High Rise Resistance: Overcoming High Rise resistance through the development of performance based guidelines.
Eloise Timms 20380361 B. Env Des This dissertation is presented in partial fulfillment of the Master of Architecture High Award by Dissertation. School of Landscape, Architecture and Visual Arts University of Western Australia, Perth, WA. 2012
A bst r act
Perth’s burgeoning urban footprint and growing population are the main focus of Directions 2031. Directions 2031 is the latest Metropolitan Planning Strategy for Perth and was adopted by the State Government in 2011. The policy aims to create a more connected city through the implementation of three key principles: growth management, intensification of existing activity centers and improvement of public transport. The planning scenario consists of both infill and green field development of which infill will constitute 47%. High rise is a logical component of infill development and a key factor in managing Perth’s outward growth. High rise brings density and amenity; it strengthens local business and mass transit, all key issues raised in Directions 2031. However, resistance to high rise has had a major influence on the progression of such developments. Negative attitudes toward high rise are driven by a number of issues. Whether it is negative associations linked to poorly designed high rise of the past or a NIMBY mentality, high rise for many local residents is synonymous with the destruction of culture and character. Resistance to high rise is intensifying, with local communities becoming increasingly organized in opposing developments. Council members and residents may not have the final say in approving high rise developments but they do have the ability to delay such developments, in some cases to the extent where they are no longer viable. If Directions 2031 is to be successfully implemented then provisions need to be made for the integration of high rise into activity centres. The aim of this research is to increase the understanding of high rise resistance and explore methods of overcoming it. The final outcome will be a set of performance based guidelines specifically concentrated on the relationship between high rise developments and activity centres. The intention is to bridge the gap between State and Development industries and local councils and residents by providing easily accessible and understandable information.
ACK N O W L E D G E M E N TS
I would like to acknowledge the indispensable contribution of Patric de Villiers who supervised this research. Patric’s extensive knowledge and enthusiasm for this field enabled me to better understand the topic. Without Patric’s guidance and persistent help this dissertation would not have been possible. I would like to thank the contribution of the unit coordinator, Kate Hislop, whose thorough feedback always put me on the right track, the intermittent but valuable contributions of Phillip Goldswain and the time and knowledge contributed by the interview participants. Lastly, I would like to thank my family for their patience and support.
Contents
1. Introduction
Page 1
2. Aims and Outcomes
Page 7
Part I: Research
Page 8
1. Interviews
Page 9
2. Common Themes
Page 12
3. Precedent
Page 16
4. Conclusions
Page 29
Part II: Case Study
Page 31
1. Case Sudy Site
Page 32
2. Modeling
Page 34
3. Conclusions
Page 57
Part III: Guidelines
Page 59
1. Precedents
Page 60
2. Guidelines
Page 62
Conclusion
Page 70
Notes
Page 72
Image References
Page 74
Bibiography
Page 76
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1 Case Study Context and Site Constraints.
Page 33
Figure 2
Plan of Subiaco Town Centre urban grain with implied
10 x 10 meter grid.
Page 38
Figure 3
Urban Footprints.
Page 39
Figure 4
Options for disaggregating site footprint.
Page 39
Figure 5
Perspective of sites context within existing urban scale
of Subiaco.
Figure 6
3D perspective of a strategy for implementing height
transitions.
Page 40
Figure 7
Streetscape Dissection.
Page 42
Figure 8
Plan of the urban form of the high street and identification
of sites location within it.
Figure 9
Plan of the three bounding streets: Rokeby Rd, Roberts Rd.
and Seddon St.
Page 44
Figure 10
Typical section of Rokeby Rd.
Page 45
Figure 11
Typical section of Roberts Rd.
Page 45
Figure 12
Perspective of proposed scheme.
Page 46
Figure 13
Street view of proposed scheme.
Page 47
Figure 14
Street view of proposed scheme.
Page 47
Figure 15
3D models of possible high rise tower configurations.
Page 48
Figure 16
Street view of building component one.
Page 50
Figure 17
Street view of building component one.
Page 50
Figure 18
Street view of building component two.
Page 51
Figure 19
Street view of building component two.
Page 51
Figure 20
Western elevation of streetscape and scheme with implied
5 meter grid.
Page 40
Page 44
Page 52
Figure 21
Section of Rokeby Rd illustrating proposed ground floor
use.
Page 53
Figure 22
Plan of existing uses along Rokeby Rd.
Page 54
Figure 23
Perspective of scheme illustrating location of uses.
Page 56
Figure 24
3D visualization of a potential development scenario.
Page 58
| Introduction |
1
I nt r odu ction
The term “Urban Sprawl” dates back to the 1950s1. Typically the term has been used to describe un-aesthetic and un-economic urban forms 2. It is believed that the Anti-Sprawl Movement began in the US during the 90s3, where the effects of Urban Sprawl first began to be recognised. Urban sprawl was linked with a number of social, environmental and economic issues, which subsequently led to the exploration of alternative forms of urbanism. Issues raised included destruction of agricultural land and habitat, inefficient use of energy and infrastructure, car dependency and its links to global warming and a lack of culture and community driven by increasing isolation4. With an urban sprawl already spanning more than 120km from Yanchep to Mandurah-Peel, Perth is no stranger to these concerns. Western Australia’s capital is growing at a rapid rate, with no signs of slowing down. In 2005, WA Tomorrow carried out a study which predicted a population of 2.2 million by 2031. This would mean an increase of up to 40% in the next 20 years. According to WA Tomorrow, accommodating this population would require 328,000 new dwellings. To continue to produce the same forms of suburbia to house this new population would mean expanding Perth’s already extensive urban footprint. Directions 2031 was adopted by the State Government in response to these issues. The policy aims to create a more connected city through the implementation of three key principles: growth management, intensification of existing activity centres and improvement of public transport. The current planning scenario consists of both infill and green field development. Infill development will constitute 47% or 150,000 dwellings of the required 328,000 new dwellings. Intensification of existing activity centres invariably means an increase in height and density. Local communities often link this type of urbanism with a loss of character and culture. Attitudes toward high rise are still prejudiced by past precedents which were often “poorly designed, over-scaled and un-integrated”5. Historically, high rise living is seen as unAustralian, “A free-standing home and garden is considered a birth right and tending ones lot is
| Introduction |
2
a national pastime.”6 High rise resistance has been a major factor in ineffective implementation of intensification policies Australia wide. This research aims to explore high rise resistance and methods of overcoming it. A set of performance based guidelines are being proposed as a method of addressing these issues. Perth’s first official Metropolitan Planning Strategy was the Plan for the Metropolitan Region, Perth and Fremantle, which was adopted by the government in 1965. Issues of urban consolidation didn’t appear until 1986 when Metroplan was adopted as the guiding Metropolitan Planning Strategy. Metroplan was the first of three attempts at consolidation. Like Directions 2031, it sought to achieve greater densities in the inner suburbs and emphasized the importance of public transport. Network City was released in 2004 with a stronger focus on growth management. Network City prioritized sustainable growth and design and the creation of vibrant centres fuelled by transit oriented development and better public transport. However its ineffective implementation resulted in the creation of Directions 2031 just seven years later. Nationally there are several examples of Metropolitan Planning Schemes that have been ineffective in their implementation. The Strategic Planning Framework for Melbourne which, like Directions 2031, sought to manage outward growth via intensification around existing activity centres, has been regarded by many as ineffective, with most new development taking place along Melbourne’s urban fringe7. In his paper, “Envisioning the Compact City: Resident Responses to Urban Design Imagery,” Ian Woodcock et al (2012) draws links between the defeat of the Kennet Government in 1999 and the opposition of the state wide lobby group, Save our Suburbs8. In Perth there are a number of similar organizations. “Save our Subiaco”, “Keep Cott Low” and more recently the “City Gatekeepers”. City Gatekeepers, spearheaded by Linley Lutton, is a group who oppose the new Perth Waterfront Development “Elizabeth Quay”. Their
| Introduction |
3
website encourages the people of Perth to sign petitions, contact local Members of Parliament and media outlets, attend rallies and events and spread the word on social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter. The efforts of such groups can have a dramatic effect on the development of high rise, as evident in the Melbourne precedent. Resistance causes delays in construction, leaving streets pockmarked with empty, unsightly lots, exacerbating communities’ fear of loss of neighbourhood character before anything is even built. In addition, the delays caused by community resistance often result in a ‘tick and flick’ process, where local planning policies are overridden in order to expedite construction and alleviate pressing housing shortages. High rise resistance is reinforced by a lack of confidence in current planning codes and a general distrust of representative imagery and information. At present new buildings are controlled locally by Town Planning Schemes. Parts of the community consider these provisions to be incapable of appropriately controlling new development. 19 Catherine Street, Subiaco, is an example where the proposed office development, situated opposite a row of heritage listed terrace houses, was said to “meet all the rules”. To quote local resident A. Hamersley, “… just because certain limitations of the Town Planning Scheme No. 4 have not been exceeded does not mean that the building is justifiable when all matters are considered”9. Residents are concerned that the development has made little effort to integrate into the existing streetscape. Precedents like the Catherine Street example have resulted in a general distrust of planning provisions. Woodcock et al (2012) identifies a deep rooted cynicism toward urban design imagery. The survey carried out by Ian Woodcock and co-authors found that many residents viewed 3D visualizations of future developments as deceptive and unrealistic. Trees, lighting and architectural detail were considered misleading, creating seductive imagery in an attempt to woo residents and council members into allowing developments to proceed unopposed. The
| Introduction |
4
general consensus was that participants believed the final product would not resemble its 3D prediction and that such aesthetic details would be used to legitimate taller buildings. As a reaction to this Woodcock argues that the use of streetscape images had been minimized, however this often resulted in residents objecting even if they had no notion of what they were objecting to. Unless 3D imagery can be demonstrated to accurately represent a future development down to the last leaf then there is little hope of renewing community confidence in such imagery. If Directions 2031 is to be successfully implemented then lessons must be taken from precedents like Melbourne 2030. This study will be organised into three parts:
Part I: Research,
Part II: Case Studies, and
Part III: Guidelines.
A qualitative research methodology will be adopted for Part I, using in-depth, semi-structured interviews with key local stakeholders. Woodcock et al (2012) chose interviewees based on the following:
“The residents selected for this study were not a random sample, but a highly specific cohort,
representative of those who not only take interest in development issues but are active in
resisting urban intensification.”
