Transport, tourism and cross-cultural signage by Emma Prew

How an increase in world transport and tourism has created a greater demand for concise cross-cultural signage The boundaries and relationship between language, culture, visual communication and navigation.

INTRODUCTION

PART ONE: 1.1 We need signs, don't we?

1.2 The basics of signs

1.3 Utopian ideals

1.4 Closest thing to a picture language

1.5 Language and culture

1.6 Afflictions in language

1.7 English for the masses

PART TWO: 2.1 Getting from A to B

2.2 Public information

2.3 The Olympics

2.4 Making progress in world communication

2.5 But are there just too many signs?

2.6 Do we need signs anymore?

2.7 Augmented technology

2.8 Translation of the future

2.9 What is next?

CONCLUSION

LIST OF REFERENCES

Written and designed by Emma Prew

INTRODUCTION We use signs to navigate every day, they tell you where you are or where you need to go. They inform and guide. There is much variety in the world of signs, some are more effective than others while some signs lose all meaning. We now live in an age of mass travel and tourism, where it is possible to fly to almost anywhere in the world without difficulty. But tourists are often met by signs they do not understand. Whether signs are purely pictorial or text based, there are definite problems with universal signage. In this dissertation, I have explored methods of universal and international communication throughout history and to this day. I have also looked at the implications this has on transport and tourism, and what is happening right now to completely change the way we use signs. My research and analysis has fallen into two halves. The first half, focusses on past attempts to create cross–cultural pictorial communication and international language, and what that has developed into today. Throughout history, people have strived to create international languages, but what has actually become international is not what these utopian idealists intended. The second half investigates how we are now able to travel the world without difficulty, thus extending our knowledge. Transport, tourism and technology make it possible for us to visit new and unknown countries. Countries filled with different languages, culture and signage systems to what we are used to. However, it is technology that may mean it is no longer such a problem anymore to be somewhere different. Technology is changing the world of signs and communication. “There has never been a time when so many nations were needing to talk to each other. There has never been a time when so many people wished to travel to so many places. There has never been such a strain placed on the conventional resources of translating and interpreting.” (Crystal, 1997: 12)

PART ONE 1.1 We need signs don’t we? The term ‘sign’ covers a very broad spectrum, there are many different meanings for the word. A sign could be a gesture to convey an idea, such as a nod. A sign can also be a notice that bears directions or warnings, or a symbol used as an abbreviation for the word it represents. It is these kinds of signs that I will mainly be focussing on. However, there is also the sign that gives an indication of something, which could be an object, for example “flowers are often given as a sign of affection” (apple dictionary, 23/12/11). The study of these signs has taken on the title semiotics – the study of signs, and their interpretation. In the early 1900s a new science of signs was proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss professor of linguistics, this later became known as semiotics. “There are three main areas which form what we understand as semiotics; the signs themselves, the way they are organised into systems and the context in which they appear.” (Crow 2003: 17) Saussure, named the father of modern linguistics (Hall 1997: 6) by many, saw language as a system of signs. He broke semiotics down into three stages: 1. The Sign: the form – the actual word or image. 2. The Signifier: the idea with which the form is associated. 3. The Signified: the thing that is triggered in your head, from the Sign and Signifier. But there is a difference between signs in the semiotics sense and directional or informational signs, although they work in similar ways. We use signs to communicate, in a much broader sense than just those that tell us where to go and what to do. “Signing is vital to human existence because it underlies all forms of communication.” (Crow 2003: 5) But navigational signs are a necessity, aren’t they? We need something to show us the way, and we need signs to navigate, don’t we? The human race has always used signs, from the symbols carved into prehistoric cave walls to temporary hand-painted signs at the

side of the road. But, there was a time when signs weren’t such physical things. Sometimes a sign is in our surroundings. For example, it is possible for those with the necessary knowledge to use marks in a natural environment to track animals or people. These are signs although not in the conventional sense. “The general term we use for words, sounds or images which carry meaning is signs.” (Hall, 1997: 18) In the book Representation, the author Stuart Hall states that visual images, although not linguistic, still work as a language in the same way that facial expressions or gestures do. “Visual signs and images, even when they bear a close resemblance to the things to which they refer, are still signs: they carry meaning and thus have to be interpreted.” (Hall, 1997: 19)

1.2 The basics of signs Some signs are purely pictographic with the intention that the viewer can work out what the image represents. This is either because they will have learnt what the sign means or it is assumed to be obvious. These signs can be broken down into three categories. ICON: resembles the sign, INDEX: bears a direct link fig. 1 ICON: a picture of a horse = horse, INDEX: knife and fork = restaurant, SYMBOL: red circle with white line = no entry.

between the sign and object, SYMBOL: has to be learnt. [see fig. 1] A pictorial symbol for a word or phrase, or pictogram, is what is most commonly used for image-based signs. The general rule of a pictogram is that they be simple and easily understood by all – although this is not easy to achieve. With the range in cultures and lifestyles across the world, some symbols can mean different things to different people. Toilet door symbols, for example, in the Western world are shown as stick figures, the figure with a skirt means a female toilet. In many parts of the world these symbols could not only be misunderstood, but they could also be offensive. In Saudi Arabia, for example, both men and women wear a long skirt. In their toilet door symbols, “the female may be differentiated by a veil, but this is reinforced by text in English and Arabic.” (Ciochetto, 2003)

fig. 2 Saudi Arabian female toilet sign, with veil.

[see fig. 2] Just as every person in the world is different, so is the way our brains comprehend information, therefore a problem of cultural differences arises. How a sign is interpreted depends on the viewer.

