Ellen Setterfield
Is way-finding more successful when it uses image alone? Way finding and environmental signage has developed into a globally recognised language; it is used to communicate with people around the world. The purpose of way finding is simple; convey a message quickly, successfully and to as many people as possible. A number of theorists, designers and creative professionals have commented on the globalisation and usability of way-finding and signage methods. Lupton (1986), Lupton and Miller (1996), Lankow et al. (2012) Evamy (2003) and Smiciklas (2012) have written about this type of visual communication and have interesting opinions/theories about them. Way finding, over the past 50 years, has become a vital aspect of navigation within society. Airports, train stations, museums and car parks are some of the many platforms that have adopted the use of way finding and signage to assist the general public in their day-to-day activities. Mark Smiciklas wrote the ‘Power of Infographics’, a publication in which he defines information design and explains the best ways for designers to utilise them. Smiciklas defined information and way finding as ‘a visualization of data or ideas that tries to convey complex information to an audience in a manner that can be quickly consumed and easily understood’ (Smiciklas, M. 2012 Page 3) this definition supports the concept that the sole purpose of any piece of information design is to supply quick and concise information to a group of people in a way in which they find both helpful and visually pleasing. A common debate between graphic designers is that of type versus image. Some designers believe that image on its own can convey a message whilst others feel that typography is needed to work alongside it in order for it to be interpreted as intended. ‘The practical reality is that we don’t need to choose between the two. The strongest visualizations are those that are supported by descriptions as well as narratives, especially in editorial applications. Using words in this way helps to bring both personality and clarity to an Infographic.’ (Lankow, J. et al. 2012, Page 45) This opinion addresses the problem of interpretation; a symbol can be understood and taken to mean one message to one person and a different message for another. Lankow suggests that the most powerful way a message can be conveyed and interpreted would be by using symbols supported by type. To ensure that two different people interpret the same message, and establish the same intended meaning, the symbol must be accompanied by text. ‘ you can’t tell a story through colour alone, or craft compelling messaging using only shapes and symbols. So how do words factor into information design? Within the context of a society that speaks the same language, words – as compared to symbols – have a distinct advantage in terms of familiarity. (Lankow, J. et al. 2012, Page 45) Evamy said ‘Pictorial signs are considered a form of cross-cultural communication that mankind has refined to an art-form. All the time in our daily lives, we encounter, process and place our trust in non-verbal, graphic information: visual warnings, symbol systems, signs, pictorial instructions,
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icons, logos, diagrams.’ (Evamy, M. 2003, Page 10). Evamy is stating that human beings have become almost too comfortable and reliant on signs to give them information quickly, this further emphasises that people are becoming lazy in the way they consume information. Perhaps one of the most famous pieces of way finding and also the most successful The London Underground Map (Fig 1) utilises both image and typography to achieve its purpose. The map, which was originally designed by Harry Beck in 1933, was an advanced piece of design for its time. (Fig 2) Beck built up the diagram by implementing type and image to create an organised guide for users of the underground rail system. As a trainee engineer on the London underground Beck identified a problem with communication and how people used the tube, he sought out to come up with a ‘diagram’ that would make the process of navigating around the underground a simple and enjoyable experience. Beck chose not use create this map using the correct geographical location because the original design looked cluttered and confusing, by eliminating the geographic layout Beck designed a piece of way finding that became a tool for commuters in London to use at ease. The use of colour within his diagram is a significant visual device, which continues to be influential within the design of the current tube map and other metro/underground systems used around the world. ‘Graphics that contain visual embellishment beyond the information being displayed may be superior not only in terms of appeal, but also in their ability to ensure that viewers understand and retain your message’ (Lankow, J. et al. 2012, Page 52) In his first design for the underground system Beck used colour to depict the owners and/or maintainers of each separate line, based on the original production. ‘Appealing to someone not only aesthetically but also emotionally prompts a deeper connection with the information, which makes them more likely to remember it’ (Lankow, J et al. 2012, Page 52) the addition of colour within the map creates a personal aspect for each user as they can make an emotional connection to the line/s which they will travel on. In comparison to the London Underground, the U.S Department of Transportation uses a collection of pictorial images to achieve its purpose these images were inspired by the Viennese philosopher and social scientist, Otto Neurath. In the 1920’s Neurath developed a collection of simple pictures to convey information to the general public. He named this collection Isotype, International System of Typographic Picture Education (Fig 3). With the development of Isotype, Neurath hoped to combat the separation between countries by establishing a global language that the world could use to communicate. The introduction of these simplified images meant language barriers could be avoided and people could communicate with ease. ‘Neurath held that vision is the saving link between language and nature, and that, hence, pictorial signs would provide a universal bridge between symbolic, generic language and direct, empirical experience.’ (Lupton, E. 1986, Page 47).
