ELEMENTS A MAGAZINE FOR SCIENCE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PUGET SOUND
ISSUE 27 - FALL 2020
BODIES & BONES
MELDING STEM AND ART
Cover image courtesy of Pauline Peterson, Sun Print Art
The production of Elements magazine is possible due to the funding and support of the Associated Students of the University of Puget Sound (ASUPS). We thank Media Board, ASUPS, and, by extension, the student body for making this publication a reality. This magazine was printed by Print NW (Lakewood, WA).
“Science and everyday life cannot and should not be separated.” -ROSALIND FRANKLIN (1920-1958)
LETTER FROM THE EDITOR What a year, huh? It seems like a lifetime ago that I signed on to head Elements, but really it was only June. Back then I had no idea that I would be spending my senior year in Zoom classes, running staff meetings over GoogleMeet, and relying so heavily on emails (so, so many emails…) to connect with writers and editors alike, but as this semester draws to a close I can say that we did it! We made the magazine! It was uncharted territory and it certainly wasn’t easy, but if that’s not 2020 I don’t know what is. Even with all the hiccups and frustrations, I’m so incredibly thankful for the staff team and for the writers and artists who gave this issue life. To create in the face of such national and global stress and grief speaks to the strength of the human spirit. This year has demonstrated how vital and fragile the relationship between science and the public is. We have seen the truths found from medical research ignored, decried as fake propaganda, and framed as a means to strip away personal freedom. We have seen the disastrous consequences of our governments and our neighbors turning their backs on empirical evidence, and we have felt the weight of our uncertain future. While it’s easy to simmer in anger over those who deny the truth, I think it’s also important to remember that while science brings cures and the knowledge of how to safely live, science is also a social institution. This year has reminded us that our institutions, both within and outside academia, do not represent and respect all people equally and equitably. While we like to think that as scientists we are skilled at being objective, denying that personal biases and discriminatory behaviors, intentional or not, have influenced who participates in and benefits from scientific pursuits would also be rejecting the facts. This reality and the necessity of trusting science in matters of public health have never been, are not, and will never be mutually exclusive, and we cannot forget that. Much of this issue reminds me of the harshness of this year. We bring you pieces that consider how we treat our dead, how uncertainty and false information about GMOs influence how we buy food, and the immense sadness and dread of climate change and human degradation of the environment. That being said, this issue also illustrates how we cope in such trying times. Poetry, art, a walk with a friend, these are the things that are motivating us and getting us through it all. While we set out with no theme in mind, I love how this issue reflects both our anxiety and our hope, our trials and our loving creations. I hope this issue brings you a spot of joy and intrigue as our slog through this mess continues, and that maybe I can hand you the next issue in person.
Good health and rest to you,
Lexus Sullivan, Editor-in-Chief
STAFF
Lexus Sullivan
Rachael Stegmaier
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
DESIGN EDITOR
Zoe Peritz
COPY EDITOR
Ella Hampson
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Beatrice Bugos
Anna Dupont
OUTREACH MANAGER
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Anna Edmunds ASSOCIATE EDITOR
ART BY JAKE MCRAE
Zoe Brinner
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
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In this Issue 7
Illustrating Neuroaesthetics
Madeleine Golitz
9
Molecular Tree
Jake McRae
11
Frankenfood: Is It Worth The Hype?
Anneke Taylor
13
A Snapshot on Chromosomes
William Bittner
14
ER Poems
Gabrielle Hurley
16
The Evolution of the Public’s Views on Autopsy &
Kate Porter
Dissection 21
Pan-STEM-ic Science Photo Contest
Staff
23
A Walk In The Woods
Lexus Sullivan
27
Conveying the Urgency of Climate Change through
Ella Hampson
Emotion 30
Waste and Reuse
Madeleine Golitz
32
Untitled
Libby Stroup
33
The Allium
Staff
34
Cosmo Nerd
Staff
35
Rain Playlist
Anna Dupont
36
STEM Major Starter Packs
Staff
38
Citations
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ILLUSTRATING NEUROAESTHETICS
BY MADELEINE GOLITZ
This body of art attempts to bridge two subjects, visual art and neuroscience. It does so by illustrating topics in neuroaesthetics, the study of how we see and perceive art (1). I believe beautiful things can happen at the intersections of interdisciplinary subjects and wanted to explore this one further. I hope for some these pieces are a jumping off point for learning about a new subject, whether that be art, neuroscience, or something in between.
Anatomy of an Eye Vision starts with the eye where light waves are translated into neurological signals. In the center of Anatomy of an Eye, there is a cross section of a human eyeball. Going from right to left on the drawing, light waves travel through the cornea, which blends and focuses the light. Next, the light passes through the anterior chamber to enter the pupil. This is surrounded by the iris, which uses muscle to control the size of the pupil depending on how much light there is available. After passing the pupil, lightwaves enter the lens and are then focused on to the retina (2).
2020. PEN AND INK ON BRISTOL BOARD An even closer look of the retina is illustrated behind the eyeball. Starting at the bottom with the outermost cells in the retina are the photoreceptor cells. These consist of cones and rods. Cone photoreceptors are best for color and vision acuity, while rod photoreceptors are best in lowintensity illumination. Above the photoreceptor cells are bipolar cells, followed by ganglion cells. In between these layers are horizontal and amacrine cells that provide lateral linkages. From the ganglion cell axons the resulting visual information enters the brain via the optic nerve (2).
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Interdisciplinary Memories 2020. PEN AND INK ON BRISTOL BOARD Memory is essential to processing visual information. Implicit memory is essential to seeing with ease, as it is semantic for recognizing places, people, and objects, while episodic memory allows us to connect what we perceive with past experiences (3). Interdisciplinary Memories illustrates these concepts for members of the University of Puget Sound community, specifically individuals who work in the science labs or frequent Kittredge Gallery. For implicit memory, which uses past experiences to inform the current one without any conscious awareness, seeing in our world seems effortless (3). To use the drawing as an example, if one frequents Kittredge Gallery often they are used to seeing the two arches that make its main entrance. This priming permits them to see that in the drawing, despite the disrupting border and raised left arch. However, if one is more familiar with working in a lab with fume hoods, they will see a fume hood with a weird arch and doors where the experiment should be.