Similarly this sample of interviewees will be a “specific cohort”, all of which take an active interest in high rise development. Where this research will differ is that not all representatives will be active in resisting high rise. Instead the group of interviewees will represent a range of typical stances toward high rise. Individuals were selected based on a number of criteria: profession, connection to high rise development, expertise and experience and personal
| Introduction |
5
opinions and beliefs. In this sense I will be collecting qualitative data which will give a reasonable indication of perceptions toward high rise development. This exercise is not intended to be a quantitative one in which a large number of people are interviewed in order to achieve statistically valid results. The interviews will explore design issues associated with high rise and identify common themes. Further exploration of these common themes will entail the analysis of five precedents. The four themes identified from the interviews will be adopted as an organizational framework for this analysis. Conclusions can then be made as to how precedent responded to these themes and potentially how each project may have been affected by high rise resistance. Precedent research will show the possibilities and opportunities, while also identifying the success or failure of such examples. Part II will outline the process of modelling a high rise development on a local site. The chosen site is the site of the old Pavilion markets on the corner of Rokeby Road and Roberts Road in Subiaco. The focus of the Case Study wil be informed by the common themes and design issues identified in the precedent analysis. This section will elaborate upon these themes and provide an illustrated analysis of the case study site. Part III, will include the performance based guidelines, which will provide the final component of this research. The focus and structure of these guidelines will be informed by the outcomes of Part I and II. This research intends to address a gap in current literature. Relevant materials regarding intensification and urban sprawl appear in these major forms: books, articles/journals and government research and local planning schemes. Four main categories dominate this area of research: Methods of Activating Public Space, Relationship between the City and the Pedestrian, Processes of Growth and Infill and Issues of Density. Literature on the relationship between high rise and activity centres is scarce and inadequately focused.
| Introduction |
Research in Melbourne has identified significant community resistance to intensification but focuses on alleviating these issues through medium rise development along transit corridors. High rise is not included as a plausible option. Publications from Europe, such as the work of a+t, provide in-depth information on issues of density as opposed to height. While the examples include high rise developments, they are usually housing projects located on the outskirts of cities. Research concentrating on the relationship between high rise and activity centres is insufficient, exposing a gap in literature which this research intends to address.
6
| Aims & Outcomes |
7
Aims & Outcomes
This research will be exploratory in nature. It intends to explore high rise resistance within the scope of existing activity centres, as outlined in Directions 2031. Pure research knowledge will result in an understanding of high rise resistance and the identification of common themes which represent a range of key high rise design issues. Application of these themes will be identified through precedent analysis. An understanding of high rise precedent and methods of addressing high rise themes will inform a process of modelling. Modelling will identify design issues focused on high rise within activity centres. The final outcome will be a set of performance based design guidelines concentrated on high rise developments within activity centres. The design guidelines will inform positive design solutions as opposed to prescribing design outcomes. The intention is to bridge the gap between State Government, the development industry, local council and residents by providing easily accessible and understandable information. This study aims to address a gap in current literature and contribute research that concentrates on the relationship between high rise and activity centres.
8
PA RT I : R E S E A RCH
| Part I: Interviews |
9
1. Interviews
The research began with a series of interviews which were undertaken over two months. The intention of these interviews was to gather qualitative data that could provide a better idea of the factors contributing to high rise resistance. Five local stake holders were interviewed:
1. Linda Rogers10, Subiaco Resident. March 12th, 2012,
2. Heather Henderson11, Mayor of Subiaco. March 15th, 2012,
3. Peter Monks12, Director of Planning and Development for The City of Perth. March
16th, 2012,
4. Evan Jones13, Town Planner and Developer . April 2nd, 2012, and
5. Chris Maher14, Architect. May 4th, 2012.
Each interviewee was asked questions about high rise, the nature of these questions varied depending on each individual’s connection to high rise. They were also asked specifically about the case study site and their opinion of the 19 storey proposal by Hassell Architects. The interviews highlighted four common themes: Amenity & Infrastructure, Urban Character, Street Presence and Activation. Amenity & Infrastructure The amenity of an area and the capacity of local infrastructure were raised as issues to be considered before planning a high rise development. Linda Rogers stressed concerns about the capacity of local Subiaco Roads to deal with the impacts of a 19 storey development. Linda did not believe that adequate infrastructure would be provided in lieu of the increased strain on local roads. Evan Jones confirmed this fear, stating that at present there is no connection between better infrastructure and high rise. Evan identified ‘impact’ as one of the main issues afflicting the progress of high rise development. He defined impact as “the capacity of the local roads and public transport system to deal with [high rise].”( Jones, E Interview 2012) Peter
| Part I: Interviews |
10
Monks was the only interviewee to specifically mention amenity, indicating that as a general guideline, the most desirable location for high rise is where there is either amenity or outlook. The other interviewees made reference to the ‘character’ of an area and qualities that a high rise development should reinforce. For instance, Linda stated, “I would like to keep the aspects of Subiaco that made it so wonderful, the village like atmosphere, the friendliness, the caring, the ability to know people where you shopped and around you.” (Rogers, L Interview 2012) Urban Character Consideration for the urban character of an area was deemed an important aspect of high rise Design. Linda Rogers was particularly concerned about maintaining the residential nature of Subiaco and resisting office invasion similar to that of West Perth. Linda advocated for what she called “responsible development” which is development that in her view respects the existing architecture, streetscape and character of Subiaco. Heather Henderson expressed similar concerns, advocating the protection of the current built fabric of Subiaco and the existing character that is already embedded in the streetscape. Chris Maher emphasized the importance of understanding the urban character of an area, to quote Maher “…it is important to understand the context in which you are designing… what are those essential ingredients that make Subiaco the place that it is now…see whether you can enhance that, draw upon it or work with it…” (Maher, C Interview 2012) Street Presence The presence of high rise at street level was an issue raised in all interviews. The scale and height of high rise means that particular focus must be put on its integration into existing streetscapes. This is particularly relevant for activity centres which are generally undeveloped and characterized by low and mid-rise buildings. Linda Rogers mentioned West Perth as an example where over-scaled and unintegrated buildings had turned a once residential area into a lifeless, office dominated suburb. Both Linda and Heather advocated for the retention and reinforcement of the rhythm and scale of Subiaco. Peter Monks identified high rise designs major architectural problem as how it hits the street. Mill Point Rd, South Perth was given as an example where high rise apartments had resulted in a streetscape dominated by high walls and car park entryways. To quote Peter monks, “If the street interface is carefully designed, possibly with a podium and mixed use along the ground plane, then…your awareness of the height is
| Part I: Interviews |
11
really diminished…” (Monks, P Interview 2012). Both Evan Jones and Chris Maher identified relationship to ground plane and consideration of human scale as key components of successful high rise. Activation The ability of high rise to reinforce and build upon existing activation was seen as an important quality by all interviewees. Activation was considered to significantly improve the environment at street level. Good activation results in pedestrian activity which creates busy, safe streets. In regard to the case study sites position on Rokeby Rd, Heather Henderson believed that the nature of the high street needed to be maintained with activated use on both sides. Heather believed that a 19 storey development would not be appropriate on the case study site considering the surrounding heights. Heather also indicated that consideration of development proposals above the height restriction defined in the City of Subiaco’s Town Planning Scheme No. 4 would be influenced by what it contributed to the area. Both Peter Monks and Chris Maher believed that street activity was paramount to the successful integration of high rise. It was required in order to reinforce that an area is safe and busy at all hours.
| Part I: Common Themes |
12
2. Common Themes
In exploring the design issues associated with high rise development four themes were identified in the interviews. These were Amenity & Infrastructure, Urban Character, Street Presence and Activation. These themes were utilized as an organising framework for the body of research. 2.1 Amenity & Infrastructure High rise is generally accompanied by increased density, necessitating well established or improved public transport and infrastructure15. In Delivering Directions 2031(WAPC 2011)16, transport was identified as a key enabler for the successful implementation of Directions 2031. The capacity of local roads and mass transit to cope with the increased strain applied by high rise will often dictate the viability of the project. Activity centers are defined in State Planning Policy 4.2: Activity Centers for Perth and Peel (WAPC 2010) as areas with amenity17. Amenity can be broadly divided into two groups, Urban Amenity and Outlook. Urban Amenity relates to the accessibility of facilities such as public transport, green space, social and cultural activities. It also relates to the quality of the area. A suburb like Subiaco, for instance, would have high levels of amenity because of the quality of the street environment. Streetscapes are well greened and its small scale built fabric allows ample sunlight into public areas and facilitates an intimate pedestrian environment. High levels of amenity have been linked to livability, indicating that places with good amenity are more liveable than others18. Outlook refers to a building’s surrounds and ability to capitalize upon them. Views of natural amenities such as the ocean, Swan River or Kings Park are an asset to high rise and generally result in more successful developments. Amenity and infrastructure are not elements that can be designed for but rather an urban pre-requisite when choosing an appropriate site for high rise development.
| Part I: Common Themes |
13
2.2 Urban Character The relationship between urban character and high rise was seen as a particularly important issue by the interviewees, particularly the resident and local mayor. Urban character encompasses a multitude of qualities; the size and scale of the existing urban grain, the scale of existing built fabric and the defining characteristics of this built fabric. An area like Subiaco is characterized by one and two storey dwellings ranging from 5 meters and 10 meters respectively. Their pre-war architectural style has ascribed them a number of favorable qualities that are worth reinforcing. These include high ceilings, deep awnings and narrow shop fronts, all of which contribute to the vibrancy of the area. Obviously each site will be in a different locality and this particular issue will vary from project to project. High rise should be respectful of existing urban character and where possible reinforce character qualities that are worth retaining. Design aspects to be considered:
1. Height: Areas like Subiaco are generally characterized by one and two storey
buildings. This low rise nature raises issues of how high rise can be successfully
integrated with this small scale fabric.
2. Mass: Areas like Subiaco are generally characterized small lot sizes and one and
two storey structures. In this context the mass of individual developments are small
scale. This raises issues in terms of how larger structures of far more substantive mass
can be effectively integrated into the existing fabric.
3. Character Features: Areas like Subiaco are often dominated by a particular style
of architecture, in this case pre-war architecture. This historic built fabric has a number
of traditional features. This raises issues as to how high rise, which is generally modern
in style, will effectively integrate with this historic built fabric.
4. Grouping of higher Buildings: Buildings of similar heights are generally grouped.
Grouping higher buildings creates a more coherent skyline and indicates a change in
nature. In Subiaco higher buildings are generally confined to corner lots or sites of
significance such as entry points. High rise developments will need to consider how
heights are arranged in order to respond to existing grouping of buildings.
5. Urban Grain: Urban grain is the foundation which informs the scale of an area. An
area like Subiaco has a fine urban grain. This raises issues of how a high rise which is
| Part I: Common Themes |
14
generally of a more urban scale, will respond to this fine urban grain
2.3 Street Presence Impact’s of high rise on the streetscape was an issue raised in by every interviewee. Street presence encompasses everything to do with the ground plane. It dictates how high rise hits the street and how it relates to human scale. The relationship between high rise and the street will shape and influence the experience of the user at ground level. If done correctly it can significantly reduce awareness of height. The size and scale of high rise and the expense of creating a podium often means that little effort is put into its relationship to the street. High rise buildings are often surrounded by inactive space at ground level, facilitating little pedestrian activation. This is the case in West Perth where buildings are internalized, focusing on contents of the upper levels as opposed to the street interface. High rise that does not effectively relate to the street can have undesirable physical impacts such as overshadowing. It can also expose a lack of interaction between existing built fabric and thigh rise, often exaggerating the buildings presence and stimulating high rise resistance. Street Presences deals with a number of design aspects:
1. Scale: Streetscapes in areas like Subiaco are characterized by one and two storey
buildings with intimate pedestrian environments facilitated by traditional shading
structures. This raises issues of how high rise will effectively integrate with the existing
streetscape and respond to human scale.
