gender review by Elinor May Cruz

A GENDER REVIEW Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Submitted by Professor Barbara Bailey Miss Suzanne M. Charles The Centre for Gender and Development Studies The University of the West Indies December 2005 Revised April 2006

TABLE of CONTENTS Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1 Objectives of Review Exercise ......................................................................................................... 1 Planned Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 2 Revised Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 3 Definitions......................................................................................................................................... 4 Sex and Gender ............................................................................................................................. 4 Gender Based Analysis/Gender Mainstreaming ........................................................................... 5 Gender issues and gender statistics ............................................................................................... 5

Goal One – Human Security .......................................................................................................... 7 Exploring the Concept: Human Security ...................................................................................... 7 Gender and Human Security ......................................................................................................... 9 Gender Indicators for Human Security ....................................................................................... 10

Goal Two – Social Integration ...................................................................................................... 14 Exploring the Concept: Social Integration .................................................................................. 14 Gender Issues for Social Integration ........................................................................................... 16 Gender Indicators of in Social Integration .................................................................................. 18

Goal Three – Governance ............................................................................................................ 21 Exploring the Concept: Governance ........................................................................................... 21 Gender Issues in Governance...................................................................................................... 23

Goal Four – Secure and Sustainable Livelihoods ........................................................................ 28 Exploring the Concept: Sustainable Livelihoods ........................................................................ 28 Gender and Livelihoods .............................................................................................................. 29 Gender issues related to Sustainable Livelihoods ....................................................................... 31 Gender indicators of Sustainable Livelihoods ............................................................................ 32

Goal Five – Environment.............................................................................................................. 35 Exploring the Concept: Environmental Sustainability ............................................................... 35 Gender and Environmental Sustainability .................................................................................. 36 Gender Indicators for the Environment and Sustainability......................................................... 38

Goal Six - Education and Skills .................................................................................................... 42 Exploring the Concepts: Education and Skills............................................................................ 42 Rights to education – gender issues ............................................................................................ 49 Rights within education – gender issues (equality of treatment & opportunity) ........................ 49 Rights through education – gender issues ................................................................................... 50

Goal Seven - Health – Physical and Mental Well-being ............................................................. 54 Exploring the Concept: Health.................................................................................................... 54 Gender Issues related to Health and Well Being ........................................................................ 55 Gender indicators of Health and Well Being .............................................................................. 57

Summary Statement ........................................................................................................................ 61 _Toc132689021 Proposal for Gender Training Module ............................................................................................ 62 Background ................................................................................................................................. 62 Overall Aim ................................................................................................................................ 62 Objectives of the Module ............................................................................................................ 62 Content – Unit One ..................................................................................................................... 63 Objectives of the Module – Unit Two ........................................................................................ 63 Content – Unit Two .................................................................................................................... 63 Objectives of the Module – Unit Three ...................................................................................... 63 Content – Unit Three .................................................................................................................. 64 Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 64 Feedback Mechanisms ................................................................................................................ 64 Time frame .................................................................................................................................. 64

APPENDIX ..................................................................................................................................... 65

LIST of TABLES and BOXES Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11

Box I Box II Box III Box IV Box V Box VI Box VII Box VIII Box IX Box X Box XI Box XII Box XIII Box XIV Box XV

Gender Indicators of Human Security ........................................................ 11 Gender indicators of Social Integration ...................................................... 18 Gender Indicators of Good Governance ..................................................... 26 Gender Indicators of Secure and Sustainable livelihoods........................... 32 Indicators of Sustainability ........................................................................ 39 Gender Indicators of Sustainability ............................................................ 39 Gross Enrolment percentage by Level and Sex 2003/04 ............................ 43 Internal Efficiency Indicators, Public Primary Level Education by Grade and Sex 2002/03 ......................................................................... .44 Internal Efficiency Indicators, Public Secondary Level Education by Grade and Sex 2002/03 .......................................................................... 44 Gender Indicators of Education .................................................................. 50 Gender Indicators of Health & Well-Being ................................................ 57

Components of Human Security ................................................................... 8 Gender issues in Human Security ................................................................. 9 Characteristics of an enabling environment for promoting Social Integration ................................................................................................... 14 Gender Issues in Social Integration ............................................................ 16 Major characteristics of good governance .................................................. 22 Gender issues impacting on good governance ............................................ 25 Employment versus sustainable livelihoods ............................................... 28 Women and work ........................................................................................ 29 Women and work in Latin America & the Caribbean ................................ 30 Gender Issues in Sustainable Livelihoods .................................................. 31 Principles of sustainability .......................................................................... 35 Issues to consider in Gender and Environment........................................... 38 Gender Parity and Gender Equality in Education ....................................... 42 Rights through Education ........................................................................... 45 Gender indicators for education and skills.................................................. 48

iii

LIST of FIGURES Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14

Inter-related factors impinging on Human Security .................................... 8 Sectors and Agencies contributing to Human Security .............................. 13 Inter-related factors impinging on Social Integration ................................. 15 Sectors and Agencies contributing to Social Integration ............................ 20 Inter-related factors impinging on Good Governance ................................ 23 Sectors and Agencies contributing to Good Governance ........................... 27 Inter-related factors impinging on sustainable livelihoods ......................... 31 Sectors and Agencies contributing to Secure & Sustainable Livelihoods .. 34 Inter-related factors impinging on Sustainability ....................................... 36 Sectors and Agencies contributing to Sustainability .................................. 41 Inter-related factors impinging on Education and Skills ............................ 47 Sectors and Agencies contributing to Education and Skills ....................... 52 Inter-related Factors Affecting Well-Being and Health.............................. 55 Sectors/Agencies Contributing to Well-Being & Health ............................ 60

LIST of ACRONYMS

ADHD AIDS CARICOM CBO CDCC CEDAW CHS CSME ECLAC FGD FTZ HIV ICT ILO IMT JASPEV MDG MOE MOH NEPA NGO PLWHA SES SLC STATIN STD TWG UN UNDP UNESCO UPE UWI WHO

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Caribbean Community Community Based Organization Caribbean Development And Cooperation Committee Convention On The Elimination Of All Forms Of Discrimination Against Women Commission On Human Security Caribbean Single Market And Economy Economic Commission On Latin America And The Caribbean Focus Group Discussion Free Trade Zone Human Immunodeficiency Virus Information And Communication Technologies International Labour Organization Information Management Technologies The Jamaica Social Policy Evaluation Project Millennium Development Goal Ministry Of Education Ministry Of Health The National Environment And Planning Agency Non-Governmental Organization Persons Living With HIV/AIDS Socio-Economic Status Survey Of Living Conditions The Statistical Institute Of Jamaica Sexually Transmitted Diseases Technical Working Group United Nations United Nations Development Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific And Cultural Organization Universal Primary Education The University Of The West Indies World Health Organization

Introduction The Annual Progress Report on National Social Policy Goals 2003, based on the principles of â&#x20AC;&#x153;joined-up governmentâ&#x20AC;?, seeks to establish points of connection between the myriad elements of government; from policy-making through operations to service provision, and has been prepared to: a. Measure national progress towards long term national social goals b. Support evidence-based policy making, with the aim of effecting policy coherence c. Support the involvement of civil society in the process of policy formulation d. Engender public debate on policy e. Encourage greater government transparency and accountability

Objectives of Review Exercise Based on the scope of work outlined in the RFP for a specialist to conduct a review of the first Annual progress Report developed in 2003, the assessment exercise was intended to determine: a. The appropriateness of the methodologies used in the development of the Report b. The rigour of the application of a gender analysis in the exercise c. The relevance of the findings of the analysis to the suggested policy considerations d. The extent to which policy considerations aimed at enhancing gender equality and social justice are consistent with relevant international instruments and conventions endorsed by the Government of Jamaica. More specifically, it was expected that the review would point to ways of: a. Improving the quality of gender analysis in the second Progress Report on Jamaicaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s National Social Policy Goals b. Guiding the process of collecting gender sensitive data with the aim of improving social policy analysis c. Facilitating a more in-depth and comprehensive understanding of and approach to the analysis of relevant gender issues.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Planned Methodology The activities outlined below were intended to achieve these ends: 1.

A review of the background documents that informed the substance and scope of the Report, as well as an examination of the process and procedures employed in the preparation of the Report, including the extent to which Civil Society was meaningfully involved in the design and content of the Report. This will afford a better understanding of the aims and rationale of the Report and will allow for a more meaningful gap analysis and critique of the document in relation to its stated objectives.

2. Interviews with the JASPEV coordinator and key players in the TWG to ascertain perceptions on: i.

the efficacy of the methodologies used to develop the 2003 Report

ii.

problems encountered in the process

iii.

views on how such problems could be addressed in preparing a second progress report

iv.

elements that should be addressed in a training programme to enhance the skills required by the Team to engage in collecting gender sensitive data and improving analysis of such data to inform social policy development.

3. An examination of the seven goal chapters and related policy considerations to determine the extent to which: i.

data collection was inclusive, thorough and apposite.

ii.

relevant gender indicators have been used in the analysis of issues under consideration and are reflected in the presentation of findings

iii.

sex-disaggregated data bases utilised have been adequate and broad enough to inform a critical gender analysis

iv.

the framework of analysis is adequate to explore pertinent Gender issues

policy considerations and recommendations reflect congruence with a critical gender analysis of the data sets, within and across goals

vi.

there is evidence of an appreciation of the interconnectedness of the themes considered and the treatment of gender as a cross-cutting concern

vii. analysis, findings and policy considerations are consistent with the explicit and tacit positions of the Government of Jamaica, with regards to international agreements, arrangements and protocol; including (inter alia) the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), Outcome Documents of international and regional meetings on gender equality and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

4. Interviews with gender focal points or persons who can speak from a gender perspective in selected theme areas to ascertain perceptions of the extent to which policy considerations set out in the 2003 Report resonates with their day-to-day knowledge of the sector and, in their view, are implement-able and achievable. 5. Develop a Report on the findings related to items 1 to 4 above and based on the findings make recommendations to improve the preparation of future progress reports with regards to: a. Guiding the process of collecting gender sensitive data b. Facilitating a more in-depth and comprehensive understanding of and approach to the analysis of relevant gender issues within and across areas of concern. 6. Make recommendations of elements to be included in a curriculum for training initiatives designed to improving the capacity of the Technical Working Group and other policy analysts to carry out gender analyses and to use the findings to adopt a mainstreaming approach to policy and programme development.

Revised Methodology From a review of the benchmark indicators for tracking results related to the Jamaica 2015 Framework and Action plan for improving effectiveness collaboration and accountability in the delivery of social policy, which informed the Technical Working Groupâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach to the development of the Annual Progress Report for 2003, it became evident that gender had not been an explicit focus in the development of these indicators and hence was not a major concern in the evaluation of progress towards achievement of the seven policy goals. This was further confirmed when interviews were conducted with three members of the TWG and the Project Coordinator. The Coordinator indicated that despite efforts to gather sex-disaggregated data, and that even this was not always possible, there was no deliberate effort to engage in a gender analysis even when there was some attempt to bring in some gender specific data. In light of this, the task as initially conceptualized, was revisited and the decision taken to adopt a modified approach to the task. The new approach would involve, in relation to each goal, providing: a. A brief exploration of concepts related to each goal b. A suggestion of factors that might be considered to incorporate a gender perspective in each goal area c. Indicators that relate to these factors and could be used in measuring gender differences and gaps and tracking progress towards gender equality d. Possible primary and secondary sources for accessing such data A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

The gender related factors and issues suggested for each goal are exploratory and emerge from a very preliminary review, mainly from web sources, of each of the goal areas; and not from any systematic analysis which was not the remit of the TORs of the assigned gender review task. All suggestions are therefore tentative and are intended to catalyse the in-depth work that must be done by the TWG if gender is to be adequately treated in the next progress report. The suggestions also do not over-ride issues and indicators that form the basis of the 2003 Report. In some instances they point to the need for sex-disaggregation of the data presented. In other instances, additional indicators, that could inform a gender analysis relevant to the particular goal area, are suggested.

Definitions If gender is to be a focus of the next Progress Report, terms such as gender, gender based analysis and gender mainstreaming will inevitably be used. In the section that follows, these terms are briefly explored with the intention of providing a conceptual understanding and framework for the task at hand.

Sex and Gender The term ‘sex’ refers to biological differences between women and men. Biological differences are fixed and mostly unchangeable and vary little across cultures and over time. The term ‘gender’ refers to socially constructed differences between the sexes and to the social relations between women and men. [Gender - the social construction of sexed bodies in relation to each other – is a cognitive, social and epistemological category and an analytical tool providing a conceptual bridge to past and present relationships between men and women. It encompasses class, ethnicity, race and any other social category we customarily deal with.]1 These differences between the sexes are shaped over the history of social relations and change over time and across cultures. Gender identity depends on the circumstances in which women and men live and includes economic, cultural, historical, ideological and religious factors. Gender relations also vary according to the economic and social conditions of the society and differ between social and ethnic groups. Gender, therefore, does not necessarily refer to differences or concerns linked to biological characteristics of women and men, although gender-based differences and sex-based differences are often interrelated. Whereas sex-based differences are unchangeable, gender-based differences and gender relations are affected by policies, regulations and legislations, and can be changed. 2 In relation to the goals under consideration, many sex-linked differences are not biologically determined but result from cultural norms and practices, unequal power relations and gender ideologies and are based on interlocking structures of gender, class and, in some instances, ethnic inequalities. These differences can only be addressed by engaging in an analysis of issues that arise from these structures of inequality with gender-based inequality often being overarching and pervasive.