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Consciously recognizing these objects or locations is semantic memory, which “consists of our vast knowledge of objects, words, and concepts” (3). When extracting meaning from a piece of art, one draws on what they know. How one interprets a piece may differ from person to person depending on the memories they have. This also applies to episodic memory, which includes “events and experiences anchored in a past time and place” (3). Collectively, these memories create a sense of self. I personally identify most with the arts department on campus, but the sciences are a close second. By depicting a mix of science and art memories, I am expressing a form of self-identity. The viewer is then able to see my identity through their personal experiences.
MOLECULAR TREE BY JAKE MCRAE
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For this piece, I was inspired by the forms of molecular geometry and the ways that atoms and molecules are depicted. The spheres and rods represent atoms and the bonds between them. Bonds are depicted as either single, double or triple. The rings around each rod further emphasize the different numbers of bonds and add greater depth to the piece. To provide a stronger sense of balance and flow, I chose to vary the sizes of both the rods and spheres. This creates a branching effect, which could be interpreted as representing different atoms and bond strengths.
“Ultimately, my goal was to reinterpret the way that molecules are illustrated in a dynamic and three dimensional sculpture.� I have been making art for most of my life. I attended a visual-arts focused school for both middle and high school where I was able to explore various techniques and styles. At the University of Puget Sound, I was given the opportunity to work in the sculpture department which led me to explore three dimensional mediums in greater depth. Since then, I have been experimenting with various 3D art processes, most recently exploring welding. I created this particular piece mostly from found materials that I shaped and cut using various tools. I used a flux core welder to fuse the parts together into the final sculpture and sanded it down to give it a smoother finished look.
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FRANKENFOOD: Is it worth the hype?
BY ANNEKE TAYLOR
D
In reality, the GMO industry is far more regulated than o you really know what’s in your food? Are you many believe. There is currently a scientific consensus comfortable eating food that has had its DNA among biotechnologists that genetically modified crops manipulated in a laboratory? Are we all eating hold no human health risks (4). Some members of the Frankenfood injected with fish DNA and who knows what public cite concerns over the intellectual property rights else? Questions like these, frequently posed by organic food of GMOs, especially when they are sold in poorer countries companies and organizations, often lead individuals with by powerful American companies like Monsanto (3). Some little or no practical understanding of biotechnology to fear also express concern over possible environmental side genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (1). Many people effects, but thanks to regulation and testing, environmental strive to eat organic and to avoid GMOs without really damage directly due to GM plants is unlikely (4). These thinking about why they are doing so. Many consumers cite concerns do have some basis in science and vague concerns over negative health effects “We all have to make politics, and should be carefully considered or environmental dangers, but often lack evidence and specific examples (1). Others our own choices on as part of decisions on GMO regulation and distribution. However, entirely unscientific simply think that the idea of genetically what to consume.” concerns about human health effects and modified food is gross or unnatural, and worries about the unnaturalness of “lab-grown” food are far believe that “scientists” should not be involved in growing more common among the average consumer (5). Why then their food. Most Americans know very little about basic are so many consumers willing to make the choice to avoid genetics and biotechnology, and often overestimate their genetically modified foods when the available alternatives knowledge of it when questioned on the subject (2). Despite often come with a much higher price tag? In “Who does the most respondents claiming a “good” understanding of food public trust? The case of genetically modified food in the science, only 41% of a representative group of Americans United States,” John Lang and William Hallman argue that were even aware that genetically modified (GM), foods are in a world where it is impossible to be educated on every currently available in supermarkets and have been for over scientific development that touches our lives, we must two decades (2). A 2004 study found that “only 15% of the choose to trust in authority—whether it be an individual, respondents were sure that the incorporation of a catfish an organization, or the “scientific process” itself—since gene into a tomato would not produce a fishy tasting fruit we cannot realistically spend the time and effort to deeply and, even worse, only 9% of the respondents were confident understand every issue ourselves (1). However, with that tomatoes contained any genes at all” (3). If they have complex issues such as genetic modification in agriculture, such limited knowledge of biotechnology, why are so many in which every different GMO has a different purpose, Americans concerned about GMO risks? creator, and set of possible risks, it can be very difficult to decide whom to trust (1). Many studies confirming the safety of GMOs are funded by GMO-producing corporations, and many anti-GMO advocacy groups are funded by health food companies which benefit when consumers seek to avoid GM food (1). Confronted by a plethora of arguments and organizations pushing their own agendas, consumers may feel forced to assess the risks of consuming GMOs by themselves.
ABOVE: Stereotypical caricature of a ‘genetically modified’ tomato
Let’s imagine that Susan, a white, middle-class mother, has read on the back of an organic cereal box that it is “GMO-free.” Organic foods are healthy, Susan thinks, so if it is good that the organic cereal doesn’t have GMOs, GMOs
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must be bad. She then reads on the internet that GMOs are made by moving DNA from one organism to another, which sounds somewhat dangerous and unnatural, like something from a sci-fi movie. Susan then talks to her friend Karen about GMOs, and Karen tells her that the mutant DNA from GMOs can get into your bloodstream and go inside your body’s cells and into your DNA, which could then cause you to become infertile and all sorts of other bad things. Susan isn’t sure about what she heard from Karen, since she realizes she must have been eating GMOs for many years without knowing and nothing bad has happened to her. While she perceives the likelihood of real harm as very low, she still chooses to purchase only non-GMO foods in the future. Why do so many people, like or unlike Susan, make a similar choice? In Risk Perception, Behavior, and Consumer Response to Genetically Modified Organisms: Toward Understanding American and European Public Reaction, Carl Nelson uses economic and psychological models of consumer choice to analyze how consumers might make decisions when assessing the potential risks of GMO foods (6). Using the “risk matrix,” a game theory and psychological model, he analyzes the behavior of the public vs. the scientific community when assessing risk. While there are many other variables that go into how we decide what to buy, this type of risk analysis helps us understand why people of different backgrounds make such disparate choices, despite seeing the same level of risk. Nelson argues that in cases where one option carries extremely small but very serious risk probabilities, such as the use of genetic modification in agriculture, some people make choices which don’t conform to standard cost/benefit analysis (6). Instead, they assume that a possible harmful outcome is almost certain, even when the probability of such an outcome is negligible, rather than focusing on both benefits and drawbacks. This is called the “certainty effect” (6). Unusual choices caused by the certainty effect comprise cell 2 of the risk matrix, while carefully weighed cost benefit analysis is represented in cell 1 (6). Biotechnologically literate people begin in a neutral mindset, cell 1, where they weigh risks and benefits according to the real probabilities of each risk and the utility of each benefit, due to their access to scientific data and previous knowledge of the subject (6). On the other hand, due to a poor understanding of biotechnology and probability, many consumers base their risk assessment on the assumption “better safe than sorry,” because the risks they perceive are far outside of their comfort zone (6). This danger-focused risk assessment leads many consumers to believe that it is better to avoid
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ABOVE: Example Risk Matrix. Image by Lexus Sullivan, adapted from Nelson 2001. GMOs entirely or to advocate for bans, rather than to allow the scientific process to continue (6). Susan knows she will probably be fine if she eats cereal made with GM soybeans, but Carol’s warning is so severe that she chooses to avoid the risk, even though it is a small one. The tiny risk of harm essentially becomes a certainty in terms of her cost/benefit analysis. The risk matrix shows us that when people lack scientific education and are forced to make their own risk assessments rather than trusting conflicting messages from authority, the most severe and least likely outcomes can often become overblown in the public imagination. This poor risk assessment can lead misinformed ideas, like those of Carol, to become widespread and to form the basis for the decisions of many individuals. The spread of misinformation about genetically modified foods is just one example of how individual worries and poor risk assessment can lead to unfounded cultural movements and myths which in cases like this one can hold back important scientific progress. As popular anti-GMO sentiment has grown, images such as tomatoes with syringes in them and buzzwords like “frankenfood” encourage people to act on gut responses rather than educating themselves on the issues and have further perpetuated public misunderstanding of biotechnology (7, 8). This does not mean that there is no truth in some public concerns--the GMO debate is an extremely complicated issue, and every type of GMO deserves an individual assessment of risk (4). Ultimately we all have to make our own choices on what to consume, but we can always do our best to make sure those choices are founded on something more substantial than Carol and Susan’s latest whim.
