May 1994 by Endeavors

VANTAGE POINT

Teaching Research Ethics

size of scientific research groups (some include

dozens of students and postdoctoral fellows esearch universities are special institutions

working under

olhigher Ieaming where knowledge

the limits of close supervision and good communi-

both

created and transmitted to students. other

a single professor) have strained

cation between the senior investigator and the individual student. Therefore, it is no longer

researchers and the public at large. At such univer"

sities. the faculty educate students, seek new

adequate to leave the responsibilify of educating

knowledge (research) and also teach what they

students on the ethical conduct ol research solely

have leamed through research. That is to say that

to the student's research supervisor. 0n such a

teaching and research, in spite of some widely

person will always fall the obligations to supervise

held misconceptions, are two interwoven misions

the research carefully and control the qualiff of the

of the research universities, each strengthening

results being generated. However, students today would benefit from a broader exposure to all kinds

the other for the benefit ol present and future generations.

of ethical dilemmas faced by researchers. They will

Teaching during research takes place as

be better prepared tomorrow to carry on indepen-

faculty members, undergraduate and graduate

dent research in an ethical manner if they have

students, research asociates and postdoctoral

opportunities to discus common dilemmas and to reflect on the potential consequences of their

fellows engage in collaborative efforts to develop and carry out different projects, In this setting,

decisions. lnitiatives contributing to the training

professors and students learn together from

of students at this level should be implemented

lheir

research. Equally important, but often overlooked,

close supervision and provide for many opportuni-

is the fact that through these

ties to

interactions faculty

discus c0ncerns about the gathering,

by lhe universitv, academic depanments and research units.

members are also teaching students how to do

recording, retention, interpretation and reporting

research. These learning opportunities are com-

of data. In this manner, students become well

monplace at research universities with strong graduate and postdoctoral training programs, such

informed about the standards followed by

and national levels by instituting educational

researchers in their disciplines. However, even

strategies for adequate training in research ethics.

in this ideal environment and despite its self-

Several new initiatives, targeted to reach all

correcting nature. research has not been devoid

students engaged in research and not iust those supported by federal training funds, are now in place or about to be implemented. They include

as the University of

Nonh Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Through the research enterprise, the faculty help students understand the relevance of research projects in advancing their fields of study, stimulate them to raise probing questions and testable hypotheses, teach them appropriate research

of fraud and misconduct. Cases o[ misconduct in research have been widely publicized in the last decade. They have

The Unrvercity of North Carolina at Chapel

Hill

is once more exerting its leadership at the state

university-wide colloquia, discussions of ethical

methods. guide them in the interpretation of results

fueled national debates on whether these are isolated instances of wrongdoing by a few "bad

isues durinq students' orientation, distribution of informative brochures, formal courses and regular

and oversee the preparation of repofts for publica-

apples'within a dedicated and trustworthy com-

discussion groups. The future succes of these

tion. It

munity, or reflective of a more pervasive behavior

initiatives will be a credit to the elforts of the

in this environment that faculty also teach

students another esential lesson: how to conduct

in a professional elite unable to police and disci-

faculty. student body and administrators of the

research in a responsible and ethical manner. In

pline its members. As educators charged with

oldest public university in the nation. O

the past by and large, the ieaching and learning of

the responsibility of training new generations of

this aspect of research has been left to examples of

scholars, we cannot dismis these cases of mis-

CommenE ond suggestions fron Dr. Joe W Grishom,

conduct by the faculty and the power of deduction

conduct in research as insignificant oddities, nor

Dr. Richard

and asimilation by the students.

can we remain silent while public trust in scholarly

Cornmittee on Research are achnouledged as

research erodes. Instead. we shorrld lind new ways

ualuoble contributions to this essly.

