THE DIVINE LIGHT in Sacred Architecture A Comparison between Hindu and Christian Religion, in the way of dealing with Light in Architecture and liturgical symbolism.
The Institute “Baugeschichte und Bauforschung” Wahlseminar “Vergleichende Baugeschichte” WS 2017/18
Emirhan Veyseloglu 01226698
Abstract: In every religion, light is regarded to be sacred and often treated as a symbolic tool for establishing a bond with the deity and bringing its presence to the world of people. Light, as one of the most essential elements in architecture in a combination with dedicated holy values, finds itself a role of great importance in sacred buildings. Aim of this paper is to illuminate the practiced ways of Hindu and Christian architecture, in terms of treatment of light; to investigate the symbolic differences of light due to their different philosophies and, architectonic concepts, which create sometimes a similar role for light in both religions, with very different approach methods for reaching the goals, which this role requires.
Zusammenfassung (in Deutsch): Bei jeder Religion, wird das Licht als heilig und als ein symbolischer Zeug für den Aufbau einer Bindung mit der Gottheit angenommen. Das Licht, als ein wesentlicher Bestandteil der Architektur, hat, in einer Kombination mit heiligen Werten, eine große Rolle bei der Sakralarchitektur. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist, die bekannte Methoden der Christlichen und Hinduistischen Architektur ,hinsichtlich der Führung des Lichtes, aufzudeuten; die symbolische Unterschiede, an der Lichtführung bei den beiden Religionen, wegen ihren unterschiedlichen philosophischen Haltungen, zu erklären und die architektonische Konzepte, die dem Licht, bei einiger Fällen, die gleiche Rolle, aber sehr unterschiedliche Methoden zum Erreichen der Ziele, die diese Rolle auffordert, widmen, zu untersuchen.
C o nt e n t s
Religious Philiosophy 3 The Divine Space 4 Symbolism 11 Ornamental Light 13 Zones 15 Bibliography 25
Rel i gi ous P h i loso p h y
Every early civilization viewed the sun as the supreme celestial body and often thought it as a deity and vested it with cosmic powers of sacred nature. Egyptians accepted sun as God Ra’s Eye. Light as product of sun is the visual counter-part of heat and signifies life, whereas “dark” signifies death and the existence of things beyond the reach of human senses. “Day light as the primary source of light, has been the symbol of cleanliness, purity, knowledge and heaven.” (Mukherji, 2001:3) It is responsible for creation of depth due to division of light with which the shape of object is revealed. Light was also given great significance in the early Jewish beliefs that formed the basis for modern Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In the Bible (Genesis 1:3), with the words “God said ‘let there be light; and there was light”, light was introduced on the first day of creation. “In the byzantine psalms and hymns the relation between God and light is present while the sun and light are not God but the closest symbol to deity and treated as the materialized representation of the divine.” (Antonakaki, 2007:2) Light was related to the presence of Holy Spirit, while Jesus Christ is thought to be self-luminous and constitutes the “real light” and the eternal truth of the world. In byzantine art, heads of holy person of saints were encircled with a crown of light. Crown, Halo, was represented as a light disk, usually gold or yellow in color that helped to emphasize the face and meant to be seen as radiance emitted from within [Fig.1].
Fig. 2: The Hindu God Surya, illustrated in his golden ratha, which is pulled by seven horses.
There is huge liturgical differences between Christianity and Hinduism due to their philosophical structure. Unlike Christianity, Hinduism is pantheistic, not theistic. “The doctrine that, God created the world out of nothing, rather than emanating it out of his own substance or merely shaping some pre-existing material, is an idea that simply never occurred to anyone but the Jews and those who learned it from them (Christianity and Islam). Everyone else either thought of gods as part of the world (paganism) or the world as part of God (pantheism).” (Kreeft, 1987:1) “Eastern religions come from private mystical experiences; western religions come from public revelations recorded in the holy books. In the east, human experience validates the scriptures; in the west scripture judges experience. Body, matter, history and time itself are not independently real, according to Hinduism. In contrast; Judaism, Christianity and Islam are essentially news and events in time: creation, providence, prophets, Messiah, incarnation, resurrection, ascension, second coming. Incarnation and New Birth are eternity dramatically entering time.” (Kreeft, 1987:1) Dramatization is also one of the tools, which made spreading of Christianity through the entire world, easier through gospels. In contrast, Hinduism and other eastern religions are not dramatic. In Christianity, light is considered as a gift of God. In Hinduism, specifically in Upanishads, part of the mystic textbooks of Vedas [Fig. 3], the conscious and inner self, so called Atman, is considered as Light. In Upanishads, the ruler Janaka taught: “When the sun is gone, when the moon
Fig. 1: Theotokos (Mother of God), holding child Jesus Christ in her hands, both are crowned by halos.
In Hindu religion, Surya (also known as Aditya) is the god of the sun. He is accepted as the creator of the universe and the source of all life. He is the deity who brings light and warmth to the world. Each day, he travels across the sky in his golden chariot pulled by seven horses and driven by red Aruna, a personification of Dawn [Fig. 2].