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‘People have long accepted the notion that a picture can replace a thousand words, and similarly, that a simple graph can replace a table full of numbers. Basic visualization allows us to immediately comprehend a message by detecting notable patterns, trends, and outliners in the data.’ (Lankow et al. 2012, Page 30). It has been scientifically proven that human beings take in more from image based information design than typographical. ‘One of the reasons we can process images faster than text is because of how the brain handles information. It processes data from pictures all at once but processes text in a linear manner so, in a way, by using Infographics to communicate, you make it physically easier for your audience to relate and connect to your information’ (Smiciklas, M. 2012, Page 7). Evamy wrote that people have become lazy when it comes to information, ‘Our lives are accelerating. No one wants to wait anymore. Everyone wants quick answers, and manufacters and service providers are responding with endless ways of saving us precious seconds’ (Evamy, M. 2003, page 10). This statement suggests that simply because humans find it easier to take in a message that is soley image they would not want to exhaust themselves any more by trying to take in a message in type. Humans have become incredibly lazy but Evamy argues that consumer businesses are exploiting this laziness to make money and draw in customers. Neurath’s simple images were not the first of their kind, as information design has flourished over the last century it has reinforced the power of visual communication on the human brain. ‘The first examples of Infographics date back to the late stone age when our ancestors began painting animal portraits on cave walls in the south of France’ (Smiciklas, M. 2012, Page 8) these images were used to convey stories about day-to-day life. By 3000 BC Egyptian hieroglyphics were being created through the use of graphic symbols and icons to produce an early form of language. This is evidence that type and language has derived from image and is evidenced throughout history. ‘The modern era ushered in Isotype, a visual communication model developed by Otto Neurath to teach ideas and concepts through the use of icons and pictures’ (Smiciklas, M. 2012, Page 9) Neurath’s Isotype developed the ideas of cave paintings and hieroglyphics into a visual language, which has been transformed for use within contemporary society. He intended to create a global connection where human beings could communicate with one another no matter what language they spoke. The approach, which Neurath used to combat this issue, was to remove typography all together. In 1974, the Department of Transportation (DoT) developed a set of fifty pictograms, which they have used for signage for the past forty years. The DoT chose to update their symbols after they identified some dramatic errors within signage and symbols that were being used in the early 1970’s. DoT commissioned the American Institute of Graphic Arts to come up with the set of pictograms that would overcome the errors and eliminate streams of typography. The errors that were identified by DoT were closely linked to culture and the context in which people might interpret a visual message. An example of image conveying a message poorly can be seen in ‘the poorly
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conceived sign that has been used on San Diego freeways to alert drivers to Mexican immigrants who run across the freeway trying to avoid the customs checkpoints. The image of the family in that sign was interpreted by Spanishspeaking people as a directive to “cross here”. Thus the very audience most in danger was misled by a sign directed at drivers, rather than pedestrians.’ (Lupton, E. Miller, J A. 1993 Page 229) this error suggests that if perhaps the sign had a line of typography to accompany it then the context of the instruction would have been interpreted as intended. In the London Underground map, which is being used today, the symbols that were inspired by Neurath are used to represent specific features, which each station/stop has. The ratio of type to image in the London Underground map is visibly significant. The use of smooth lines, which are at a 45 or 90 degree angle, represent the geographical location of the line. Type is used to simply name the station and also the area of London in which it resides. Similarly to Beck, Massimo Vignelli designed the map for New York’s subway system, like many others he used Beck’s map as a template for his resolution (Fig 4). Though slightly different as a result of location, the similarities between Beck and Vignelli’s design are very apparent. Vignelli made use of the simple and smooth lines