In much the same way as they learned from

their teachers and mentors, generations of scholars

ples of good research practices and raise their

learn lhe boundaries of acceptable behavior

awareness of conditions that might have negative

through their research experiences. This model has

effects on the ethical conduct of research. These

should still be vaiid today when

include the preoccupation with the number,

research training proceeds along the lines of indi-

instead of the quality of scientific publications

vidual apprenticeships. In some disciplines it is still common lor research to develop from one{oone

petition for research funds, and potential conflicts

relationships between proleson and students or

of interest as private research funds are sought.

from collaborations in small research groups, These circumstances foster good communication,

Clark ond memben of the Faculg

to educate our students about established princi-

have taken for granted that their students would

seru"ed us rvell and

(the publishor"perish syndrome), the stiff com-

In other disciplines the expansion of the research enterprise and the increase in the average

Marila CordeiroStone, Ph.D.

Asociate Profesor of Pathology Chair, Faculty Committee on Research

ors

Published by the Office of Research Services at the University of North Carolina at ChapelHill/ May 1994 lVolume XI, Number 2

COVER STORY

Endeavors The University ol North Carolina at Chapel Hill

77 I

Stalking the Culpris Behind Birth Defects Lrt'Christine Sneed

May 1994 Volume X, Number 2 Endeavors is a magazine published three times a year by the Office of Research Services at the

Defectiue mouse embryct

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Each

page

DEPARTMENTS

issue of Endeavors describes only a lew of the many

in the Headlines

NEWSMAKERS: Carolina Faculty Rubble Rei,'als our Histol

research projects undertaken by faculty and students of the University.

MARKETPLACE:Universitylnnovations Rinsirrg a Li[*sar ing Liler

DIALOGUE: Issues in Research

Requests for pernrission to reprint material, read-

ers' conlments and requests for extra copies should be sent to Editor, Endeavors, 0ffice of Research Services, CB #4100,300 Bynum Hall,

Basic Science by lntLtrence L Gilbert

the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 275994100 (919/96&5625),

Applied Science

Chanceilor Paul Hardin

Vice Chancellor for Graduate Studies and Research

iti ze nsh ip,

Robert P. Lowman

Publications

Katherine High Douglas Kelly

WHAT IS... & A CaLolina Professor Explains

r%g

Philip Carl

VITA: A Profile Pamela Conover

ffi w

Director, Office of Research Seruices

page 18

Linda L. Spremulli

Aduisory Board for

CAROLINA OPINION: Tar Heels Speak Out Chanqinq Health Choices by Beuerly Wiggins

Conouer studies

lntetin

b1, Williant H. Glaze

SCHOLARTY PURSUITS: Student Research The Road to Immorlality

Carol Reuss

Editor Brenda Powell

FEATURES

A..,,''MY - '-1 \ 1/

E*lis.

Assrstant fdttor.s

Dottie Horn

Health Department,

Scott Lowry

page

I O }^J:X::H.1H::CARE method for determining Medicaid

reimbursable

Christine Sneed

rO I4

Designers

Southern Media Design & Production /llusfrdlom: Jane Filer, Robert You

Couer Photo; Professor Thonrus Sadler prepores to inhibit qene

O1994 by the University of North Carolina

seueral UNC-CH Bitih Defects

at Chapel Hill in the United States. Atl rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the consent of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Center researchers striuing kt discouer, treat and preDent the genetic and enuiron'

mental defects.

Clristine Sneed

EATING AWAY AT POLLUTION

lnong ol Tinl'

embryo using " antisense " probes. Sadler is just one

costs

the

rst Promising TLruls

ior

Neutralizrng Soil Pollution are a Host

expressbn in a mouse Pholographer Will 0wens

COSTS

causes behind brrth

Ild(

0rganisms

Dy Sccttt Lcttary

SMILING AND BEAUTIFUL \utionol Qs,qroplric's Photographs of Non-Westemers He)p Put Americans at

Ease

by'

Dottie Htn'n

Corolina Faculty in the Heodlines

NEWSMAKERS

historical archaeology to UNC-CH in

RUBBLE REVEAIS OUR HISTORY

fi \ \.f

to welcome alumnus President James K. Polk

1992.