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The D ivine Spac e
is gone, when the fire no longer burns and every sound falls quiet, what serves light to people? Atman, the great King, as light serves people, the inner self, it comes from realization, the light of hearts.” In Hinduism, Atman as the “real light” can be found only with realization of inner self and enlightenment. This might be the reason why Buddhism, as one of the pure pantheistical religions in the world, was born from the philosophy of Hinduism.
“Architecture is the masterly, correct, and magnificent play of masses brought together in light. Our eyes are made to see forms in light: light and shade reveal these forms.”
Le Corbusier
In Hinduism, shrines in caves and temples, which carved monolithically out of boulders, are considered the very first examples of sacred architecture, in which stone was used as structural material. Mountains and caves were accepted as residents of deities. Mount Meru, in Hindu mythology, is a golden mountain, which stands in the center of the universe and is the axis of world. It is the abode of all gods and its foothills are the Himalayas, to the south of which extends Bharatavarşa (Land of the Sons of Bharata), the ancient name for India. The roof tower crowning the shrine in a Hindu temple represents Meru. All of the principal deities have their own celestial kingdoms on or near it, where their devotees reside with them after death, while awaiting their next reincarnation. The philosophy for excavation of caves and building sacred shrines in there, are inspired from Vedic scriptures, in which are stated: “the deep knowledge resides in caves”. In the Atharva Veda, cave (guha) assumes the mystical meaning of the “secret, mysterious, concealed place”. In Vedas (religious scriptures of Hindus), it is also mentioned that God Agni was born in Caves (secret place, hidden): “Agni is born in secret and is hidden in the secret place (guha). Though you are hidden (guha), you are visible everywhere, O auspicious One.” “A structure of temple also resembles a cave, which the worshipper penetrates in order to approach the most holy space. Its vertical dimension is like a mountain, which ascent to enlightenment and deliverance.”(Mukherji, 2001:16) The dual meaning of the words in Vedas, cave and secret place (guha), was probably the motivation behind the wish of building the most sacred place (garbha griha) in temples dark and spatially unseizable. A deeper explanation of the “hidden space” (guha), which was mentioned in Vedas, can be found in Mahabalipuram, in northern part of Tamil Nadu, India. On Mahabalipuram, lay five rathas, which are carved out from boulders as monolithic structures and accepted as first examples of rock-cut architecture in India. Originally, rathas are chariots or cars made from wood, with wheels. In Vedas or in great Hindu epics, like Ramayana and Mahabharata, the gods are portrayed as riding them. In the case of Rathas in Mahabalipuram, they don’t possess wheels, but it’s believed that deities reside in this temple structures. The Rathas in Mahabalipuram, if they are observed from outside, have every element, which declare this
Fig. 3: Vedas, Hindu scriptures, which are among the oldest living texts in the world.
This philosophy of Hinduism also shapes the treatment of light in its temples, specifically in the most holy part, garbha griha. The Hindu shrine is a place for self-realization and is not shaped for mass prayer or congregational worship. “When the man is in the presence of the divine, there should be nothing to distract his eye and God shall reveal himself to devotee gradually”(Mukherji, 2001:16), because of this reason the most sacred place of Hindu temples are dark, in which eyes of devotee can barely see anything. This treatment of light ensured that, by “the time the pilgrim reaches the innermost chamber (garbha griha), his eyes slowly accustomed to the darkness and that he is in the state of mind befitting worship and is no longer plagued by worldly thoughts .“(Mukherji, 2001:17) The translation of garbha griha, can be made as house of the womb or germ of embryo, which is a reference to the new birth of the devotee as an enlightened person and complete darkness that resides in temples. In Christian churches, the light is always treated as divine and supreme symbol for representing the God.