2. Setbacks: Setbacks are important in reducing the impact of height at street level.
This impact is both visual and physical. Setbacks can significantly reduce
environmental issues such as overshadowing. High rise will need to utilize appropriate
setbacks in order to effectively reduce the impact of height at street level.
3. Podiums: Podiums are a tried and tested method of responding to the street
environment. Podiums create a buffer between the human scale of the street and the
urban scale of a high rise tower. The adoption of a podium is a design consideration for
any high rise development.
4. Façade: Façade design encompasses both form and materiality. Façade could
significantly reduce the impact of height by breaking down the often substantive mass
of high rise developments. High rise facades are generally modern in style, raising
| Part I: Common Themes |
15
issues of how it can integrate with the established streetscape.
5. Active edges: Activity centres are generally characterized by an active ground plane
which is facilitated by a range of commercial uses. These types of uses are particular
important around the edge of a high rise development as this will reinforce the active
nature of the ground plane and help it assimilate with its surrounds.
2.4 Activation Activation relates to a buildings use and how this influences patterns and levels of pedestrian activity. High rise is generally accompanied by increased density. Provisions for how these people interact with and use the area are imperative. Activity centres are generally well activated and it is important to reinforce and build upon this quality in a positive way. Three broad categories of use will be explored: Active Uses, Office uses and Residential uses. Active uses includes commercial oriented businesses such as retail or entertainment facilities. Active uses encourages pedestrian traffic and facilitates activation outside of working hours. Office uses refer to business oriented entities such as accountants, law firms and engineers. Office uses generate a reliable body of people, who will activate the surroundings area within working hours. Residential uses injects a large number of people into an area who will sustain the amenities in their locality at all times of the day and week. Outcomes of the interviews indicated that the inclusion of active uses is an essential ingredient in creating a successful high rise. Obviously the choice of uses and method of activation should reflect the needs of each developments individual context. Activation deals with a number of design issues:
1. Type of Use: A response to the types of use in an area will more successfully
integrate high rise within its context. This raises issues of how high rise will effectively
incorporate uses.
2. Mix of Use: Consideration of the diversity and mix of uses apparent within
surrounding context will allow high rise to contribute to the vibrancy and activation
of the area. This raises issues of how high rise will facilitate a mixture and diversity of
use that reflects its context.
3. Location of Use: Consideration for the location and separation of uses within
| Part I: Precedents |
16
3. Precedents
The four common themes will be explored further in five high rise precedents. These themes will be utilized as a framework for the assessment of these precedents. This exercise will indicate what the possibilities and opportunities are and identify the success or failure of such examples. By measuring these precedents against the four design themes, it is possible to speculate the effect of high rise resistance. Precedents were chosen based on location, height and use. Each precedent was located away from their respective CBD’s in the equivalent of an ‘activity centre’. Activity centres are established nodes with a more intensive built fabric than the surrounding area. It was important to select projects locally, nationally and internationally in order to get a broad perspective. Three of the five precedents are high rise, which is being defined as 10 storeys or more. In two instances comparable heights were accepted based on other factors. Finally, all precedents are mixed-use developments as this seems to be the direction of high rise development and is considered an effective method of activating a site. The five precedents include: 1. Zac Massena in Paris by Beckmann N’Thepe. This 10 storey mixed use project was completed in 2005. It is located in Paris’s 13th Arrodisment in a new suburb called Massena.
The development of 12.5 hectares
includes 20% housing, 11% retail, 35% office, 1.5% facilities and 32.5% university.
Illustration 1
| Part I: Precedents |
17
2. 80 Ebley St in Bondi Junction, Sydney. 80 Ebley St is a mixed use development in the inner eastern suburbs of Sydney. The development comprises a mixed use two storey podium with two residential towers, one five storey and one twelve storey.
Illustration 2
3. Millennium Development in Kings Cross, Sydney. Millennium consists of two parts: the Millennium Shopping Centre and Zenith Residence. Millenium Shopping Centre takes up the majority of the five storey podium which also house office space and secure parking for residents. Zenith Residence is a 33 storey tower housing 161 residences.
Illustration 3
4. Melbourne Terrace Apartments in Melbourne by Nonda Katsalidis. Melbourne Terrace Apartments is a mixed use development just outside the center of Melbourne CBD. Melbourne Terrace Apartments was completed in 1994 by Nonda Katsalidis. It is composed of four self-contained buildings, reaching a height of 9 storeys. The development contains 65 dwellings which sit above a ground floor car park. Along the ground floor is a cafe and several retail outlets, with a small office on the floor above.
Illustration 4
| Part I: Precedents |
18
5. Claremont Quarter in Perth by James Christou Architects. Claremont Quarter was completed by James Christou Architects in 2011. The development comprises two eight storey residential towers which are well setback on a two storey podium. Below this sit a commercial shopping centre and a number of small office spaces. Although it only reaches a height of eight storeys, Claremont Quarter was chosen specifically for its likeness to Subiaco.
Illustration 5
| Part I: Precedents |
19
3.1 Amenity & Infrastructure Issues of amenity and infrastructure would have been dealt with prior to the commencement of each development. Appropriate sites would have been chosen based on these qualities. As a result the completion of these projects implies that the respective areas have an established network of local roads and mass transit systems to sustain high rise development. In some instances changes to existing infrastructure have been proposed in order to improve capacity, but in all cases there is a foundation of easily accessible mass transit and local roads. The amenity side of the equation is twofold. On the one hand it can be measured in terms of the variety and accessibility of facilities in the area, on the other is the nature and feel of each area. This can be gauged based on each project’s relationship to the street and human scale. Zac Massena by Beckmann N’thepe is located in Paris’ 13th Arrodisement in a new suburb called Massena. The development is serviced by Paris’s comprehensive underground metro system. The underground metro is the main form of transport throughout the city. As such consideration for automobiles was second priority, however, the area has a newly established network of roads. In terms of urban amenity one would assume that sufficient facilities and services would have been provided for in the initial urban design concept. Zac Massena is
located only a couple of blocks south from the Seine river,
which would provide environmental amenity and
opportunities for outdoor activity. The wide, legible streets
with generous planted sidewalks echo Paris’s historic
boulevards and suggest that Massena has a pleasant
character and good amenity.
Illustration 6: 3D depiction of Massena and the open block concept.
Moving to Sydney, Australia, 80 Ebley Street is located within the commercial hub of Bondi Junction. A number of larger high rise buildings existed prior to 80 Ebley St and suggest that local roads have the capacity to cope with the greater demands of high rise. Being a commercial
| Part I: Precedents |
20
hub, the area is well serviced by public transport, underground trains and buses frequent the area. In terms of amenity, Bondi Junction does not only provide access to a range of essential services, it is also next to the iconic Bondi Beach and the outdoor amenity it provides. Bondi Junction appears to be a more developed version of Subiaco with a number of major high streets off of which the majority of activation stems. The quality of the area would be similar to that of Subiaco but on a larger scale with a combination of two storey pre-war buildings, 30 storey towers and numerous midrise commercial buildings. Millennium development is situated in the central Kings Cross area, another activity centre of inner Sydney. Kings Cross is not at the same scale as Bondi Junction but the intensity of its built fabric, including a number of high rise developments, suggests that local roads are well established and have the capacity to sustain the area. In terms of public transport the development is located near Kings Cross train station and within access to a number of bus routes. Millennium is the only precedent with outlook, situated atop a hill it has good views of Sydney harbor and CBD. The nature and intensity of the area suggest that there is already good access to essential facilities. In terms of the feel of the area, again it is of a more urban scale. The suburb represents a transition from urban CBD to suburbia. It is dissected by a number of major roads. The height of the development would provide separation from the urban intensity of the ground plane.
Illustration 7: Aerial shot of Millennium’s position atop a hill with views to Sydney Harbour.
| Part I: Precedents |
21
Melbourne Terrace Apartments is located just outside of Melbourne CBD. On the whole, Melbourne has a strong mass transit system comprising trains, trams and buses. Melbourne Terrace Apartments would be no exception; its proximity to the CBD allows it easy access to any number of public transport facilities. Similarly its proximity to the Melbourne CBD would suggest that the local roads have the capacity to deal with the impacts of high rise. This is confirmed by the existence of a number of larger developments within its immediate vicinity. Its locality also indicates that easy access to facilities would exist. Similar to Millennium, Melbourne Terrace Apartments sits in a transition zone between urban CBD and suburbia. As such the area would be more urban in nature, however adjacent buildings all appear to generate activation at street level which would create a pleasant pedestrian experience and sense of place. Unlike the previous precedents Claremont is suburban in nature with a commercial activity centre of more intense built form and activity. Claremont Quarter is situated between the Perth to Fremantle train line and Stirling Highway, which is the main arterial route through Perth’s Western Suburbs. Perth’s car dependency meant that additional parking facilities had to be provided in order to compensate for the increased number of people generated by the development. The local roads do not have the capacity to sustain this new pressure. These large, internalized car parks act as funnels, causing traffic and congestion along Gugeri Street, which borders the northern side of Claremont Quarter. Claremont has good amenity, both in terms
of access to facilities and general quality of place.
Claremont provides access to a number of essential
facilities and services including supermarkets, shops,
gyms and bars. Good amenity in terms of the character of
the area is generated by the generous shaded sidewalks
Illustration 8: An example of a typical Claremont streetscape on Bay View Terrace.
and human scale of the built fabric.
| Part I: Precedents |
22
3.2 Urban Character Urban Character refers to what extent a high rise development responds to the existing urban character of its context and what methods it uses to do so. Zac Massena is a unique example as it was part of an urban design concept for the new district of Massena. As a result the development did not have to respond to existing character as such; rather it had to contribute to the urban design objectives of Massena. This implies that the building itself may not have received much public scrutiny. It would have been Christian de Potzamparc’s initial urban design program that had to address issues of resistance. Once clear intentions and parameters were established, individual buildings would have developed relatively uninhibited by local resistance. Buildings within the district of Massena all adhere to Portzamparc’s concept of “open blocks”19, which dictated the height and volume of each development. As a result Zac Massena was relatively constrained by the urban design program for Massena. What this development did do was experiment with façade treatment. Surrounding buildings are dominated by conventional cladding in an array of muted colours. Zac Massena departed from this generic envelope and adopted self-compacting, untreated concrete as its predominant façade material. This gives the building a more somber, ambiguous quality, breaking up the monotony of the conventional clad facades of its
Illustration 9: View of one of the streets defining Zac Massena’s site boundary.
neighbours. Bondi Junction is characterized by a diversity of built fabric, giving 80 Ebley St a certain level of flexibility in terms of design. Bondi Junction has an intense built fabric with numerous high rise
| Part I: Precedents |
23
buildings and similar urban scale developments. Uniquely, Bondi Junction still has areas of low rise pre-war architecture that reveal its original character. There is a distinct separation between these small scale buildings and the newer commercial developments.
Illustration 10: Streetview of 80 Ebley St, illustrating the characteristic combination of low rise pre-war architecture and modern high rise towers.