Archaeological and anthropological research fills

during his i847 campus visit. By

in gaps left by traditional historical research, Ward

the building was in such a state of decay that "the

says. "My feeling is that the history and the docu-

general consensus was that no great

tudents and facultv from the Research

ments that historians use to write about the past are

*ooru,orres or Anrnropology grur,, srn

sometimes biased. Often they overlook the com-

through layers of earth and time. Here,

mon folk who formed the backbone of the society,

fragments of fine Staffordshire china

the yeoman farmers, the African-Americans

evoke the ghosts of elegant, ante-

and others. It's through the study of

bellum Southern hospitality.

material remains that we can learn a

Gun flints and cartridges

lot that might not necesarily be in a written record."

give grim testimony to diary accounts

1921, however,

los had occuned

when the building caught fire and bumed to the ground," Samford notes. Since earliest survivinS descriptions of the site date back only to the Iate 1800s, the researchers are seeking clues as to what the original structure Iooked like, Davis says.

From the available surviving docuof duels

ments, Samford was able to piece together a partial

fought on this

Although

history of the site.

spot. The researchers

Sometime between

dig deeper into the earth

1793

and the past. Siltencrusted

and

the site has

often been dis-

1797,

turbed over the years

keys and rough-hewn, iron nails

University steward John "Buck"

attest to a rustic bygone era. There lies

Taylor first erect-

power and sewer lines and

ed a wooden-

the construction of Graham

frame tavem on

Memorial, the researchers recently

a penny more than 150 years old, perhaps

dropped accidentally by a weary wayfarer reaching eagerly for a dram to wash the road dust

the edge of the

off his tongue.

uncovered evidence of the original

Univercity grounds.

These are just a few of the artifacts recovered

due to the installation of

tavern's foundations. Using patterns in the artifacts, the researchers

Over the years the site

from the site of an archaeological dig right on cam-

served at various times as tavern,

also hope t0 answer questions concerning lifestyle

pus. The site, located between Graham Memorial

hotel and men's dormitory before its final demise in

and Franklin Street, held one of Chapel Hill's first

1921. Severaltimes the

busineses, a tavern/hotel built in the late 1700s.

and rebuilt, changing from the original rustic tavern

show an increasing variety in the menus offered?

The excavation is part of a year-long project

to a Victorian*tyle hotel complete with turret and gingerbread porches at one point. During its hey-

Do the beverage containers found reflect changes

directed by Steve Davis and Trawick Ward, RLA archaeologists, and by RLA Director Vince

day as the Eagle Hotel, a special annex was added

building was demolished

changes-did hotel and tavern life become more elaborate 4s the community grew? Do food remains

Steponaitis. By examining this flotsam of yesteryear,

in drinking habits? One feature of the site that is helping researchers answer these questions is a depresion

the researchers are

just west of where the original tavern stood "This area was gradually filled in, and

adding to our

so there are layers of soil and artifacts

going down about two to two-and-ahalf feet," Davis remarks. "As you go

down layer through layer, the artifacts get progressively older. As we look at

individual layers we're actually looking how lifestyles changed

at slices of time. This

as both the University and

in seeing how things changed with

to give us a fuller understanding of the life-ways

us a

Fragments of elegant

The project began in fall 1993 and

will run through the

1994 sprinQ semester.

During the first semester, the student and

china imported from Staffordshire, England contrast uith homely, rough.hewn iron nails, heys, and a coin with a mint date between 1816 and 1819. These recooered from an archaeolo$cat dig on

and reasembling the fragments. Eventually this

large part around the input of doctoral student

represent

evidence of the University and Chapel Hill's

Patricia Samford who brouqht her interest in

and Chapel Hill communities oaer the centuries.

of people who lived here during the founding days of the North Carolina colony right up to the 20thcentury," Ward explains. The hotel/tavern excavation developed in

lot

;Tlil:ffi#rfiT,ffirj, "-:&' .",.I

the surrounding community grew

over the years. "Right now we're looking at archaeology and anthropology as adjuncts to history,

will help

artifacts, campus, changes in the lifestyles of the llniaersity

aculty researchers concentrated on excavatinq

artifacts and arranging them in their proper historical context. Now they are also cleaning

heritage will be put on display on campus.