“Many sign readers with different language background will also have a different cultural background.” (Mollerup, 2005: 137) There have been attempts to standardise signs in the past, and some have been very successful. “Since the practical value of pictograms depends on their widespread and uniform use, international standardisation is of great interest.” (Mollerup, 2005: 139)

1.3 Utopian ideals The idea of universal communication is nothing new. From as early as the 1600s, individuals have had utopian-style aspirations to create some form of universal language, be it through pictorial means or a spoken language. In the 17th century, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz imagined “a contemporary full writing system where images could be used to describe all human communication.” (Crow, 2006: 58) He wanted to create a system without phonetic symbols, similar to the way in which musical notation is free of language and culture – it just works. Creating a completely new system, that if learnt by enough people could bridge the gaps in communication, whilst remaining outside the borders of politics and war. Von Leibniz’s ideas were mostly dismissed as a romantic notion, but then came ISOTYPE, the most famous and successful of all pictogram systems. It changed the way signage and public information was depicted for good. Created and designed by Otto Neurath, a social scientist, in 1920s Austria, the symbols were originally designed for post-first world war public information. Neurath wanted to create something that was both visually appealing and accessible that could be understood by all of Austrian society. In 1936 Otto Neurath, after being joined by others including graphic artist Gerd Arntz, published the book International Picture Language which recorded how his system worked. The system had by then become known as ISOTYPE – International fig. 3 Just a small selection from Neurath’s extensive ISOTYPE collection.

System of TYpographic Picture Education. [see fig. 3] When the second world war forced Neurath and his team from Austria, they did not give up on ISOTYPE. It continued to thrive from a new headquarters in Oxford, England. Neurath understood the political constitution of language and dared to act to bring people together regardless of their cultural background. “Otto Neurath offered the world a pictorial language that was utopian in its desire to

remove hierarchies, which are inherent in the use of written and spoken language.” (Crow, 2006: 65) However, the ISOTYPE system is not without faults. Neurath, ultimately, considered his pictograms, “a helping language rather than a complete visual substitute for language.” (Crow, 2006: 65) Neurath did not consider his pictograms to be a language, as a language must be physically spoken. Therefore a system of pictures, can only be like a language. Although many of these symbols were designed over 70 years ago, many of the original ISOTYPE pictograms are still in use today, an indicator of timeless design. Neurath understood the importance of using both iconic and symbolic signs, for example he used the image of a sickle to represent agriculture despite the object being out dated. A modern day example of this is the floppy disk icon used for save in word processors and web browsers. The floppy disk has been obsolete for over a decade, yet the symbol is iconic and the user knows it means save.

1.4 Closest thing to a picture language Neurath was not the only one who wanted to change international communication. In 1946, Karl Kasiel Bliss created what would go on to be considered the closest thing to a world writing system. Growing up on the Russian border surrounded by multiple languages, differences in communication emerged during his school years: “Twenty different nationalities hated each other, mainly because they spoke and thought in different languages.” (Crow, 2006: 84) Bliss created the term semantography for his initial graphic symbol system, meaning significant meaning + to write. At first, Bliss struggled to get his universal symbol concept across to people, the academic community lacked in interest. But the publication of his book, Semantography (Blissymbolics) in 1965, coincided with the birth of the tourist industry. “Then something happened: the tourist explosion. Suddenly everyone realised that only pictorial symbols could bridge all languages.” (Crow, 2006: 85) This revolutionised the way Bliss' symbols were perceived. Suddenly, everything he'd worked towards seemed more plausible. Blissymbolics are one of the most advanced graphic language systems, purely due to its size and detail, currently made up

of almost 4500 symbols, or Blisswords. “Bliss characters are semantically based and can be combined and recombined in endless ways to create new Blisswords. Blisswords can in turn be sequenced to form many types of sentences, and express many grammatical capabilities.” (www.blissymbolics.org, 16/11/11) [see fig. 4] Blissymbolics use basic geometric shapes and simple strokes to represent words and ideas. The whole system is quick and easy to fig. 4 Basic 'Blisswords'.

learn.“It can be used at a pre-reading level but are sophisticated enough to allow expression of thoughts, ideas and feelings” (www.blissymbolics. org, 16/11/11) Symbols can be expanded upon when basic knowledge grows. They also carry the ever changing nature that verbal languages have, meaning that new symbols can be created as and when they are needed. Although Bliss originally created his Blissymbolics as a world language to neutralise nations with different languages, it now has another use. Despite not being what Bliss designed the symbol system for, Blissymbolics have proved to be an effective alternative method of communication for children with speech and physical impairments. It was so successful that Bliss was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize. But can a visual writing system be called a language? Language implies, to some extent, speaking, and you cannot speak pictures. However, in Representation, Stuart Hall has a different opinion on what language is, he thinks of it in a much broader sense.

1.5 Language and culture Hall uses the term language in a very broad sense, meaning more than just simply the spoken word. He speaks of language and culture together, and members of a particular cultures as: “They must all interpret body language and facial expressions in broadly similar ways. And they must know how to translate their feelings and ideas into these various languages.” (Hall, 1997: 4) What is the relationship between language and culture? Can people that speak the same language belong to different cultures and vice versa? Hall says that different nations of varying language–speakers

have come to a sort of unwritten agreement in which certain signs will stand for particular concepts. Children learn this from a young age, “not because such knowledge is imprinted in their genes, but because they learn its conventions and gradually become 'cultured persons'.” (Hall, 1997: 22) They learn the meaning of signs and therefore become a part of their culture. In a more traditional sense of the word, culture is said to embody the “'best that has been thought and said in society.” (Hall, 1997: 2) But, in more modern terms, Hall says that culture is used “to refer to the widely distributed forms of popular music, publishing, art, design and literature […] which make up the everyday lives of the majority of 'ordinary people' – what is called the 'mass culture'.” (Hall, 1997: 2) However, Hall explains that in a social science sense, culture is also used to refer to the distinctive way of life that people have, and it is this kind of culture that we refer to. We grow up learning and understanding the language and signs relevant to us, regardless of which culture we belong to – we all communicate.