80 Ebley St preserves the two story historic street front along Bronte St, with a new two storey extension along Ebley St. In doing so the development creates a seamless transition from old to new. The high rise portion of the development is divided into two towers, one five storey and one twelve storey. The higher of the two towers is setback away from the street, minimizing impact at street level. The creation of a node through multiple towers assist in integrating the new heights among the existing low rise parts of the suburb. Moving on to the second Sydney precedent, Millennium, a similar built fabric emerges. Again the precedents context is characterized by a diversity of built form. Millennium and several other high rise developments create an intense node which gives way to mid-rise heights. This diversity would have allowed the development more freedom in terms of design. In addition, Millennium’s outlook would have also made the site more suitable for high rise. Outlook and
high rise often come hand in hand as high rise is able to
capitalize on the benefits of outlook greater than other
building types. The five storey podium relates to the
mid-rise nature of the surrounding are and refers to
human scale. Its unique outlook and amenity indicate
that high rise resistance may not have been as organized in
opposing this development, despite its scale and height.
Illustration 11: Street view of Millennium and neighbourng mid-rise buildings.
| Part I: Precedents |
24
Similarly, Melbourne Terrace Apartments is located in an area characterized by diversity of type and height. Heights in the immediate vicinity vary enormously from two storeys to six storeys to 30 storeys. This diversity in built fabric would have given Melbourne Terrace Apartments more freedom in terms of height and scale. As opposed to using a podium to mediate height issues, Melbourne Terrace Apartments has employed material, texture and form, adopting a more decorative approach. In doing so the building avoids the repetitive structural expression of the isolated modern apartment block, which is so often at odds with existing historical architecture.
Illustration 12: Example of formal details in Melbourne Terrace Apartments facade.
Claremont Quarter on the other hand is characterized by a distinctive, established built fabric. The area is dominated by one and two storey heights of varying architectural styles. The two main thoroughfares, Bay View Terrace and St Quentins Avenue, were originally characterized by pre-war architecture. As a response to the low rise nature of the area a two storey plinth, with additional height setback, was enforced. It is likely that this was a local planning provision created to facilitate a sympathetic relationship between future buildings and existing built
fabric. Aside from the height and setback provisions, little
else has been done to integrate the building bulk into its
surrounds. Efforts to break up the bulk created by the
plinth have failed to go beyond conventional faรงade
treatments like paint colour and horizontal cladding.
However the sizeable setbacks of the higher portions of the
development would have addressed high rise resistance
Illustration 13: Street view of two storey plinth and and the impact of height at street level would have been set back apartments above.
significantly reduced.
| Part I: Precedents |
25
3.3 Street Presence Street Presence refers to the relationship between a high rise development and the street. Successful integration at street level significantly reduces the impact of height, responding to high rise resistance stimulated by an opposition to height. This design issue was raised by all interviewees, who indicated that this is the aspect of high rise design which most contributes to its lack of acceptance. As mentioned earlier in Urban Character, Zac Masssena was dictated by Portzamparcs’ urban design concept. This also applied at street level. Portzamparc intended for streets to be wide, well lit and readable, with a clear distinction between street and built form. These characteristics give the area a sense of permeability and legibility that is advantageous for pedestrian movement. Zac Massena builds upon these principles through its use of volume, mass and height. The combination of recesses and overhangs creates a visually rigorous volume that encapsulates a diversity of building typologies. The final form significantly reduces impact at street level, in doing so the building addressed issues of high rise resistance such as impact of height, loss of character and culture and overshadowing. In addition, active use has been located along the edge of the development, to encourage pedestrian activity. Illustration 14: The dynamic street presence created by Zac Massenas combination of recesses and overhangs.
Bondi Junction represents a unique blend of urban scale high rise and low rise historic architecture. As mentioned earlier, 80 Ebley St, has retained the two storey buildings along Bronte St, with a new two storey extension along Ebley St. In this way the established streetscape is maintained and the intimate scale and character that is typical of historic high streets is reinforced. In addition, the adoption of two separate towers of differing heights and
| Part I: Precedents |
26
additional setbacks significantly reduces the impact of
height at street level. The existing pattern of active use at
ground level has been maintained. This reinforces
pedestrian activity and increases the integration of the
development along the street. In doing so, 80 Ebley St
address concerns of impact of height as well as loss of
character and culture.
Illustration 15: Street view showing the new two storey extension along Ebley St.
Millennium in Kings Cross adopted the typical high rise arrangement of podium and tower. The podium creates a buffer zone between the human scale of the street and the urban scale of the 33 storey tower. It creates an intimate pedestrian environment by recessing the ground floor and locating active use along the edge. In this instance the podium has been used as a method of addressing street presence. In doing so, Millennium responds to high rise resistance and concerns regarding the impact of height at street level.
Illustration 16: Streetscape of Millenniums podium.
Melbourne Terrace Apartments employed methods of form and materiality to respond to issues at street level. The decorative nature of the faรงade creates a rigorous envelope that conceals the scale of the building within. This has significantly reduced the impact of height at street level. In addition, Melbourne Terrace Apartments continues the surrounding tradition of locating active use at ground level. This reinforces and extends current pedestrian movement,
| Part I: Precedents |
27
while also creating a seamless transition between Melbourne Terrace Apartments and its neighbours. Public online comment regarding Melbourne Terrace Apartments suggests that the decorative nature of the development is considered a welcome departure from the typical structural expression of the modern apartment block. The architectural quality of Melbourne Terrace Apartments addresses concerns regarding impact of height and loss of character and culture.
Illustration 17: Street view of Melbourne Terrace Apartments showing active uses along the street edge and office space above.
Claremont is defined by a distinctive character at street level. Claremont Quarter has attempted to recreate the ‘high street’ atmosphere of the old town centre. This is characterized by active use on both sides of the street, generous sidewalks and ample protection from the elements in the form of deep awnings. By reinforcing these qualities, Claremont Quarter has produced
a pleasant pedestrian experience. However, the levels
above ground are encased in an unremarkable mass of wall
which exposes the internalized nature of the shopping mall.
It was mentioned several times in the interviews that
treatment of the ground plain was paramount, and if
designed successfully then the users awareness of height
would be diminished. This is true for Claremont Quarter.
The carefully considered ground plane reinforces the
Illustration 18: View of street presence of Claremont Quarter and its interaction with the street.
character and intimate scale of the original town centre.
In doing so the development addresses issues of loss of character and culture, which feature prominently in high rise resistance.
| Part I: Precedents |
28
3.4 Activation Activation refers to the methods used to activate the area surrounding a high rise building. A high rise’s capacity to reinforce and build upon existing activation can dictate the perceived success of the development. Activation is essential in creating busy, safe streets at all hours of the day and night. All five precedents include a mix of active use, office use and residential. This combination generates variety of user groups which facilitates extended activation. Each development had one thing in common and that was the location of active use along its edge at ground level. This is integral to the successful integration of high rise for a number of reasons. It reinforces and potentially increases existing activity patterns in Activity Centres, which is important for the amenity of the area and local businesses. It also creates a coherent streetscape character that contributes positively to its context. This addresses high rise resistance on a number of levels. It reduces the impact of height on the street, it increases the activation of the area and success of local business and it reflects and reinforces existing character.
| Part I: Conclusions |
29
Conclusions
Part I of this research revealed a number of overarching themes associated with high rise design. These were: Amenity and Infrastructure, Urban Character, Streetscape and Activation. The interviews explored design issues associated with high rise and identified these four as priority. Precedent analysis established a number of key design outcomes. Active use along the ground plane was essential in generating an active edge that interacted with surrounding context. In doing so, high rise was able to respond to all four design themes. An active edge contributed positively to the area in terms of amenity, it reflected existing patterns of use and encouraged activation, all of which contribute to a well-integrated development at street level. A mixture of uses was identified as an advantage for high rise. A development with a mix and diversity of use will appeal to a variety of user groups, which will extends hours of activation and improve amenity in terms of safety. Higher parts of the building were generally setback to reduce impact at street level. Podiums of varying heights were utilized as a method of achieving this. The height and nature of these podiums varied depending on the character and scale of the context. Other methods of effectively reducing impact at street level were also identified. Zac Massena demonstrated the advantage of creating a node through adopting varying heights and setbacks within a single built mass. In doing so the substantive mass of the development was disaggregated, diminishing the impact of height at street level and responding to environmental factors such as overshadowing. Melbourne Terrace apartments addressed concerns regarding the typical structural expression of the modern isolated apartment block. These issues arise commonly as the architectural characteristics of modern apartment blocks often conflict with the established
| Part I: Conclusions |
30
character in activity centers. These issues were addressed though its decorative faรงade treatment which successfully broke up the built mass and reduced impact on the street. Precedent analysis indicated that high rise is directly linked to the amenity of its context and the capacity of local infrastructure to sustain high rise. Without amenity and infrastructure high rise cannot contribute positively to its context and cannot fulfill the objectives outlined in Directions 2031.
31
PA RT I i : c ase study
| Part II: Local Site |
32
1. Case study Site
The Case Study site is located on the original site of the Old Pavilion Markets in Subiaco on the corner of Rokeby Rd and Roberts Rd (Figure 2). Subiaco is a suburb where there has been considerable community resistance to high rise development. Subiaco has been identified as a Secondary Centre in Western Australian Planning Commission’s State Planning Policy 4.2: Activity Centres for Perth and Peel (WAPC 2010). Being an older, established Suburb it has a rich history and architectural fabric. Its proximity to the CBD and transport links has made it a prime location for development. In the last 10 to 15 years extensive development has already taken place. Many of these developments have been seen as unsuccessful in the eyes of Subiaco residents. As a result the Subiaco community is becoming more organised in resisting new developments. In addition, the Pavilion Markets site is of particular significance as the original markets were of great value to the community and
its loss was seen to have a
detrimental effect on the area.