A Snapshot on Chromosomes
BY WILLIAM BITTNER
Part of the fascinating world of Biology 111 involves the study of DNA and genetics. I was recently able to enter that world, where I learned that humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, or 46 chromosomes total. That made me wonder how many chromosomes other animals have. Turns out elephants have 28 pairs; chimpanzees, 24 ; and blue whales have 22 pairs of chromosomes (1, 2, 3). That might sound counterintuitive at first, but the number of chromosomes is not necessarily related to the size of the organism. The animal with the fewest number of chromosomes is the male Australian ant, which has 1 chromosome per cell. Female Australian ants have 2 chromosomes per cell, showing that chromosome counts can even differ among different sexes of the same species (4). Chimpanzees and humans used to have the same number of chromosomes, but the two species started to drift apart about 5 million years ago thanks to evolution. Humans streamlined, and now have one chromosome
that carries almost the same information as two distinct chimpanzee chromosomes. Because of our close biologic relationship, chimpanzees and humans have over 98% of the same genes (5). Don’t expect just any two species with a similar number of chromosomes to be as closely related, though; the number of chromosomes does not determine the number of genes in a particular organism or their similarity. The animal with the most chromosomes may surprise you: it’s the hermit crab! With 127 pairs or a grand total of 254 chromosomes, hermit crabs are living proof that big things can come in small packages (6). Here are some photos that I took of hermit crabs in Costa Rica in 2017. As you can see from these photos, there is so more to these animals than first meets the eye.
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BY GABRIELLE HURLEY
DROPLET PRECAUTIONS I don’t know what provides me with more agency in a situation where every body is exposed to microscopic hijackers I have spent so much time begging for the world to stop and now it has, except for here asking for the ER to so much as slow down is like asking the tides to cease a request all the more impossible in the midst of a pandemic so we come to work while the world remains trapped inside prisoners in their homes while we aid prisoners in their bodies everyone else locked away in an effort to stem the flow of coughs and gasps streaming into our waiting room and I am happy to have an active role yet I stand in the shower after each shift and figure I’ll either get out when I feel clean or when the water runs cold, whatever comes second and more often than not it isn’t until chills run down my spine and icey drops fall from my hair that I finally turn the water off
PATIENT What if i lived my whole life with the patience and the nearly meditative presence of a doctor seated beside a bitchy, snippy patient fuming with unwarranted exasperation in the middle of the night with a hand on her shoulder and a slowness that values the reaction of her heart the metaphorical one more than the one in her chest, more than her physical chemistry, more than the nurses waiting at the door and the paperwork piling up on his desk
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UNTITLED (2018) though my job experience consists of working in an emergency department and cutting up cadavers i have yet to watch anyone die. i know that eventually i will, but for the most part, i don’t have a lot of direct contact with death in my work other than its constant presence, a ghost looking over my shoulder at the radiology report with“metastatic” jumping out a miasma following at our heels as we power walk to help someone while a code called overhead spells out potential catastrophe but the docs don’t seem anxious, much less panicked because even though we want to be able to order magical medications and show up fast enough and do CPR long enough if there’s nothing we can do death is impending, and there is no one with enough smarts to stop it.
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The Evolution of the Public’s Views on Autopsy & Dissection: From Ancient Greece to 19th Century England BY KATE PORTER
ABOVE: Study from Andreas Vesalius’ De corporis humani fabrica libri septem (1543)
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P
opular crime TV shows like CSI, Bones, and Forensic Files have romanticized a distinct image of crime scene investigators, specifically depicting an unusual stigma around coroners and other death workers in the industry. Why are we as a society so disgusted and perhaps afraid of these professions? Why are doctors seen as heroic, while medical examiners are seen as creepy because they examine dead bodies? Just as other facets of science have been affected by societal impressions, the progression of medical autopsy and human dissection practices have also been largely influenced by public opinion. Whether it was backlash from religious authority or distrust from the general public, there were many centuries in which performing dissections proved to be extremely difficult for physicians. Many factors including religion, crime, public spectacle, and an increased thirst for knowledge have shifted public reaction to autopsy from disgust, to fear of punishment, to a morbid curiosity for anatomy, influencing the image of dissection and medical examiners throughout the centuries.