1.6 Afflictions in language There are somewhere between 3000 and 6000 languages spoken worldwide. Whilst a language makes the individuals that speak it unique, it also divides them from those who do not understand. There are hierarchies within language and culture, and this is not a new thing. In the bible the tale of The Tower of Babel is told, this is a significant metaphor in the discussion of language divides. “The Bible explains that God intentionally scattered mankind to retard their technological advancement by confusing their speech. […] God apparently created several unique languages to scatter humans throughout the world.” (www.nwcreation.net/towerofbabel.html, 27/11/11) This suggests that one group of people may feel they are better than another, which is reflected in the difference of language. Through language, we identify our own place within a social and cultural order. In Stephen Fry's Planet Word documentaries he looks at the complexities in human language. Episode one, named Babel after the biblical story, explores the origins of language. The most

relevant of subjects covered is the UN world forum, a living symbol of the Tower of Babel. Fry states, “maybe many of our species troubles could be avoided if we understood each other better […] would having one world language, be it Esperanto [or] English even be an advantage?” (Fry, BBC Fry's Planet Word, 2011) The UN has six official languages – English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese and Arabic. The official translator of the UN forum, says that it is great that there are so many languages. Language reflects the nature of the people and it would be a loss to the world if they disappeared: “Languages define our identity.” (Fry, BBC Fry's Planet Word, 2011) There have, however, been many attempts to create universal language. Esperanto, the most successful of all, was created in 1877 by Ludovic Zamenhof, who grew up in multi–language environment. He was born in Russian Poland into a Jewish family, at a time of conflict. His father was a teacher of languages and Zamenhof was brought up speaking at least four different languages. All of these elements influenced the creation of Esperanto, and pushed Zamenhof's determination to change the way people from different language backgrounds communicate. “Ludovic's language could not itself abolish hatred; but it was something useful and harmless that might make a contribution to human understanding.” (Boulton, 1960: 16) Esperanto was created as an easy–to–learn language, as well as being politically neutral. It had a set of simple rules including; every word is read as it is written and the accent is always on the penultimate syllable. “Zamenhof outlined the three chief problems that had to be solved; first, such a language must be very easy to learn; secondly, it must be possible to use it at once for international communication; and thirdly, the inventor had to find some means of conquering the indifference of the world and inducing people in large numbers to use the language as a living language.” (Boulton, 1960: 34) Esperanto was meant to “foster peace and international understanding between people with different regional/national languages” (en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto, 16/11/11), to some extent, Zamenhof's language probably did do this. But a lot more would need to be done for this to really have an impact – starting with people simply learning the language and teaching it to others.

Esperanto was meant primarily as a second language, but with few speakers worldwide when you compare it to other second languages, such as English, what benefits does Esperanto really have?

1.7 English for the masses It is now easier for two nations speaking different languages to come together. In places where multiple languages are spoken, such as transport terminals or tourist attractions, signs are often displayed in two languages. “Airports are places where people of many nations, languages and cultures find their way.” (Mollerup, 2005: 247) If you don't know the native countries writing system, or language, there is always an assumption that you will know the second language option, or at least enough to navigate your way around. “Bi-lingual signs using the local language plus a more widespread language are common in airports and other transport terminals in many countries.” (Mollerup, 2005: 123) English is almost always one of these languages, but why is it assumed to be the worlds second language? English is not the easiest language to learn, yet it is generally considered to be worldly known. “English seems to be the 'lingua franca' in the world of passenger flying” (Mollerup, 2005: 247) A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues. (wikipedia.org/wiki/lingua_franca, 16/11/11) However, English wasn't always the lingua franca of the world. Languages used for cross-communication have changed throughout history, depending on areas of trade and exploration. In the 1600s Dutch was widely spoken due to the trade of the Dutch East Indies Company. “The company prospered through most of the 17th century as the instrument of the powerful Dutch commercial empire in the East Indies.” (www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/174523/ Dutch-East-India-Company, 23/12/11) Now English is spoken due to the spread of tourism and an increase in technology. There are more than 510 million speakers of English worldwide, as of figures in 2005. (vistawide.com, 02/01/12) Therefore, it makes sense for English to be the second language of the world, doesn't it? English has developed a cultural hegemony or dominance over other

languages, which is great if English is your first language. “English speaking countries have the benefit of the cultural dominance of the English language.” (Information Design Journal V10, 2001) However, there are more native speakers of Mandarin Chinese in the world, than there are of English, 873 million (vistawide.com, 02/01/12), but Mandarin is not spoken by so many outside of China. One of the main reasons for the increase in English over the last decade or so, is the internet. Used by 2 billion people worldwide, the internet is a database filled with different languages and information, and a lot of it is in English. Although 44% of computer users in the world are located in Asia (internetworldstats.com/stats. htm, 07/12/11), 80% of home pages are in English. (news.bbc. co.uk/1/hi/uk/1235945.stm, 07/12/11) In an article on the BBC news website, from 2001, Oxford University Professor Jean Aitchison, talks about how English wasn't always the dominant world language. “'At one time French was the language of power and prestige,' she says, 'and Latin was also widely admired as fixed and firm.' The rise of English, she says, is 'all about the power of the people who speak it' – first as the language of the British Empire and now, in a slightly different form, of American corporations, advertising and pop culture.” (news.bbc. co.uk/1/hi/uk/1235945.stm, 07/12/11) The way in which English dominates has changed, from a language of trade and diplomacy, to being very much a symbol the globalised world. English as a language is also changing. “It is estimated that more than half the world population will be "competent" in English by the year 2050. But it is likely that this new form of "World Speak" English will be very different to the language we understand now.” (news.bbc.co.uk/1/ hi/uk/1235945.stm, 07/12/11) Today, there are three kinds of English; Standard American/British English, oral and vernacular English – a mixture of English with the local language such as Chinglish, a combination of Chinese and English, and International Colloquial English.