Pearson, Allan T & Rooke, Patricia, C. Gender Studies and Teacher Education: A Proposal. Canadian Journal of Education. 18:4 (1993) http://www.unece.org/stats/gender/web/genstats/whatisgs/sex.htm

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Gender Based Analysis/Gender Mainstreaming3 Is a process that assesses the differential impact of proposed or existing programmes, projects and/or policies on women and men and is now widely accepted as a means of addressing structural and systemic gender inequalities and inequities in the public domain. A distinction is made between formal and substantive equality. The legal concept of ‘formal equality’ requires that women and men in the same or similar circumstances be given the same opportunities, services and programmes. However, when differences between people cause disadvantage and inequality, different treatment may be required to achieve equality of outcome. ‘Substantive equality’ focuses not only equality of opportunity but also equality of outcome. Gender mainstreaming is now used as a means of achieving substantive equality. The 2000 postBeijing CARICOM Regional Plan of Action4 endorses gender-based analysis/ gender mainstreaming as a means of achieving greater gender equality and social justice in the Caribbean Region and two major strategic objectives are identified in this regard; viz.: 1. The promotion of support for gender equity among policy-makers and the broad public through the mainstreaming of gender in the culture and organization of relevant institutions as well as in programming and policy at national level and at the level of the CARICOM Secretariat; and, 2. The initiation of a process of structural reform in specific institutions. The call for governments to promote gender mainstreaming is reiterated in The Beijing +5 outcome document where there is a more explicit concern about gender mainstreaming as a means of achieving gender equality and both are linked to issues of women's empowerment. A framework for instituting gender mainstreaming is clearly laid down and spelt out for Governments in a number of paragraphs. This strategy is also laid out in the CARICOM Plan of Action to 20055 and is a core element of the plan which aims to promote an integrated, intersectoral approach to human and social development.

Gender issues and gender statistics6 In engaging in gender mainstreaming, gender issues relevant to the particular concern have to be identified and gender statistics collected and analysed in order to formulate appropriate policies and plans and monitor progress towards gender equality. A gender issue is any issue or concern determined by gender-based or sex-based differences between women and men. Gender issues are all aspects and concerns of how women and men interrelate, their differences in access to and use of resources, their activities, and how they react to changes, interventions and policies.

Exploring Concepts of Gender and Health. Women’s Health Bureau. Health Canada. June 2003. Gender Equality Social Justice and Development: The CARICOM Post-Beijing Regional Plan of Action to the Year 2000. CARICOM Secretariat 1977. 5 Plan of Action to 2005: Framework for Mainstreaming Gender Into Key CARICOM Programmes. Prepared for the CARICOM Secretariat by Andaiye. Caribbean Community Secretariat. Georgetown, Guyana 2003. 6 http://www.unece.org/stats/gender/web/genstats/whatisgs/sex.htm

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Gender statistics are data that adequately reflect the situation of women and men in all policy areas and allow for a systematic study of gender differentials and gender issues. In reference to issues of governance, Christopher Scott 7 identifies four types of gender-sensitive indicators, which have general applicability. The distinctions among these types of indicators are identified below. A gender analysis of the seven goal areas invariably would include a mix of these types of indicators.

Types of Gender Sensitive Indicators 1. Gender disaggregated –

Gender disaggregated data indicate gaps on a particular indicator between males and females.

–

E.g. % of male/female parliamentarians 2. Gender specific

–

Gender specific data relate to one or other of the sexes only, as with the case of data on incidence of rape, which; as legally defined; only takes into account female victims.

–

E.g. number of reported rape cases prosecuted in courts (victims almost exclusively female)

–

E.g. gender specific involvement of males in criminal activities

3. Implicitly gendered: –

Implicitly gendered indicators provide data from which inferences can be drawn about the differences between males and females as in the case of time use by both sexes, which points to differences in gender roles and the extent to which a sexual division of labour is evident.

–

E.g. It is women rather than men who take children to health clinics and accompany them to/from school, this indicator is implicitly gendered.

–

E.g. Information on time-use by poor men and women.

4. Chosen by women rather than men These indicators usually relate particularly to one sex; and therefore usually do not have a relational dimension; and in that way does no refer to gender, but reflect differences in priorities as between men and women. E.g. As in women’s greater involvement in the care economy and unpaid work and men’s involvement in positions of leadership.

http://www.undp.org/oslocentre/docs05/cross/3.%20Gender%20sensitive%20and%20pro-poor%20governance%20indicators%20-%20Christopher%20Scott.ppt

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Goal One – Human Security A peaceful and mutually respectful society with increased safety, security and freedom from fear in the home and in public spaces. Exploring the Concept: Human Security Human Security can be defined as an individual’s fundamental right to life, physical security and freedom from premature and preventable death. It involves the protection of the vital core of all human lives in ways that enhance human freedoms and human fulfilment. It involves protecting people from critical (severe) and pervasive (widespread) threats and situations by “risk reduction,” through the removal of insecurity and the reduction of vulnerabilities. In so doing, it requires the creation of political, social, environmental, economic, military and cultural systems that together give people the building blocks of survival, livelihood and dignity.8 The Commission on Human Security (CHS)9 has further clarified the concept as one that focuses on the individual and seeks protection from threats to human life, livelihood, and dignity, and the realization of full potential of each individual. Human security addresses both conflict and developmental aspects including displacement, discrimination and insecurities related to poverty, health, education and gender disparities. In this way human security is understood as the ability to withstand threats such as disease, hunger, unemployment, crime, social conflict, political repression, and environmental hazards. The 1994 Human Development Report10 suggests that human security consists of two attributes freedom from chronic threats to security such as hunger, disease and oppression; as well as protection from sudden and painful changes in everyday life. Additionally, the Report identifies seven interrelated dimensions of security: economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security. (See Box I) When one considers the seven dimensions of the UNDP framework of Human security, the main concerns related to each component are identified in Box I and Figure 1. Although all dimensions of Human Security are relevant in the Jamaican context, at this time, personal and community security as well as politically motivated conflicts, are the paramount concerns. In the 2003 APR, Human Security is therefore treated primarily form the perspective of crime and violence, as well as the responsiveness of the judiciary systems and protection of vulnerable groups. Although concerns related to Economic, Environmental Security and Health Security can be accommodated within goals 4, 5 and 7 respectively; an integrated approach would require some reference to these concerns within this chapter.

www.humansecurity-chs.org:80/intro/index.html www.humansecurity-chs.org:80/intro/index.html 10 http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1994/en/pdf/hdr_1994_ch2.pdf

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

BOX I â&#x20AC;&#x201C; COMPONENTS of HUMAN SECURITY Personal security: Protection against threats of sudden physical violence exercised by states or individuals. Personal security also encompasses personal security of women against violence and exploitation, or of children against all forms of child abuse. Community security: Protection against threats of violence in intra-community strife and tensions or hurtful practices for certain members of the community, such as women. Political security: Protection against torture, political repression, ill treatments and disappearances. Economic security: An assured basic income, minimum job security. Food security: Assured provision of basic nutritional requirements. Protection from unequal distribution of food supplies, particularly during periods of famine and food shortages. Health security: Access to health care and facilities which militates against death and illness particularly linked to poverty, such as unsafe and unclean environments Environment security: Prevention of degradations of local and global ecosystems.

Figure 1 - Inter-related factors impinging on Human Security

Reduction of violence within and between communities Protection of citizens against sudden physical violence; against oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s person

Protection of women against violence and exploitation

Human Security

Protection of children from abuse

Access of vulnerable groups to adequate & affordable food & health care

Protection against political violence

Assured Job security & Basic Income

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Gender and Human Security A gender perspective recognizes inequality in power as the basis of large-scale “traditional” conflicts, as well as those “behind closed doors” of the private sphere; including domestic and sexual violence. This perspective allows for an analysis of the power positions of men and women relative to each other in these situations; and the identification of appropriate interventions for the resolution of these conflicts. As treated in the 2003, the Goal of Human Security has a very narrow focus, which is reflected in the limited focus on vulnerability to crime and justice. Other dimensions of human security such as economic, food and health and environmental security are omitted. Additionally even while the chapter focuses on overall personal & community violence and the response of the justice system, the data presented and the selected indicators and measure suggested in the Jamaica Framework 2015 Action plan ; in relation to this goal are not ,expect in one instance, in any way gendered, and the treatment therefore do not reflect a gendered perspective. There are however, entrenched issues of gender in all dimensions of crime and violence and other aspects of Human Security, some of which are suggested in Table 2; and which could be used to guide the collection of data to guide policy direction for enhancing human security for all men and women and the most vulnerable within those groups. When each dimension of human security is considered from a gender perspective, a range of issues can be identified in which men and women are impacted differently. These differences only become apparent when a gender analysis is applied and data related to each, are dis-aggregated on the basis of sex. Some gender issues with gendered dimensions are suggested in Box II, in relation to the Human security dimensions. BOX II – GENDER ISSUES in HUMAN SECURITY Personal, Community and Political security - Exposure to illegal drugs - Involvement in crime and violence (personal, community and state) - Prevention of harassment and gender violence - Prevention of domestic violence and child abuse - Discrimination on the basis of sex, age, ethnicity, religion, social class etc. - Protection against state repression (freedom of press, speech, voting etc.) - Respect of basic human rights and freedom Economic security - Sufficiently and Reliability of Income - Access to social safety nets - Standard of living - Risk of joblessness - Protection against unemployment A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Food security - Availability and supply of food and the quality of nutrition - Share of household budget for food Health security - Accessibility to healthcare systems and quality of care - Accessibility to safe and affordable family planning - Prevention of HIV/AIDS and other diseases Environment security - Assessment on pollution of water, air - Land conservation and desertification - Protection from toxic and hazardous wastes - Natural hazard mitigation (droughts, floods, cyclones or earthquakes) - Access to safe water - Access to and affordability of a safe living environment

Gender Indicators for Human Security In all seven dimensions of Human Security, Gender intersects with socio-economic status and other factors such as ethnicity, age and geographic location to produce differential impacts on males and females of different social classes and at different points in the life cycle. In relation to personal security, women and particularly younger women who are not economically independent are particularly at risk. In relation to community and political security, adolescent and young adult males are most at risk as both victims and perpetrators. In Table 1, some suggestions are made of indicators â&#x20AC;&#x201C; relevant to the Jamaican context - that could be explored in relation to gender in relation to each dimension of Human Security.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Table 1 – Gender Indicators of Human Security

Indicator

Source

PERSONAL, COMMUNITY AND POLITICAL SECURITY - Incidence, types and sex of victims/ perpetrators of crime - Number of reported cases of domestic violence, sexual harassment & sexual assault / rape - Rate and definitions of crime solving / resolution - Sex composition of agencies that address crime

• • •

Effectiveness of State mechanisms (Judiciary) to address crime and vulnerability - Speed of hearing cases ∗ Types of cases heard and the victims of these crimes - Corruption in the Legal / Penal system - Effectiveness of rehabilitation programmes of offenders - Gender imbalances in members of the legal community - Effectiveness of the Office of the Public Defender in relation to issues of gender NGO’s and CBO’s engaged in anti-crime programmes - Beneficiaries (male / females) of these programmes and rates of participation - Willingness of male / female community members to discuss crime - Participants in and beneficiaries of Community Policing programmes Anti-narcotics programmes, especially for youth

•

• • • • •

• •

Primary / Secondary

Jamaica Constabulary Force • Crisis Centre Director of Public Prosecution Ministry of Justice and the Attorney Generals’ Department Office of the Public Defender NGO and CBO Records Ministry of Local government Jamaica Constabulary Force Ministry of Justice and the Attorney General’s Department Child Development Agencies Ministry of Labour and Social Security

Secondary

Identification of male / female ratio of persons within vulnerable groups and the number of protective measures taken to assist male / female members of vulnerable groups: - Agencies of legal aid and financial assistance - Houses of safety / Shelters - Rehabilitation Centres for narcotic users - Anti human trafficking legislation - Anti-discrimination legislation - Child protection Legislation and services - Programmes targeting crime prevention among youth

∗

Wherever arrows are used in tables or boxes, it indicates that the identified issues should be examined in relation to each other A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Indicator