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Fig. 4: Five Rathas of Mahaballipuram
Fig 5: Dharmaraja Ratha in Mahaballipuram
Fig. 6: Rathas of Nakula Sahadeva and Arjuna, in Mahaballipuram
structures as architectural monuments: a clear difference between roof and walls, with the indication of their functions. They only lack the main element, which defines architecture: functional space (Dharmaraja Ratha). Inside of rathas were, either barely carved or solid (Dharmaraja Ratha); only the architectural shape on outside was created. They can be considered more as monolithic statues, rather than architectural structures. In spite of the fact, that Dharmaraja Ratha doesn’t possess a functional architectonic space, which can be seized by human understanding, it’s still believed, that a deity still resides in this structure, which creates a different approach of defining the holy space, which can be described as “hidden and secret”, which is mentioned in Vedas. This divine space is not bound to materiality and human understanding of space. It’s an abstract concept of space, which is separated and unbound
from this world. That is the reason, why Hindu temples were not only monuments providing shelter to the image and the worshippers, but were the cosmos itself (Mukherji, 2001:14). Rathas, especially Dharmaraja [Fig. 5], are perfect example for this phenomenon as they still have this abstract divine space, which is unbound from the materiality of solid inside of this structures. The divine space in Hinduism, as an unbound phenomenon from materiality and world, was manifested in rock-cut cave architecture as well. Temples of Elephante [Fig. 9] and Ramashvera are carved out from mountains through excavation. Their mandapas’ (Hall, which is often lays front of the most sacred place [garbha griha], on temple’s axis) are spacious and light can penetrate inside of their halls. In contrary, the most sacred place (garbha griha) of both temples are built 5
around massive walls and light can’t find any opportunity to penetrate inside. The Kailasa Temple [Fig. 10] is one of the biggest rock-cut Temples in India and is undoubtedly the most sublime monument at Ellora. Unlike the caves tunneled into cliff, like Elephante and Ramashvera, “whose façades are alone visible from outside and whose internal spaces are chambers within the hillside, the Kailasa Temple is a gigantic monolithic temple, its ornate exterior open to the air like a sculpture of an architectural dimension” (Stierlin, 1998:50)
The most sacred parts of these rock-cut caves and temples possess architectural space, in which can be entered and host a statue of a deity, but still the definition of the abstract divine space in rathas must be relevant also for their cases, where darkness finds itself a significant role. Darkness has a liturgical significance in Hindu religion, as it cancels devotee’s sense of sight, but this feature also blocks devotee to seize the architectural space. In modernist thought of 20th Century, light was considered as the creator of materiality and therefore main element for defining the architectural space. This kind of relation between light, materiality and space is present in Hindu caves and later in Hindu temples, where darkness draws a borderline between human world and the abstract divine space, which is unbound from materiality of this world. By choosing excavation method, instead of using dressed stone as material and creating a tectonic way, Hindus has marked the divine space, as an area, in which no light has penetrated from outside and no light has had chance to shape material and had defined a seizable
Fig. 7: Section of Dharmaraja Ratha in Mahaballipuram, interior space of this ratha is not carved out.
Fig. 9: The Caves of Elephante
Fig. 8: Elevation of Dharmaraja Ratha in Mahaballipuram.
Fig. 10: Plan, the Caves of Elephante
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Fig. 11: Temple of Kailasa, whose not only interior but also the outside look was carved out.
space. This is very relatable with the case of Kailasa Temple, whose, not only internal spaces, but also exterior shape was carved out, which required a tremendous work. In a functional sense, it is also favorable to use caves as sacred places, as there are no need and no wish to create openings for natural light and caves are natural dark spots. The creation of a divine space and the philosophical thoughts, unbound from materiality, was also present in Christianity and found its way with introduction of Neoplatonism. Both, in philosophical teachings of Vedas and in the theosophy of Neoplatonism, pantheism is the key element. They are the same doctrine, although have improved and represented themselves in different ways. Plotinus, often regarded as founder of Neoplatonism, “in Enneads justifies a way of seeing with inner eye that disregards the natural appearance of objects, their dimensions or colors. He wrote, that the apprehension of the essence of things could be obtained when, they are almost transparent and devoid of substance and weight.” (Grodecki, 1976:276) He supported his statement with comparing two blocks of stone, one of which is shaped into a statue by a craftsman, in which “the form is not in the material; it is in the designer before ever it enters into the stone…” (Enneads; V. 8.1) By comparing rationality with the ability of seizing the world, Plotinus came to conclusion, that the vision itself is not completely dependent on external light, but also on an internal light, which is the source of the truest form of seeing: “there is an earlier light within itself, a more brilliant
, which it sees sometimes in a momentary flash… This is sight without the act, but it is the truest seeing, for it sees light whereas its other objects were thelit not the light.” (Enneads, VI. 5.7) There is a huge similarity between the description of the Atman in Vedas, as the “true light” for self-realization, and the philosophical views of Plotinus about internal light. In Christian literature, Saint Augustine and Thomas Aquinas obtained the philosophical thoughts of Neoplatonism and gave it a role by shaping theological philosophy of middle ages. In architecture, the effects of Neoplatonism can be observed in the development of use of light in basilica typology from its beginning until High Gothic. The basilica building type, used in ancient Rome as public meeting place, was adopted with little change for religious services. “Timber trusses replaced the ancient Roman concrete vaulting, resulting in changes of roof levels that reduced the wall area available for clerestory windows. These clerestories, as well as side-aisle windows, became smaller in size and numerous. The reduced illumination served to enhance the mystical nature of the new religious functions.” (Mukherji, 2001:9) In Romanesque, there were little changes in side-aisle and clerestory windows. In Gothic, there were monumental changes in elevation of nave and treatment of light due to the philosophy of Neoplatonism, which, by that time, was obtained by Christian theology. Abbot Suger, who designed the first gothic structu7
of church should be mere aids ’from material to immaterial’, transparencies between us and God, ‘the Father of the lights’ and Christ “the first radiance” revealing the Father to the world” (Boorstin, 1992:1). Abbot Suger wanted to create a New Jerusalem, with his words “a city bathed in light of God”. “Technological developments in Gothic ensured that, large windows could be opened by merging the pointed arch with the ribbed groin vault, supported by buttresses and flying buttresses.” (Samper, 2015:3) Building windows high and big enough, to eliminate an architectural component (wall), to reduce wall area into pillars, is a great achievement of Gothic, which cracked the material bond of sacred space. Introduction of stained glass and its result of indirect lightning emphasized the contrast between window area and material components of space, in which dimmed light, coming through stained glass, can be observed as supreme representation of God and made every material fade in darkness due to contrast. Elimination of wall area and immaterial representation of divine space can be well observed in nave elevations from early gothic till high gothic churches. The Cathedral of Laon [Fig. 14] and Noyon have both four-story elevation in nave. “Their beautiful distinguishing trait is that increased number of windows, almost entirely eliminates the wall surface and allows very abundant light to filter into the interior” (Grodecki, 1976:33).