Uniuersity Innouations

MARKETPTACE

RINSING A LIFESAVING

IIVER

in storage, and increasing the success rate of transplants. Five to 15 percent of liver

Thurman developed a soiution to infuse into the liver after storage, just before it is transplanted. "The

transplants

fail and require re{ransplantation within 2-3

transplant.

liver

days

idea is that this fluid will sta( up the metabolism

ft rom the wreckage of an automobile accifi dent,rescueworkersextractaseriously LemastersandThurmanbeganbyusingarat model. They extracted and stored rat livers, then I injured person. After being rushed to the hospital and placed on life suppoft, the victim dies, used an apparatus to put artificial blood through though machinery keeps his or her heart beating. them to test their function. ln this way, the researchers determined specifically how the liver Hospital staff have found an organ donor card in the person's wallet. A doctor contacts the next of kin, who supports the accident victim's wish to donate organs. While the # of the original

under a less stressful condition," says Lemasters.

Usingtheirlabapparatus,theresearcherstestedthe function of rat livers that had been stored and then rinsed with their solution. They found that using the rinse, which they call the Carolina Rinse Solution,

had reduced injury to the liver. The researchers then tried transplanting into rats livers that had been stored and then rinsed. The rats

who received livers that had been rinsed

**+fl'ffiX;:-. ; :'W*' iYr,X;r*.,*o] l;+T[;;kr.$u:ffiil;[T ;d#i&],:;,I- -5:; ffihlfftll*-*ffi,';fll

-5' ii l,* 'afJ

tffi:#fr##n:i1ff1''J';ffi:; livers transplanted into l5 of lheir human llvtlstldllsPldllLCt LI , "Thev measured the performance perforr :,i;&$flP*, r;-fl1,*e patients. "They at Un;IfreXg'* posioperative rnost to be transplanterl. It has the best 'tr$ r1f7 : of the liver graft in the postoperative ,.}113!ffi*&T. , ffifr.period. says Lemasters. They found J chanceofsutvivinginitsrecipientifitisE:%Wfoeriod'.'saysLemasters..,Theyfoundthat

cold storaqe, That liver now has 24 hours

ansPanedwh;82"'Tilff$: At any given tine, appro

people in this country are wail

:ffilll-I.-#Iil;

Iiver. Hospitals that perform lit generally construct waiting Iis'

liver

Aboue, a diseased liuer remoued from a patient. Below, a healthy liuer thosrrvait- 'rror',:,A,oonrplantedintoarecipient.Atthepoint,justbeforetrans"ir*iirr. ing to receive livers generally live near hosthe liuer would be infused with the Carolina Rinse Solution, pitalswheretheoperationsareperformed,rt i"rlor,t inuente.dbvprofessorsJohnLemostersandRonaldThurman.

individuals' severity of need. Because a

mustbetransplantedsoquickly

1992, was enough to

elicit the interest of

CytosolLaboratoriesinBraintree, Massachusetts. "We're working with them

andhopethat inthenextsixto12months

North Carolina.livertransplantsareper1ormedre-"p--Lemasters.AtriaIof500_1,000patientsis ,, irE necessarytoproveboththeextentof effica ,'. '-'%II onlyathospitalsatUNCCHandDuke University,)Becausetimeissoimpor1ant,rc'5".'.:.pj,.sUcyandthesafetyofthesoIution,says liversaregenerallynottranspor1edfar:J,,f.-:,Wii."rl.l..1..','...ILemasters. ',:,tr,,f@ '\' .it_{, , , -"1,, " The researchers believe that the Unless an especially critical need exists in r* I t'r V;'t,.:"'' CarolinaRinseSolutioncouldaidliver anadiacentstate,forexample, liversclonat- J .I . *,. iW* transplant recipients and those waiting for eri in Nofth Carolina are generally given to a l, ;r; ,.'.,,7;. lffiSl I recipientinthestare o,.^,,';:T:fi,:t:1, thev are not alrearly hospitalized. (ln

where liver transplants are do

1i*6r' ;3 &

we can get a large clinical ttial stafied," says

l,:;,,;[,';,J::Iilffi,'l,.|;yin:.,]l:.:

and W,i&ii,,,,, ' :;ffiffi| t ." I a ot liver injury. In addition, the rinse could ., are Liver donations bring urrrrBUdLtrtrrcurBdrr'"''"'""irurrur.,'r, back the organ. 3:;:l:;;],ft'. X,,1,' | 3 rearce the number of livers transplants that from generally only accepted 8clleIdllydCCeptUUu,,.,,,.,,,,,.,,JI,i,JiJii.,,.,"W'-.-,,-:ffil;#ili,.,n.,1-*,oother.wiseturn S,',;&,:,W& &*.,:,,,,.,:,,,,.,.{l i.r}i.trrrr;il;l;.allowdoctors who wIlUulewllllellUUKcU,,,,,,:.;;:#;,;,.,Effi;ffi;i,.,,ol.o[,'.hcei1ainkinds die while hooked up to ro where a liver is available to extract

machinery. While approximal transplants are performed in this

country year

liver while on waiting lists for liven that are not available. damage was not occurring during storage, Rather. This is the situation which John Lemasters, the damage was precipitated by the stress of the professor of cell biology and anatomy, and Ronald liver's resuming its function as it received blood Thurman, prolessor of pharmacology, have sought and began metabolism again. "When we stafied up the lil,er," says Lemasters, "that was in essence to address. Lemasters and Thurman have been a harsh treatment of the liver, which had been studying organ presen,ation since 1988, with an weakened by the storage." eye to providing liver recipients with les injured Wanting to limit this iniury, Lemasters and Iivers, extending the time that a liver can remain annually, several hundred people clie every

was damaged. They also determined that the

of medical histories are prone to failure, If clinical trials show that the rinse solution lives up to its ptomise, it will provide more hope for the thousands of desperately ill people waiting for

livers.

Lemasters' research discussed in this article uos funded in full by $1,023,053.92 from the Nationol lnstitute of Diabetes ond Digestiue and Kidney Diseoses.

lssues in Research

DIATOGUE

In a climote of tight budgets and demands for public accountabilig, the Clinton administrotion and Congress are urgingresearch funding agencies to reorient thelr mrssions more toward technologt and applied science. Hou)euer, two UNC-CH researchers, a

biologist and an enuironmental engineer,

wam that if basic scientific inquiries are neglected, all scientific research

will suffer.

Basic ftience:

Ifuowledge for the Future's Sake by Lawrence I. Gilbert

[1he National lnstitutes of Health (NIH), the lil:il.Tilr# flxt dliij?,j,lil,litJ;,,

of basic research in the life sciences for about five decades. Now the government is requesting that NIH begin to concentrate more on applied research, i.e. quick cures forspecific diseases. However, NIH

already has a strong clinical research program.

Moreover, NIH has funded programs in basic research that are absolutely requisite for the

alleviation of most diseases,

as the Nobel Prizes

in medicine, physiology, chemistry, etc. awarded

attempt t0 have universities share with industry

inevitably translate to a narowing of education for

to NIH-supported researchers over the last decades

both research and the application of basic con-

students, with rnevitable negative effects on future

cepts at the expense of funding for basic research

technology.

attest.

Applied science

is vital and certainly should

be supported, but not at the expense of basic

science. It would be a tragedy if university scientists

will be disastrous. [f any change

warranted, it is

an increase in our investment in basic research. If the unimaginable comes to pass, the

Emphasizing applied research also runs the risk of decreasing the collegiality of educational institutions. As research becomes focused on eco-

were enc0uraged to pursue excessively utilitarian

present misions of the university will change

nomic gains, the race for patents could endanger

goals at the expense of the long{erm fundamental

from education and the furthering of knowledge to

the present atmosphere of open communication.

questions upon which the advance of science

education and the furthering of knowledge that will result in "the quick {ix." Modern life sciences

Additionally, who decides what research is relevantl Short-term polilical and economic pressures

then the applied scientist will by necesity have to

research, particularly in the area of molecular biologv, is quite expensive. A junior faculty member in

could become even more intrusive, likely resulting in lost productivity and the slowing of basic and

become a basic researchersince knowledge of

this discipline who does not obtain a major grant

technological advances.