Source

Primary / Secondary

ECONOMIC SECURITY • - Rates of employment and composition of the Labour Force • - Gender disparities in the Labour force - Rates of Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment • - Occupational Sex segregation - Rates of literacy and exposure to formal education; and consequent implications for labour force participation - Relationship between Educational Attainment and Labour Market participation - Labour force gender vulnerabilities: Job Security, social security, trade union representation

Labour Force Surveys Ministry of Labour Social Security Ministry of Education

FOOD SECURITY AND POVERTY

•

Survey of Living Conditions

• •

•

Secondary

•

Secondary

Ministry of Health • Ministry of Labour and Social Security Ministry of Justice Survey of Living Conditions Social Development Commission Ministry of Land and • Environment NEPA Solid Waste Management

Secondary

and

Male / Female ratio of citizens living below the poverty line; and consequent ability to buy the food basket Male vs. Female consumption patters and purchasing power Male / Female incidence of Poverty and the disparity in household incomes based on headship Percentage female-headed households

HEALTH SECURITY - Access to and affordability of Health care, including access to mental health care - Access to Family life planning - Life Expectancy rates - Child mortality rates

• • •

ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY • - Programmes and policies for the conservation of natural resources who engages in conservation / degradation practices • - Disaster management and its impact on men, women and children • - Access to and affordability of potable water - Management of waste disposal - Access to facilities for the differently- abled.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Secondary

Figure 2 - Sectors and Agencies Contributing to Human Security

Ministry of Agriculture & Land NGO’s, CBO‘s and Interest & Advocacy Groups

Office of Disaster Preparedness and Management

Ministry of Health

Ministry of National Security

Ministry of Justice and the Attorney General’s Department

Ministry of Local Government and the Environment

Ministry Of Labour and Social Security Ministry of Education & Youth

If it is accepted that currently the major concern in Jamaica is the levels of crime and violence, the Lead agency in terms of establishing policy direction would - of necessity - be the Ministry of National Security. Another key ministry in this regard would be the Ministry of Justice. Other sectors however, from which data should be obtained and with which there should be collaboration in terms of identifying policy considerations would include the Ministries of Health, Labour and Social Security, Agriculture, Land and the Environment and Education Youth and Culture. There should also be consultations with NGOs and CBOs interested in issues of Crime and violence (See Figure 2).

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Goal Two â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Social Integration An inclusive and non-discriminatory society which respects group and individual rights, promotes social justice, accepts diversity, builds trust and communication between all groups.. Exploring the Concept: Social Integration Social integration is a dynamic process of fostering unity among diverse members of society, including various identity-based and/or geographically-based groups. Social integration is promoted when people can participate in the socio-economic, political, institutional, and cultural systems through actively engaging in the decision-making process, based on recognition and mutual accommodation of different views or opinions. The process of social integration creates space and opportunity for building capacity at the individual, community and institutional levels within an enabling environment.11 The major features of this enabling environment are identified in Box III.

BOX III - Characteristics of an enabling environment for promoting Social Integration -

A strong social fabric that accommodates diversity

Full integration of various groups and members of a society to collaborate and cohere in peaceful/just social relations

Social justice â&#x20AC;&#x201C; not just policy but practice

Institutional, traditional and legal systems that allow fair and just recourse in disputes

Good leadership and governance

Culture of peace

Capacity and freedom for self-reflection on a social level

Dialogue to help build a pluralistic society, and also eliminate or suspend suspicion and fear responsible for social tensions

Spirituality of the people and peace symbols that have been used to unite and reconcile various cultural and religious groups

The Division for Social Policy and Development of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 12 opines that socially integrated societies reflect these characteristics and create values and ethics that accommodate diversity, and enhance values of freedom, security and democracy. In these societies, violence is less likely to develop when disagreements arise. While recognizing that complete social integration of diverse groups is unlikely to be achieved, social integration is an essential ongoing task. 11 12

http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/egm/e_dlg_sumry.htm http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/egm/e_dlg_sumry.htm

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

A society that is able to foster social integration and build consensus around a set of core purposes and values, has a strong foundation for managing and/or transforming inevitable disagreements that arise over key issues and challenges. Processes of social integration should accommodate all members of society, but the focus has to be on protecting vulnerable groups, and creating social values and ethics that can inform a culture of governance that promotes peaceful and just social relations. Differences based on social structures of inequality, including gender, race, class, ethnicity must therefore be taken into account in policies, plans and programmes intended to promote social integration. Some factors impinging on social integration are suggested in Figure 3.

Figure 3 - Inter-Related Factors Impinging On Social Integration

Protection of vulnerable groups

Level of Tolerance among different social groups, and reduction of social tensions

Access to Public Sector Services (Education, Health) of vulnerable groups

Social Integration Level of Adherence to international instruments to protect women, children, youth

Civil society participation in the governance process

at all levels Promotion of Human Rights (Freedom from State, community and personal violence)

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Gender Issues for Social Integration In the 2003 Annual Progress Report, vulnerable groups, thought to be at risk for social exclusion, identified for attention included: a. b. c. d. e.

Youth Elderly Persons with disabilities Poor (Rural and Urban) Some religious groups

While in the chapter some information is provided about fulfilment of human rights, access to services and opportunities and measures of participation these data are not disaggregated in relation to these vulnerable populations and it is admitted that there is therefore no basis for assessing the level of social integration. Additionally, there is no attempt to identify indicators that relate specifically to each of the vulnerable groups and so limits the range of factors that would influence policy considerations.

Although, in the introductory section of the chapter, gender is identified as a cross-cutting issue for all vulnerable groups, the data supplied in relation to access to services, opportunities etc. are not disaggregated on the basis of sex and there is therefore no assessment in terms of differential impacts for men/boys and women/girls and a gender analysis is therefore not achieved. This, no doubt, relates to the fact that although several key indicators related to social integration are identified in the Jamaica 2015 Framework and Action Plan, no gender indicators are included. Some issues of gender that impact the major vulnerable groups and related indicators, are suggested in Box IV and Table 2 respectively. BOX IV â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Gender Issues in Social Integration Vulnerable group Gender Issues Youth (15-24)

Elderly

HIV/AIDS infection rates Sexuality and power in sexual relations Gender gaps in education Gender gaps in employment / labour force participation (Occupational Sex Segregation) Sexual and Reproductive rights and health Sexual division of labour in the home High risk lifestyles, particularly among males Absence of parental guidance / Teenage parenting Prevalence of physical, verbal and sexual abuse Unwaged work Access to social security Ability to meet basic needs Differences in health needs Social isolation

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Vulnerable group Persons with disabilities

Poor (Urban & Rural)

Gender Issues -

Access to paid employment Sexual abuse Ability to meet basic needs Special education Discrimination and stigma Female headed households Livelihoods Access to Social capital Ability to meet basic needs Health and Well being Access to quality education

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Gender Indicators of in Social Integration Table 3 outlines some suggestions of the gender issues, related indicators and data sources that may be considered to ensure social integration particularly of the vulnerable groups identified for special attention.

ELDERLY

YOUTH

Table 2 – Gender indicators of Social Integration

Primary / Secondary

Gender Indicators

Data Sources

Access to Social Services (Education and Health)

•

Ministry of Education

Access to and participation in the education system

•

Ministry of Health

Access to family planning health care

•

Programmes targeting / addressing risk behaviours

Ministry of Labour and Social Security

Legislation around child protection Places of safety

•

Ministry of Justice

Sibling households

•

Participation in the Labour force including underage workers

Survey of Conditions

Economic deprivation Street Children

•

Interviews

Levels of income (Unwaged work Child care)

•

Access to social safety nets (National Insurance & Pension Funds)

Survey of Conditions

Access to social services (Specialised health care)

•

Poverty Assessment Data

Knowledge of service entitlements

•

Interviews with citizens

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

•

Secondary

•

Primary

Living

Living •

•

Secondary

Primary

POOR

DISABLED

Gender Indicators

Data Sources

Primary / Secondary

Health problems and access to health services

•

Ministry of Health

Access to and participation in the education system

•

Ministry of Education

Participation in the Labour force

•

Anti-discrimination / Equal Opportunity Legislation

Ministry of Labour and Social Security

Violence against disabled persons

•

Ministry of Justice

Access to social safety nets (Welfare Programmes)

•

Gender disparities in levels of Poverty

Poverty Data

Access to social services (Health and Education)

•

Ministry of Education

•

Ministry of Health

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

•

Secondary

Assessment •

Secondary

Figure 4 - Sectors And Agencies Contributing To Social Integration

NGOs & CBOs that work with vulnerable groups

Ministry of Health

Ministry of Justice and the Attorney Generalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Department

Ministry of Labour and Social Security Ministry of Education & Youth

Office of the Prime Minister

Office of the Public Defender

Social Development Commission Ministry of National Security

Social integration is the goal which seeks to ensure that all persons can be optimally integrated in society and enjoy the rights and privileges of citizenship. As discussed, the focus therefore has to be on groups that are at risk of social exclusion. The approach to policy formulation has to be multifaceted and the achievement of this goal is, in fact, ultimately dependent, not only on the immediate issues identified in this section, but also on attention to all other social policy goal areas. The agency that leads the process for social integration therefore has to be so positioned that it can itself carry out an integrative role in the process as well as work closely with and mobilise a range of government and non-governmental agencies. Although all major line ministries would be important in advancing an agenda for social integration the lead would best be taken by the Office of the Prime Minister with its overarching link to all other Ministries through the Cabinet Office.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Goal Three – Governance More effective, complementary and transparent government and civil society partnerships and structures, seeking to ensure the increased and sustained involvement in decision-making by the people Exploring the Concept: Governance The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, identifies eight major characteristics of good Governance: participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decisionmaking. It is also sustainable i.e., responsive to the present and future needs of society.13. In its report on Governance for Sustainable Human Development14, the United Nations Development Programme recommends that a strategic vision anchor the process of governance, where “leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good Governance and human development, along with a sense of what is needed for such development… [within] the historical, cultural and social complexities in which that perspective is grounded15” Governance, like many other related concepts and processes, is presumed to be gender-neutral in that it does not represent the interests or ideology of one sex over another. However, western political and economic theory, on which are based most of the practices and institutions of the modern state and civil society, placed man at the centre of the body politic, and locked women in the household, as political, social and economic dependents (Ashworth, 1992)16. In fact, the discourse, procedures, structures and functions of governance remain heavily skewed in favour of men in general and certain groups of men in particular. In recent years there is a growing recognition that “good governance” and “gender equality” are indivisible and necessary for sustainable human development. The 1995 Beijing Platform for Action posits that “Without the active participation of women and the incorporation of women’s perspectives in all levels of decision-making, the goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved”. Factors which impinge on good governance include the interface between the public and private spheres, democratic participation and decision making and capacity building. The major characteristics of good governance and factors which need to be taken into account in assessing the quality of governance are suggested in Box V and Figure 5 respectively.

13 14

http://www.unescap.org/huset/gg/governance.htm http://magnet.undp.org/policy/

15 http://www.tugi.org/reportcards/genderdevelopment.PDF 16

http://www.sdnp.undp.org/gender/resources/mono3.html

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Box V â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Major Characteristics Of Good Governance Participation: Participation by both men and women is a key cornerstone of good governance. Participation could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. Rule of law: Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires full protection of human rights, particularly those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force. Transparency: Transparency means that decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules and regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement. Responsiveness: Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all Stakeholders, within a reasonable timeframe. Consensus oriented: Good governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved. Equity and inclusiveness: A societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s well being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires all groups, but particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well being. Effectiveness and efficiency: Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. Accountability: Accountability is a key requirement of good governance. Not only governmental institutions but also the private sector and civil society organizations must be accountable to the public and to their institutional stakeholders

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Figure 5 - Inter-Related Factors Impinging On Good Governance Negative culture of politics Role of the Media and freedom of expression

Capacity building in Transformational Leadership skills

Democratic participation and leadership at community and national levels

Economic Policy, Budgetary Processes and Resource allocation

Good Governance

Education for Citizenship

Policies and practices that exclude women from leadership positions Family Governance and patterns of socialization

Gender Issues in Governance The chapter on governance pointed to indicators of good governance and at the national, local and community levels, but there was no reference to governance within the family. The indicators for guiding arrangements for good governance were entirely gender neutral; and therefore failed to take into account the impact of gender in determining the process and the outcomes of governing. For a long time it has been presumed that governance in terms of concepts and processes is gender-neutral. Ashworth (1992)17, points to the fact that western political and economic theory, on which are based most of the practices and institutions of the modern state and civil society, placed man at the centre of the body politic and locked women in the household as political, social and economic dependents. In recent years, however, there has been a growing recognition that “good governance” and “gender equality” are indivisible and necessary for sustainable human development. The 1995 Beijing Platform for Action18 posits that “Without the active participation of women and the incorporation of women’s perspectives in all levels of decision-making, the goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved”. Ashworth19 argues that there are five levels of governance, representing the different spaces in which human beings interact, in which power is exercised, and services delivered. Although political and economic theoreticians have tended to exclude one or more of them from consideration, they are interdependent: the behaviour and functioning of people within one translates, to a greater or lesser extent, into others, as do the regulation of gender relations. 17

http://www.sdnp.undp.org/gender/resources/mono3.html Fourth World conference on Women Beijing, China 4-15 September 1995. Platform for Action and the Beijing Declaration. United Nations, Department of Public Information. United Nations, New York. 1996. 19 http://www.sdnp.undp.org/gender/resources/mono3.html 18

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

These levels are: 1. The household or family 2. The community (including the clan, neighbourhood, workplace, associations & political parties) 3. Local government 4. National government 5. International or global government. Smita Mishra-Panda in Gender Issues in Governance 20 suggests that a gendered perspective of governance should encompass all these domains and levels of differentiation and requires looking at participation and decision making of women and men in these different institutions and the gender gap and inequalities in each. She suggests that the very definition of governance needs to be engendered as current definitions implicitly support the private-public divide, which disadvantages women. The International Development Research Centre21, suggests that the causes of this include discriminatory laws against women, political manipulation of women, women's ignorance of their rights and lack of clear government policy to empower women. The discussion on the indicators for good governance within the Jamaican context, will be informed by levels one through to four, as identified by Ashworth. Some issues that would impinge on gender equitable governance at the level of family, community and nation are set out in Box VI; and gender indicators that relate to these factors are suggested in Table 4.