Subsequently any proposal for the
site receives considerable
community scrutiny. Hassell
Architects submitted a
proposal for the site. The scheme
included two self contained
Illustration 19: 3D visualization of Hassells’s proposal for the pavilion markers site.
buildings. One on the corner of
Rokeby Rd and Roberts Rd with a height of four storeys and the other encompassing the entire eastern portion of the site with a five storey podium and 19 storey residential tower. The development would bring over 300 new dwellings to the area. This proposal has stimulated outrage among the local community and did not receive planning approval as the resut of an almost unanimous vote.
| Part II: Local Site |
Figure 1: Case Study Context and Site Constraints at 1:1000
33
| Part II: Modeling |
34
2. Modeling
Part I identified a range of high rise design issues which were categorized into four common themes. The modeling process will entail site specific explorations for high rise development on the proposed Subiaco Site. The common themes raised in Part I will be utilized as an organizational framework for this section. Within this framework the four common themes and relevant design issues will be articulated through descriptive and illustrative means. Consultation of State Environmental Planning Policy 65(SEPP 65 2002) in New South Wales and Western Australian Planning Commission’s State Planning Policy 4.2: Activity Centers for Perth and Peel (WAPC 4.2 2010) provided a structure and focus for the modelling. SEPP 65 (2002) outlines principles of design quality for residential flats. These are in the form of ‘good design’ principles. WAPC 4.2 (2010) seeks to facilitate the creation of activity centers as outlined in Directions 2031. It categorizes Perth’s existing activity centers and identifies criteria that will effectively facilitate their implementation. This process will enable engagement with the critical design aspects identified in Part I. Conclusions drawn will produce a range of parameters that can be translated into comprehensive design guidelines. Sketchup Pro 8 (Trimble Navigation Ltd. 2012) will be utilized as a means of constructing 3D imagery and diagrams.
| Part II: Modeling |
35
Amenity & Infrastructure Amenity and Infrastructure were threshold issues raised in Part I. Consensus indicated that high levels of amenity and capacity of local infrastructure are an imperative for high rise design. The ability of these fundamental urban elements to support high rise design will determine the appropriateness of a site for development. Without good amenity and infrastructure High Rise will not effectively achieve the goals outlined in Directions 2031. Subiaco’s urban structure is composed of blocks based on traditional dwelling patterns segregated by streets and roads. These blocks are grouped into neighborhoods characterized by predominant use. The extent of these neighborhoods is defined by a perimeter of busy roadways. Major roads include Hay St and Roberts Rd which connect Subiaco to Perth CBD. These roadways ascribe a high level of public transport and connectivity to greater Perth. The site boundary is defined by three roads: Rokeby Rd, Roberts Rd and Seddon St. These roads can be classified into two types: Access Road and Local Distributor. As it stands Seddon St is primarily used as an access way to the rear of the site, currently a Wilson car park. Rokeby Rd and Roberts Rd are both local distributors of distinct character. Rokeby Rd is the central spine of Subiaco. It is a two way street defined by a central island and generous sidewalks. Rokeby Rd emphasizes the human domain with a focus on the movement and activation of pedestrian traffic. Roberts Rd is a major one way road connecting Subiaco to the CBD. Roberts Rd is vehicle oriented, designed to facilitate direct, fast transport via car. Roberts Rd and similar local distributors provide access to high levels of road based public transport. Other modes of public transport include the Perth Metropolitan train line which stops at Subiaco Train Station, less than 100meters away from the site. Subiaco has high levels of amenity established through access to facilities and general quality of place. The area has access to open and green spaces as well as educational, social and recreational facilities. Its established commercial and office sectors provide access to essential
| Part II: Modeling |
36
services and employment opportunities. Subiaco is defined by a strong sense of community and quality of built fabric, which is attributed to the quality of local streetscapes. Subiaco streetscapes are well greened, have generous sidewalks with ample shade and are defined by low rise historic built fabric. This necessitates a similar level of amenity within the residential component of the scheme. Urban settings propose a number of challenges to residential dwellings. Consideration for outlook and its implications requires in depth investigation at a detail which is not within the scope of this research. For instance, it is not desirable to be facing the back end of a restaurant which is populated by bins and frequented by service vehicles. Concerns such as this are particularly relevant for those dwellings closer to the ground. The higher a dwelling is off the ground the less of a concern these issues become, as inhabitants are increasingly removed from the street environment. High levels of amenity and access to established roadways and modes of public transport establish that the site is suitable for High Rise development.
s.
Illustration 20: Street view of Rokeby Rd illustrating the nature and amenity of the street.
| Part II: Modeling |
37
Urban Character Subiaco has a particular ‘character’ which its residents and council fiercely defend. This quality is the result of decades of evolution and development which have contributed a certain complexity and depth to the area. Character is not a single quality but a combination of architectural type, size and quality of built fabric; a diverse and varying mix of uses, all of which are condensed within Rokeby Rd and its immediate vicinity. These elements are set against a backdrop of intimate streetscapes characterized by small shop fronts, deep sidewalks, laneways and well greened streets. The interaction of all of these elements has ascribed Subiaco with a distinct urban character. Subiaco’s character is derived from diversity; diversity of built form, diversity of height, diversity of user and diversity of experience. Diversity contributes to the complexity and richness of the area. Contextual analysis of Subiaco’s urban grain revealed a grid structure (Figure 2). This structure is defined by a fine 10 by 10 meter grid which informs the small scale and diversity of Subiaco’s urban grain. In addition, the urban grain suggests that the scale of more recent developments has grown incrementally based on this implied grid. For instance, in the older parts of Rokeby Rd, between Bagot Rd and Barker Rd, buildings fit into a 10 x 10 meter grid. However, as you move outward the use and building size begins to change. Larger developments along Hay St and the southern end of Rokeby Rd reach areas of up to approximately 40 x 40 meters, indicating a visible transition of building size which is informed by the implied 10 x 10 meter grid and directly linked to the transition from high street retail to office use. Typical historic lot sizes measure approximately 10 meters by 30 meters. When compared with more recent developments and the case study site, a substantial increase in lot size and potentially scale is revealed (Figure 3). Given that this lot occupies a considerable portion of an urban sized block, methods of reflecting existing urban grain are imperative. Disaggregating
| Part II: Modeling |
38
the building footprint into a number of components could provide an opportunity to address these issues. Strategies for achieving this will be prescribed by existing lot sizes and patterns of circulation. Figure 4 illustrates a number of strategies for disaggregating the building footprint.
Figure 2: Plan of Subiaco Town Centre urban grain with implied 10 x 10 meter grid at 1:7500
| Part II: Modeling |
39
30 40
m
90
Figure 3: Urban Footprints. From top to bottom: traditional historic lot size, more recent commercial lot size and the lot size of the case study sit.
m
90
Figure 4: Options fot dissageragting site footprint.
| Part II: Modeling |
40
Subiaco’s urban form is characterized by one and two storey buildings, informing a small scale urban typology. Figure 5 depicts a 3D visualization of the urban form of Subiaco and the sites position within it. Higher buildings tend to be grouped in order to achieve a transition in height appropriate to the street. Typically these groups occur on corner sites or where sites occupy
Figure 5: Perspective of sites context within existing urban scale of Subiaco.
positions of significance such as major intersections or entry points. Implementing transitions in height creates a coherent urban form and distinct urban territories. Translating this into a design parameter determines the appropriate articulation of building height in response to existing patterns of height. Figure 6 is an indicative visualization of one method of articulating building height. In this instance a gradation of heights, which reflects current urban patterns, has been achieved. Likewise, this method responds to the traditional pattern of grouping higher buildings on corner lots
Figure 6: 3D perspective of a strategy for implementing height transitions
| Part II: Modeling |
41
Height is just one critical aspect of Subiaco’s urban fabric. Small lot sizes contribute to Subiaco’s urban form by disaggregating the bulk and scale of individual structures. These aspects can be engaged through the articulation of building form utilizing architectural features. Architectural features apply an additional layer of detail to the building bulk. This can be achieved by use of colour or materials, expression of stairs and windows or articulation of building entries. For instance, Zac Massena used bright yellow cladding to disaggregate the mass of the development (Illustration). The contrast in materiality informs a rigorous building envelope that successfully articulates the building form in a manner that breaks up building bulk and scale.
Illustration 21: Photo of Zac Massena’s utilization of architectural features.
| Part II: Modeling |
42
Streetscape Streetscape was identified as a critical high rise design issue in Part I, specifically the impact of high rise on existing streetscapes. Relevant design issues can be broadly categorized into two groups:
(1) Reduction of high rise impact at street level, and
(2)
Methods of integrating high rise into the streetscape.
Dissection of a typical Subiaco streetscape will provide the backdrop for analysis of critical design aspects. Setback of higher parts Deep awnings provide shade and shelter
Transition in scale from large to small to large, informed by intersection of major roads.
Small shop fronts
Laneways Figure 7: Streetscape Dissection: Elevation of the section of Rokeby Rd that faces the block on which the case study site is located.
| Part II: Modeling |
43
Streetscape dissection revealed a number of qualities:
(1) streetscapes reflect the nature of their respective streets,
(2) commercial use along the street front creates an active edge,
(3) Small shop fronts inform a small scale at street level, and
(4) deep awnings area utilized to create protection from the elements and a sense of
human scale.
Higher elements in the streetscape are generally set back to reduce the visual impact of height at street level and the potential impacts of overshadowing. The site’s location on a ‘high street’ has a number of implications. High streets are generally defined as the primary commercial street through a town. Rokeby Rd is the central spine of Subiaco and is characterized by active use at street level on both sides. The site occupies a prominent corner lot, which in Subiaco tend to deviate from the conventional built form and adopt a grander scale, often to signify an entry point or major intersection. The site is an important piece of Rokeby Rd, with the potential to better link Rokeby Rd with Subiaco Square. The current state of the site inhibits activation and discourages pedestrian activity to continue across Roberts Rd. Figure 8 illustrates the sites location on Rokeby Rd and its position as a link between Rokeby Rd to the south and Subiaco Square to the north. The proposed scheme must ensure that it reinforces the nature of the high street and its patterns of activation. The site is bounded by three streets, Rokeby Rd, Roberts Rd and Seddon St (Figure 9). Rokeby Rd and Roberts Rd represent two distinct street typologies. Rokeby Rd is predominantly suburban in nature, characterized by one and two storey pre-war style architecture. The road is dominated by retail and hospitality use with a high level of pedestrian traffic. Sidewalks are wide and sheltered with on street parking. Rokeby Rd is a two way street, the lanes area
| Part II: Modeling |
44
separated by a wide island which is planted with mature trees (Figure 10). Roberts Rd defines the northern boundary of the site. It is a two carriage, one way street, whose primary function is to provide access from Subiaco to West Perth and the CBD. Roberts Rd is of a more urban nature with a larger scale and variety of use. The western end originates at the perimeter of the Subiaco Town Centre zone. At this point Roberts Rd is dominated by four storey office use which transitions into lower heights and more commercial oriented use at the Rokeby Rd intersection. Moving east it becomes residential in nature, characterized by a mix of single storey detached houses and low density apartments. Opposite these dwellings, on the northern side, is Paterson’s Stadium and extensive surrounding green space. To the east Roberts Rd comes to an end, passing by Princess Margaret Hospital and Perth Modern School (Figure 11).
Rokeby Rd
Roberts Rd
Seddon St
Figure 9: Plan of the three bounding streets: Rokeby Rd, Roberts Rd. and Seddon St at 1:2000.
Figure 8: Plan of the urban form of the high street and identificarion of sites location within it at 1:10 000.
| Part II: Modeling |
Figure 10: Typical Section of Rokeby Rd at 1:300
Figure 11: Typical Section of Roberts Rd at 1:300
45
| Part II: Modeling |
46
Minimizing the impacts of building height on the street environment was identified as an imperative for high rise design in Part I of this research. The scheme proposed earlier in this section (Figure 12) addresses impact initially by locating the higher components of the building toward the south-east corner. Positioning the tallest part of the development at the farthest possible point from the streetscape produces a significant reduction in the visualand physical impact of high rise at
Figure 12: Perspective of proposed scheme.
street level. Figure 13 and 14 depict visualizations, at a massing stage, of the scheme in Figure 4. Effectively this screens the majority of the building bulk from view, facilitating a sympathetic relationship between the heights of the new development and that of the existing streetscape. Likewise, positioning higher components away from the streetscape and the public domain addresses issues of overshadowing. Analysis of overshadowing should focus on buildings, streets and public places impacted on by the development. Protection of the amenity of these streetscape elements is provided by appropriately positioning and articulating building components. This poses the next question of tower configuration. It has been established that higher components of the building require a certain distance from street interfaces. The composition of higher components will be addressed through consideration for the number, size and location of towers. Tower configuration has the potential to reinforce a number of urban aspects addressed earlier. The size and number of high rise towers will respond to existing building groupings and patterns of height. As a consequence appropriate arrangements of high rise towers can further reduce the impact of height at street level and ameliorate issues of overshadowing. Figure 15 illustrates the some of the possible tower configurations.
| Part II: Modeling |
Figure 13: Street view of proposed scheme.