Fig. 12: Portrait of Plotinus, the founder of Neoplatonism
re, Choir of Church Saint Denis, “got his inspiration from the theology of Dionysius the Areopagite, who reconciling the concepts of Neoplatonist philosophy with Christian theology and mysticism at the turn of the 5th and 6th century, brought the idea of God as an emanating light.”(Gojnik, 2015) Saint Denis, as once the bishop of Paris, whose thoughts leaded Suger to realize his project on Church of Saint Denis, described God as absolute light and light as the creative force in the universe. He continued that “the beauties
Fig.13: Choir of St. Denis, one of the first examples of Gothic Architecture
Fig. 14: Nave of Laon Cathedral, four-story elevation has super position of arcade, gallery, triforium and clerestory. 8
“The elevation of Chartes Cathedral [Fig. 15] comprises three stories, in which the arcade and clerestory, separated by the kind of triforium found at Laon, are of equal heights. This feature contradicts the twelfth century structural principle, which dictated the superposition of arcade, gallery, triforium and clerestory. The architect of Chartes sacrificed the gallery and adjusted the elevation to much more monumental proportions in order to enlarge its windows and thereby to allow more light into the building” (Grodecki, 1976:57). In the elevation of Sainte Chapelle (upper chapel) [Fig. 17], as a piece of high gothic architecture, there is no triforium, but just a very low leveled arcade and very high windows, which almost eliminate the wall surface of nave. It has a glass area of over 600 square meters. “Saint Chapelle truly epitomizes the original vision belonging to Abbot Suger of bringing God into the church through heavenly light” (Reynolds, 2013:7). Both religions (Christianity and Hinduism), tried to create divine space, by cracking the bonds of space with materiality, which represents the world of humans, not the gods. Immateriality was the key for this transcendence of space and treatment of light, by its presence or by its absence, was the method for reaching it.
Fig.16: Elevation and Cross Section of St. Chapelle in Paris.
Fig. 15: Development in Elevation of Nave, from early Gothic until High Gothic
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Fig. 17: Upper Chapel of St. Chapelle in Paris, immaterialized divine space 10
S y mb o lis m
In Christian art, light points out and indicates lots of symbolic statements. Byzantine Art and architecture are well known for this kind of indications and using light as symbol for representing and bringing presence of God closer into church. Entrance into narthex (entrance hall) of a Byzantine church is regarded as a transitional space “as it is where the faithful person takes the first step in the passage from the physical world to spiritual realm of the naos (in western churches known as nave, main hall). There, the spiritual experience is enhanced by keeping the level of light low, so that eye struggles to make out the forms of images on the walls and vaults. When light flickers over the gold in mosaic icons a magical, mystical moment is created. The glimmering glow gives the impression that the images are the source of light itself” (Patricious, 2014:277) In some domed byzantine churches, the dome and drum are merged and creates the impression of a luminous complex launched from four points at the base and stretching over the interior space as if it were a weightless membrane not subjected to the law of earthly gravity. This is the same kind of phenomenon, which exists in immateriality of gothic sacred architecture, in which light eliminates the material feature of mass of dome. The windows, which encircles the dome creates a border between dome, which symbolizes the heavenly kingdom due to its immateriality, and rest of church complex. As the symbol of heaven, dome, in most cases, contains Pantokrator [Fig. 19], a figure that represents a three theological significance – Creator, Savior and Judge. Earth and heaven are united by the semi-dome of apse, which contains “an image of Theotokos (mother of God) holding the child Jesus and escorted by two archangels. She is the one who unites the upper world of heaven with lower level of the earth by means of divine child in her arms.”(Patricious, 2014:401) While, Pantokrator represents Jesus as a powerful image of God from Christian Trinity, who resides in heaven, the figure of child Jesus with Theo-
In Christianity, light is the closest symbol for a deity and primary tool for representing god. Gregory of Nazianus wrote, that God is infinite and he cannot be comprehended. “It may be for his reason that God is rarely represented as human figure in Christian art and architecture.” (Patricious, 2014:276) (this statement is mainly made for Heavenly Father and, with some exceptions, for Holy Spirit of Christian Trinity, not for Jesus Christ) In Byzantine art, there was a time, on which the icons and images were forbidden in Christian art and architecture. People who support Iconoclastism (forbidding the use of icons) were convinced that the icons were idols and they venerated them, God visited people with war, pestilence, famine and death, which were a direct result of war against Muslim non-believers. Unlike the supporters for Iconoclastism, John of Damascus, one of iconodules (who is in favor of religious images), thought that the icons were not idols, but inspiring memories of Christ, Theotokos (Mother of God) and saints. In spite of the fact, that iconoclastism made icons disappear for a while from eastern Roman Empire, the symbolic development of light was still present in churches and hasn’t captured a role as just a functional element. Iconoclastic era of Byzantine Empire showed that, light was the supreme representation of God in Christian sacred architecture, not the icons, made of golden mosaics or statues Hagia Irene [Fig. 18] was one of the churches of iconoclastic era, whose inside lacks icons and images of holy people. On the semi-dome of Apse there. is an icon of cross, which is the only image in church and only type of icon, which is not forbidden in iconoclastic era. The symbolic indications of light as representation of God is still present in church with the use of three windows in Apse and clerestory lightning.