20 http://www.irma.ac.in/silver/themepaper/SMITHA.pdf 21 http://reseau.crdi.ca/en/ev-8080-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Box VI – Gender Issues Impacting On Good Governance Levels Governance

Issues of Gender and Governance

How time is used by various family members and who and what determines time use(eg. responsibilities for household management, childcare and, increasingly, care for the elderly and sick) The household or • Impact of violence on autonomy of individuals in the family, particularly women. family • Limited social services which transfer responsibility for care to women and thereby reduce the availability of disposable time, thus reducing time they have for leisure and to take part in cultural activities • Leadership of CBO’s and level of participation of men/women in these organizations The absence from media and opinion polls, through both deliberate and inadvertent censorship, of women's political The community voices, views, demands, and leadership, with which others can identify and find a legitimacy for their own views Local government • The perceived non-transferability of experience and household management skills to community and local politics, in both of which women predominate numerically •

• • • National government

•

Construing men as the only real political actors, thereby legitimating them and their actions, but disqualifying women In addition to commitments expressed though the signing of international instruments and conventions addressing gender equality, there is need for an explicit national policy position on gender equality to address current disparities The use of masculine terminology, presupposing that it includes, presents and represents the persons and common interests of women Money: women's lower wages, and limited entitlements to social benefits, coupled with prevalent social expectations that women spend their income on their families, inhibits or prevents expenditure on the uncertainties of a political career The culture of politics: the masculinity of political parties, the adversarial proceedings, the coercion to conform to the central interests of the parties, the timing of meetings and sessions, the pervasiveness of patronage, the distance of politics from daily realities Knowledge base of citizens (males/females) in terms of rights, norms, standards, entitlements

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Table 3: Gender Indicators of Good Governance Gender-sensitive indicators are based on ‘engendered’ data where differences between women and men/girls and boys are taken into account. Data related to indicators suggested in Table 3 would need to be disaggregated in this way to reveal points of difference in relation to issues of governance at the household, community and national levels.

Indicator

Community and FAMILY Local Government

NATIONAL

Primary / Secondary

Source Family Governance Allocation of household chores and duties - Time Use by household members Headship of household and levels of income Distribution and use of family income and household resources Access to social services e.g. Health and Education Levels of education and access to technology

•

Number and composition of NGO’s and CBO’s and percentage of activities targeted to improve participation Level of awareness of rights, obligations and entitlements among community members and sources of information Male / Female composition of Local government and area representatives; and roles and functions of male / female members in terms of hierarchy, authority and status Proportion of Seats held by women in Parliament and number of women in Cabinet Ratio of women to men candidates standing for political office Number of women trained to represent women’s issues Availability of and access to training in transformational leadership Ratio of men to women trained to use and accessing e-governance services Extent to which gender mainstreaming is used in government policy creation Women’s access to financial resources to support candidacy for national elections

Survey of Living Conditions Interviews with citizens Census Data Ministry of Education

•

Secondary

•

Ministry of Government

Local

•

Secondary

• • • •

Parliament Records Records of Political Parties The Political Caucus Surveys

•

Secondary

• • •

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Figure 6- Sectors And Agencies Contributing To Good Governance

Ministry of Local Government Parliament & Cabinet Office

Ministry of Justice & the Attorney General’s Department

NGO’s, CBO ‘s and Interest Groups

Office of the Prime Minister

Ministry of Education & Youth Office of Contractor General & Political Ombudsman

Ministry Of National Security

Ministry Of Labour and Social Security

The Office of the Prime Minister with its direct links to the Cabinet office and members of the Cabinet and ultimately to elected members of parliament, would be the obvious Lead agency on matters of good governance.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Goal Four â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Secure and Sustainable Livelihoods Higher quality livelihood and widened employment opportunities for all Jamaicans, with particular reference to those disadvantaged in the Labour market.. Exploring the Concept: Sustainable Livelihoods A sustainable livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base.22 In the literature a distinction is made between a job and a livelihood (See Box VII).

Box VII - Employment versus sustainable livelihoods Whilst employment can provide a livelihood, most livelihoods of the poor are based on multiple activities and sources of food, income and security. In both rural and urban contexts the vast majority of the poor have individual, household and community survival strategies that may include employment, but go beyond this to a range of other economic activities that include informal sector work, exploitation of common property resources, share-rearing of livestock and reliance on social networks for mutual support as well as a number of other mechanisms for coping in times of crisis. Source: Bridge (development â&#x20AC;&#x201C; gender) Report No. 37 23

Chambers, R. and Conway, G. 1992. Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 21st century. IDS Discussion Paper 296. IDS, Brighton. Masika, R. & Joekes, S. 1996. Employment and sustainable livelihoods: A gender perspective. Report prepared at the request of the Gender Office of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). Bridge, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Gender and Livelihoods The basic tenets of secure and sustainable livelihoods as laid out at the beginning of the chapter on Sustainable Livelihoods in the 2003 Report, lend themselves to a gender analysis but the four indicators around which data are organized are too narrow in scope to achieve this end. Where data are disaggregated by sex there is no explanation of what might account for the difference and therefore how gender as a category of social organization gives rise to the observed differences. Further, an issue such as poverty (p.64 of the Annual Progress Report) cannot be addressed without reference to the fact that it is established that there are gender differences in this regard and that female headed household experience higher levels of poverty than do other household types. The Bridge Report24 points to the fact that the widening of the term employment to the concept of sustainable livelihoods has allowed for the capturing of economic activities that women are engaged in that were previously ignored. Use of a sustainable livelihoods framework also allows for a focus on issues related to three dimensions of work:

The capability to make use of livelihood opportunities, cope with stress and shocks to the system and respond to adverse changes in conditions;

Equity in relation to income as well as equal distribution of assets (human - education, health services; natural – land, labour; social – social networks; physical – IMTs, ICTs; financial – capital, income, credit)

Environmental and social sustainability in terms of pollution, deforestation, exploitation of non-renewable resources, physical degradation in the former case and the ability to improve livelihoods while enhancing assets and capabilities on which livelihoods depend in the latter case.

Information presented in Box VIII, points to ways in which women are generally discriminated against in the formal and informal workforces and as unpaid workers. The excerpt in Box IX points to the unique situation in the Caribbean, where women in the formal workforce, although more highly educated than their male counterparts, still face similar forms of discrimination.

Box VIII - Women and work There is often a failure to recognize that workers face gendered conditions of access to labour markets, which discriminate against women specifically. Generally, women have less power than men, receive less for their work, have less control over household resources, receive less education, have less access to better paying jobs in the formal sector and are disproportionately represented among unpaid family workers and in the informal sector. Source: Bridge (development – gender) Report No. 37

Masika, R. & Joekes, S. 1996. Employment and sustainable livelihoods: A gender perspective. Report prepared at the request of the Gender Office of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). Bridge, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Box IX - Women and work in Latin America & the Caribbean A study done by the Economic Commission on Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) showed that in Latin America and Caribbean the incomes of women with nine years of schooling were lower than those of men who had only five years of formal education. Further, although the female economically active population (EAP) in the region is more highly educated than the male EAP, at higher occupational levels, women are subject to significant differences in remuneration and that discrimination increases with age and with educational level. 25

Rico, Nieves. Serie Mujer Y Desarrollo. Women and Development Unit. 1997.

When a sustainable livelihoods approach is adopted instead of the narrower focus on only formal employment, several gender issues emerge which have to be addressed from a multi-sectoral perspective as represented in Figures 7 and 8. Further, a number of actions related to enhancing womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic advancement and which have direct implications for policy formulation in this regard are summed up in Resolution 49/8 coming out of the 49th Session of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women held in February 200526 and presented in Appendix 1 of this Report.

Rico, Nieves. Female Human Resources Development: Growth and Equity as Priorities. Women and Development Unit. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. Santiago, Chile. June 1997. 26 United Nations Commission on the Status of Women. Report on the 49th Session (28 February to 11 and 22 march 2005). Economic and Social Council Offical Records, 2005. Supplement no. 7. E/2005/27. E/CN.6/2005/11. p.24-29.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Figure 7 - Inter-Related Factors Impinging On Sustainable Livelihoods Health Well-Being Time use

Access to education/ training

Migration for Work

Employment Formal/ Informal

Technologies & Work Sustainable Livelihoods

Social Capital Unwaged work

Macro-economic Policy

Environ-mental Impacts

Access to Resources Capital Land

Gender issues related to Sustainable Livelihoods Based on the considerations outlined in Figure 7 gender issues that emerge in relation to secure and sustainable livelihoods include but are not limited to those listed in Box X: BOX X - Gender Issues in Sustainable Livelihoods 1. Labour market participation and women’s higher unemployment rates 2. Livelihood strategies used by Jamaican women particularly the rural poor 3. Factors determining livelihood strategies used by women/men 4. The glass ceiling and glass escalator phenomena 5. Productive vs. reproductive work - family responsibilities and roles – burden of work for women 6. The ‘care’ economy – unwaged work, social networks 7. Gender differentials in education and correlation with post-school opportunities - social currency of certification 8. Sex-segregation of training programmes 9. Sex differences in on-the-job training opportunities and apprenticeship programmes 10. Occupational sex-segregation, FTZs, discriminatory labour market regulations 11. Wage differentials, women’s involvement in trade unions A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

12. Gender vulnerabilities in paid employment and ILO Decent Work27 Agenda 13. The informal sector – high female involvement, access to capital and markets – impacts on women and children 14. Impact of economic shocks on formal/informal sector workers 15. Access to resources – credit, land, property rights 16. Impact of livelihoods on the natural environment – do they enhance or deplete resources? 17. Impact of international trade agreements on livelihoods 18. Social and economic impacts of CSME on livelihoods

Gender indicators of Sustainable Livelihoods Some gender indicators related to secure and sustainable livelihoods are suggested in Table 4. In examining these factors, data must be disaggregated by sex; and where possible, by social class, geographic location, ethnicity etc, as well.

Table 4: Gender Indicators of Secure and Sustainable livelihoods

Indicator

Source

Primary/Secondary

Sources of income – livelihood Surveys activities beyond paid work

Primary

Forms and use of social capital Participatory networks Methodologies - FGDs

Primary

Community support systems

Unemployment/employment rates

Participatory app- Venn Primary diagram of community orgs. Labour market statistics Secondary

Occupational sex-segregation – Labour Market stats, Secondary, Primary glass ceiling, glass escalator survey of public/private phenomena in various occupations sector organizations Secondary FTZs

Existing studies Secondary

Gender vulnerabilities ILO sources, existing employment security, rights at studies, Govt. stats work, social protection, social dialogue Primary Unwaged work/ burden of work

Time use studies, FGDs

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/decent.htm

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Indicator

Source

Primary/Secondary

Wage differentials

Labour Force Stats

Impact of livelihood activities on health - HIV/AIDs, chronic diseases, exposure to toxic substances etc.

Existing studies on Secondary occupational health, MOH Reports, Ministry of Agriculture

Access to human, social, natural, Surveys, existing records Primary, Secondary physical, financial assets re access to education, health services etc. legal reform Existing studies, analysis Secondary Educational outcomes vs social of existing census/ poverty and economic outcomes assessment data Impact of globalization, Reports – Ministries of Secondary but most macroeconomic policies, Finance, Foreign Affairs likely requiring further economic volatility, trade analysis liberalisation on formal and informal sectors Migration for work – who is Survey of intra for moving, where, impact on family – movement existing studies young and elderly Feminisation of poverty

island Primary, Secondary work,

SLC, SES, Human Secondary Development Reports

Impact of livelihood activities on Ministry of Agriculture, Secondary natural environment NEPA

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Figure 8 - Sectors And Agencies Contributing To Secure & Sustainable Livelihoods

Ministry of Agriculture and Land

Ministry of Education & Youth

Ministry of Finance & Planning

Ministry of Labour & Social Security

Social Development Commission

National Environment & Planning Agency

Ministry of Local Government & The Environment

Ministry of Health Bureau of Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Affairs

A wide range of public sector as well as non-governmental and community-based organisations could contribute data relevant to a gender analysis of issues relevant to sustainable livelihoods. In terms of formal arrangements and policy the lead agency would be the Ministry of labour and Social security particularly as this relates to both the formal and informal labour sectors of the labour market and issues related to the all dimensions of ILO labour conventions and in particular to gender vulnerabilities related to the pillars of the descent work agenda. A number of other Ministries and public sector agencies including Health, Education, among others, would also be important sources of data for informing policy considerations in this area (See Figure 8).