Figure 14: Street view of proposed scheme.
47
| Part II: Modeling |
Figure 15: 3D models of possible high rise tower configurations.
48
| Part II: Modeling |
49
Addressing streetscape issues raises questions regarding what methods can be utilized to inform an interaction between high rise and the street. Treatment of street edge is an imperative, addressing issues of height and scale within the scope of the streetscape. Outcomes of Part I indicate that height constraints are appropriate along portions of the development that front onto the street. Determining height limits and suitable setbacks will be informed by the heights of surrounding streetscapes. For instance, adjacent to the case study site, building height varies from one to two storeys. This suggests the implementation of relative heights; however an increase beyond existing heights at street level would be appropriate as this indicates the intensity of future development and objectives of Directions 2031. Figure 16 and 17 illustrate the corner component of the development facing the intersection of Rokeby Rd and Roberts Rd. An indicative height of 3 storeys with an additional setback of 4 meters. At this diagrammatic stage the articulation of height and mass at street level fits comfortably within the existing streetscape. Addressing the second building component, which faces Roberts Rd, requires a different strategy. The distinct nature of Rokeby Rd and Roberts Rd were identified earlier. Outcomes of this established that Roberts Rd had a larger, more urban scale than Rokeby Rd. Recognition of the natures of the respective streets informed a higher height restriction for this component. In Figure 18 and 19 an indicative height of six storeys has been illustrated. A height of four storeys, with additional setbacks of 4 meters, have been enforced.
| Part II: Modeling |
Figure 16: Street view of building component one.
Figure 17: Street view of building component one.
50
| Part II: Modeling |
Figure 18: Street view of building component two.
Figure 19: Street view of building component two.
51
| Part II: Modeling |
52
The analysis of the typical Rokeby Rd streetscape revealed a number of characteristic features within the scale of the street. Individual tenancies had small shop frontages informing a small scale at street level. This sense of scale ascribed the street with a number of qualities including a rigor along the street interface and a human scale facilitated by the intimate environment of small scale shop fronts. Traditional features include deep awnings and lamp posts which reinforce a sense of human scale. The substantive awning structures provide shade and protection from the elements, allowing for extended use of the streetscape. Shop front dimensions adhere to an average width of 5 meters. Figure 20 illustrates the western elevation of the development and its adjacent lots of Rokeby Rd. A 5m grid has been applied to the elevation, illustrating the potential definition of individual tenancies along the street interface.
Figure 20: Western elevation of streetscape and scheme with implied 5 meter grid.
| Part II: Modeling |
53
Issues of activation will be addressed in the next section; however it was important to consider use in terms of streetscape due to the sites position on a high street. Incorporation of appropriate use would reinforce the activation of the area and potentially strengthen the connection between Rokeby Rd and Subiaco Square. Conclusions from precedent analysis provided the impetus for the insertion of active uses at ground level along the site boundary. This mirrors the uses across the street and reinforces high street character (Figure 21). In terms of back of house and service entry, access to the rear of the site is provided via Seddon St.
Figure 21: Section of Rokeby Rd illustrating proposed ground floor use at 1:300.
| Part II: Modeling |
54
Activation Subiaco is a residential suburb with a central spine of commercial use. Rokeby Rd is this central spine, its uses are dominated by retail, restaurants, cafes and bars with three supermarkets. Adjacent to the site are a number of retailers and restaurants of varying sizes. As the objectives of Directions 2031 seek to achieve higher residential densities to cope with population growth projections, residential use will constitute the majority of this scheme. Precedent analysis identified that a mixed-use typology is ideal for high rise development. Precedent analysis confirmed that active uses are an essential component of any mixed use development. Creating an active building edge requires active uses at ground level. Active uses include retail, restaurants, bars, markets, pubs, Retail cafes, supermarkets and so on. Active use encourages pedestrianization and creates busy, safe streets. Office use refers to any type of business oriented entity. Office uses are typically located above ground as its internalized
Restaurants/cafes Supermarket Figure 22: Plan of existing uses along Rokeby Rd at 1:7500.
nature tends to inhibits street activation. The benefit of office uses is that it brings a consistent number of people to the site and surrounding area within working hours. Residential use injects a large number of people into a small area, and has the potential to extend hours of activation. Residents will make use of the facilities around them, increasing success of local business and activation
| Part II: Modeling |
55
Looking specifically at the Subiaco site, it is not appropriate to simply reproduce the types of dwellings that already exist in Subiaco. Exploring a diversity of housing types and prices is important. Subiaco is looking to inject a sense of vibrancy and creativity that has been lost over the past decade. As such it is important to address the needs of the young adult age bracket (Hugo, Graeme), most of whom cannot afford an apartment in an area like Subiaco. Student accommodation could also be a concept worth pursuing as Subiaco has strong transport links to the University of Western Australia. Short stay accommodation is a relevant option. This would address the needs of those looking to come to Perth for leisure as opposed to business. Being centrally located within a well-connected activity center like Subiaco would be ideal. Locating these uses within the scheme will be informed by their respective natures and how this responds to the immediate locality. For example, active use will take up primary residence on parts of the ground floor that interact with the street and public interface. Office use will be located on levels 1, 2 and 3. Residential uses, for reasons of amenity and privacy, need to be removed from an immediate interface with the street. For this reason residential use has been located from the 4th floor onwards. The type and price of residential dwellings will reflect their respective location within the scheme. Location zones within the scheme are illustrated in Figure 20. Existing diversity and mix of uses in the area contribute to Subiaco’s high level of amenity. Likewise, a mixture and diversity of uses is ideal within all levels of the development. Diversity in active use creates a vibrant, busy streetscape. A mixture of residential types encourages a diverse community and formation of community bonds, which would extend activation and address issues of security. For example a typical level could include a combination of studio and one bedroom apartments for young professionals and couples, some student housing and some larger apartments for families or older couples.
| Part II: Modeling |
56
Encouraging the development and interaction of high rise communities is essential to the amenity of the dwellings. Community ties inform a sense of belonging and perceived security. Generally these facilities manifest themselves in a pool and/or function room. Generally such facilities are underutilized with residents preferring to stay within the privacy of their apartment. Communal facilities should indicate a response to local character, in this case a ‘village lifestyle’ characterized by diversity. Retail Restaurants/cafes Residential
Figure 20: Perspective of scheme illustrating location of uses.
| Part II: Conclusions |
57
3. conclusions
Modeling identified numerous appropriate high rise options for the case study site. In terms of amenity and infrastructure it was important to establish that the area could sustain high rise development. Where high levels of amenity exist, reinforcement of this quality was imperative to the scheme. Urban character assessed the urban form and morphologies of Subiaco. A distinct urban grain emerged which informed the small scale of the context. Methods of addressing this include the separation of building footprint into a number of smaller components and the disaggregation of building bulk via gradations in height and scale and effective incorporation of architectural detail. Streetscape modeling involved the analysis of an existing streetscape as a means to identify relevant design elements. Methods of reducing impact at street level combined with strategies to better integrate it produced a scheme that effectively responded to the street. Setbacks were utilized as a way of responding to streetscape heights. Scale at street level was addressed by referring to the scale of individual shop fronts along Rokeby Rd. In addition, traditional features such as shading devices were incorporated to facilitate a human scale. Part I of this research necessitated the creation of an ‘active edge’ facilitated by locating active uses along parts of the site boundary that interacted with the street interface. A mixed typology was the only scenario explored due to its ability to activate surrounding areas.
| Part II: Modeling |
Figure 24: 3D visualization of a potential development scenario. Depicted at massing stage for indicative purposes.
58
59
PA RT I ii : guidelines
| Part III: Precedents |
60
1. precedents
Two key design policies influenced the structure and focus of the modelling process. These were State Environmental Planning Policy 65(SEPP 65 2002) and Western Australian Planning Commission’s State Planning Policy 4.2: Activity Centres for Perth and Peel (WAPC 2010). SEPP 65 (2002) was introduced to NSW in 2002. It aims to improve the design quality of residential flats through good design principles. In addition, it outlines methods of evaluating the merit of design solutions. The good design principles have a clear concise structure, for instance:
“10 Principle 2: Scale
Good design provides an appropriate scale in terms of the bulk and height that suits the scale
of the street and the surrounding buildings.
Establishing an appropriate scale requires a considered response to the scale of existing
development. In precincts undergoing a transition, proposed bulk and height needs to achieve
the scale identified for the desired future character of the area.”
Each principle focuses on a single building design aspect, beginning with a broad statement which gives way to more specific design issues. Methods of achieving these principles have been provided in the “Residential Flat Design Code”. These are illustrative documents which elaborate upon the design issues touched on by the good design principles. The design codes have been categorized under Local Context, Site Design and Building Design. SEPP 65 was of importance as it is an example of successful20 building design principles. SEPP 65 and the Residential Flat Code provide a thorough, logical framework for facilitating good design. WAPC 4.2 (2010) is a State Planning Policy intended to facilitate the creation of activity centres as outlined in Directions 2031. It categorizes Perth’s activity centres into six types: Perth Capital City, Strategic metropolitan centres, Secondary centres, Specialised centres,
| Part III: Precedents |
61
District centres, and Neighbourhood centres. WAPC 4.2 (2010) identifies nine main objectives which are central to the creation of activity centres. For example, “Movement: 7. Maximise access to activity centres by walking, cycling and public transport while reducing private car trips.� Methods of achieving the outlined objectives are elaborated on in the Model Centre Framework which, like SEPP 65 (2002), identifies a number of broad themes and their related design issues. WAPC 4.2 (2010) is a more lengthy and comprehensive document than SEPP 65 (2002). The guidelines produced in this research will be closer in nature to SEPP 65 (2002). The significance of WAPC 4.2 (2010) is that it identifies key design issues that will directly relate to the design of high rise within activity centres.
| Part III: Guidelines |
62
2. guidelines
Preliminaries 01. Aims
(1) These Guidelines recognise that the design quality of High Rise development is of
significance for the successful implementation of Directions 2031.
(2) Improving the integration of High Rise development aims:
(a) to ensure that it contributes to the sustainable development of Perth:
(i) by achieving the urban planning policies outlined in Directions
2031,
(ii) by better satisfying the increasing demand and needs of the widest
range of people, and
(iii) by maximising amenity, safety and security for the benefit of its
occupants and the wider community.
(3) These Guidelines aim to improve the design quality of High Rise development
within activity centres in Perth by:
(a) achieving better built form and aesthetics of buildings and of the
streetscapes, and
(b) providing sustainable housing in social and environmental terms.