The Beginnings of Human Dissection Born in the golden period of scientific inquiry in Ptolemaic Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon (330-260 BC) is known as the first-ever anatomist, whose dedicated work would soon be cited by other famous anatomists such as Galen. Autopsy was a concept that originated during the times of Ancient Greece and means “to see one’s self ” (1). Sanctioned by the royal family, Herophilus utilized the bodies of executed criminals for his work covering topics including, but not limited to, therapeutics, anatomy, and gynecology. However, he was known mostly for his phenomenal work on the nervous system; he most famously distinguished between the motor and sensory nerves and also described many other cranial nerves (2). Before Herophilus, demons and spirits were seen as the causes and spreaders of disease; however, after his dedicated work, supernatural explanations began to slowly dissipate from the medical field. Despite his strong foundation in now-debunked humoral theory, he provided some pathological explanations for certain diseases, and was inspired by Aristotle’s work on animal vivisection to perform dissections on humans. The public did not react well to human vivisection, as it was considered amoral and religious taboo at the time. The Third Syrian War (246-241 BC) further devastated anatomical progress, as the Alexandrian fires caused a major loss of Herophilus’ findings and took a toll on the economy, thus affecting the funding of future anatomical experiments (3). Anatomical research would remain stagnant for almost 2000 years.
ABOVE: Portion of Veloso Salgado’s A Medicina Científica (1906) depicting Herophilus (right) teaching anatomy” Christianity, particularly its view of the body as sacred, would continue to disparage human dissections for centuries. A misinterpretation of Pope Alexander III’s 1163 reforms on the roles church beneficiaries could perform only decreased the amount of potential anatomical scholars, as most men in scholarship at the time had some sort of religious affiliation. While it was banned for “clerics to involve themselves in the studies of physical nature and the canon (directive) was named... meaning ‘The church abhors blood,’” this was misinterpreted as a ban preventing clerics from practicing surgery or studying anatomy (2). This was clarified in 1231, when Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II would officially allow dissection in his hopes to further scientific progress, leading to the creation of several universities throughout Europe. The next few Popes would go back and forth on their positions on anatomical study, but in 1315 the first truly sanctioned human dissection since Herophilus was performed.
Major Medical Players of the 16th-18th Century Towards the end of the 1400’s, there was a growing reinterest in anatomical study due to the popularization of the naturalism movement in art. This reinvigorated interest in the works of Galen and Herophilus, also reiterating ancient humoral theory of the body. Naturalism would not only gain contributions from artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, but also the famed anatomist Andreas Vesalius (15141564). Looking to correct Galen’s earlier errors, as well as increase the knowledge of human anatomy, Vesalius was able to get a Paduan judge to approve autopsies in 1539. Only criminals could be the subjects of autopsies, but the judge made sure to schedule his executions at the convenience of Vesalius (1). Vesalius’ 1543 publication De Humani Corporis
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Fabrica Libri Septem (On the fabric of the human body) was rooted in logic and observation, showing a combination of anatomical knowledge and popular naturalistic art. The need for bodies quickly began to increase, and Vesalius was one of the first to point out that physicians should figure that problem out “for themselves.” This led to a rise of the “body business” – selling freshly procured bodies to medical schools at high prices. Medical schools only encouraged this business, instating ‘don’t ask, don’t tell’ policies for the received corpses (1). With hanged murderers being the only legal source for bodies, there was an enhanced need for autopsy subjects in the medical community. Families grew to be terrified of so-called ‘resurrection men’, and many resorted to hiring guards to protect their recently-buried loved ones (4). This unethical business would continue to thrive for the next several hundred years as the need for bodies swelled across Europe. Trained with a Galenic and humanistic background at the University of Padua, William Harvey became yet another famed anatomist. Attending the autopsies of his own father and sister, Harvey encouraged the tradition of keeping anatomical knowledge within the family for further research. He valued the direct experience of cutting the body himself, rather than depending solely on text to learn anatomy. This stress on relying on the eyes caused him to be embraced by the surgical community, truly cementing his place among medical professionals. Published in 1628, his work Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (Anatomical Account of the Motion of the Heart and Blood) catapulted him into the image of the hero of medicine we know today, but he was not universally celebrated. One critic of Harvey’s work went as far as comparing anatomists and surgeons to cannibals, and as a result the public image of autopsy was desecrated further.
BELOW: From Harvey’s De Motu Cordis (1628)
Known to many as the “Father of Pathology,” Giovanni Battista Morgagni, a professor of anatomy at the University of Padua in the early 1700s, considered himself a medical practitioner as well as a clinical consultant to his colleagues. Inspired to remove any inaccuracies within his contemporaries’ work, such as those within Theophilus Bonetus’ treatise of 1679. Morgagni’s work would be cited by many anatomists and medical professionals in the future. In 1764, his most famous work, De Sedibus, was officially translated to English, allowing for the transfer of his knowledge to other Western areas. Translations comprised only about 40% of his work, with the rest remaining in his distinct Italian prose. Morgagni was devoted to promoting knowledge and scholarship of the human body. He acted not only as a clinician, but also a historian. Looking at past experiments and the work of comparative anatomy, he was able to conclude “that the nature and causes of any disease cannot be established without appropriate dissection of cadavers” (5). Focusing on gross anatomy rather than microscopic work, Morgagni performed many experiments on the venous system and utilized mechanical philosophy to explain how the system worked. Repulsed by this vicious vision of destroying the human body, the public commonly became frightened and sickened by the idea of death and the human cadavers. Some scholars argue that “initially [the public’s] reservations” with anatomists “were based on traditional issues like funerary ritual and family honour,” but with time there was “a fear of being buried alive and coming under the anatomist’s knife” (2). With the public still seeing anatomists as “dissection-crazed physicians” it was work from heroes like Vesalius, Harvey, and Morgagni that began to help place these physicians back into a more respected position within the medical community (6).
The Public Spectacle of Cadavers during the 18th-19th Century Anatomic theaters for university lectures would become popular in the 1500’s, around the same time that graverobbing was at the forefront of the public’s mind. Tracing all the way back to the 14th century, the initial idea for the common placement of bodies began, with corpses being dumped in one primary location in the dungeon of the Chatelet. 1651 marked the beginning of record keeping of the corpses, denoting their names and ages when possible. At this time, the Paris Chatelet was associated with criminals, cementing the idea of a scary, unknown realm in the public’s eye. In 1713, it then became customary for the cadavers to be publicly displayed in order to be identified by family members. This shifted the public’s reaction of
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death from that of repulsion and fear to that of a public spectacle. Listed in guidebooks, the morgue became an infamous tourist attraction, allowing for increased chances of identification while also quenching the public’s morbid curiosity.