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Goal Five â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Environment Improved environment for quality of life, for Jamaicans living and as yet born Exploring the Concept: Environmental Sustainability According to the UN Millennium Declaration "Men and women have the right to live their lives and raise their children in dignity, free from hunger and from the fear of violence, oppression or injustice".28 Interactions between humans and their physical environments, with particular attention to environmental protection, have come to be encompassed in the concept of Sustainable Development. While sustainable development is not a new idea, as historically cultures recognized the need for harmony between the environment, society and economy, what is new is an articulation of these ideas within the context of a global industrial and information society. Today, sustainable development has come to focus on the continued improvement of the quality of life for all individuals, through the use of diverse technology, without increasing the use of natural resources beyond the capacity of the environment to supply them indefinitely. According to the 1997 UNESCO Educating for a Sustainable Future Report29, achieving sustainability will depend ultimately on changes in behaviour and lifestyles, changes which will need to be motivated by a shift in values and rooted in the cultural and moral precepts upon which behaviour is predicated. Without change of this kind, even the most enlightened legislation, the cleanest technology, the most sophisticated research will not succeed in steering society towards the long-term goal of sustainability. The six principles30 on which Sustainability can be built and which are defined in Box XI, are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Conservation Waste Minimization Democracy & Public Participation Scientific and Technological Innovation Integration of Environmental & Economic Decisions Stewardship

BOX XI - PRINCIPLES of SUSTAINABILITY Conservation: The protection of biological diversity. Waste Minimization: The management and appropriate disposal of all wastes of corporate activities Democracy and Public Participation: The provision of opportunities for input by potentially affected and interested parties when evaluating development and program alternatives and before deciding on a final course of action. Scientific and Technological Innovation: The development of Research technologies, practices and institutions that focus on best practices that are environmentally sound. Integration of Environmental & Economic Decisions: The inclusion of environmental costs in economic decisions. Stewardship: Communitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; responsibility as caretakers of the environment (and economy) for the benefit of present and future generations 28

http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm

29 http://www.unesco.org/education/tlsf/theme_a/mod04/uncom04t01bod.htm 30

http://www.iisd.org/sd/principle.asp?pid=21&display=1 A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Figure 9 - Inter-Related Factors Impinging On Sustainability

Consumption Stewardship & Conservation Training and Advocacy

Human health and Well being

Sustainability

Human Settlements and Environmental Degradation

Democratic Participation and Decision making

Socio-Economic Factors Livelihoods & Food Security

Scientific and Technological Innovation

Gender and Environmental Sustainability While the Chapter uses a holistic definition of Environment, it approaches the monitoring of the goal from a purely scientific approach, focusing on Environmental practices, Public Awareness & Advocacy and Protection of Natural Resources. While each of these implicitly encompasses gender issues, the chapter does not address any of the gender implications these issues present. Since the early 1980s considerable attention has been devoted to the relationship between women and the environment, and extensive efforts have been made to identify the effects of the environment on women. Momentum was gathered at the workshop of non-governmental organizations, which ran parallel to the first World Conference on Women in Nairobi (1985), where it was not only recognized that the themes of "women and development" and the "environment" are interlinked but also must be incorporated into policy planning. The current discourse around gender and the environment highlights womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roles in the use and management of natural resources, opening up important opportunities for development analysis and action. It also introduces a space in which there can be a rethinking of traditional views of women and their relation to nature and the environment, which have been detrimental to women as managers of the environment.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Current discussions around women and the sustainability of the environment now suggest an alternative approach, which examines dynamic gender-differentiated activities, rights and responsibilities in the processes of natural resource management as well as the gendered interactions between humans and their physical environments, with particular attention to the environmental, economic, social, cultural, and human biological changes that are associated with international development. The concept of Eco-feminism which explores how male domination of women and domination of nature are interconnected, both in cultural ideology and in social structures has made a particularly useful analysis of power relations that rejects any form of hierarchy but emphasizes shared power. According to Rosemary Reuther 31 "gender, class, race and nature all must be theorized together if we are to finally move beyond these oppressions... The potential then for Eco-feminism to be a radically inclusive liberation theory are considerable." The role of women in sustainable development was formalized by the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Chapter 24 of Agenda 21) and Principle 20 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.32 Subsequent to this formalization, the Commission on Sustainable Development and the World Summit on Sustainable Development formally recognize women as one of nine major civil groups whose participation is required for effective implementation of the sustainable development agenda. The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development states, "We are committed to ensuring that women's empowerment, emancipation and gender equality are integrated in all the activities encompassed within Agenda 21, the Millennium Development Goals and the Plan of Implementation of the Summit."33 Based on the foregoing discussion on the relationships between women and the environment as well as the gendered dimensions of this relationship, some factors that would need to be considered to incorporate a gender perspective in the identification of policy considerations related to the environment are suggested in Box XII.

http://www.thegreenfuse.org/ecofem.htm

32 http://habitat.igc.org/agenda21/rio-dec.htm 33 www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/ WSSD_POI_PD/English/POI_PD.htm

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

BOX XII - Issues To Consider In Gender And Environment 1. Women's relationship with nature and unwaged labour in subsistence farming 2. Economic and food security in female headed households Credit and enterprise development 3. Population growth, rates of fertility and reproductive rights 4. Land area management Area, population and composition of urban/rural and formal/informal settlements 5. Quality of housing and household size 6. Management and use of natural fuels Wood harvesting methods and intensity 7. Sustainable agriculture and farming systems 8. Land rights and legislation around land ownership Proportion of women in management of NGO's and CBOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dealing with environment Percentage of projects and activities initiated by women and men in communities 9. Management of and infrastructure for water resources Labour involved in providing potable water, particularly in rural and inner-city areas 10. Access to and training in Scientific and Technological methods for the protection and optimal/sustainable use of natural resources 11. Urban environment and services 12. Community based advocacy for natural resource protection Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s movements

Gender Indicators for the Environment and Sustainability Agenda 21 recommends the development of indicators of sustainability under four primary dimensions: Social, Economic, Environmental and Institutional. Within this framework, the development of indicators, which create a framework that can be used in addressing sustainability goals and basic societal needs, is possible. Some gendered items of this framework are presented and explored in Tables 5 and 6.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Table 5: Indicators of Sustainability SOCIAL

ENVIRONMENTAL

ECONOMIC

INSTITUTIONAL

- Public education and awareness of the environment - Impacts of employment activities - Impact of environmental ‘toxins’ on health and quality of Life - Impact of poverty on land use and environmental degradation

- Energy use and consumption - Micro Enterprise - Financing options

Quality and access to water Food security Maintenance of biodiversity Land management

Integrated decision making Capacity building Science and Technology Public awareness and information - Good governance

Table 6: Gender Indicators of Sustainability

SOCIAL

Indicator

Source

1. Percentage of women who attended awareness raising seminars on public health and dangers of industrial waste 2. Proportion of men and women involved in and affected by potentially environment-degrading activities (E.g. Burning wood for coal, dynamite fishing, illegal quarrying, slash and burn farming)) 3. Wage rates for agriculturists by sex 4. Proportion of men vs. women (as a percentage of population) with access to drinking water 5. Percentage of women enrolled in agricultural , science and engineering courses at the secondary, intermediate and university levels 6. Percentage of men and women engaged in the production of tree and fruit seedlings, percentage increase in income of men and women through sale of tree seedlings

• • •

Survey of living conditions Census data Ministry of Education

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Primary / Secondary •

Secondary

INSTITUTIONAL

ECONOMIC

ENVIRONMENTAL

Indicator

Source

7. Percentage of men and women whose awareness is raised in protecting water sources and maintaining water quality and hygiene 8. Community Food Security and male/female ratio of persons who enjoy food security 9. Area, population and composition of urban/rural and formal/informal settlements 10. Time spent gathering water by women and Percentage of master plans for water that address gender issues and needs of women 11. Land usage in informal settlements and proportion of males and females occupying informal land settlements 12. Percentage of population using energy from traditional fuels (The use/quantity of fuel used in households and communities) 13. Percentage of women's groups that receive support to produce and market improved cooking stoves 14. Average amount of credit granted to female owners of small enterprises divided by the average amount of credit granted to male owners of small enterprises 15. Percentage of agencies using participatory and gender analysis tools in problem analysis 16. Percentage of organizations using participatory research and training on technologies for waste disposal and management 17. Percentage of gender expertise involved in the development of environmental impact assessment plans and guidelines 18. Percentage of women in management in environmental agencies Percentage of men and women with capacity for planning, implementation and management of environmental programs

• • • • • • •

• •

Primary / Secondary

NEPA Ministry of Land and Environment National Water Commission Ministry of Water and Housing Census Data

•

Secondary

Ministry of Land Environment Ministry of Agriculture

and

•

Secondary

Ministry of Land Environment Ministry of Agriculture

and

•

Secondary

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Figure 10 - Sectors And Agencies Contributing To Sustainability

Ministry of Education and Youth Community Based Organisations & Non-Government Organisations

NEPA

Ministry of Local Government & Environment Office of Disaster Preparedness and Management

Ministry of Health

Ministry of Agriculture and Land

While attempts to address concerns of the Environment, must be considered from a much more holistic point of view, given the focus and direction of the chapter the Ministry of Land and Environment will best facilitate any initiatives aimed at the protection of the Environment. Collaboration among sectors which support the social aspects of environmental sustainability, (including community based organisations and non-government organisations) would be necessary however, to ensure that all aspects of sustainability are addressed.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Goal Six - Education and Skills An education which facilitates life-long learning and acquisition of social and life skills for all Exploring the Concepts: Education and Skills In the chapter on education and skills in the 2003 Progress Report there is an acknowledgement that access to education is no longer the primary problem and that the challenge the nation now faces is in providing quality education. The distinction here is between promoting gender parity as against promoting gender equality and a rights based approach to education. The distinction between these two gender-based goals is elaborated on in Box XIII.

BOX XIII –Gender Parity and Gender Equality in Education The Dakar Framework for Action represents…the most important international political commitment towards Promoting Education for All. The framework contains two gender-based goals. … These two goals are distinguished as gender parity goals [achieving equal participation of girls and boys in all forms of education based on their proportion in the relevant age-groups in the population] and gender equality goals [ensuring educational equality between boys and girls]. In turn these have been characterised quantitative/numerical and qualitative goals respectively. In order to consider progress towards both types of goals, both quantitative and qualitative assessments need to be made of the nature of progress towards gender equality. Achieving gender parity is just one step towards gender equality in and through education. An education system with equal numbers of boys and girls participating, who may progress equally through the system, may not in fact be based on gender equality. A consideration of gender equality in education therefore needs to be understood as the right to education [access and participation], as well as rights within education [gender-aware educational environments, processes and outcomes], and rights through education [meaningful education outcomes that link education equality with wider processes of gender justice]. Source: Subrahmanian, R.34

This rights-based approach to education allows for a focus on rights to an education, rights within education and rights through education and therefore provides a framework for assessing equality both within and beyond the educational arena and for identifying indicators relevant to an assessment of equality at all stages of the process. Subrahmanian notes that assessment of progress towards gender equality in the first two areas – the right to and within education – shows that in the first instance much has been achieved particularly in relation to the universalisation of primary education (UPE) but that disparity persists in relation to rights within education. 34

Subrahmanian, R. Gender Equality in Education: Definitions and Measurements. Background paper for UNESCO GMR 2003-043.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

The right to achieve equality through education remains elusive and is yet to be realized. This observation aptly fits the Jamaican situation in relation to the goals of gender parity and gender equality. Data for the 2003/04 academic year35 indicate that in relation to access and rights to education, at the primary and lower secondary (Grades 7-9) levels gross enrolment favoured males. At the upper secondary level there is a sharp decline in enrolment of both sexes pointing to reduced capacity in the system but with the gender gap favouring females with a difference of 3.6 points. No figures were supplied for the tertiary level but there is further dramatic decline in provision at that level with the gender gap in enrolment widening in favour of females at that level (See Table 7).