(4) These Guidelines aim to provide:
(a) consistency of policy and mechanisms throughout Perth, and
(b) a framework for Metropolitan planning to achieve identified outcomes for
specific places.
02. Definitions
(1) High Rise: any building that reaches ten storeys or more.
| Part III: Guidelines |
03. Application
(1) This Policy applies to development in activity centres as outlined in the Activity
Centres Policy (WAPC 2010), being:
(a) the erection of higher buildings and proposals to increase the height of
existing buildings.
63
| Part III: Guidelines |
64
Guidelines 1. Amenity & Infrastructure:
Objectives: Proposed sites for high rise developments shall ensure the following:
(a) that the areas are characterized by a high level of amenity including access
to green space, essential services and facilities and employment opportunities.
High levels of amenity are linked with level of liveability as well as social and
cultural value,
(b) that local roads and transport systems have the capacity to sustain
the increased intensity generated by the development in order to avoid
overcrowding and congestion,
(c) that the site is located within walking distance of adquate public transport
as to increase its connectivity with greater Perth, and
(d) the development shall reflect the locations of public transport and
encourages their use.
Guidelines: In order to address amenity and infrastructure high rise developments
must ensure that:
(1) proposed development shall establish that the site has adequate access to
green space, essential services and local employment opportunities,
(2) consideration for the capacity and nature of local infrastructure is reflected
in the inclusion of a traffic impact statement and the incorporation of
appropriate facilities, i.e. the capacity of local roads could be reflected in the
number of car bays and end of trip facilities included in the development,
(3) proposed development shall establish that the site has adequate access to
public transport, and
(4) articulation of building mass shall facilitate pedestrian access ways that
provide direct access to existing public transport locations within the locality.
| Part III: Guidelines |
65
2. Urban Character:
Objectives: Development proposals shall achieve the following:
(a) provide a sympathetic response to the established urban grain of its context,
(b) provide a coherent urban form that responds to existing building height
and scale, particularly in areas characterized by a historic built fabric,
(d) an articulation of building height and mass which responds to the location
and grouping of existing higher buildings, and
(e) the scale and level of detail apparent in the urban morphology of its context
are reinforced in the development where appropriate.
Guidelines: In order to address issues of urban character high rise developments must
ensure that:
(1) Existed urban grain is reflected in the footprint size of individual building
components. These components shall, as a general rule, not exceed an area of
160 meters squared,
(2) the development shall be articulated in a way that responds to existing
urban grain, i.e higher parts of the building shall be adequately set back and
building mass shall be appropriately disaggregated,
(3) a coherent urban form is created through the implementation of heights
and height setbacks that responds to existing transitions in building height and
groupings of higher buildings, and
(4) where development sites are substantial enough, a grouping of buildings
shall be facilitated within the development by adopting distinctive variations in
height and disaggregation of building footprint.
| Part III: Guidelines |
66
3. Streetscape:
Objectives: Development proposals shall achieve the following:
(a) provide a sympathetic response to the height and scale of existing
streetscapes in their locality,
(b) minimise the extent of overshadowing particularly on streets and public
spaces,
(c) provide a range of contemporary design features and details which respond
to the rich complexity of existing streetscapes,
(d) establish active edges to existing streetscapes, and
(e) ensure that a human scale is maintained, particularly on the interfaces with
the public domain.
Guidelines: In order to address streetscape issues high rise developments shall ensure
that:
(1) the urban form shall ensure an appropriate transition between different
components of the development,
(2) The mass of the buildings components shall be articulated in order to
reduce the impact of overshadowing on streets and public spaces,
(3) the mass of the building shall be disaggregated to facilitate permeability,
circulation, day lighting and ventilation,
(4) high components of the development shall be adequately setback from the
street boundary to reduce their impact on streetscape,
(5) the higher such components are the further they shall be setback from the
street boundary,
(6) the maximum height at the street boundary shall be no more than two
storeys above the existing built fabric,
(7) Facade design incorporates contemporary features that reflect the
| Part III: Guidelines |
67
dimensions of the rhythm and scale of the streetscape in a manner that
integrates the development at street level,
(8) the scale of individual tenancies shall generally not exceed the average area
of existing tenancies,
(9) the width of individual tenancies shop fronts shall generally not exceed
the average dimensions of existing shop fronts,
(10) the existing mix and diversity of use in the locality is reflected within the
development at street level, and
(11) Active use is included along at least 75% of the street frontage.
4. Activation:
Objectives: Development proposals shall achieve the following:
(a) the development shall contribute to existing patterns of activation by
including uses that reflects the nature of the uses in the locality,
(b) the development shall ensure appropriate mixing of uses by including uses
at appropriate locations and providing adequate separation between conflicting
uses,
(c) the development shall reinforce and contribute to the diversity of its
context by including an appropriate mix of uses,
(d) the development shall increase levels of activation and extend hours of
activation within its locality, and
(e) the development shall aim to produce levels of activation that inform a
busy, safe street environment.
Guidelines: In order to address issues of activation high rise developments shall ensure
that:
| Part III: Guidelines |
68
(1) existing uses in the area are reflected and reinforced in a manner that
encourages and extends activation,
(2) the development must locate active use along the majority of the ground
plane with office use taking up primary residence from the first floor of the
development onwards,
(3) to maximise activation in the public domain and ensure adequate privacy
for residential uses no residences shall be located on the ground floor,
(4) the development shall have a flexible internal layout at ground floor that
facilitates a mixture and diversity of uses and their change over time,
(5) open space shall be included in developments where it can be
demonstrated to increase level of activation on the site, is adequately lit and has
surveillance from the public domain to ensure its safety, and
(6)residential uses are located in positions which allow passive surveillance of
the public domain and an increased sense of security.
69
| Conclusion |
70
con clusion
This dissertation set out to overcome high rise resistance through the creation of performance based guidelines. These guidelines were the culmination of investigation into and analysis of high rise resistance. It was the intention of this research to address a gap in literature and provide a stimulus for further exploration into this field. This research was exploratory in nature, adopting a qualitative research methodology with which to explore high rise resistance. Exploration began with a series of one on one interviews with key local stake holders. Qualitative data collected regarding perceptions toward high rise yielded four common themes. These themes provided the organizational framework for the body of research that followed. The four common themes: Amenity & Infrastructure, Urban Character, Streetscape and Activation, were comprehensively explored through precedent analysis and case study modeling. The final outcome was a series of generally applicable performance based guidelines. These guidelines focused on the relationship between high rise and activity centers, with the intention of informing positive design outcomes. These guidelines aim to foster creativity and innovation in architecture through the inclusion of both performance based objectives and prescriptive guidelines. It is hope that the proposed guidelines will overcome high rise resistance by providing a comprehensive framework for high rise development within activity centres.
71
72
Notes
1. Franz refers to Wassmer, R. W. (2002) who states that the term “urban sprawl” was first used in 1958 by sociologist William Whyte in Fortune Magazine. Franz, Gerald, Gunther Maier and Pia Schrock, “Urban Sprawl: How useful is this concept?” (PhD diss., Vienna Austria, 2006), 2. 2. Franz refers to Earle Draper who in 1937 referred to sprawl as an un-aesthetic and uneconomic settlement form. Franz, Gerald, Gunther Maier and Pia Schrock, “Urban Sprawl: How useful is this concept?” (PhD diss., Vienna Austria, 2006), 2. 3. Franz suggests that the anti-sprawl movement originated in the 1990s where first measures of urban sprawl were conducted. Franz, Gerald, Gunther Maier and Pia Schrock, “Urban Sprawl: How useful is this concept?” (PhD diss., Vienna Austria, 2006), 2. 4. Weller weighs up cases for and against sprawl: “The case against sprawl is that it is flab to what should otherwise be a taut body. Sprawl is wasteful because it is destructive of agricultural land and precious habitat. Its non-porous surfaces increase run-off that damages waterways, and its free-standing homes are inefficient with regard to energy and infrastructural costs. Sprawl is car-dependent with increasingly long commutes that, in turn, add to the problem of global warming. Sprawl leads to social problems because it isolates people in a landscape of homogeneity. Sprawl is thought to lack culture and community because it lacks density and a sense of place. And finally, sprawl is ugly and people only buy into it because they have no other choice.” Weller, Richard. Boomtown 2050: Scenarios for a Rapidly Growing City (Perth: UWA Publishing, 2009), 37. 5. Woodcock, Ian and others. “Modeling the Compact City: Capacities and visions for Melbourne.” Australian Planner 47, no. 2 (2010): 95. 6. Weller, Richard. Boomtown 2050: Scenarios for a Rapidly Growing City (Perth: UWA Publishing, 2009), 37. 7. Woodcock states that Melbourne 2030 has not been successfully implemented, largely due to the practice of maintaining a supply of greenfield land on the urban fringe “It is now widely acknowledged that this policy has not been implemented, while the growth boundary has been expanded substantially.” Woodcock, Ian and others. “Modeling the Compact City: Capacities and visions for Melbourne.” Australian Planner 47, no. 2 (2010): 94. 8. Woodcock refers to Lewis, M (1999) who identifies a correlation between resident resistance to intensification and policy implementation. “A major consideration in the political field, as well as a truism held by planners and developers, is the assumption of resistance from residents to intensification as a significant obstacle to policy implementation. Planning is notoriously sensitive and resident resistance is highly organized. The defeat of the Kennett government in Victoria in 1999 has been associated in part with the opposition to neo-liberal consolidation policy, spearheaded by Save Our Suburbs” “Woodcock, Ian, Kim Dovey and Gethin Davison. “ Envisioning the Compact City: Resident responses to Urban Design Imagery.” Australian Planner 49, no. 1 (2012): 65. 9. Save Our Subiaco, “Democracy lost in the DAP.” 2012. http://saveoursubiaco. wordpress.com/. 10. Linda is a long term resident of Subiaco, having lived in the area for over 30 years. She founded and maintains the website “Save our Subiaco”. 11. Heather Henderson is the current Mayor of Subiaco. Heather is also a long term resident and has been on the council for over 20 years. 12. Peter monks was the Director of Planning and Development for City of Perth. Monks completed a dissertation, High Rise Housing in Perth: Past, Present and Future Perspectives in 2003.
73
13. Evan Jones is a Town Planner and Developer with experience in High rise building. 14. Chris Maher has a background building high rise residential developments for MIRVAC. Chris worked on the Burswood towers and the Mandurah High Rise. 15. In his Ph.D Anthony Duckworth-Smith addresses the critical parameters required for intensification, “The Critical parameter of residential intensification is proximity and accessibility of public transport as this is seen as representing the potential to restrict and supplement private motor vehicle use.” Duckworth-Smith, Anthony, “Urban Sprawl: How useful is this concept?” (PhD thesis, Perth, Australia, 2012), 81. 16. “On 14th July 2010, the Minister for Public Transport Troy Buswell, released the draft Public Transport for Perth in 2031, which maps out the future of Perth’s public transport network. This plan is a key enabler for successfully implementing Directions 2031”. Department of Planning and Western Australian Planning Commission. Delivering Directions 2031. Perth: City of Perth, 2011. 17. “Activity centres are communal focal points. They include activities such as commercial, retail, higher-density housing, entertainment, tourism, civic/community, higher education, and medical services. Activity centres vary in size and diversity and are designed to be well-serviced by public transport.” (WAPC 2010) 18. “Cities considered to have a high degree of liveability tend to have a high level of, and widespread accessibility to, amenity.” Department of Infrastructure and Planning. Major Cities Unit: Livability of Australian Cities. Canberra: Australian Government, 2011, 93. 19. Atelier Christian de Portzamparc. “Massena Neighborhood”. Accessed October 13, 2012. http://www.chdeportzamparc.com/content.asp?LANGUEID=2 20. “It is widely accepted that the design quality of residential flat buildings in NSW has improved since the introduction of SEPP 65 and the Residential Flat Design Code in 2002. “ NSW Government Planning & Infrastructure, “Design Quality of Residential Flats.” 2012. http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/design-quality-of-residential-flat-buildings.