ABOVE: Diagram from Gray’s Anatomy
ABOVE: Le Grand Châtelet by Charles Meryon (1861) The Murder Act of 1752 allowed the bodies of murderers to be publicly dissected in great exhibition halls. This caused the community to see dissection as a form of punishment increasing fear of anatomists and medical professionals throughout society. The infamous murders of William Burke and William Hare in 1828 fueled the fear of graverobbing and body-snatching, heightening the terror and disgust for anatomical work. Public riots ensued, causing troops to be called to protect surgeons between 1803-1823. With the public in an uproar, the Selection Committee on Anatomy was formed in England in 1828 to consider the law and regulated the process for obtaining cadavers. This led to the creation of the Anatomy Bill, which tried to ease the public’s unease by taking dissection out of the bill and replacing it with ‘anatomical examination.’ Officially passed on August 1st, 1832, this act not only allowed criminals to be used by anatomists, but the ‘unclaimed poor’ as well. The public reacted angrily, but surgeons and anatomists respected the choice (4). Due to the obvious class bias, “dissection was perceived as a penalty for poverty” (2). Though there were unethical actions stemming from this act, some positive outcomes included the creation of illustrative guide books like Gray’s Anatomy, which displayed over 360 diagrams from dissections legalized by Anatomy Act (4). With the rise of deaths and suicides in Paris, the morgue quickly became too small for the number of bodies it was receiving. A new morgue was built in 1864 to accommodate
for the increase in deaths and to sustain the growing number of visitors to this newfound ‘attraction.’ Complete with a large exhibition hall for the cadavers, the morgue quickly adapted to the public’s growing curiosity for death. Collaborating with nearby universities, it became a custom for these cadavers to be used by students and faculty for anatomy classes. By the 1880’s, a refrigeration system was installed, reducing visibility and therefore taking away the attraction for tourists and lessening the spectacle of death that had been promoted by the institution. Accommodating for new collaboration with law enforcement, the building was split into distinct areas with a chemical analysis lab and a photography room for more adequate record keeping. This layout of the Paris Morgue was widely recapitulated throughout Europe, cementing a common image of a classic morgue. To assist with identification and the difficult task of preserving faces (due to their rapid decomposition) wax masks of the cadavers’ faces were popularly utilized. No longer simply a location to house bodies, the morgue shifted from a place of fear and revulsion to public spectacle. Law enforcement officials began to see the value of housing cadavers and began to collaborate with the morgue to identify victims of crimes, allowing for the progression of chemical analysis and preservation in forensic science (7). By this time, more institutions were able to provide bodies for the increasing field of anatomy. By the late 1800’s charitable hospitals began to donate unidentified patients, while poor houses also sold the bodies of their deceased tenants to teaching hospitals. This greater availability of bodies would lead to the creation of several anatomical museums around Europe, solidifying the cadavers once as a public spectacle full of curiosities and valuable teaching information. One such museum was Rackstrow’s Museum, built in the late 18th century with over 6,000 human and animal specimens (8). With such mixed feelings from the
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public over the centuries, it is no wonder that working with the dead and performing autopsies, although respected, is still considered strange and peculiar by modern society.
Conclusion Over the last several hundred years, death work and medical autopsy gained several different reactions from the European public. From disgust and fear to morbid curiosity and desire for spectacle, the public continued to change their opinion of human dissection. With the help from great anatomists like Herophilus, Vesalius, Harvey, and Morgagni, human dissection finally became a respected act among the medical community and other facets of society. The progression of anatomical knowledge was affected by society’s views of dissection; however, due to the work of these famous physicians who ignored society’s protests, we were able to procure a more complex image of the human body. Overall, these reactions to dissection and autopsy allow us to understand why death workers are still seen in an unusual light today.
ABOVE: Study from Andreas Vesalius’ De corporis humani fabrica libri septem (1543)
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PAN-STEM-IC SCIENCE PHOTO CONTEST We asked, you delivered! Just because we couldn’t be together touching test tubes and licking rocks this semester doesn’t mean that the science stopped! Check out how some students have been carrying on their science-y work and having fun experimenting!
“Thought I’d share some pictures from the beginning of quarantine when I had to do my independent project for ecology at home. I have been a beekeeper for 10+ years and so I chose to study the color and nectar preferences of my bees. During this process I got stung on the head and went into anaphylactic shock, a first for me even
though I have been stung many times before. Pictured is me conducting my experiment and also me with the paramedics! Crazy how allergies can change with time. I’m still beekeeping but now just with an epi pen on hand.” -Capriana Jiang
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“Homegrown mushies.” - Corbin Mitchell
And a special shout to Kiira Antenucci for capturing a new and improved sociallydistanced
explosive
volcanism
lab
in
Igneous Petrology/Volcanology! Did you know that you can model how things like gas content, vent size, and reservoir volume affect a volcanic eruption? The Geo 304 gang did!
WANT TO SEE THE LAB IN ACTION? CHECK OUT OUR SPECIAL WEB CONTENT HERE!
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If You Can’t Eat ‘Em, Join ‘Em: A Walk in the Woods
BY LEXUS SULLIVAN
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D
eep in the heart of the Puget Sound forest, you can hear the Logger chorus… “Lexus! You found a skull! Good job!”
Screen-fatigued and aching for the tranquility of greenery that wasn’t meticulously planned by apartment complex landscapers, I escaped into the woods one fateful day to rendezvous with a dear friend from the Geology department near her woodland dwelling by the North Bay. The main goal of our romp was to kick-start my foray into foraging, but as you will see, dear reader, what we found was a haul of a different variety. Elements magazine is proud to debut, in vignettes: If You Can’t Eat ‘Em, Join ‘Em: A Walk in the Woods The Cast: The author (LS): senior geology major; not well versed in mycology; is just happy to be outside The woman of the woods (WW): senior geology major; ex-pro chef and certified mushroom forager; skilled chanterelle and dead-things spotter Molly: geology dog; has the bear bell; perfect in every way Act 1: The Woods WW guides me along a gravel trail, our soundtrack the gentle jingle of Molly’s bear bell and her excited panting. We reach an incline and WW looks back. WW: I don’t know what it is about this hill, but even though it’s not very steep it gets me every time. When I’m with my mom I always shout down to her that we’re almost to the pelvis! Mystified, I follow up the hill. As we reach the peak WW directs me to the right, where, sure enough, a bleached portion of a pelvic bone lies nestled in the brush. Knowing WW’s propensity for found bones, I feel I must inquire about it’s presence. LS: You just leave that here? WW: It’s a nice marker! --WW: Oh, there’s the creepy respirator mask She gestures to the trees. Hanging from a branch, the metallic fittings of the chunky mask are rusted, only adding to the eerie sensation now creeping across my skin. WW: It’s so… LS: Very steampunk. WW: Yeah! LS: Very 2020 apocalypse.
