, 204, 216, 243, 300, 320 picture books 83, 103, 104, 107 artistic devices 116–18 and bibliotherapy 111 and early reading 109–10 and language and literacy development 103, 108–9, 110–11 and reading development 111, 127 counterpoints and contradictions 120–1 evaluating 115 factors to consider 112–14 visual analysis 120 playful language 46 plot, in picture books 104, 110, 111, 113–14, 115 pocket charts 212, 270, 297, 420, 423 point of view, in picture books 114, 116, 117, 120, 121 pragmatics 21, 23, 24 pre-alphabetic reading 256 prephonic spelling 301 print-based vs. electronic or digital literacies 362, 364 procedures (text type) 32–3, 344–5, 351 publishing conference 341–2

readers’ theatre 128, 238, 419, 420, 428–9 reading lessons 201 process 161–2 stages 170, 183, 205, 216, 225 as problem solving 83, 95, 97, 163–4, 166, 170, 181, 186, 201, 202–3, 204, 209, 220, 225, 415, 419, sampling, predicting, confirming, self-correcting 166 reading aloud 61, 83, 102, 205, 206, 219, 300, 392–3 benefits 102–3 guidelines 106

462

Developing early literacy: Assessment and teaching

and literate language 107 and parents 77, 88 to 2-year-olds 104 to 3- and 4-year-olds 104 to babies 103 reading and writing, relationship between 319–21 reading cues 163, 166, 203 integrating all sources 202, 204, 225 reading fluency see fluency of reading real-life centres 48 reciprocal reading 232–3 records of reading behaviour 183–94 analysing 184 example of 187–8 and reading strategies 185–6 and self-corrections 185–6 taking 184 recounts 32–3, 345, 350–1 reports 32–3, 345, 352 retelling 128, 199, 226, 231 different text types 238–9 prompts 239 rubrics 239–40 rhyme 148–9, 150, 270 and phonemic awareness 134–6, 137, 146, 197 phonemic awareness activities 137–8 rhymes 7, 25, 52, 77, 89, 102–4, 133–4, 138, 148–9, 150, 168, 267, 270–1, 278, 391, 393 Roadville 59, 60–61

scaffolding children’s learning 3, 5, 14, 400, 415 language development 50–3, 62 literacy learning 82, 91, 96, 127, 182–3, 228 writing 100, 333, 336, 341, 379 schwa sound 136, 254 SCUMPS 49–50 segmenting phonemes, awareness of 146 self-monitoring while reading 204–5 semantic cues 97, 163, 203, 204 semantic webs 199, 201, 212, 220, 239, 298, 432 semantics 21, 23, 24, 163, 166, 202–3, 204, 218, 220, 225 semiotic systems 362 semi-phonetic spelling 301–2

setting, in picture books 110, 112, 113, 115, 116, 118 shared and interactive writing 99, 335 shared book experience 87–92, 336, 419 a format for using 84–6 teaching opportunities 84–6 shared reading 77, 82, 83–7, 103, 104, 110, 264, 298, 344, 408, 418, 423, 427 shared writing 83, 99, 327, 334, 335–6, 338 show-and-tell 50 sight words 166, 191, 197, 436 sign principle 314 skills-based instruction 12 social constructivism 5, 363, 385 spaces between words 135, 164, 306, 315, 320, 322 spelling errors 303, 305 spelling 243, 300 assessing 303–5 essential words 305 invented 8, 135, 266–7, 300, 317 prephonic 301 semi-phonetic 301–2 strategies 308–9 spoken language, and written language 313–14 story maps 128–9, 224, 226, 420, 424, 428 storytelling 29, 123–6, 393–4, 422 stories to tell 124–5 tips 125–6 structural analysis of sounds 245, 254–8 activities 290–9 syllable splitting tasks 139, 158–9 syllables 22, 85, 133–4, 254–5, 271, 284 and phonemic awareness 135, 137, 197 phonemic awareness activities 145, 148, 152–3, 424–5 and spelling 306–7, 308 syntactic cues 163, 201, 216, 225 syntax 9, 21, 22, 28–9, 34, 36–7, 40, 41, 50–1, 52, 136, 166, 216, 218, 220, 225 syntax cues 163, 201, 203, 216, 225 teacher prompts while reading 201 synthetic phonics 260

talking to children 49, 390 teaching letters 274–5 technology management 371, 381 temporary spelling 198, 301, 319 text critic 87, 98, 196, 197, 200 activities 213 text features 104, 171, 216–17, 350–2 early 171, 179–82 emergent 171, 173–8 extending 171 gradients of difficulty 171 transitional 171 text levels 182–3, 195 text types 344–6, 350–2 oral language 32–3, 53 text user 87, 98, 196, 197, 200 activities 213 theme, in picture books 112 think and check strategy 355 to-with-by 83 Trackton 59, 61–2 transformer 364, 378–9 transitional phase 5, 6, 67 reading 9 reading behaviours 181 reading development 170 writing 318, 325 transitional spelling 303 transitional text features 171

VAKT phonics 261 visual cues 163, 164, 169, 186, 202–3, 204, 216, 225, 243, 256, 303, 391 teacher prompts while reading 202 vocabulary 24 importance of for literacy development 36 three-tier model 218 vocabulary-rich classrooms 38–9 vowel digraphs 252, 253, 310 vowels 243–4, 247, 254, 278 long 258, 290 phonemes 275 short 258, 290 Vygotsky’s theories of learning 4–5

whole-to-part phonics 198–9, 263–4 word building 308–9 word differentiation assessment141–3 word sorts 293 word study 262, 290–9

Index

word walls 198, 219–20, 263–4, 276, 278, 291 interactive 295, 311 word wheels 209–10, 286, 289 wordo 291–2, 311 words and phonemic awareness 87, 137, 145, 147 phonemic awareness activities 149, 158–9 writing interactive 99, 335–6, 339, 419 language experience approach 336–7 modelled 83, 99, 100, 334–5, 337, 419 shared 83, 99, 327, 334, 335–6, 338 writing conferences 340–1 individual 340–1 group 341 writing information texts 335 writing in the literacy program 99–100 writing narratives 335 writing process 327–9 writing development 321, 349

Y charts 405

463

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Second Edition

Assessment and teaching

developmental phases of literacy

i t i d Ed

Developing Early Literacy: Assessment and Teaching 2nd Edition by Susan Hill

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Developing Early Literacy: Assessment and Teaching 2nd Edition by Susan Hill