to represent each different train journey, he also used colour to represent different lines and locations. There are many other metro systems throughout the world that have used Beck’s map as a baseline for their maps. With more than 188 metro systems in 54 countries worldwide it is clear that the use of both type and image within maps specifically is a successful tool for transportation. Though information and way finding has branched out into a wide range of different uses which may or may not relate to the debate of type and image, within the area of instruction and transportation it is still a favored design style. A recurring theme within both Beck and Vignelli’s metro maps are that type is used because it is necessary. If Beck had used similar thought process as Neurath, to use image to represent a place, it would have caused much confusion due to the sheer amount of train stations on the Underground. Similarly to the DoT’s pictorials, The Highway Code is a safety mechanism for negotiating and navigating the highways of Britain. The code highlights the rules and regulations on the roads of the UK and also acts as a law enforcer. The symbols that are used within the Highway Code are very similar to the pictorials, which were inspired by Neurath. The Road signs have taken on a variety of different shapes that separate each instruction/rule into a specific ‘family’ each of these ‘families’ are also divided by use of colour. For example, a warning is commonly known to be a red triangle. The Highway Code uses mainly image to covey a message because, due to the speed in which a driver will be travelling when they see the sign, it has been scientifically proven that the human brain takes less time to decode an image rather than type. With this being said it is logical that the Highway Code should be an image based system to ensure that the audience can take in the meaning in a split second. Of course this also means that drivers must spend time studying
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each of the signs so that they are understand then when they are put into context. Lupton and Miller define the images which were inspired by Neurath as ‘pictorial symbols addressed to an international public” (Lupton, E. Miller, J A. 1993 Page 220) the international public refers to the human population who come into contact with these symbols everyday. Neurath knew that Isotype was going to be seen by numerous people who all spoke different languages, with this in mind he had to be sure that the images that he developed were simple and could convey a message quickly and succinctly. Though Neurath achieved this there have been issues when it comes to the interpretation of an image. Lupton and Miller describe an incident involving the male and female signs, which are more commonly used, for toilet symbols. These symbols were inspired from Neurath’s Isotype. ‘The sign for “women’s toilet” in a Saudi Arabian university has been modified by the addition of the silhouette of a veil, since the long dress depicted could just as easily signify the traditional robes worn by Muslim men.’ (Lupton, E. Miller, J A. 1993, Page 228/9 ) Neurath’s first representation of a male and female differ slightly from the symbol, which is used today, these images depicted a more ‘human-like’ silhouette which could be considered to be more effective than the image which is globally used today. Cook and Shanosky Associates designed these male and female symbols, along with the rest of the DoT pictogram set. Though the sole purpose of these symbols is achieved, (men and women can quickly identify which bathroom or area is meant for them) there have been some issues with interpretation and representation of different cultures and religions. ‘The difference between male and female bathrooms is signified by the addition of a cultural mark to the generic human form: the fin-like extrusions representing a woman’s dress. Rather than express the difference between male and female lavatories with an anatomical representation, as in these signs proposed by National Lampoon in the mid-1970’s, the DOTdesign committee stayed with the already conventional device of the fin-like party dress.’ (Lupton, E. Miller, J A. 1993, Page 225) The debate of whether way finding and environmental signage is more or less successful when using solely image or type and image combined has not really been resolved. There are many cases where type is a necessary tool, the Underground Map for example and many cases when it might lengthen the time it takes for a person to take in the message it is meant to be conveying. Smiciklas wrote about ‘hardwiring’ where he addressed the human brain and how much easier humans find it to decode an image than text, ‘with all this visual “hardwiring” in place, it makes sense that it would be less complicated for the brain to process Infographics than pure text. Each letter in a word is essentially a symbol. To read text, the brain needs to act as a decoder first, matching those letters with shapes stored in memory. From there the brain must figure out how all the letters fit together to form words, how words form sentences, and how sentences form paragraphs. Although all