Fig.18: Apse of Hagia Irene, only accepted icon in its era crowns the apse.
Fig. 19: Figure of Pantakrator, dominates the Dome, in Chora Church
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tokos represents the birth of Jesus as a human. This indi-
Dome as an immaterial heaven and symbolic relation of light to its phenomenal existence has not been emphasized and manifested in later styles of architecture. In Baroque, “the dome was no longer symbol of an abstract harmony, rather its vertical axis forms an expressive and persuasive contrast to the horizontal movement.” (Norberg-Schulz, 1979:13) The apse is considered to be “like both the cave in Bethlehem where, Christ was born, and the cave where he was buried: as the evangelists says ‘There was a cave quarried out from the rock and where they laid Jesus… One light shines forth also in its sanctuary by three openings and announces us the mystery of the Trinity, of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit.” (Patricious, 2014:391) Every byzantine church, in apse area has this symbolism and presence of three windows. In Italian and later also in Spanish Gothic, wheel window in nave, right above the apse area was introduced, as symbol for the eye of the God. Wheel window in Cathedral La Seu in Palma de Mallorca [Fig. 22] is one of the biggest wheel windows, which carries this kind of symbolism. In Cathedral of Loan, the three sanctuary windows were crowned with a rose window, which popularized the use of rose windows in later built gothic cathedrals.
cations emphasize the symbolic representations of dome, naos and act of light as provider of this symbolism. The dome of Hagia Sophia [Fig. 21] was considered as one of the most influential motifs in Christian sacred architecture in its ability to use light, which makes dome appears to be floating in air. “Procopius, Emperor Justinian’s court historian, wrote about the church: ‘Its breadth and length have been so fittingly proportioned that it may rightly be said to be both very long and unusually broad… [It] abounds in sunlight and gleaming reflections. Indeed one might say its radiance generated within, such is the abundance of light that bathes this shrine all around… And whenever one enters the church to pray, one understands immediately that it has been fashioned not by any human power or skill but by influence of God.” (Potamianos, 2007:305)
Fig. 20: Section of naos in Hagia Sophia
Fig. 21: The Dome of Hagia Sophia, gives impression to be floating in air without any mass.
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Fig. 23: Wheel window of San Zeno in Verona
which is well lit. This kind of treatment of light in sanctuary was not present in former churches. Besides, being thought of as divine light, the stained glass windows along with gothic sculptures, have been referred to as a part of the “Poor Man’s Bible” based on the fact, that another purpose of windows was to teach biblical stories to those who were illiterate, which often compromi-
Fig. 22: The wheel window of Cathedral of La Seu in Palma de Mallorca, symbolising the Eye of God.