74
image references
Illustration 1 Architizer. “MASSENA ZAC ( Paris, France ).” Accessed June 17, 2012. http://www. architizer.com Illustration 2 Realestatecom.au. “80 Ebley St”. Accessed August 13, 2012. www.realestate.com.au Illustration 3 Domain. “82 - 94 Darlinghurst Road Potts Point”. Accessed August 21, 2012. www. domain.com.au Illustration 4 Walking Melbourne. “Melbourne Terrace Apartments”. Accessed August 10, 2012. www.walkingmelbourne.com Illustration 5 Taken by Author. March 21, 2012. Illustration 6 World Architects. “Quartier Massena”. Accessed June 21, 2012. http://www.world- architects.com/projects/projects_detail/433 Illustration 7 Cut Commercial Property. “82 to 94 Darlinghurst Rd”. Accessed September 10, 2012. http://www.citycommercial.com.au Illustration 8 Google Inc. (2012). Google Earth (Version 6.2) [Software]. Available from http:// www.google.com/earth/index.html. Illustration 9 Architectural. “Atelier Christian de Portzamparc | Quartier Massena “. Accessed August 28, 2012. http://www.arthitectural.com Illustration 10 Google Inc. (2012). Google Earth (Version 6.2) [Software]. Available from http:// www.google.com/earth/index.html. Illustration 11 Cut Commercial Property. “Kings Cross Centre 82-94 Darlinghurst Road Kings Cross”. Accessed October 5, 2012. http://www.citycommercial.com.au Illustration 12 Goad, Phillip and Patrick Bingham-Hall. New directions in Australian architecture. Balmain: Pesaro Publishing, 2001. Illustration 13 Taken by Author. March 21, 2012. Illustration 14 Architizer. “MASSENA ZAC ( Paris, France ).” Accessed June 17, 2012. http://www. architizer.com Illustration 15 Taken by Author. 25th September, 2012. Illustration 16 Taken by Author. 25th of September, 2012. Illustration 17 Google Inc. (2012). Google Earth (Version 6.2) [Software]. Available from http://
75
www.google.com/earth/index.html. Illustration 18 Colliers International. “Claremont Quarter Shopping Centre, 9 Bayview Terrace, Claremont, WA 6010”. Accessed October 13, 2012. http://rca.colliers.com.au Illustration 19 Yahoo News. “Major Facelift for Subiaco’s Pavilion Markets”. Accessed October 15, 2012. http://au.news.search.yahoo.com. Illustration 20 Google Inc. (2012). Google Earth (Version 6.2) [Software]. Available from http:// www.google.com/earth/index.html. Illustration 21 Architizer. “MASSENA ZAC ( Paris, France ).” Accessed June 17, 2012. http://www. architizer.com
76
bibliogr aphy
Books and other Literature a+t Density Series. Next: Collective Housing in Progress. a+t ediciones: Spain, 2010 a+t. Density III. a+t ediciones: Spain, 2003. Actar. Total Housing: Alternatives to Urban Sprawl. Barcelona: Actar, 2010. Adams, Rob. Reprogramming Cities for Increased populations and climate change. Altoon, Ronald A. Urban Transformation: Transit oriented development and the sustainable city. Melbourne: The Images Publishing Group, 2011. Aregger, Hans and Otto Glaus. Highrise Building and Urban Design. F. A. Praeger, 1967. Bain, Lesley and Others. Living Streets: Strategies for Crafting Public Space. John Wiley & Sons, 2012. Burton, Elizabeth and Lynne Mitchell. Inclusive Urban Design: Streets For Life. Architectural Press, 2006. Butler-Bowdon, Caroline and Charles Pickett. Homes in the Sky: Apartment Living in Australia. Melbourne: The Miegunyah Press, 2007. Christensen, Julia. Big Box Reuse. MIT Press, 2008. City of Fremantle. Fremantle City Centre Urban Renewal: Planning Scheme Amendment No. 49: Frequently Asked Questions. Fremantle: City of Fremantle, 2011. City of Melbourne. Transforming Australian Cities: for a more Financially Viable and Sustainable Future. Melbourne: City of Melbourne, 2009. Coupland, Andy. Reclaiming the city: Mixed use Development. Oxford: Alden Press, 1997. Department of Infrastructure and Planning. Major Cities Unit: Livability of Australian Cities. Canberra: Australian Government, 2011, 93. Department of Planning and Western Australian Planning Commission. Directions 2031 and beyond: Metropolitan planning beyond the horizon. Perth: City of Perth, 2010. Department of Planning and Western Australian Planning Commission. Delivering Directions 2031. Perth: City of Perth, 2011. Department of Planning and Western Australian Planning Commission. Central Metropolitan Perth: Sub-regional Strategy. Perth: City of Perth, 2009. Department of Planning and Western Australian Planning Commission. Activity Centers for Perth and Peel. Perth: City of Perth, 2010. Dovey, Kim, Ian Woodcock and Stephen Wood. “A Test of Character: Regulating Placeidentity in inner-city Melbourne.� Urban Studies 46, no. 12 (2009): 2595-2615. Duany, Andres, Jeff Speck and Mike Lydon. The Smart Growth Manual. McGraw Hill Professional, 2009. Durnham-Jones, Ellen and June Williamson. Retrofitting Suburbia: Urban Design Solutions for Redesigning Suburbs. New jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ETN Communications Pty, Ltd and John Keeney. Melbourne: Global Smart City. Melbourne: ETN Communications Pty, Ltd, 2009. Fernandes Per, Aurora and Others. D Book: Density, Data, Diagrams and Dwellings. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Impresion Printing, 2007. Fernandez Per, Aurora, Javier Mozas and Javier Arpa. Density is Home. Spain, a+t architecture publishers, 2011. Fernandez Per, Aurora, Javier Mozas and Javier Arpa. HOCO: Density Housing Construction & Costs. a+t ediciones: Spane, 2009.
77
Fernandez, Aurora and Javier Arpa. The Public Chance: New Urban Landscapes. a+t Architecture Publishers, 2008. Franz, Gerald, Gunther Maier and Pia Schrock. “Urban Sprawl: How useful is this concept?”. PhD diss, Vienna, 2006. Freestone, Robert. Designing Australian Cities. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2007. Freestone, Robert. Urban Nation: Australia’s Planning heritage. Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing, 2010. French, Hilary. New Urban Housing. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006. Gatje, Robert F. Great Public Squares: an architect’s selection. W. W. Norton & Co., 2010. Gause, Jo Allen and Urban Land Institute. Great Planned Communities. Urban Land Institute, 2002. Gehl, Jan and others. New City Spaces. Copenhagen: Danish Architectural Press, 2008. Gehl, Jan. Cities for People. Washington: Island Press, 2009. Gehl, Jan. Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space. Washington: Island Press, 2011. Goad, Phillip and Patrick Bingham-Hall. New directions in Australian architecture. Balmain: Pesaro Publishing, 2001 Hugo, Graeme. Creative Capitals: Attracting, retaining and losing talent: an international migration perspective. Perth: Form, n.d. Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Vintage Books, 1989. Jenks, Mike and Nicola Dempsey. Future Forms: The Language and Meaning of Density. Oxford: Architectural Press, 2005 Monks, Peter. “High Rise Housing in Perth: Past, Present and Future Perspectives”. PhD diss, Perth, 2003. Mostaedi, Arian. Architectural Design: Apartment Buildings. Barcelona: Carles Broto & Josep Ma Minguet, n.d. New South Wales Department of Planning and Infrastructure. State Environmental Planning Policy 65 – Design Quality of Residential Flat Development. NSW, 2002. Tachieva, Galina. Sprawl Repair Manual. Washington: Island Press, 2010. Tibbalds, Francis. Making People-friendly Towns: Improving the Public Environment in Towns and Cities. London: Spon Press, 2001. Weller, Richard. Boomtown 2050: Scenarios for a Rapidly Growing City. Perth, UWA Publishing, 2009. Woodcock, Ian and Others. “Speculation and Resistance: Constraints on Compact City Policy Implementation in Melbourne.” Urban Policy and Research 29, no. 4 (2011): 343-362. Woodcock, Ian and others. “Modelling the Compact City: Capacities and visions for Melbourne.” Australian Planner 47, no. 2 (2010): 94-104. Woodcock, Ian, Kim Dovey and Gethin Davison. “Envisioning the Compact City: Resident responses to Urban Design Imagery.” Australian Planner 49, no. 1 (2012): 65-78.
78
Websites Atelier Christian de Portzamparc. “Massena Neighborhood”. Accessed October 13, 2012. http://www.chdeportzamparc.com/content.asp?LANGUEID=2 Danish Architecture Centre. “Perth: Beating Urban Sprawl.” Sustainable Cities. Accessed March 8, 2012. http://sustainablecities.dk/en/city-projects/cases/perth-beating-urban-sprawl Glaeser, Edward L. 2009. “The Lorax Was Wrong Skyscrapers are Green.” The New York Times. Accessed March 7, 2012. http://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/03/10/the-lorax-waswrong-skyscrapers-are-green/#more-1835 Hermans-Killam, Linda. 2010. “Infrared Astronomy.” California Institute of Technology. Accessed Sept 21. http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/ir_tutorial/. Lague, Marissa. 2012. “High-density debate dogged by resistance.” theWest.com.au. Accessed May 11th, 2012. http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/business/a/-/business/13340514/highdensity-debate-dogged-by-resistance/ Newman, Peter. 2000. “Sustainable Transportation and Global Cities.” Murdoch University. Accessed March 7, 2012. http://www.istp.murdoch.edu.au/ISTP/casestudies/Case_Studies_ Asia/sustrans/sustrans.html Save our Subiaco. Accessed October 5, 2012. http://saveoursubiaco.wordpress.com/. Smythe, Phil. 2010. “Squeezed: Perth’s Middle Age Spread.” Australian Bureau of Statistics. Accessed March 8, 2012.http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ Previousproducts/1304.5Main%20Features7Mar%202010?opendocument&tabname=Summ ary&prodno=1304.5&issue=Mar%202010&num=&view= Thomas, Beatrice. 2011. “High-rise anger at Markets Plan.” theWest.com.au. Accessed May 11th, 2012. http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/a/-/newshome/12421092/high-rise-angerat-markets-plan/