We could call this third kind internet English. “a rapidly mutating 'world' language […] borrowing large numbers of words from other languages as well as text messaging-style abbreviations and even symbols.” (news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1235945.stm, 07/12/11) David Crystal has been writing about language for several decades, and more recently, he has explored internet language. “Crystal says the internet represents the biggest change in communication in the whole of human history. Changes underway, he says, 'are immensely bigger' than those which followed the invention of the printing press.” (news.bbc. co.uk/1/hi/uk/1235945.stm, 07/12/11) In his book, English as a Global Language, David Crystal explores the potential future for English as the international language of communication. He asks several main questions, including what makes a world language? And why is English the leading candidate? “A language achieves a genuinely global status when it develops a special role that is recognised in every country.” (Crystal, 1997: 2) In the case of English, which is spoken in USA, Canada, UK and Australia (among other countries) as a native first language, is also greatly recognised as a second language for many of the worlds countries. English is also the language most widely taught in schools as a foreign language, in over 100 countries including China, Germany and Russia. Crystal states that what makes a language global is less about how many speakers the language has worldwide but more about who they are. “Latin became an international language throughout the Roman Empire, […] they were simply more powerful.” (Crystal, 1997: 5) We are living in an age of travel, tourism, trade and globalisation where communication between different countries is necessary. “Never has the need for more widespread bilingualism been greater, to ease the burden placed on the professional few. And never has there been a more urgent need for a global language.” (Crystal, 1997: 12) There are two main reasons why it is English that has been adopted as the world's global language. Firstly, there is the geographical and historical dominance that the British Empire held over the

Americas, Asia and Africa over several hundred years. The second reason is that people the world over have become dependent on English in their lives. “The language has penetrated deeply into the international domains of political life, business, safety, communication, entertainment, the media and education.” (Crystal, 1997: 25) The computer and internet industry has become particularly dependent on English. This brings us to question if any other language would ever be able to compete with English for a place as global language.

PART TWO 2.1 Getting from A to B A vast increase in technology over the last 30 or 40 years means that it is now possible to visit almost anywhere in the world inexpensively and without difficulty. It is as easy to get half way across the world on a plane as it is to travel within one country on a train. Car travel is still the most popular mode of transport and with a lot of road users comes the need for road signage. In England, Scotland and Wales the Highway Code acts as a standardised list of rules for road users. The first edition of the Highway Code book was published in 1931, although a lot of it has changed since then. A large section of the Highway Code includes a guide to road signs and road markings. There have been plans recently, laid out by the Government, to overhaul UK road signs, deeming some signs unnecessary. “Sometimes, the jungles of signs and tangles of white, red and yellow lines can leave people more confused than informed.” (www. independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/plans-to-overhaul-uk-roadsigns-announced-2369920.html, 15/10/11) But the further you have to travel, the more likely you are to come into conflict with difference of language. “Around half of the UK adult population currently travels by plane each year. Since 1990, the number of passengers taking flights has increased by 130%, from 104 million passengers to 238 million today.” (www.theccc.org.uk/sectors/ aviation/demand-for-air-travel, 17/12/11) There are two main reasons for this increase, an increase in income and a decrease in

the cost of flights. Why would we not want to jet off to a new and exotic location if we can afford to? As discussed in part one, pictograms are of great importance in the language of signs. Whilst they do not replace language in airport signage, they make navigation of an airport a lot easier. “Signage efforts are limited to two or three languages for practical reasons. Instead of signposting in several languages, airports, like other transportation systems, rely heavily on pictorial means of communication.” (Mollerup, 2005: 247) Sometimes pictograms don't quite depict what they actually mean, instead they symbolise something. Toilet pictograms vary worldwide, but never represent an actual toilet. Instead what they show is the user of the toilet. Another important aspect for the design of signage at airports is colour hierarchy. With different colours assigned to different sorts of signs, air passengers can learn what means what. “Colours play an important role in signage because of their capacity to differentiate.” (Mollerup, 2005: 161) Whether your mode of transport be a car, train or plane, there are signage systems to tell you where to go, warn you of hazards and generally aid you in getting to your ultimate destination. “Transport systems […] now extend well beyond the boundaries associated with any single spoken language.” (Crow, 2003: 146) Transportation systems may rely very heavily on pictorial means of communication, but cultural divides make some symbols less understandable than others or mean different things in different cultures. It can be interesting to see how different countries fig. 5 Four different 'Stop' signs from around the world. Colour and shape remain the same, but the text changes.

interpret the same signs. [see fig. 5] Sometimes it simply depends on what environment the sign and user are in. A graphic representation of an airplane is going to make sense to everyone if they are in an airport – everyone will know what an airplane looks like. A symbol that is widely recognised in transport signage, but also has a lot of other uses, is the arrow. The arrow is understood to show direction depending on its orientation and is generally understood in all parts of the world.