Table 7: Gross Enrolment percentage by Level and Sex 2003/04 Level

Male

Female

Total

Primary

89.5

86.8

88.2

Secondary (Grades 7-9)

93.3

91.5

92.4

Secondary (Grades 10-11)

73.8

77.4

75.6

In relation to participation in education, data on promotion, repetition and drop-out rates point to variations in the patterns. In 2002/0336 promotion rates for boys and girls showed differences of between approximately 2 to 4 points in favour of females up to the Grade 6 level but at the higher grades rates favoured boys between grades 7/8, 10/11 and 12/13 and girls between grades 8 and 9. In terms of repetition, throughout all grades (1-6 and 7-13) the rates for boys were higher than for girls (See Tables 8 & 9). The drop-out rates supplied indicated that boys had higher rates between grades 2/3, 4/5, 5/6 and 7/8 while rates were higher for girls between grades 1/2, 3/4 8/9 10/11 and 12/13. Drop-out rates are not calculated from grades 9 to 10 and 11 to 12 as most students in All-Age and Primary & Junior High schools complete the secondary level at grade 9 (See Tables 9 & 10). One therefore has to be very careful in concluding that because a child is not in school that individual has dropped out of the system. Capacity is still a constraining factor at the upper secondary level and factors such as movement of children from one school to another as well as migration can account for students not being in school. Parental influences, which relate to parentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of educational attainment and attitude to education, parenting practices, that relate to gender socialization and family factors such as family form, family size and socioeconomic status are also important determinants in relation to the rights to education.

Jamaica Education Statistics 2003-2004. Planning and Development Division, Statistics Section. Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture. Kingston, Jamaica. 36 Jamaica Education Statistics 2003-2004. Planning and Development Division, Statistics Section. Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture. Kingston, Jamaica.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Table 8: Internal Efficiency Indicators, Public Primary Level Education by Grade and Sex 2002/03 Internal Efficiency Indicators

Grade 1-2

2-3

3-4

4-5

5-6

6-7

Promotion Rates

95.7

98.2

98.1

90.3

94.0

Male

93.5

97.4

98.0

87.9

92.7

Female

98.1

99.0

98.1

92.8

95.4

Repetition Rates

4.3

1.2

0.9

4.1

1.0

6.4

Male

5.6

1.6

1.2

5.7

1.2

5.9

Female

2.9

0.8

0.6

2.4

0.9

7.0

Drop-Out rates

0.0

0.6

1.0

5.6

5.0

Male

0.9

1.0

0.8

6.3

6.2

Female

-1.0

0.2

1.2

4.8

3.7

Table 9: Internal Efficiency Indicators, Public Secondary Level Education by Grade and Sex 2002/03 Internal Efficiency Indicators

Grade 7-8

8-9

9-10

10-11

11-12

12-13

Promotion Rates

99.8

108.4

87.6

77.2

Male

100.2

107.8

88.0

78.6

Female

99.3

109.0

87.2

76.3

Repetition Rates

0.6

0.3

1.3

2.2

4.4

0.3

Male

0.8

0.4

1.8

3.0

5.5

0.3

Female

0.3

0.2

0.8

1.4

3.3

0.2

Drop-Out rates

-0.3

-8.7

10.2

22.5

Male

-1.0

-8.3

8.9

21.1

Female

0.4

-9.2

11.3

23.5

In terms of rights within education and the treatment of and interaction between and among male/female students and teachers, much more research needs to be carried out on a range of qualitative indicators including pedagogical relationships, gender-based violence, issues of sexuality in schools including sexual harassment and the involvement of students in transactional sex, dominant gender ideologies and gender socialisation practices, gendered use of space, gender justice and the exercise of authority and power, differences in allocation and A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

quality of resources to teachers and students based on sex differences in curriculum choice – are all critical in understanding how gender operates in and through the school’s gender regime in ways in which both sexes are advantaged/disadvantaged in relation to these concerns. The analysis of gender and education, however, is incomplete unless it includes issues related to rights through education. This is particularly critical in Jamaica and the wider Caribbean where, beyond school, women’s higher level of educational attainment is not translating into their better social, economic or political positioning in society (See Box XIV). This factor has to be taken into account in any attempt to understand the attitude of males to schooling and in efforts to resolve the problem of male under participation at the higher levels of the education system. If it is assumed that the problem of boys and schooling is essentially an educational problem without situating the analysis within a political-economy framework and locating schooling and its outcomes for both sexes within the context of wider social and economic forces, the solution to male under participation will always be elusive.

BOX XIV – Rights through Education ……….. education has not proven to be the vehicle for Caribbean women’s economic, political or personal empowerment. In spite of their overall higher levels of participation and performance at the secondary and tertiary levels of Caribbean education systems, the majority of the women in the region continue to be positioned in the lowest sectors of the capital market, earn lower wages than men, suffer higher rates of unemployment, experience greater levels of poverty, are under-represented in decision-making positions at the meso and macro levels of social and political institutions and lack real personal autonomy. Source: Bailey, B. 200337

In the 2003 Report, research carried out by Evans is used to support the view that schools and schooling, in this case reference is made to the primary level, alienates many if not most boys from the pursuit of academic excellence and commitment to academic work. The main source of the problem is therefore seen as originating inside schools and classrooms. This view fails to acknowledge the impact of wider social, political and economic factors on schooling and to delineate the interaction of variables such as socio-economic-status, geographic location, family form and influence on outputs from the education system. Particularly relevant to the phenomenon of male alienation and the resulting underparticipation and under-performance of boys at the higher levels of the education system is the impact of globalisation.

Bailey, B. 2003. The Search for Gender equality and Empowerment of Caribbean Women: The Role of Education. In: (eds.) Tang-Nain, G. & Bailey. B. Gender Equality in the Caribbean: Reality or Illusion. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

One of the byproducts of the accelerated rate of globalisation has been the development and spread of organized global crime. In 1999, it was estimated that there were 200 million drug users threatening neighbourhoods around the world and that illegal trafficking in small weapons had become a growing business destabilizing societies and governments. At the heart of this, it was claimed, was a growing power and influence of organized crime syndicates, estimated to gross US$1.5 trillion a year and that these syndicates were therefore a major economic power rivalling that of multinational corporations. There is enough evidence based on daily reports to suggest that Jamaica is a major player in these booming business ventures and there is anecdotal evidence which shows that school boys are targeted by the criminal element to be ‘middle-men’ in the movement of these products inside and outside of schools. The global movement of guns and narcotics and offshoot related local activities, have created more lucrative, even if not desirable, means for men to create wealth. These opportunities although risky, offer immediate gratification and require less formal education and therefore, in my opinion, are factors which cannot be ignored in the search for explanations of the under-participation of males at the higher levels of education. To locate the problem and its solution at the micro-level of schools and classrooms is to have missed the complexity of the problem and the need to take an approach to its solution which takes into account macro-level influences and processes. Further, in spite of lower levels of attainment, the formal capital market favours males. Based on labour market trends in Jamaica and the wider Caribbean, Bailey and Ricketts (2003)38 note that in spite of the generally higher level educational attainment recorded by females across the Region and the improved quality of women’s employment situations manifested in the numbers employed as ‘professionals, senior officials, managers’, there is continued cause for concern regarding their substantially lower labour force participation rates, simultaneous highlevel employment in low end occupations (Elementary) and persistent concentration in traditionally “female” occupational groups. According to an ECLAC/CDCC report (2001)39, “[w]omen predominate in the occupational categories which are the lowest paid and least protected. By and large the work which women do in the formal economy is less technical, lower skilled and therefore accorded a lower monetary status” (p5). While that comment is not reflective of the situation regarding all women in the region, it speaks to the majority who are still confined to occupational groups that do not record high levels of remuneration.

38 39

Gender Vulnerabilities in Caribbean Labour Markets and Decent Work Provisions. Social and Economic Studies 52:4 pp.49-81. UNECLAC/CDCC, (2001), Advancing Gender Equality in the Caribbean: Legislative Approaches to Sex Discrimination. P.O.S, Trinidad and Tobago.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

The report suggests that: â&#x20AC;&#x153;a closer examination of the patterns of female achievement within the education system suggests strongly that the pattern of segregation evident in subject selection has had the effect of maintaining the unequal and inequitable division of labour in the home and in the workplaceâ&#x20AC;? (p5). The consequences for female employment and participation in the labour force, particularly those who are poor and economically vulnerable, are therefore quite negative. To locate the problem of male under-participation and performance in education at the microlevel of schools and classrooms is to have missed the complexity of the problem and the need to take an approach to its solution which takes into account macro-level influences and processes. The above discussion points to a range of factors that must be considered in a gender analysis of schooling. Some of the major factors are presented in Figure 11.

Figure 11 - Inter-Related Factors Impinging On Education And Skills Poverty Health, Nutrition, Adolescent Sexuality

Differentiated Education System & curriculum

Education & Skills

Occupational Sex Segregation

School & Community Violence

Gender Regime of Home & School

Capacity & Quality of resources

Gender and Education In the 2003 Report, while a range of quantitative indicators are reviewed in relation to the four levels of the Education system (Early childhood, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary), there is a lack of attention to qualitative indicators. A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

The framework presented in the review, points to the fact that issues of gender equality in education have to go beyond parity as measured by quantitative indicators, to issues of equity and comparability of experience, within and beyond schooling (See Box XV). This is of particular importance in the Jamaican context where the focus on the numerical dominance of females at the higher levels of the education systems, masks other inequalities in terms of access to material and non-material resources and the gender politics of schooling.

Box XV - Gender indicators for education and skills In the 1998 Human Development Report published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the range of education indicators that are factored into the determination of the Human Development Index (HDI) are based on quantitative measures of enrolment at the various levels of the system, literacy rates, participation in the natural and applied sciences at the tertiary level and expenditure on education. In the Caribbean context these indicators would not be very responsive in terms of assessing the relative value of education to the two sexes or in predicting the potential relative contribution of the two groups to national development.

In this context, more qualitative indicators would need to be factored into the equation in order to arrive at the true situation of the sexes both during the educational process and beyond in terms of their participation in and contribution to the economic, political and social spheres. One or two such education indicators are included in a 1999 publication coming out of the Economic and Social Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) where, alongside the typical quantitative measures, it is recommended that information on ‘access to tertiary education by study area and sex’ and ‘measures implemented to eliminate sexual stereotypes in the educational process’ be gathered. In the first instance it is suggested that the concern should not only be for women to attain equal access to ‘male’ courses but that there also needs to be a shift of interest towards ‘female’ courses on the part of men.

In work carried out by the Commonwealth Secretariat on guidelines for mainstreaming gender in education, it is recommended that the range of indicators should include not only traditional ones such as access, enrolment, attainment and literacy rates but should also include indicators related to areas such as the school’s curriculum, the organization and management of schools and classrooms, the proportion of women in decision making, resource allocation and legal and administrative frameworks. Added to this, it is suggested that understanding the perceptions that students hold and attitudes of parents and employers is also important since these factors, to a large extent, also influence education and educational outcomes. The full array of indicators needs to be factored into educational research and the outcomes of such research need to inform educational programmes, projects and national and regional policy statements which, to date, have been rather silent on issues of gender. (Source: Bailey, B. 2000 .)

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Issues that could be considered in relation to the three areas of concern - rights to, rights within and rights through education – are suggested below and related indicators are set out in Table 10. Subrahmanian40, however, points to the fact that rights to education do not guarantee rights within education and neither do rights within education secure rights through education. Further, the links between rights to education, rights within education and rights through education are not linear but indicators for all three dimensions are needed to help track progress at different levels of policy monitoring.

Rights to education – gender issues Access to all levels of the system

Capacity in relation to demand and average years of schooling based on capacity

Access to information on the demographics of the school population beyond their sex

Accurate information on drop out and repetition rates and reason for drop-out – underparticipation of boys at higher levels of the education system

Access for vulnerable groups – disabled – physical, mental, visual, hearing impaired

Rights within education – gender issues (equality of treatment & opportunity) Gender politics - relations and power dynamics in classrooms/schools

Prevailing gender ideologies of administrators/teachers/students and how these influence behaviours

Gender socialization and reproduction of prevailing gender norms, gender identities and a sexual division of labour

Gender biases in print and non-print curriculum and curriculum support materials

Sex-segregation of the curriculum and contributory factors

Patterns of performance

Gendered nature of pedagogical relationships

Sexual harassment and violence in schools

Gender justice in schools – discipline, rules etc.