O r na m e n t a l L ig ht In Gothic, introduction of stained glass windows changed the principle of interior lighting. The light was filtered through stained glass windows, which no longer allowed light to penetrate in interior space directly. In gothic cathedrals, lighting principle is indirect. Use of different colors on stained glass, made it possible to inscribe icons, which gave dimmed light a new role, as an ornament, besides its purpose of creating immateriality and defining divine space. Popularization of wheel windows, which in Gothic referred to as rose windows, emphasized, that light has lost its functional role as illuminator of interior, as the intensity of light was no longer relevant, and got a new purpose as ornament and creating a mystical atmosphere, “as by building rose windows a lot of window space was lost, on contrary to high vertical windows” (Panofsky, 2014). The first partitioned, decorated rose window appeared in Italy, specifically in Saint Zeno in Verona [Fig. 23], and – perhaps as result of Italian influence – in France. “At Saint Denis and Saint Etienne at Beauvais, it was much an exterior embellishment as functional element geared to interior effect. Toward 1180-90, the two transept rose windows at Laon Cathedral were stand out as components of capital importance in the disposition of interior lighting” (Grodecki, 1976:28). In Laon Cathedral [Fig. 24], the sanctuary windows carry stained glass windows, in which dominantly shaped by red and blue colors, mark the sanctuary area with dimmed indirect light, in which the sanctuary stayed darker and more mystical, in comparison to transept area
Fig. 24: Sanctuary windows of Laon Cathedral
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Fig. 26: The south rose window of Notre Dame in Paris
The south rose window of Notre Dame [Fig. 26] is one of the largest rose windows in the world. “The window is themed around Old Testament and composed of 84 panes of glass divided into four circles that initially radiated outwards from a central medallion panes of glass divided into four circles that initially radiated outwards from a central medallion of Christ” (Reynolds, 2013:5). In Byzantine art and architecture, light also used to emphasize and to rise the value of ornamentation. In Saint Mark [Fig. 27] in Venice, which is considered as a combination of medieval and Byzantine architecture, “the light enters through and reflects from the gold and brightly colored mosaic, gives the aura of divine light within the church” (Mukherji, 2001:10). Use of light for symbolic statements or emphasizing ornamentation, is not present in Hindu sacred architecture, due to absence of light. In Hinduism darkness, as a result of absence of light, is primarily used to mark different functional spaces.
Fig. 25: “Tree of Jesse” on Stained Glass in Chartes Cathedral, the ornamentation of the biblical story, that tells the ancestry of Jesus Christ
sed the vast majority of the citizenry, which shows, that Christianity is a dramatic religion, on contrary to eastern religions. “A common biblical story that appeared in medieval windows the ‘Tree of Jesse’ [Fig. 25], which was sort of genealogy or family tree symbolizing the ancestry of Christ. Stained glass windows depicting the ‘Tree of Jesse’ can be seen at Saint Chapelle, Chartes Cathedral and Notre Dame Cathedral, among other places” (Reynolds, 2013:3). One of the most famous stained glass windows in Chartes is the rose window of the western façade. “This window portrays the scene of the final judgment, with Christ in the center displaying his wounds, surrounded by the four evangelists and angels. The twelve apostles are on the left and right, while above and below scenes of the resurrection, then weighing of souls by the Archangel Michael, the redeemed being led to heaven by an angel, and the damned being led to hell by a demon. It seems to be a common theme in many gothic cathedrals, which the windows, as well as the sculpture, of the western façade tend to depict scenes of the final judgment, while the architecture of eastern façade shows images of the Virgin Mary, or the Virgin and the Child enthroned” (Reynolds, 2013:6).
Fig. 27: Inside of the church, St. Mark in Venice
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Z o ne s The extreme darkness has been used, to define the divine space in Hindu temples from very beginning of existence of Hindu sacred architecture. As mentioned in previous chapters, in the most sacred place of Hindu temples, so called garbha griha, darkness must reign and no light should penetrate into inner chamber, due to pantheistic philosophy. Pantheism also suggests, that the eyes of devotee should be accustomed to divine darkness slowly, as he penetrates, towards through axis of structure, into deep inside of temple. As a result of this phenomenon, Hindu temples possesses architectural “zones”, divided from each other in functional and symbolic sense, which every “zone” is marked by different levels of darkness, which resides in them. In Hindu temples, there are also other architectural elements, which mark the “zones” and enhance the architectural and symbolic division between them; but treatment of light, in this case darkness, has always been the supreme divider of these “zones”, without any exceptions (at least in division of garbha griha from rest of the temple).
Fig. 29: Plan and section of Lad Khan Temple
Fig. 28: Lad Khan Temple in Aihole, India
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Lad Khan Temple [Fig. 28 & 29], in Aihole, India, is one of the oldest Hindu temples, which is dedicated to God Shiva. It consists of two different functional, architectonic space: garbha griha and mandapa. As architectural feature, the temple has two axes, which intercept each other at the center of the temple and a tower-like structure, which is probably one of the early forms of shikhara (tower of Hindu temples) and marks also the center of the temple. In the center of temple, lays a statue of Nandi, abode of Shiva, meanwhile garbha griha is located at the very end of the east-west axis, in which has a very small and a dark space. Yet the location of garbha griha is marked with the main axis of temple, it still lays not on the interception point of both axis, which shows, that the main features, like shikhara and axis, which are often used in Hindu architecture to point out the location of the most sacred place (garbha griha), fail in this case to mark the holy area, in which the darkness hasn’t failed to do so. In Madurai, which lays on the south of India, big temple cities were built (a statement, indicating this megastructures as one particular temple would be unjustified). These temple cities have tower structures, so called Gopurams [Fig. 30], which are the entrance gates and define vertical peak points of those temple cities. As in the case of Shikharas in northern tradition of architecture, one can be mistaken, to accept these towers as indicators for the most sacred space in temple cities, which they are not. There is a pragmatic reason for the motivation behind the wish of building such gigantic towers on borders of those temple cities, whose location is considered probably at least sacred in the whole area: the expansion of temple area throughout the time. At beginning, there were only small temples on the area of this megastructures and as expansion had continued, it was desired to add bigger structures to the complex, which should have been seen from very far away. In the temple of Jambukeshwarar, in Tiruchirappalli, the phenomenon of expansion can be well observed, as the main axis hasn’t been changed throughout its expansion.