2.2 Public information Instructions that come with electronic devices and appliances are often much lengthier than they need to be due to the inclusion of multiple languages. Each individual consumer only needs one language but it is far easier for the manufacturer to put multiple languages into one book rather than to produce many different instruction booklets. However, instructions are also a great example of where symbols are used to portray information, with the intention that they can be understood regardless of language. “Symbol signs – signs without words – are often used to communicate safety or public information.” (Information Design Journal V18, 2010.) Ikea, Swedish furniture company, is a prime example of selling items that require putting together. But as a global company, it has also found a solution to the many different languages of its fig. 6 Example diagram from Ikea instruction booklet.

customers. [see fig. 6] The instruction booklets are completely pictorial with simple diagrams. The only non-pictorial thing that appears is numbers, which are particularly key in finding the correct page number. Although the name of the number depends on the readers spoken language, the actual numerical figure is the same. A simple icon of a hand turning a page, with a number, guides the user of an Ikea instruction booklet to the correct page for the instruction they need. In Information Design Journal volume 18, 2010, there is an article entitled 'Paper and online testing of graphical access symbols in three countries using the ISO9186 comprehension test'. A test was carried out in Japan, Australia and the UK which resulted in a high level of agreement over what the symbols meant. There are various methods for testing the comprehension of graphic symbols. For this test, priority seating and facility symbols were looked at. “It includes a comprehension test in which respondents are presented with the graphical symbol and […] the context in which it would be seen.” (Information Design Journal V18, 2010: 94-106) They are then asked to say what they think it means. It is in this instance that context for signs is as important as the sign itself. The original symbols in this test were designed for use in Japan, but in order for symbols to be considered understandable they must be tested in three countries.

“It was the desire of the drafting committee to produce a single well- designed and tested version which could then be submitted for inclusion in ISO 7001.” (Information Design Journal V18, 2010: 94-106) Carrying out these tests means that any design and interpretation issues can be sorted out early on, before the signs go into production. It is important to test symbols if we want to create a system that will work regardless of language. Aside from the problems of language and pictorial symbols, is there anything else that we could consider universal? Colours can hold different preconceptions depending on your cultural background, certain colours are symbolic. For example, in the Western world, it is generally known that black is a colour of mourning, whereas in China white is worn for mourning. In Representation, Stuart Hall explores colour as language. Using traffic lights as crucial example, Hall explains how we have come to associate certain colours with specific meanings. The meanings have been learnt, much like traditional linguistic languages are learnt. “Red does not mean 'Stop' in nature, any more than Green means 'Go'. In other settings, Red may stand for […] 'Danger'” (Hall, 1997: 26) He explains that the reason traffic lights work is that we have learnt what each colour stands for – or signifies. Hall also considers music to be 'like a language' in the sense that it communicates mood and feeling. “Music is 'like a language' – in so far as it is a symbolic practice which gives meaning or expression to the idea of belonging to a national culture, or identification with one's local community.” (Hall, 1997: 5)

2.3 The Olympics With the Olympics coming to London in 2012, and bringing with them thousands of spectators and sports men and women, there is going to be a great need for effective and concise signage. With just over 200 countries taking part in the 2012 Olympics, there will be an abundance of different languages and cultural backgrounds. It is a necessity to have signs in this kind of environment, but the cultural differences are something that needs to be taken into consideration.

Pictograms for the actual sporting events have already been designed, as well as the logo which everyone is well aware of, as it caused a lot of controversy. But despite the complaints, pictograms have been designed to fit the brand aesthetics that the logo created. [see fig. 7] Every four years, the Olympics takes place in a new location around the world. That city is set the task of creating a brand for their games. They want to create their own identity that sets them aside from the previous games. This means creating a new set of pictograms, but why do the pictograms need to be fig. 7 London 2012 Olympic pictograms.

redesigned every new games? “Graphic designers are commissioned to design pictograms that have the same image content as existing pictograms while looking different enough to enhance the visual identity of the commissioning organisation.” (Mollerup, 2005: 139) No one has really been able to match Otl Aicher's pictograms from the Munich Olympics, 1972. “The pictograms have nearly always taken their cue from the Munich Games pictograms designed by Otl Aicher. Therefore, they are generally based on old technology.” (www. london2012.com/blog/2009/10/how-will-the-world-react-to-ourolympic-pictograms-.php, 26/10/11) What is it about them that makes them better than many of the other pictograms, designed for the games? Aicher's pictograms were designed 40 years ago, with a modernist feel. Despite the time difference, they still seem modern today. However, a lot has changed in that time. But are brand aesthetics that important? Should pictograms reflect a brand image? Surely navigation and understanding is more important.

2.4 Making progress in world communication A new project, initially set up by Edward Boatman in December 2010, is embarking on a mission to create symbols that simply represent nouns, The Noun Project. It sounds straightforward enough, but has great potential, and is supported by many members of the design world. “The Noun Project collects, organises and adds to the highly recognisable symbols that form the world's visual language, so we may share them in a fun and meaningful way.” (thenounproject.com/mission, 23/12/11)

In November 2011, submissions opened for designers and users to submit their own symbols. With submissions coming from all over the world, there will undoubtedly be many different symbols submitted, from people with different backgrounds. But this does not phase Boatman.“It will be fascinating to see what similarities and differences in symbols exist between designers from different parts of the world.” (blog.thenounproject.com, 23/12/11) There are a few basic rules to follow when submitting a symbol to The Noun Project, including symbols should be neutral of opinion and well executed. The Noun Project began as a library of mostly National Park and Healthcare symbols, but has evolved and continues to evolve into something much bigger. “Today, that library has expanded to include more than 800 symbols created by our designers, collaborators, and – most excitingly – by users from around the world. It is no longer just a library. It is also a workshop, where concepts are visualised and shared freely. It is a new way of thinking where language is seen, not spoken.” (blog.thenounproject. fig. 8 The Noun Project, modern day pictograms.

com, 23/12/11) [see fig. 8]

2.5 But are there just too many signs? Is part of the problem that there are just too many signs? Are all signs necessary? What if all wayfinding and navigation could be done on your smart phone, in your own language with as much or as little information as you require? We are now faced with enough technology to be able to customise the amount of information we receive. Sometimes signs don't work because they physically don't exist, other times the signs that do exist just don't work. “Signs frequently don't work because they don't function on the technical level.” (Mollerup, 2005: 95) And function is of the utmost importance. If signs are not visible they cannot work, or if the information portrayed on them is too small or unclear. Sometimes there is conflicting information on signs. Design for wayfinding is very much about clarity, there is no opportunity to make things pretty. They need to be understandable.