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ABOVE: Molly in the huckleberry bushes We laugh, in the way that two very tired and vaguely traumatized people do. --WW suddenly veers off the trail, charging into the bushes. Having accompanied her for field work before, I know this means one thing: edible forest treasures. WW: Black huckleberries! She places a handful of small dark globes into my outstretched palm, which I gladly devour. WW: I love that you don’t even question when I hand you things and tell you to eat them. LS: I figured you wouldn’t ask me to eat something you weren’t sure about. WW: Good! As I contemplate whether or not I’m too trusting of a person, Molly is fed berries. --We’re off trail now, traipsing through the underbrush and crossing streams. WW is explaining the locations where chanterelles are most likely to hide: they like mossy areas under Alders, but not anywhere too wet. You can tell them from other varieties of fungi by their trumpetlike structures, as opposed to the more common cap. As we enter a clearing, known to WW for its springtime wild lettuce varieties, I spot a flash of off-white near her feet: A skull. I assume she’s already passed over this piece due to its poor condition, but I feel the need to show that I have at
least some sort of forest-spotting abilities. LS (nonchalant): Hey, [redacted], isn’t that a skull? WW looks down and shrieks with delight, immediately searching her bag for a Ziploc. WW: Lexus! You found a skull! Good job! Our main quest temporarily forgotten, WW bags her keep and begins searching the surrounding area for more bones. I follow, feeling weirdly accomplished. WW: A doe. Cougar kill. They like to spread their prey out. Lying rather picturesquely under a large fern are its ribs, still connected to a spine. WW considers them for a moment, then moves on. WW: It’s nice that the vertebrae are still connected, but I have enough of these. LS: What’re the prime bones to find? WW: I’d like another complete pelvis… and definitely skulls. Usually they’re not intact, since hunters always bring them home and cougars kill by directly biting the face off of whatever they catch. It’s pretty messed up, actually. LS: I mean, I buy pre-cut chunks of meat wrapped in plastic. At least they see the actual animal. --It’s some time later, and we still haven’t found an edible mushroom or more good bones, though we have encountered a newt (alive and content to crawl over WW’s hand), a small green frog (alive and not interested in being held), and what, upon closer examination, appears to be a partially mummified amphibian stuck to the path (“Too wet, I only take them dry”-WW). We have waxed philosophically
BELOW: A doe’s spine with vertebrae still intact
ABOVE: A pile of bones found in ‘Death Valley’ about the ethics of sport vs sustenance hunting, passed through the spot where WW discovered her first large kill (now bathed in a beautiful golden light, as if blessing us), and marveled at the power of a recent storm that had managed to entirely uproot several large trees. I’ve also been treated to sights including an old, vegetation-covered scale (doesn’t work) and a vintage refrigerator (WW: It took me months to open it; I thought for sure there would be a dead body in there. LS: Like, one that was dumped with the fridge? WW: Or put in afterwards. LS: I feel like you would smell something. WW: I was thinking it would be a skeleton or mummy, not a fresh corpse!) As our afternoon winds down, I am promised one final stop, known charmingly as ‘Death Valley’. We arrive at a naturally terraced hillside, which looks perfectly normal at first glance. WW: Just wait, once you see one you’ll see them everywhere! It takes her little time to encounter a pile of ribs in the brush. The hunt is on. LS: Hey! There’s some here! Looks like some vertebrae and maybe some leg bones? WW: Hang on! I’m just poking through these here under these leaves! We weave through the holly branches and scurry up and down the hillside, like field geologists investigating a particularly poor outcrop for a suitable sample. Satisfied with our day’s work and a backpack full of bones, we finally
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collection of finds. Skulls, some bought and most collected, adorn shelves and walls, some stark and undecorated, others tastefully painted or arranged with twigs and moss. Boxes of to-be-cleaned specimens sit piled on a small sidetable next to some rocks. My coat hangs from a mummified deer foot. LS: Listen, the bones are fine, but the coat rack unsettles me. WW: Those are from the first deer I found! I cured them with salt myself. LS: I scanned your entire home looking for a different place to hang my stuff. WW: That’s the point, I like making people use it. Curtain
ABOVE: Some of WW’s collection on display agree to pack it up, and a tired Molly seems grateful. WW: Don’t worry, I still have a bunch of mushrooms from the last time I went out. I’m thinking risotto. Hell yeah.
WANNA SEE MORE OF LEXUS’ WOODLAND ADVENTURE? INTO BONE ART? MORBIDLY CURIOUS ABOUT THE COAT RACK? CHECK OUT MORE BONUS PHOTOS ON OUR WEBSITE:
Epilogue: The Homestead After shaking off a copious amount of pine needles and drinking ¾ of a Nalgene in about 30 seconds, I de-boot for the day in WW’s humble abode. WW: I’ll take care of the mushrooms and the bacon, but I need you to stir the rice. LS: That’s fine, but I’m going to be eating this scone you offered me earlier while I do it. WW: Oh, of course. Molly, slumped on the floor, barely keeps her eyes open as WW walks me through proper searing technique for a chanterelle (it’s gotta be hot and fast, lest you ruin a forest jewel by giving it a spongy texture). WW: It’s a little overkill, but I like to do them in bacon fat. She scoops the white substance from an unassuming mug on top of her stove. LS (stirring rice with the right hand, hot scone in the left): I respect a little excess now and then. After what feels like way less time than I thought it took to make risotto, we dine. The flavors are indescribably rich, yet also balanced with the earthy mushrooms and fresh herbs. There is truly no other food that could nourish me better after almost 5 miles of tramping through the woods. After our meal, WW invites me to document her
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BELOW: Bacon and chanterelle risotto with fresh herbs
CONVEYING THE URGENCY OF CLIMATE CHANGE THROUGH EMOTION BY ELLA HAMPSON UNIVERSITY OF PUGET SOUND | 27
T
he realities of climate change often lead to feelings of great sadness for scientists and students who study it (1). Their tears are hidden behind polished papers and peer reviewed journal articles examining the next species to go extinct, the next fraction of a degree of global warming, the irreversible melting of icecaps and the disappearance of ecosystems that have existed since our ancestors first climbed out of the trees and began to walk on two feet into the grasslands. Scientists often find themselves in the ruins left by climate change as they watch what they’ve spent their entire careers studying suddenly disappear (2). Coral reefs are bleached, golden frogs disappear, passenger pigeons no longer darken sunset skies. Scientists witness extinction happening as they return to their field sites each season and find less and less of species that once thrived there (3). These emotions drive scientists to continue their work, but they are not always visible to those who need to take action around climate change. Emotionality has the power to drive action in ways that we haven’t yet seen. By connecting emotions to science in a more concrete way, we can increase the public’s understanding and connection to climate change and drive real action around it.