Teacher education in relation to gender in the educational process

Health factors that influence learning

Family structure and involvement of students in reproductive/productive work

Subrahmanian, R. Gender Equality in Education: Definitions and Measurements. Background paper for UNESCO GMR 2003-043.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Rights through education – gender issues Positioning of men/women in the formal labour market

Correlation between educational attainment and labour market participation

Male/female wage differentials

Participation of men/women in decision-making at the meso and macro levels

Table 10: Gender Indicators of Education

Issue

Indicators

Data Source

Net enrolment rates

MOE Stats Unit

Rights to education: Enrolment at all levels

Attendance & factors Attendance rates, Studies affecting attendance

MOE Stats Libraries

Drop-out and related factors

MOE Stats Unit, Libraries

Repetition factors

MOE Stats Unit, Libraries

and

Drop-out Rates, Studies related Repetition Rates, Studies

Unit,

UWI

Access for vulnerable Enrolment of groups as % Institutional Records groups – lower SES of cohort at each level - street children - disabled groups Put through rates

Transition rates between MOE Stats Unit, Libraries Factors affecting transition levels of system, Studies – all levels

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Issue

Indicators

Data Source

Rights within education: Violence/abuse in schools

Prevalence schools

abuse

in Research Studies – MOE, UWI

Gender bias in curriculum Images, word content of Research Studies curriculum materials – print, materials non-print Subject choice sex M/F ratios segregation of curriculum – subject areas all levels Factors accounting subject choice

for School-based, factors

various School records, Examining Boards personal School practices, Research reports

Performance & Factors Performance in school- School records, Examining determining performance at based and exit exams Boards all levels Sexual schools

harassment

Gender politics schools/classrooms

Types and prevalence in School records, Guidance Counsellors schools

Interactions between and Research Studies of among students/staff

Immunisation history, Health & nutritional status reported illnesses of students Students’ involvement in Child labour and impact on paid/unpaid work schooling M/F Teacher ratios Teaching Force Ratio of M/F Principals, M/F mobility in profession VPs in relation to cohort School governance Teenage pregnancy Educational documents

Composition Boards

School records Student survey MOE Stats MOE Stats

school School Records

policy Pregnancy rates in schools

School records School/MOE documents

Gender bias in documents

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Issue

Indicators

Data Source

Rights through education: Transition from school to Employment/unemployment Labour Force Stats work rates Correlation between Education level educational attainment and employed/unemployed employment opportunity workforce Occupational segregation

Labour Force Statistics

sex Labour force participation

Wage differentials

Average income males/females

Sex distribution management positions

in M/F in positions

for

management

Figure 12 - Sectors And Agencies Contributing To Education And Skills

National Council on Education Teacher Training Institutions

Health Sector HIV/AIDS Immunization Nutritional Status

Examining Boards

Ministry of Education & Youth

Public/Private Labour Sectors

Parent-Teachers Associations

Community Organisations

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

As with the other goals, issues related to education relate to a wide range of sectors, institutions and organizations/groups with which there would need to be collaboration if a holistic approach is to be taken to addressing issues of gender equality in the educational institutions, in the educational process and outcomes beyond schooling.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Goal Seven - Health – Physical and Mental Well-being Enhance the broadly defined health status of the population Exploring the Concept: Health

The World Health Organisation41 defines health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’. This definition appears in the preamble to the WHO Constitution which came into force on April 7, 1948 and has not been modified since that time. Physical, mental and social well-being and by extension one’s health, is therefore dependent on a number of factors related both to sex and gender. Anatomical sex differences (eg. body size and shape, physiological differences as in the case of hormonal activity and functioning of organs), offer insights into how biological differences affect susceptibility to disease and responses to treatment42. On the other hand, gender affects attitudes, behaviours and practices that impinge on health as well as access to resources and benefits. Factors related to both sex and gender therefore affect women and men’s health status and their access to and interaction with health care facilities. If one accepts the WHO definition of health it becomes clear that there are a number of mediating factors that influence health and well-being. Use of this multifaceted definition as a framework for assessing health status therefore allows the analysis to go beyond the range of more obvious biological and genetic factors related to health status to consider cultural, economic, social, political and environmental factors that equally and, in some instances, have an even greater impact on well-being and physical and mental health (See Figure 13).

Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19-22 June, 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. 42

Exploring Concepts of Gender and Health. Women’s Health Bureau. Health Canada. June 2003.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Figure 13 - Inter-related Factors Affecting Health and Well Being Toxin Free And Sustainable Environment Freedom from Crime/ Violence Social Justice

Adequate Shelter Family Security

WellBeing Adequate

Access to Educational Resources

Nourishment Healthy

Lifestyle Earning Opp. & Capacity Acceptable Working Conditions

Gender Issues Related to Health and Well Being The approach to health is mainly epidemiological and although there is acknowledgement of the fact that social values and behavioural practices are changing as well as that there is a tight economic environment that increases stress for individuals and families, the treatment of these factors is limited to lifestyle and links to the chronic disease epidemic. The analysis fails to examine how these factors are gendered, how lifestyle practices and poverty have clear gender dimensions and therefore have a differential impact on the two sexes and directly and indirectly affect their health and well-being. Some sex-disaggregated data are presented but the analysis does not go as far as pointing to the factors that account for the differences, whether factors are sex-linked and whether policy considerations should therefore be sex-specific. A case in point is the treatment of adolescent fertility. Granted fertility rates are derived from statistics related to females – pregnancies, births etc – but the data reported in Table 7.1 in the 2003 report on ‘adolescent fertility and sexual behaviour’ relate only to females. Issues of sexuality and sexual behaviour have to do with both sexes and reducing adolescent fertility may have to do more with changing the attitudes of younger and older males to notions of power and control of women’s bodies as well as promoting reproductive rights among girls than with policy considerations that, as stated, are entirely gender-neutral since they are not explicitly directed at either or both sexes. If gender is to be mainstreamed in relation to issues of health and well being, policy considerations must take into account sex-based differences and ways in which these intersect with other structures of difference and inequality such as socio-economic-status, age, geographic location etc.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

A gender-based analysis in relation to health seeks to determine how gender and gender biases in society and the health care system affect the health of women and men. The analysis points to areas of inequity that relate directly and indirectly to health status of either sex and gaps that therefore need to be addressed through programmes and/or policies. The analysis also needs to take into account the intersection of gender with other forms of structural inequality such as class, geography, ethnicity etc. and should include an examination of health conditions related to rich/poor, urban/rural, able/disabled, various ethnic and other sub-groups in the population. As set out below, issues related to gender that directly or indirectly impact well-being and health can be organized around three interlocking concerns: issues related to unequal power relations, economic dependence/independence, cultural norms and practices. These include, inter alia: 1. Unequal power relations ♦ Health needs related to gender based violence including sexual violence morbidity, mortality, STDs, HIV/AIDS, psychological illnesses depression etc. ♦ Reproductive and sexual health – contraceptive use, abortion, maternal mortality, adolescent fertility, adolescent sexual behaviour, infant mortality ♦ Male attitudes to sexual behaviour – rape, incest, carnal abuse 2. Economic dependence/independence ♦ Burden of work, multiple reproductive/productive roles, work intensity, time use, leisure time ♦ Workplace issues- occupational health, sexual harassment, job security, social protection, occupational sex segregation, wages, commercial sex industry, discrimination at the workplace ♦ Feminization of poverty – consumption patterns and nutritional status, energy expenditure, household size, single-headed households, access to educational resources ♦ Adolescent pregnancy rate increasing, sex industry ♦ Access to potable water, hygienic living conditions, communicable diseases ♦ Migration patterns and impact on family

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

3. Cultural norms/practices ♦ Male/female sexual behaviour – early initiation into sexual activity and behaviours related to myths ♦ Gender differentiated response to illness and access of health services therefore higher rates of mortality for men and morbidity for women ♦ Sexual division of labour, multiple roles of women, time use, Traditional patterns of food consumption based on male preference ♦ Chronic diseases – hypertension and diabetes – links to lifestyle and cultural practices related to eating patterns ♦ Multiple sexual partners, homosexuality and homophobia ♦ Gender based violence – physical, sexual, psychological ♦ Higher suicidal rates in men (male ego, power and control) ♦ More males displaying ADHD and females depression

Gender indicators of Health and Well Being Some gender related indicators of well-being and health are suggested in Table 11. In examining these factors all data must be disaggregated by sex as well as social class, geographic location, ethnicity etc. whenever possible.

Table 11 - Gender Indicators of Health & Well Being

Indicator

Source

Primary/ secondary data

Illnesses related to violence Hospital records, JISS Secondary – wounding, depression, Police records Secondary suicide etc. Private medical practioners Primary – Psychiatrists Psychologists/ Counsellors Mortality rates due crime/gender-based violence

to Hospital records Police records

Family Primary Secondary Secondary

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Indicator

Source

Primary/ secondary data

Illnesses related to sexual Hospital records violence - STDs, HIV/AIDS Private Practitioners

Secondary Secondary

National AIDS Comm.

Secondary

Hotel Sector Knowledge, behaviour survey

attitude, PLWHA, workplace, family

adolescents, Secondary, Primary

Rates of rape, incest, carnal Hospital records, Police Sexual Secondary abuse Offences Unit Impact of sexual violence Victims, Medical Practitioners, Secondary, Primary on victim Counsellors Views of perpetrators of Perpetrators, sexual violence Counsellors

Practitioners,

Burden of work- time use/ Women/Men/boys/girls paid & unpaid work, Lifestyle – exercise & diet Occupational health issues

Secondary, Primary Primary

Surveys

Primary, Secondary

Workplace survey – ILO

Secondary

standards Gender analysis of ILO Employers/employees Decent Work Agenda

Primary, Secondary

Sexual harassment at the workplace – prevalence and Employers/employee impact

Primary, Secondary

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Indicator

Source

Poverty assessments, SLC, SES, STATIN impact on men/women, households, patterns of food consumption within families, links to chronic diseases Access to resources particularly health services, impact of cost sharing on SLC, SES, MOH Reports access Migration patterns â&#x20AC;&#x201C; internal, external flows, Surveys impact on well-being and health of dependents Impact of environmental NEPA, Ministry of Agriculture factors eg. natural disasters, potable water, waste disposal, pest control

Primary/ secondary data Secondary

Secondary

Primary, Secondary

Secondary

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Figure 14 - Sectors/Agencies Contributing to Health and Well Being

Ministry of Justice

Ministry of Local Government & The Environment NEPA

Ministry of Housing NHT

Ministry of National Security

Ministry Of Health Ministry of Education & Youth HEART/NTA

Health related NGOs/CBOs Ministry of Labour & Social Security

Ministry of Agriculture and Land

Attention to gender issues in health and well-being that relate to unequal power relations, economic dependence/independence and cultural norms and practices requires a multi-sectoral approach and the identification of the full gamut of public/private sectors and agencies that impact the health of a population and which therefore should be targeted for addressing policies to promote optimal health (See Figure 14).

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Summary Statement The review of the 2003 Annual Progress Report on the seven National Social Policy Goals points to the fact that, in each case, gender is a critical concern which has to be addressed from a multi-dimensional and a multi-sectoral perspective. The fact that gender is cross-cutting, results in a seeming overlap, both in terms of the issues to be considered and the sectors from which data must be derived to inform a gender analysis relative to each goal. However, this does not mean that the issues are redundant, but indicates that, in each instance, issues need to be considered from a slightly different perspective. In some cases they become the major concern, in other cases they constitute framework factors. The indicators suggested in relation to each of the seven goals emerged from brainstorm sessions between two individuals and from web-based sources and not from a systematic or indepth analysis of each goal. Neither the terms of the consultancy nor the time frame allowed for this. A more careful and informed selection and prioritisation of indicators is necessary but the final selection, however, has to be consistent with goal definitions. For example, if it is accepted that human security is concerned not only with personal security but also with other dimensions such as economic security, then rates of employment, rates of literacy and exposure to formal education become central to an assessment of progress towards achievement of that particular dimension of the goal. Tracking of these indicators among prisoners versus the general population would yield completely different information â&#x20AC;&#x201C; perhaps they could indicate the extent to which there is a correlation between socio-economic-status/education and deviant behaviour. An original intended objective of the review exercise was to determine the extent to which policy considerations in the 2003 Report were consistent with relevant international instruments and conventions aimed at enhancing gender equality and social justice and endorsed by the Government of Jamaica. However, since gender was not a central concern of the 2003 assessment, and the policy considerations were not focused in relation to issues of gender equality, there was no basis for engaging in such an exercise and this objective was therefore not pursued. The in-depth work that would need to be done to determine the extent to which suggested indicators are consistent with the thrust of these instruments was not possible within the timeframe of the consultancy. It is strongly recommended that in the final selection of indicators to inform a gender analysis of progress towards attainment of the social goals that the TWG ensures that the interface is achieved.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Proposal for Gender Training Module Background The terms of reference for the assignment called for a proposal for facilitating a more in-depth and comprehensive understanding and approach to gender on the part of members of the Technical Working Group (TWG), with a view to improving the quality of Gender analysis in the second Progress Report of Jamaicaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s National Social Policy Goals. The review of the First Annual Progress Report, pointed to the fact that there was not a predominant consideration of gender and that a training programme would be necessary, if the approach suggested in relation to each of the goals in this Gender review are to be taken on board and used to inform the Second Annual Report.

Overall Aim To equip members of the TWG with the requisite conceptual understandings and tools to engage in a gender analysis relevant to the national social policy goals and thereby engender the identification of relevant indicators and subsequent policy considerations.