2.6 Do we need signs anymore? Technology has come on a long way in the last few years. Where once you would read a map and follow road signs to find your destination, you can now have Google maps create a route for you to use. Many road users now own sat navs that talk you through your journey as you drive. Although there is some question of reliability, it is undeniable that this has changed the relevance for certain road signs. Similar technological advances are happening, not only for road transport, with smart phones – a mobile phone that offers more advanced computing ability and connectivity than a contemporary basic phone. You can get sat nav applications for you phone, as well as mapping and street view style navigation. We take our mobile phones everywhere with us, so what better platform for personal navigation and wayfinding than a mobile phone. Not everyone has a smart phone, yet, but soon they will. A third of adults, in the UK, own a smart phone, as of March 2011. (http://www.bbc.co.uk/ news/technology-14397101, 25/01/12) The number is on the rise, and shows no signs of slowing down. There is much more to mobile phone navigation than simply maps.

2.7 Augmented technology We are now presented with augmented reality technology, but what exactly does that mean? “A live direct or indirect view of a physical real-world environment whose elements are merged with (or augmented by) virtual computer-generated imagery.” (Creative Review V29, 2009) Initially, augmented reality was used for elaborate advertising campaigns but the technology can be used for much more than that and is taking a turn. “The future isn't in front of the computer screen but all around us.” (Creative Review V29, 2009) The first augmented reality mobile browser to really take off, was Layar. As the name suggests it uses virtual layers in real-life situations. The application incorporates a smart phones camera, compass, GPS and accelerometer to identify the users location.

“From the geographical position, the various forms of data are laid over the camera view like inserting an additional layer.” (en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Layar, 27/12/11) With this technology in mind, it is perfectly plausible to have an app translate or replace signs in front of you on your own mobile phone screen – your phone, your language, your settings. The Sense and the City exhibition at the London Transport museum, 2011, explored the way in which people in London live, work and travel with modern technology. A particular part of the exhibition featured Royal College of the Arts students and their “visions for a fast-changing world.” (London Transport Museum, 2011) Among these ideas, was a proposal for augmented wayfinding, an adaptation to the current walking map system, Legible London, on the streets of the city. “Augmented wayfinding: a social networking approach to signage which proposes to integrate touch screens, augmented reality displays, dynamically updated content and social networks into the signage found on the streets of London.” (London Transport Museum, 2011) With customisable features, there is potential for the user to view information in whatever language they desire, provided enough people from different language and cultural backgrounds were to submit information. This technology need not only be used for pedestrians of London. Airports are a major place where cross–cultural signage is needed. But is it actually better signs that airports need? Copenhagen airport is the first airport in the world to incorporate augmented reality into a mobile phone application, that can be used to aid wayfinding in the airport terminals. “The technology is featured in many other apps for outdoor use, allowing mobile phones to be used for orientation purposes.” (http://www.signdesignsociety.co.uk, 25/11/11) The application allows users to, literally, scan the terminals for information using their phone cameras. What if all airports had this? Many airports have their own phone apps, but they are mostly used for flight information rather than actual user navigation of terminals. This technology could be used in many places other than airports.

2.8 Translation of the future There was a time when the only way for two different language speakers to communicate would be to have a third person acting as translator. You can get books, such as two language dictionaries, that include single words or phrases. But these often only work from one language to another and not the other way around, nor into any other languages. What if you don't know what the foreign language is to begin with or how a word is spelt? Computers can identify a language and translate it into your chosen language. Although this is rarely as accurate as a human translator, there are many translation services to chose from on the internet. The most popular of which used to be, Babel Fish, created by AltaVista in the late 1990s and sold to Yahoo in 2009. The Babel Fish online translation is named after a fictitious creature in Douglas Adams' Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, that is able to instantly translate any language when inserted into a persons ear. “The Babel fish is small, yellow, leech-like, and probably the oddest thing in the universe. It feeds on brain wave energy […] the practical upshot of which is that if you stick one in your ear, you can instantly understand anything said to you in any form of language.” (Adams, 1979: 55) Sadly, AltaVista's Babel Fish is not quite that good, but it did offer translation to and from around 12 of the most common world languages. However, 12 languages is not many when, today, there are over 3000 different languages spoken worldwide. Today, just as most people turn to Google for their internet search engine needs, people tend to use Google for an easy and quick translation method. Google Translate features translation to and from over 50 languages. You can also translate documents by uploading them, or whole webpages by pasting the URL. Or if you use Google's own browser, Chrome, it can recognise when a language is not your native tongue, on any web page, and ask if you would like it translated. Google Translate is not only available on the internet, but also as an application for smart phones. This takes advantage of the phones camera and offers more features than simply copy and paste translation. Google Translate for Android smart phones can instantly translate over 50 languages and

read non-Latin scripts (for example, Romaji). It also features voice capabilities so it can translate what you speak, as well as changing text to speech. A revolutionary smart phone application, created by Quest Visual, is Word Lens. “Quest Visual is breaking down barriers and starting a translation revolution. Our goal is to help the people of the world communicate with each other better.” (questvisual.com, 27/12/11) Word Lens literally translates text in front of your eyes, recognising and matching the font and colours of what you wish to translate. It is able to translate with its built in dictionary, therefore does not require an internet connection. At the moment Word Lens is only compatible with English and Spanish but has great potential for other languages. “We're starting out with European languages and will expand from there. We won't stop until we get all the way across the globe!” (questvisual.com, 27/12/11) Just being able to recognise that what the camera is capturing are words is a great feat in itself, and with the rate that technology is evolving, there are no doubts that this could be huge. American gadget website, Tested, posted their own review of Word Lens on YouTube. (youtu.be/yYonHaHIfHk, 02/01/12) They even proposed the idea that in the future we might be walking around a foreign country wearing glasses that can instantly translate other language signs. Which is an amazing theory.