The temple of Meenakshi Sundareshvara [Fig. 30 & 32], in Madurai, consists of probably hundreds of different architectonic space. As the peak points of the temple are captured by gopurams, which mark the entrances of the temple and as the main axis has been vanished throughout the time due to expansion of complex, darkness stand alone as only element to define divine space and mark the location of the most sacred area, which possesses a very small space, in comparison to its gigantic complex.
Fig. 30: Gopurams, entrance gates into the temple complex.
Fig. 31: Plan of Temple Complex of Meenakshi Sundareshwarar
Fig. 32: Temple City of Meenakshi Sundareshwarar in Madurai
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Fig 33: Lingajara Temple in Bhubaneshwar, India
on halls still remain dark, but the presence of verandas create a difference on darkness levels between of garbha griha and of circumambulation hall. This contrast was merely seizable in former temples. Mass of the walls and narrow passages and space in this particular area makes it harder for light to penetrate inside, on contrary to the areas like mandapa or maha mandapa, in which great amount of space is present. At Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, there is a reduction of light in every “zone”. At the end of this reduction lays garbha griha as the divine space, undisturbed by light. Orientation (entrance lays on east, garbha griha on west) of the temple, let first rays of the sun, by the time of dawn, on which liturgy usually takes place, supports the illumination of entrance, porch and mandapa. This kind of orientation of temple on west-east axis is a common element, which is nearly in every Hindu temple present, as a supporter element for “zoning”. In Christianity, presence of light, instead of darkness, separates the areas from each other, in terms of symbolism and function. Church is accepted as house of God and the divine light, as the symbol for representation of God, by changing its intensity, marks the “zones”, according to their importance in church. At its early stages, Christianity was not accepted and also not tolerated by Roman Empire. Ecclesias and Catacombs were the first structures, in which Christian liturgy shaped and developed itself in secrets. Ecclesias, as building type, were standard roman houses, which was illuminated from a courtyard. In Ecclesia [Fig. 38], each room had a specific liturgical function like in a church. Light had only a functional role as provider of illumination. The Edict of Milan and the acceptance of Christianity as the state religion, brought Christianity out of shadows and room functions, defined by the liturgy in Ecclesia found space in first churches, in which they won also symbolic values.
Fig. 34: The section and the plan of Lingajara Temple, which show clear division between areas, gives it the impression, which was made out of 4 separated buildings, instead of one.
The increased number of different functional areas in Hindu temples can be well observed at Lingajara Temple[Fig. 33 & 34], in which every different “zone” stands alone as like separated from the rest. Instead of a monolithic, whole structure, the temple gives the impression that it was made out of four separated buildings, only bound together with narrow passages. The Temple of Kandiraya Mahadeva [Fig. 35 & 36] in Khajuraho, as a model for classical period in Hindu sacred architecture, stands as one whole monolithic structure, in which different functional space of “zones” were merged together. In classical period, verandas were introduced around circumambulation halls, in which, in this case, only light with very low intensity can penetrate. Circumambulati17
Fig. 35: The Temple of Kandiraya Mahadewa in Khajuraho, India
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Fig. 36: The Plan of the Temple Kandiraya Mahadewa
Fig. 37: The Section of the Temple Kandiraya Mahadewa
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With the adaption of basilica typology for early churches, apse was given a great significance, as it had a function of sanctuary and hosted bema (holy table). In roman basilicas, there were usually no windows in apse area. When it won a value as sanctuary, the need of marking this area with divine light as representation of God was necessary, in which a spatial and symbolic contrast in church was created. By dawn, in a church, from the entrance towards through the apse, a rise in intensity level of light, can be easily observed. “The whole aesthetic impression of the Byzantine church was based on that movement from the entrance through the narthex (entrance hall) to the center of the church. The transition takes place from the bright to well-lit first zone interior. From there, there is a reduction in the lightning levels until the light from the dome appears and leads people to the bright space underneath.” (Antonakaki, 2007:3) The role of the dome was acquired by transept in western churches, which creates a barrier zone between sanctuary and nave, and separate itself from nave by the light from transept windows, which marks its zone by creating a contrast. Orientation of church (the entrance of church is located on west and the sanctuary, on east) let sun illuminates the apse on early morning of Sunday when mass prayer for Christians takes place. This phenomenon enhances light to mark the most holy area in church with the highest level of intensity during liturgy. Liebfrauenkirche [Fig. 39 & 40] in Trier is a piece from gothic architecture, which has a central plan. Every architectural aspect of the church is homogenous, in which no element dominates each other (in horizontal dimension), with the exception of the sanctuary, which is shaped oddly and disrupts the homogeneous structure of space, in order to have more window area and to separate the most sacred place of church by marking it with light. The sky and verticality provide a connection to divine. “Eliade wrote about the symbolic description of sky: ‘Even before any religious values have been set upon the sky, it reveals its transcendence, power and changeless-ness simply by being there. It exists because it’s high, infinite, immovable and powerful.’ (Mukherji, 2001:5) Light creates a contrast in vertical dimension of churches, for emphasizing the fact that heaven and God reside on the sky, which are unreachable by humans, who are bound to earth. The Roman basilica had side aisles, which possess windows on their wall areas and crowned by clerestory windows. In roman basilicas, a contrast, in vertical dimension, between upper and lower areas was already present, but not always a necessity. In Trier Basilica of Constantin, due to the absence of side-aisles, the window openings and lightning are homogeneous in both horizontal and vertical axes. Christianity makes it a necessity to divide vertical axis in zones, in which light possess different intensity for
emphasizing the symbolism of verticality. In the early church of Santa Sabina, windows of side aisles were built as very small in size, in comparison to large clerestory windows, in order to increase contrast in vertical. Duomo di Siracusa is a church converted from a Greek temple. The space between columns were filled and structure of a wall was created. Yet the wall surface of the church was solid and lacks of openings, still on clerestory area windows were built.