basic mechanisms is required forsignificant tech-

for support of his or her research has little chance

nological advances. As Louis Pasteur said, "There

of amasing the scholarly credentials required for

students to initiate the tortuous path toward a Ph.D.

with the aim of devoting their life's energies to

Indeed, today they are at times indistinguishable,

promotion and tenure. Organismic biology would no longer have any sponsor, and it would be most difficult to train the future generations of taxono-

e.g. the molecular biology of food crops.

mists, ecologists, behaviorists, etc. There would be

one's research has a decidedly applied slant. We

little support for graduate students in the basic

will have destroyed the seed corn for generations to come. a

depends. If the availability of funds for research of excellence in basic areas is decreased dramatically,

is only one science: science and the

application of

science are linked together as a fruit is to the tree.'

Economic growth depends more on the university's contributions being at the basic Ievel

sciences, nor funds to support undergraduate

than at the applied level since basic conceptual

research students; and, of course, a monumental

advances form the substratum for those changes

los of overhead funds that support

that will impact so greatly on our economy. To

campus programs. Narrowing research "goals" will

a variety of

Above all, no incentive will exist for young

basic research. There will no longer be careers in the basic life sciences for young faculty unles

Gilbert is Williom Rond Kenqn Jr. Professor of Biology ond Associote Vice Choncellor for Acodemic Affoirs.

*,:

r{'\

\.d

'yei

what will be only "interesting." Indeed, what is only an obscure journal article today may turn out to be the key in a future application. Third, much of what results from "research" in the broadest sense of the

word

is the literature, art, history, and other works

that enrich us and make life worthwhile. In our present society, the university is one of the last

bastions of this type of inquiry, and this scholarly and artistic work would never rate support if

"applications" are the essential prerequisite. So saying, we must admit that someone

will

eventually have to make decisions on what research is to be suppo(ed. And we must understand that in our legislatures funding is a now zero sum game. If one new project is to be funded,

Applied Science: A Duty to the Public

UNC-CH faculty are exploring how their respective

another cannot be. We cannot entirely blame politi-

by William H. Glaze

expedse can be used to solve problems to make

cians who perceive that their constituents would

F{orseveral

life more healthy and fulfilling for Carolinians and

prefer retirement of the federal deficit, a national

H I

veam industrv has been cutting

f,act on lts baslc research ettorts. Now the

people all over the world. Moreover, applied

health care program, or defense from crime and

qovernment mlgnt De lo,owlng surt. LVen

research is not limited to UNC-CH profesional

violence over what they feel is esoteric university

the mision of the hallowed National Science

schools. In Arts and Sciences departments such as

research. We also cannot not blame those who call

Foundation has been questioned by congresional

city and regional planning and in programs such

for solutions to AIDS, for a nonpolluting automo-

committees who want it to be more applied. What

materials sciences, faculty clearly have an applied

bile, for recyclable polymers or for psychological

objective in mind. Much of this work would simply

research of the violently inclined over the basic

not be done if it were not done at a university.

knowledge that would have come from the (now

the exclusion of basic research? Indeed, is applied

Universities, including UNC-CH, are and should be

research even appropriate for a major research

an essential part of the applied research apparatus

unfunded) Superconducting Super Collider. By and large, these legislaton and policy makers are acting

university, orshould it be left to industry and

of this country.

does this mean for universities? Will

UNC{H be

forced to accept the applied research paradigm to

If we are already deeply involved in applied

government? My answer to the latter question is an

research, then why the concern over national

in what they believe is the national interest when they call for more "applied" research. What all of this means for the University

emphatic no. Applied research is already a vital

policies that seem to emphasize this activity? First,

communig

part of the mission of the university and it is no shame for UNC-CH to be deeply involved in research

applied research cannot flourish without a base of fundamental information which is the product of

support for all kinds of research in the University is

which seeks to have an immediate impact on soci-

basic research. For example, computer algorithms

a good investment for North Carolina and America,

ety. Much of the research in our outstanding

to solve the differential equations that characterize

Through our applied research it can benefit us

profesional schools

is clear. We must tell all of the citizens of North Carolina, especially our leaders, that

flow of pollutants in the environment are inconceiv-

now, and through basic research it can benefit

In medicine, phamacology. environmental

able without the results of fundamental mathemati-

our children and future generations t0 come.

sciences and engineering, human population

cal research. Second, it is extraordinarily difficult to predict what basic research will be "useful" and

is already

applied in nature.

studies, dentistry, law and many other areas,

Gloze is Choir ond Professor Enu

ironmental Sciences and Engineering.