2.9 What is next? This new translation technology provides more opportunities to be able to communicate with someone in a foreign language, but ultimately, the user is not doing it themselves. Is there too much reliance on technology rather than getting people to learn new languages themselves? With smart phone applications, the cost for the user to download the app is usually not very expensive. Of course they have to buy the phone in the first place, and the cost of all these different applications soon adds up. That said, with the things that they can provide for us, should we not all have access to this technology soon? “The future is already here, it's time to embrace it.” (BBC Imagine: Books, 2011)

CONCLUSION Although I started this investigation with an optimistic Otto Neurathstyle view that a universal language be it pictorial or spoken would be possible, it has become apparent that this utopian vision is almost impossible. However, it has also brought about the question of whether we actually need signs â&#x20AC;&#x201C; at least in their current state. With fast developments in technology, and therefore other ways in which to navigate, signs can sometimes be more of a hindrance than a use. Through my research and analysis I have come up with two very different, but balanced, conclusions. In part one, I looked at utopian idealists from the past who strove to create universal language systems. Otto Neurath and Karl Kasiel Bliss created their own pictorial systems, and each were fairly successful in their day. The majority of Neurath's ISOTYPE pictograms are still in use today, with more symbols being added to this date. But it is a new plan to create symbols that simply represent nouns that might really make a difference, The Noun Project. As discussed in part two, the project is still relatively new, but with the possibility for people all over the world to interact and submit their own symbols, it holds a greater potential to be universal and culturally as neutral as possible. But these kinds of symbols simply cannot replace language. Whilst, Neurath and Bliss endeavoured to create universal picture languages, Ludovic Zamenhof wanted to create a universal and international language. He created Esperanto, which systematically is simple and easy to learn, but realistically only a very small percentage of the world speak and understand it. Instead, although not created with that intention, English has become the world's second language. It may not be the language with the most speakers in the world, that belongs to Mandarin, but although Mandarin is spoken by a huge number of people, it is only really spoken in China and some neighbouring countries. English is spoken all over the world. Not everybody speaks English, but speakers of the language are increasing everyday throughout the world. English has become a language of business, science, travel, and above all, it is the language of technology and the internet. 80% of websites are

displayed in English, and as the internet and technology in general continue to evolve, so does the spread of the English language. In part two of my dissertation I looked at signage and language implications on travel and tourism in particular, and researched what technological advances are happening right now that could mean signs are not nearly as necessary as we thought. With an increase in technology over the last few decades, it is now easier than ever to get to other countries, whether they be a short drive away or half way around the world. But in these other countries we are likely to encounter different signage and language systems. One solution to this has been to put a second language on text signs, at least in places of public transport and central tourist destinations. As concluded in part one, the world has chosen English as its second language. This seems sensible enough as the world is evolving into a largely English speaking population, but this is not the only solution. Increasing technology doesn't just mean more flights to more places, it also has smaller, but maybe even more significant, implications on the individual. More than 40% of mobile phone owners now have smart phones, with more computer-like capabilities than simply making phone calls. Among the thousands of mobile applications you can get for smart phones, there are some that are really changing the way we navigate public spaces and read signs. Augmented reality applications can direct the smart phone user where to go, like a visual sat nav. This technology is already being used at Copenhagen airport, and could effectively be used at other airports around the world, almost eliminating the need for physical signs. Rather than assuming non-native visitors to the airport understand English, a mobile application could be used in whatever language the user requires. It is this customisable element in such applications that is really interesting and holds great opportunities for cross-cultural communication in the future. Translation between languages is now easier than ever. Online and on your smart phone, web pages and articles can be translated instantly using Google Translate. But even more revolutionary is the application Word Lens, that translate in real time what foreign text you encounter. Currently it can only offer Spanish and English

translations, but give it a few more years and the app will be able to translate many more languages. This is another example of smart phone applications being customisable to the user, giving people the independence to travel to countries foreign to them regardless of whether they understand the language. With the way technology is fast moving, soon more than half of the world's population will have smart phones. But while applications may eliminate the need for cross-cultural signage, are we simply becoming too reliant on technology to do things for us? Should we make an effort to learn other languages ourselves? English may have become a world language, but it is a country's own language that makes it individual, and we don't all want to be the same. “The future is decidedly digital, but I think we are living in a time of transition in which the [old and new] coexist, and I think that's what makes it so exciting […] One medium does not displace another.” (Darnton, BBC Fry's Planet Word, 2011)

LIST OF REFERENCES Books: ADAMS, Douglas. 1979. Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: A Trilogy in Four Parts. London: Picador. BOULTON, Marjorie. 1960. Zamenhof: Creator of Esperanto. London: Routledge & K.Paul. CROW, David. 2003. Visible Signs: An Introduction to Semiotics. Switzerland: AVA Publishing. CROW, David. 2006. Left to Right: The Cultural Shift from Words to Pictures. Switzerland: AVA Publishing. CRYSTAL, David. 1997. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: University Press. HALL, Sean. 2007. This Means This, This Means That: A User's Guide to Semiotics. London: Laurence King Publishing. HALL, Stuart. 1997. Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. Milton Keynes: The Open University. MOLLERUP, Per. 2005. Wayshowing: A Guide to Environmental Signage Principles & Practice. Zürich: Lars Müller Publishing.