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this comprehension takes place in only a split second, relatively speaking, when compared to how the brain deals with images, the process requires considerably more mental effort.’ (Smiciklas, M. 2012, Page 7) The issues with way finding that uses just image are that they require the person to have contextual knowledge of what each image is trying to communicate. Lankow said ‘Symbols can take longer to interpret than language when conveying a concept to someone who is unfamiliar with the symbols’. (Lankow, J. et al. 2012, Page 45) An example of Lankow’s argument would be a road sign which is informing a driver that there are cows that are likely to be crossing the road might not be understood if the person did not have an understanding of what that sign meant before seeing it in context. Whereas, with type accompanying the image it is clearer to a person what the sign means because it states the message clearly using both an image and type. This would, in turn, ensure that the next time a driver might see the sign that they know what it means just by looking at the image. ‘To someone who knows these symbols, however, this comprehension process is far easier’ (Lankow, J. et al. 2012 Page 45) It is interesting that some road signs like the ‘STOP’ signs are primarily type, this could raise the question that because it is one of the most important signs on the road that the Department of Transportation did not want to take any chances with using image and a driver not interpreting the message as intended. Though Neurath’s idea of using simply image meant that language barriers could be avoided it is also clear that in some cases type is a necessary tool to ensure that way finding and signage achieves its purpose; to convey a message quickly, successfully and to as many people as possible. His dream of creating a globally recognised language through the use of image has been achieved though with the world developing and new cultures being exposed to more traditional ideals there has to be a way of altering these images to reflect this. If this cannot be achieved, then the question of whether a new system should be put into place for each individual country - so as to eliminate making people feel inferior or offend the people who might live differently to us – has to be raised. Word count including quotes: 3335 ______________________________________________________________
Images: Figure 1.
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Harry Beck’s London Underground Tube Map, 1933. Sourced from Transport for London website. http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/2443.aspx
Figure 2.
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The London Underground Map, 2014. Sourced from Transport for London website. http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/2443.aspx Figure 3.
Otto Neurath’s Isotype. Sourced from Ellen Lupton ‘Reading Isotype’ (Page 52) Figure 4.
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Massimo Vignelli’s NYC map Sourced from nycsubway.org http://www.nycsubway.org/perl/caption.pl?/img/maps/system_1972.jpg
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Bibliography: Dobbin, C. (2012) ‘London Underground maps, Art, Design and Cartography’ Lund Humphries, Farnham, Surrey. Evamy, M. (2003) ‘World without words’ Laurence King Publishing LTD, London. Lupton, E. and Miller, J A. (1993) ‘Critical Way finding’ from ‘The Edge of the Millennium. An international Critique of Architecture, Urban Planning, Product and Communication Design’ (1993) Whitney Library of Design, 1515 Broadway, New York, NY. Lupton, E. (1986) ‘Reading Isotype’ from ‘Design Issues, Vol. 3, No 2. (Autumn, 1986) Page 47-58. The MIT Press. Lupton, E. and Miller, J A. (1999) ‘Modern Hieroglyphics’ from ‘Design Writing Research. Writing on Graphic Design’ Phaidon Press Limited, Singapore. Neurath, M. and Kinross, R. (2009) ‘The Transformer principles of making Isotype charts’. Hyphen Press, London. Smiciklas, M. (2012) ‘The Power of Infographics’ Pearson Education Inc. Ovenden, M. (2013) ‘London Underground by design’ Penguin Books LTD. London. Lankow, J. et al (Ritchie, J. and Crooks, R.) (2012) John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey. Tufte, E. (1990) ‘Envisioning Information’ Graphics Press LLC. Cheshire, Connecticut. USA.