ABOVE: A United States oil refinery
Little Miss Flint), Isra Hirsi, and others like them, show us that doing something different can be effective (5). Children Folks have long wanted to make changes to the are doing more powerful work for the wellbeing of the earth structures that are causing all of this pain, but we have than adults in power. Continuing to do things the same way been stuck doing the same things for too long without they have been done is clearly no longer working. Science seeing the needed progress. The Earth Charter, a document can be emotional when it is removed from the western that details the changes that we need to “build a sustainable capitalist commodification of the natural global community”, was published in “Every paper and article, world. As the voices calling for change 2000 (4). The Earth Charter was compiled after the 1992 Earth Summit. The goal in addition to detailing shift, we need to shift our understanding of how emotions and science connect. was to generate global consensus of methodologies and The integration of emotions into science, what is needed to create a sustainable as well as work at individual, community, future for us all. In the 20 years that have results, should include a and systemic levels, will lead to the passed since this document was written, not much as changed. The principles section exploring how the changes we so desperately need. laid out in the Earth Charter are still authors relevant today, but action towards them has not been taken to the extent that is needed. Injustice and violence are rampant; wildfires and hurricanes grow bigger each year, and many countries continue to invest in fossil fuel economies. How do we envision a future built on the foundations of this present? In order to move forward productively, we need to engage with our emotions publicly, while also building community and dismantling the systems that have brought us to this point. The climate movement is being taken in a new direction by powerful young people who hold a vision of real change. Greta Thunberg, Mari Copeny (aka
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The science behind emotional calls to action is limited. A call to action signals for people to take steps towards something such as altering how they think and act about climate change. Emotional calls to action can be positive appeals, which lower peoples stress and anxiety around a subject, or negative appeals, which aim to make people feel more upset and stressed about a topic. At this point, we can’t really say whether positive or negative appeals are more effective, but we do know that emotional connectivity is important to spurring action (6). Facts and statistics about climate change often present ‘doom and gloom’ messaging which can cause people to feel overwhelmed to the point of inaction. There
feel.”
of a brighter future. Climate change is not easy to study, but it is necessary that we understand how the world is changing due to our actions. By bringing our emotions into science, we can convey the realities of climate change to a wider audience and increase action towards the changes that are needed.
BELOW: Sign from a recent climate change protest ABOVE: Sign from a School Strike for Climate event isn’t one all-inclusive call to action, instead we need to create a variety of messages that can reach a larger demographic of people. People in different regions with different cultural backgrounds relate to climate change differently. This poses a challenge for how we convey science to a wider audience. Encouraging the publication and discussion of emotions around climate change allows others to relate to us and increases motivation to act. Empathy has the power to invite people into constructive conversations about climate change. By reassessing the way we use emotions in science, we can begin to create more cohesive, actiondriven communities. Since objectivity is never entirely possible, we should allow ourselves to include some subjective analysis in our papers. This doesn’t mean that science should stop training to maintain objectivity. Instead, it should attempt to create space for subjective thoughts and feelings. Every paper and article, in addition to detailing methodologies and results, should include a section exploring how the authors feel. We should make room for emotional connectivity within each paper. This will increase others’ understanding of what is being explored, especially when it comes to issues such as climate change that will drastically alter the world we all live in. This would also begin to break down barriers that prevent people from accessing and understanding scientific papers. It doesn’t mean that papers will lose their integrity; the methods, discussion and results sections can remain entirely as they are. By adding a section that conveys the emotions behind what is being studied, we can make research more applicable to the realities of the world we live in. We have the ability to dismantle harmful systems and structures. It is necessary to discuss ideas and emotions with peers and community members, to see what others are thinking and what is providing them with hope
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Waste and Reuse BY MADELEINE GOLITZ
My artwork consists of deconstructing discarded plastic items and reconstructing them in a way that mimics and interacts with the natural world. This process attempts to join the consumerist world of production with the biological world of creation through an emphasis on repetition and cycles. Nature’s most complex creations consist of many simpler smaller ones, like the cells that make up your body, organisms that make up an ecosystem, or people that make up a community. While an individual cell may be of little significance, when millions come together, they create something incredible. As individuals, we may not think we have an impact, but when all of our actions combine we can cause disasters or create movements.
EMBELLISH
Many capitalist practices have been disrupting balanced cycles and ecosystems. Instead of destroying them, we should be looking to mimic them. Waste is an inevitable product of creation, but that doesn’t mean the cycle must end there. These scraps of our innovation will be disruptions until we change our practices or implement ways to incorporate what we have discarded into future creations. My work depicts nature’s “waste” balanced with our own. Each piece illustrates a relationship we may have with the natural world and asks us to rethink if it is right.
DEPENDENT
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Untitled
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BY LIBBY STROUP
WELCOME TO
THE ALLIUM Bird’s the Word!