Documentaries & video: FRY, Stephen. 2011. Fry's Planet Word, Episode 1. [tv broadcast, BBC 2 September 2011] FRY, Stephen. 2011. Fry's Planet Word, Episode 4. (citing: Professor Robert Darnton of Harvard University Library) [tv broadcast, BBC 2 October 2011] TESTED. 2011. As Seen on Tested: Quick Look at Word Lens for iOS [online, YouTube]. Available at: http://youtu.be/yYonHaHIfHk [accessed 27/12/11] YENTOB, Alan. 2011. Imagine: Books – The Last Chapter. [tv broadcast, BBC 4 November 2011]

Exhibitions: London Transport Museum. 2011. The Sense and the City. London: London Transport Museum. Exhibition from September 2011 to March 2012. [visited: 25/10/11]

Journals & PDF articles: CIOCHETTO, Lynne. 2003. Toilet Signage as Effective Communication. Visible Language 37. CREATIVE REVIEW. 2009. Creative Review, V29. Augmented Reality. FRANGIALLI, Francesco. 2001. Tourism, Signs and Symbols. World Tourism Organisation. FOSTER, Jeremy. 2010. Information Design Journal, V19. Paper and online testing of graphical access symbols in three countries using the ISO9186 comprehension test. WESTENDORP, Piet. 2001. Information Design Journal, V10. Paper and online testing of graphical access symbols in three countries using the ISO9186 comprehension test.

Websites: BBC News. 2001. Internet + English = Netglish. Available at: http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1235945.stm [accessed: 07/12/11] BBC News Technology. 2011. Third of adults 'use smartphone' says Ofcom report. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ technology-14397101 [accessed: 25/01/12] Blissymbolics Communication International. 2011. Welcome to BCI. Available at: http://www.blissymbolics.org [accessed: 16/11/11] Committee on Climate Change. 2011. Demand for air travel. Available at: http://www.theccc.org.uk/sectors/aviation/demandfor-air-travel [accessed: 17/12/11] EncyclopĂŚdia Britanica. 2012. Dutch East India Company. Available at: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/174523/DutchEast-India-Company [accessed: 23/12/11] Internet World Stats. 2012. World Internet Usage Statistics. Available at: http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm [accessed: 07/12/11] London 2012. 2009. How will the world react to our Olympic 'pictograms'? http://www.london2012.com/blog/2009/10/howwill-the-world-react-to-our-olympic-pictograms-.php [accessed: 26/10/11] Northwest Creation Network. 2011. The Tower of Babel. Avaliable at: http://www.nwcreation.net/towerofbabel.html [accessed: 27/11/11] Quest Visual. 2012. Word Lens. Available at: http://questvisual.com [accessed at: 27/12/11]

Sign Design Society. 2012. New Copenhagen Airport iPhone app aims to simplify wayfinding. Available at: http:// www.signdesignsociety.co.uk/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=156:new-copenhagen-airport-iphone-appaims-to-simplify-wayfinding&catid=4:news&Itemid=31 [accessed: 25/11/11] The Independent. 2011. Plans to overhaul UK road signs. Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/plansto-overhaul-uk-road-signs-announced-2369920.html [accessed: 15/10/11] The Noun Project. 2012. Mission. Available at: http:// thenounproject.com/mission [accessed: 23/12/11] The Noun Project. 2011. User submissions now open. Available at: http://blog.thenounproject.com [accessed: 23/12/11] The Noun Project. 2011. The Noun Project turns 1 today. Available at: http://blog.thenounproject.com [accessed: 23/12/11] Vistawide. 2005. Top 30 Languages by Number of Native Speakers. Available at: http://www.vistawide.com/languages/top_30_ languages.htm [accessed: 02/01/12] Wikipedia. 2012. Esperanto. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Esperanto [accessed 16/11/11] Wikipedia. 2012. Layar. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Layar [accessed 27/12/11] Wikipedia. 2012. Lingua Franca. Available at: http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Lingua_franca [accessed 16/11/11]

Other: Apple dictionary, 2011 [accessed: 23/12/11]

List of figures (images): [fig. 1] ICON: a picture of a horse = horse, INDEX: knife and fork = restaurant, SYMBOL: red circle with white line = no entry. (A combination of three images.) Avaliable at: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/1/18/Horseicon.svg/300px-Horseicon.svg.png http://www.desdrec.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/restaurant_ icon.gif

http://www.clker.com/cliparts/7/ d/0/3/1194985139102872120no_entry.svg.med.png [accessed: 25/01/11] [fig.2] Saudi Arabian female toilet sign, with veil. Available at: http://imageshack.us/photo/my-images/246/ womenstoiletsignjy3.jpg [accessed: 25/01/11] [fig. 3] Just a small selection from Neurathâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s extensive ISOTYPE collection. Available at: http://www.gerdarntz.org/isotype [accessed: 25/01/11] [fig. 4] Basic 'Blisswords'. http://www.blissymbolics.org/pfw/images/bliss-rules.pdf [accessed: 25/01/11] [fig.5] Four different 'Stop' signs from around the world. Colour and shape remain the same, but the text changes. Scanned from: MUSTIENES, Carlos. 2009. 1000 Signs. KĂśln: Taschen. [fig. 6] Example diagram from Ikea instruction booklet. Scanned from Ikea intruction booklet: IKEA. 2009. Instructions for 'Galant' desk. [fig. 7] London 2012 Olympic pictograms. http://olympics-records.com/latestnews/picto-London2012.jpg [accessed: 25/01/11] [fig. 8] The Noun Project, modern day pictograms. http://thenounproject.com/3 [accessed: 25/01/11]