Fig. 38: Duro Europos, an Ecclesia; functions of liturgy in different rooms of the Roman house was adapted by different areas in the first churches.
In Byzantine domed churches, the dome, as symbol for heaven, is located on the peak point of church, whose windows mark the area with increased intensity of light and separates it from lower levels. In Hagia Sophia, to emphasize this phenomenon, green marble in lower levels and yellow color or golden mosaics in upper levels were used as ornamental material. In Baroque, the dome is no longer considered as a symbol for the heaven, rather irregularities in shape and lighting, through its vertical axis, influence the emotional presence of visitors and try to prevent them from seizing the form and materiality. The absence or presence of light, on vertical axis, no longer pursue a specific symbolic pattern. With the treatment of light and other elements, it’s intended to create an omnipotent scene in dome, which resembles the heaven. San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane [Fig. 41 & 43], in Rome, is a piece of baroque architecture, designed by Borromini. “Juan de S. Bonaventura talks about visitors, who comes every day to see the church: ‘… and when they are in the church, they do nothing but look above and all around them, for everything therein is disposed that one thing leads to another…” (Norberg-Schulz, 1979:97) Sant’Ivo alle Sapienza [Fig. 42] in Rome, which was also designed by Borromini, has a lantern on the end of the vertical axis of the dome, which hosts an icon of a 20
Conc lusion
dove, which symbolizes the Holy Spirit. The concentrated intensity of light in lantern makes it shine very brightly and creates a sharp contrast between itself and the rest of the dome.
The Light is always regarded as sacred and holy by the civilizations. The fact that it is a prime product of sun, whose heat is carried by its presence, and the connection with immovable sky gave light in early civilizations a great significance by representing the deity. Because of their philosophical differences in liturgy, both religions, Hindu and Christian, practiced a different approach in use of light,with the wish to reach the same goal: Immaterialization of the divine Space. On Contrary to Hinduism, Christianity uses light to enhance symbolic statements and emphasize ornaments in the church. Both of the religions, have used light to separate the areas, that have different functions, or to mark the most holy space in sacred places, which is according to pantheistical roots, in hindu temples reigned by darkness, unlike in Churches of Christianity, in which, with the wish to sense the presence of the God inside of the church, the sanctuary is crowned with sunshine.
Fig. 39: Liebfrauenkirche in Trier. View towards through the apse from center of the church.
Fig. 40: homogeneous division of space in Liebfrauenkirche, with the exception of the apse, which indicates sanctuary; the plan of the church
In SS. Sindone Chapel [Fig. 44], located in Turin Cathedral and designed by Guarini, through the vertical axis of the dome, light intensity changes without pursuing any symbolic pattern. “At lower level of the dome, three arches carry the normal ring on which rests a most unusual dome. Its “drum” is pierced by large arched openings which form part of the inner shell of a “double wall”. The arches of those windows carry a series of segmental ribs that are spanned from center to center of the first ones, a procedure that is repeated six times creating a system of thirty six arched ribs, that define six hexagons, three of which are turned 30 degrees to the other three. Between the ribs, small windows are inserted, which make the whole structure diaphanous.”(Norberg-Schulz, 1979:131)
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Fig. 41: San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome by Borromini; the lantern provides a concentrated intensity of light, which creates a sharp contrast.
Fig. 42: Sant’Ivo alle Sapienza in Rome by Borromini; the lantern provides a concentrated intensity of light, which creates a sharp contrast.
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Fig. 43: San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome; the degree of change in intensity of light is very clear through the vertical axis of the dome.
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Fig. 44: The Dome of Capella Sacra Sindone in Turin by Guarini
Fig. 45: The Dome of San Lorenzo in Turin by Guarini
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