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COSMOPOLITAN NERD
Thi s sex year ’s i coc est k roc -of-th k e-
s to y a w Five our y p u perk tits
Pishing techniq ues that wil l drive hi m wild
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Top ten places to find great boobies
WHO WORE IT BEST? BIRDING EDITION
Rainy Day Playlist Inspired by the rainy weather in Tacoma! BY ANNA DUPONT
Stormy Weather - Etta James The Rain (Supa Dupa Fly) - Missy Elliott Have You Ever Seen The Rain - Creedence Clearwater Revival Candy Rain - Soul For Real raingurl - Yaeji Rainsong - Mosquitos Buckets of Rain - Bob Dylan Stormy - Diana Ross & the Supremes One Rainy Wish - Jimi Hendrix Acid Rain - Chance the Rapper The Rain Song - Led Zeppelin Purple Rain - Prince Last Snowstorm of the Year - Hippo Campus Waterfalls - TLC The Rain - Calvin Harris
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STEM MAJOR STARTER PACKS
Biology
Chemistry
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Geology
Physics
Math/CS
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CITATIONS (Illustrating Neuroaesthetics) 1. Chatterjee A. 2015. The Aesthetic Brain: How We Evolved to Desire Beauty and Enjoy Art. New York (NY): Oxford University Press. 248 p. 2. Diamond MC, Scheibel AB, Elson LM. 1985. The Human Brain Coloring Book. New York (NY): HarperCollins. 320 p. 3. Shimamura A. 2015. Experiencing Art. New York (NY): Oxford University Press. 304 p. (Frankenfood: Is it Worth the Hype?) 1. Lang JT, Hallman WK. 2005. Who does the public trust? The case of genetically modified food in the United States. Risk Analysis: An International Journal. 25(5): 1241-1252. 2. Hallman WK, Adelaja AO, Schilling BJ, Lang JT. 2002. Public perceptions of genetically modified foods: Americans know not what they eat. New Brunswick (NJ): Food Policy Institute. Report No.: 1327-2016-103626. 3. Wynne B. 2001. Creating Public Alienation: Expert Cultures of Risk and Ethics on GMOs. Science as Culture. 10(4): 44581. 4. Ferber D. 1999. GM Crops in the Cross Hairs. Science. 286(5445): 1662. 5. Oeschger M, Silva CE. 2007. Genetically Modified Organisms in the United States: Implementation, Concerns, and Public Perception. Adv Biochem Eng/Biotechnol. 107: 57-68. 6. Nelson CH. 2001 Apr. Risk Perception, Behavior, and Consumer Response to Genetically Modified Organisms: Toward Understanding American and European Public Reaction. American Behavioral Scientist. 44(8): 1371–88. 7. Funk C. 2020 Jul 31. About Half of U.S. Adults Are Wary of Health Effects of Genetically Modified Foods, but Many Also See Advantages. Pew Research Center. [Internet][cited 2020 Dec 8] Available from: https://www.pewresearch.org/ fact-tank/2020/03/18/about-half-of-u-s-adults-are-wary-ofhealth-effects-of-genetically-modified-foods-but-manyalso-see-advantages/. 8. GMO Defined [Internet]. 2015 May 11. GMO Awareness. [cited 2020 Dec 8]. Available from: https://gmo-awareness. com/all-about-gmos/gmo-defined/. (A Snapshot on Chromosomes) 1. Ambady S, Mukundana G, Raghunandanana KV. 1990 Feb 1. Chromosome Profile of Indian Elephants (Elephas Maximus Indicus). Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 60: 175-182. 2. Fan Y, Linardopoulou E, Friedman C, Williams E, Trask BJ. 2002 Nov. Genomic Structure and Evolution of the Ancestral Chromosome Fusion Site in 2q13-2q14.1 and Paralogous Regions on Other Human Chromosomes. Genome Res. 12(11):1651-62. 3. Nowosielski-Slepowron BJA, Peacock AD. 2012 June 11. XXIII.-Chromosome Number in the Blue, Fin and Sperm Whales. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Section B. Biology 65(3): 358-368. 4. Barnes-Svarney P, Svarney TE. 2014. The Handy Dandy Biology Answer Book. Canton (MI): Visible Ink Press. 496 p. 5. Pauli F. 2004 Nov 16. Chromosomes. Stanford at The Tech: Understanding Genetics [Internet][cited 2020 Dec 8].
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6.
Available from: https://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask69. Hellman, A. 2008 Mar 13. Chromosomes. Stanford at The Tech: Understanding Genetics [Internet][cited 2020 Dec 8]. Available from: https://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask257.
(The Evolution of the Public’s Views on Autopsy & Dissection: From Ancient Greece to 19th Century England) 1. Wolfe DL. 2010. To See for One’s Self: The Art of Autopsy Has a Long History and an Uncertain Future. American Scientist. 98(3): 228-35. 2. Ghosh SK. 2015. Human Cadaveric Dissection: a Historical Account from Ancient Greece to the Modern Era. Anatomy & Cell Biology. 48(3): 153–169. 3. Wills A. 1999. Herophilus, Erasistratus, and the birth of neuroscience. The Lancet. 354(9191): 1719–1720. 4. Burrows R. 2019. The Anatomy Act of 1832: The Story of Bodysnatching, Dissections, and the Rise of Anatomy. Tenor of Our Times. 9: 27-45. 5. Jarcho S. 1948. GIOVANNI BATTISTA MORGAGNI: His Interests, Ideas and Achievements. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 22(5): 503-27. 6. Payne L. 2002. With Much Nausea, Loathing, and Foetor: William Harvey, Dissection, and Dispassion in Early Modern Medicine. Vesalius: Acta Internationales Historiae Medicinae. 8(1): 45-52. 7. Mitchell A. 1976. The Paris Morgue as a Social Institution. Francia. 4: 581-596. 8. Mitchell PD, Boston C, Chamberlain AT, Chaplin S, Chauhan V, Evans J, Fowler L, Powers N, Walker D, Webb H, et al. 2011. The Study of Anatomy in England from 1700 to the Early 20th Century. Journal of Anatomy. 219(2): 91–99. (Conveying the Urgency of Climate Change Through Emotion) 1. Is this how you feel? [Internet] c2014-2020. [cited 2020 Dec 8]. Available from: https://www.isthishowyoufeel.com/ 2. ABC Radio National. 2016 Oct 30. Climate Scientists Feel Weight of World on Their Shoulders. ABC News [Internet] [cited 2020 Dec 8]. Available from: https://www.abc.net.au/ news/2016-10-31/climate-scientists-feel-weight-of-world-ontheir-shoulders/7972452?nw=0 3. Kolbert E. 2018 Oct 8. How to Write About a Vanishing World. The New Yorker [Internet][cited 2020 Dec 8]. Available from: https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/10/15/how-towrite-about-a-vanishing-world 4. The Earth Charter [Internet]. Earth Charter International. C2000-2020. [cited 2020 Dec 8]. Available from: https:// earthcharter.org/read-the-earth-charter/ 5. Kolbert E. 2019 Sep 20. Summits, Strikes, and Climate Change. The New Yorker [Internet][cited 2020 Dec 8]. Available from: https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/09/30/summitsstrikes-and-climate-change 6. Chapman DA, Lickel B, Markowitz EM. 2017. Reassessing emotion in climate change communication. Nature Climate Change. 7:850-852.
Back cover photos courtesy of Pauline Peterson
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