Objectives of the Module At the end of the training, members of the TWG should be able to: UNIT ONE â&#x20AC;&#x201C; GENDER & RELATED CONCEPTS 1. Differentiate the concepts sex and gender 2. Discuss ways in which gender identities are acquired 3. Define terms associated with gender, including: a. Gender roles, Gender identity b. Sexual division of labour, Productive work, Reproductive work, Unpaid work c. Occupational sex segregation d. Gender Ideology e. Gender relations in various domains (household, community, workplace) f. Patriarchy, Matriarchy, Matrifocality 4. Identify ways in which gender operates as a system of organisation in the household, community and workplace 5. Illustrate how gender interacts with other structures of inequality in Jamaican society

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Content – Unit One UNIT ONE 1. Social construction of Gender 2. Gender ideology and socialisation and responsible agents in relation to the domains of the household, community and workplace. 3. Theories of gender identity acquisition: a. Sex-role theory b. Social learning theory c. Freudian theory 4. Gender as a system of social organisation (Patriarchy, Matriarchy, Matrifocality) 5. Sexual division of labour in the private and public domains; and related concepts (Productive, Reproductive and Unpaid work) 6. Occupational sex-segregation and factors accounting for it.

Objectives of the Module – Unit Two UNIT TWO – GENDER IN JAMAICAN SOCIETY At the end of the training, members of the TWG should be able to: 1. Identify the major gender issues as they relate to the major social sectors – health, education and employment 2. Examine data sets in these three sectors and infer from the sets ways in which relations of gender are manifest. 3. Assess the status of gender equality in Jamaican society in relation to these sectors. 4. Discuss the implications for policy direction and formulation.

Content – Unit Two UNIT TWO 1. A review and analysis of data sets related to health, education and employment 2. Status of gender equality in Jamaica 3. A review of existing policies and future policy direction to promote gender equality

Objectives of the Module – Unit Three UNIT THREE – GENDER & DEVELOPMENT: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL POLICY At the end of the training, members of the TWG should be able to: 1. Discuss the significance of gender to national development 2. Differentiate among the three major approaches to women’s involvement in national development (WID, WAD, GAD) 3. Explain what is meant by Gender Mainstreaming and the significance of incorporating gender in policy formulation 4. Explain the significance of including both quantitative and qualitative indicators in a gender mainstreaming approach A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

5. Identify relevant indicators and data-sets that would be required for achieving a gender mainstreaming approach in relation to the range of social policy goals. 6. Identify various national, regional and international gender equality instruments and assess their relevance to the social policy goals. 7. Use various national, regional and international gender equality instruments to inform the analyses related to the various social policy goals and promote a gender mainstreaming approach.

Content â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Unit Three UNIT THREE 1. Gender and development (WID, WAD, GAD) 2. Main tenets of Gender mainstreaming 3. Gender mainstreaming tools, including: a. Gender equality instruments b. Gender indicators c. Appropriate data sets 4. Exercise in using gender mainstreaming tools to analyse one of the social policy goals, and generate policy considerations

Methodology An interactive participatory methodology will be used with individual and group work.

Feedback Mechanisms 1. Immediate Feedback: Feedback in relation to issues raised during the interactive sessions 2. Closed format assessment of Units one and two 3. Overall evaluation of the training intervention

Time frame The programme will be delivered over three days, with two three-hour blocks (18 hours)

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

APPENDIX Commission on the Status of Women - Report on the forty-ninth session (28 February, 2005 -11 March, 2005 and 22 March 2005) Resolution 49/8 - Economic advancement for women The Commission on the Status of Women, Reaffirming the goals, objectives and commitments of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action43, and the outcome documents of the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly entitled .Women 2000: gender equality, development and peace for the twenty-first century44., Recalling the goals and commitments of all other relevant major United Nations conferences and summits, Recalling also the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women45, Recalling further General Assembly resolutions 58/142 of 22 December 2003 on women and political participation, 58/206 of 23 December 2003 on women in development and 59/246 of 22 December 2004 on the role of microcredit and microfinance in the eradication of poverty, Recalling its agreed conclusions on eradicating poverty, including through the empowerment of women throughout their life cycle, in a globalizing world, and its agreed conclusions on the participation and access of women to the media, and information and communication technologies and their impact on and use as an instrument for the advancement and empowerment of women, Noting the report of the Commission on the Private Sector and Development entitled Unleashing Entrepreneurship: Making Business Work for the Poor46, Noting also the report of the World Commission on the Social Dimension of Globalization entitled A Fair Globalization: Creating Opportunities for Al47l, Noting further that hundreds of millions of women and girls, worldwide, live in poverty and that the majority live in rural areas where their livelihoods are dependent on subsistence

Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4-15 September 1995 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.96.IV.13), chap. I, resolution 1, annexes I and II. 44 General Assembly resolution S-26/2, annex, and resolution S-26/3, annex. 45 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1249, No. 20378. 46 47

United Nations publication, Sales No. E.04.III.B.4. See A/59/98-E/2004/79.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

and small-holder agriculture and employment in the informal sector, including forest and common property resources, Emphasizing that the empowerment of women is a critical factor in the eradication of poverty and that the implementation of special measures aimed at empowering women can help to achieve this, Recognizing that improving womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic status also improves the economic status of their families and their communities and thereby creates a multiplier effect for economic growth, Recognizing also that women should have equal opportunities to achieve economic independence, since discrimination against women and lack of equal access to education, training, financial services, employment and entrepreneurial opportunities and other economic resources, property and inheritance rights and other legal protections pose a major obstacle to sustainable economic growth, sustainable development and the sustainable economic advancement of women, Emphasizing that full representation and full and equal participation of women in political, social and economic decision-making in societies enhances socio-economic development policies, Recognizing that diligent and transparent application of the rule of law at the national, regional and international levels, access to justice and democracy and the promotion of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic autonomy and non-discrimination policies are necessary elements in the promotion of sustainable economic growth and sustainable development, Reaffirming that the full realization of all human rights and fundamental freedoms is essential for the empowerment of women and girls, Aware that while globalization and liberalization processes have created employment opportunities for women in many countries, in particular in developing and least developed countries, they have also made women more vulnerable to problems caused by increased economic volatility, Recognizing that womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s social and economic marginalization and unequal rights can hamper their ability to fully and effectively participate in the economic life of their communities and societies and that they may need special support and legal empowerment in order to address the challenges and take full advantage of the opportunities of globalization and market liberalization, Highlighting that enhanced trade opportunities and market access for developing countries, including through trade liberalization, will improve the economic condition of those societies, including for women, which is of particular importance in rural communities,

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Recognizing that the difficult socio-economic conditions that exist in many developing countries, in particular the least developed countries, are linked to the feminization of poverty, Recognizing and expressing concern that the gender division of labour, especially the persistent unequal sharing of remunerated and unremunerated labour between women and men, and the lack of support services continue to limit women’s ability to benefit from economic opportunities, gain economic autonomy, access social security systems and build economic stability, including their ability to withstand adverse economic environments and preserve livelihoods, assets and revenue in times of crisis, Acknowledging that people living in poverty, particularly women, need better access to financial services, including savings, insurance, remittance transfers, payment services, and credit, and that women have the proven ability to be diligent savers, prudent borrowers and investors and successful entrepreneurs, Recognizing that information and communications technology can be a vital tool for training and empowering women, Recognizing also that access to basic affordable health-care services, preventative health information and the highest standard of health care is critical to women’s economic advancement, that lack of economic empowerment and independence increases women's vulnerability to a range of negative health consequences, including the risk of contracting HIV/AIDS, and that the neglect of women’s reproductive rights severely limits their opportunities in public and private life, including the opportunity for education and economic and political empowerment, Noting with concern that lack of economic empowerment increases women’s vulnerability to all forms of violence, Recognizing with appreciation all regional and national efforts in mainstreaming a gender perspective and the empowerment of women towards the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly, including the increasing efforts of African countries in the implementation of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development, 1. Calls on Member States to strengthen efforts to implement national and international commitments that will advance women’s equality; 2. Also calls on Member States to promote gender mainstreaming in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation phases of all economic and social policies; 3. Further calls on Member States to improve, promote and build capacity for the collection, dissemination and analysis of gender-sensitive statistical indicators and reliable statistics that are disaggregated by sex as well as other relevant factors in order to facilitate

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

better policy development, advancement of women;

monitoring

and evaluation of the economic and social

4. Urges Member States to eliminate discrimination, ensure equal rights and access and actively enable participation by women and girls in education and training at all levels, including by developing programmes with the aim of equipping women with business, trade, information and communication technology and entrepreneurship skills; 5. Calls on Member States to undertake legislative, administrative and financial measures to create a strong enabling environment for all women entrepreneurs and women participating in the labour market, including: a sound macroeconomic framework; accountable systems for managing public resources; and a business climate that attracts investment and promotes movement from the informal to the formal sector through, inter alia, competitive markets, enforceable contracts, the absence of corruption, regulatory policies that promote public confidence in the market and reducing barriers to international trade within an appropriate time frame; 6. Urges Member States to design and revise laws to ensure that women are accorded full and equal rights to own land and other property, including through inheritance, and to undertake administrative reforms and other necessary measures to give women the right to credit, capital, appropriate technologies and access to markets and information; 7. Calls on Member States to facilitate further development of the financial sector in order to increase womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s access to and control over savings, credit and other financial services through incentives and development of intermediaries that serve the needs of women entrepreneurs on an equal opportunity basis in both rural and urban areas and to fully include women in management, planning and decision-making processes; 8. Also calls on Member States to adopt policies and consider allocating resources, as appropriate, that support business and professional organizations, public agencies, nongovernmental organizations, cooperatives, revolving loan funds, such as micro-finance funds, credit unions and other womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s grass-roots and self-help groups in order to meet the needs of women entrepreneurs in rural and urban areas; 9. Further calls on Member States to enhance access for women to information and communications technology-based economic activities in all sectors, such as small and medium-sized business and home-based employment, information systems and improved technologies, and to further develop tele-centres, community access points and business incubators; 10. Calls on Member States to enhance rural womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s income-generating potential, noting the importance of the agricultural sector, particularly in the developing countries, and the importance of greater security of land tenure and property ownership for resource mobilization and environmental management, and to consider special temporary measures to empower women in the rural sector to meet the challenges and take advantage of the opportunities of agricultural market liberalization; A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

11. Urges Member States to eliminate discrimination against women in labour markets, employment practices and the workplace, providing equal access for women to occupational categories and sectors where they are underrepresented, equal opportunities with respect to the right to organize and participate in labour Unions and collective bargaining, including on employment conditions, career development opportunities and equal pay for equal work or work of equal value, to take action to remove structural and legal barriers, as well as stereotypical attitudes to gender in work and training and to eliminate pay differences based on gender through a multifaceted approach addressing underlying factors, including sectoral and occupational segregation, education and training, job classification and payment systems; 12. Calls on Member States to respect, promote and realize the principles contained in the International Labour Organization Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its follow-up, and to consider ratification and full implementation of the conventions of the International Labour Organization that are particularly relevant to ensuring womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rights at work; 13. Also calls on Member States to adopt temporary special measures, where needed, aimed at accelerating de facto equality between men and women in all economic and employment sectors and occupational categories, to recognize the need for special supports for women to take advantage of the opportunities afforded by international trade and, where necessary, to introduce preventive policy measures to avoid further marginalization of women; 14. Further calls on Member States to recognize, develop and promote policies, including workplace policies and other supports such as maternity and parental benefits and leave, childcare and care for other dependants, that facilitate the reconciliation of employment and family responsibilities and recognize the importance of the value of non-market contributions that individuals and families make to society and the economy, ensuring the right for women and men to decide freely and responsibly on the number, timing and spacing of their children, encouraging men to share equally with women household, childcare and other care-giving responsibilities and also ensuring that women have equal rights to social security and other entitlements; 15. Calls on Member States to strengthen the incentive role of the public sector as employer in order to develop an environment that effectively affirms and empowers women; 16. Calls on Member States and international organizations to promote policies and programmes that enhance economic and networking opportunities and to develop and provide support services to specific groups of women who are disadvantaged or in a position of vulnerability;

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals

Life free of Crime Violence & Social Justice 17. Calls on Member States to recognize the significant contribution of migrant women to the economic development of both their country of origin and that of destination, to enhance, in accordance with national legislation, their employment opportunities, taking into account their skills, and to establish practices to reduce the transfer costs for migrant workers. remittances; 18. Encourages all relevant United Nations funds and programmes and the specialized agencies, in accordance with their respective mandates, to assist Governments at their request, in strengthening their capacity to promote and support the economic advancement of women through, inter alia, employment and entrepreneurship practices and programmes that affirm and empower women; 19. Urges donors, and invites international financial institutions and regional development banks, within their respective mandates, to review and implement policies that support national efforts to increase resources to women, in particular in rural and remote areas; 20. Requests the Secretary-General to report on the implementation of the present resolution to the Commission on the Status of Women at its fiftieth session.

A Gender Review - Annual Progress Report 2003 on National Social Policy Goals