Tar Heels Speak

)ut

CAROLINA OPINION This column features information from the Carolina Poll conducted by

the UNC-CH School of Journalism and Mass Communication and the Institute for Research in Social Science.

Changing Health Choices by Beverly Wiggins

in the

ometimes researchers find it is useful to not only

ases cur-

18-

to 24-year-old group are

also the most likely to say that they

have not tried to quit. Almost two out of

rent behavior patterns, but also to

five smokers in that aqe group say that they

measure how they have changed over time.

have not tried to quit smoking, compared with one in every five smokers ages 25 to 44, and one in four

This is particularly true for behaviors that have a direct impact on our health.

The fall 1993 Carolina Poll asked North

of those ages 45 to 64. Smoking is almost twice as common among

Carolinians about several ordinary activities that were also asked about in the fall of 1983-activrties

North Caro[nians with a high school education or

such as drinking alcoholic beverages, smoking, and

les than among

using seat belts. The Carolina Poll regularly tracks

(31% vs. 17%). Racial differences in smoking are

changes in health choices to keep researchers,

small. Twenty-three percent of blacks and 29

Use of Alcohol

policy makers and the public informed.

those with some college education

percent of whites repofi that they smoke. Men and

women are equally likely to smoke (28% males and Use

of Alcoholic

Betserages

29% females). Religious attendance was not related to smoking.

0f the activities asked about, drinking

These health trends might go unnoticed if

alcoholic beverages showed the least change. Differences between the 1983 and 1993 surveys are not significant, with 56 percent in the 1983

survey indicatinQ they sometimes drank alcoholic beverages such as liquor, wine, or beer, compared

to 54 percent in 1993. The most recent survey gives additional

information about North Carolinians' alcohol use. According to the 1993 poll, attendance at religious services is inversely related to drinking. Of those

who never attend, 67 percent drink; of those who

surveys weren't done periodically to track them.

0n the face of it, these trends might seem unim43%). Those who grew up in North Carolina are

les

meticulously track habit and lifestyle changes

they were age 16 (46% vs. 75%). Whites are more

to lormulate sound public policy.

are more likely to drink than women (66% vs. 46%).

Smohing

ever tried to give up smoking?" The results indicate

a week, 44 percent drink; and of those

that smoking among state residents has declined

Income is strongly related to drinking. North

considerably over the

year period. In 1983, 38

percent of North Carolinians smoked, compared

with 28 percent in

1993. This change mirrors the

than those with lower incomes to dnnk. Among

national trend. 0f those who do smoke, a larger

those with incomes over $60,000 a year, almost

percentage say they have tried to quit than was the

three-fourths (73%) drink; among those with incomes under $10,000 a year, just over a third

case l0 years ago (65% of smokers in 1983 said they

(37 %) drink. A similar pattern is found with education. The higher the education, the more likely the penon is to be a

drinker. For example, only 34 percent of

had tried to quit compared with 76% in 1993). The 1993 Carolina Poll tells us that smoking is more

common

am0ng younger resrdents of the state.

those with less than ninth grade education reported

third of adults under

that they are drinkers, compared with 74 percent of

age 44 smoke, com-

college graduates.

pared with

Residents of metropolitan counties are more

Iikely to drink than those in rural counties (60% vs.

fall 1993 Corolino Poll wos conducted between )ctober 7, 1993 by the UNC School

of Journalism

those who attend more than once a month to once

Carolinians with higher incomes are more likely

The

October 3 and

Respondents in the two surveys were asked, "Do you smoke?" Smokers were asked, "Have you

who attend

likely than blacks to drink (58% vs. 399r.) and men

attend once a month or les, 73 percent drink; of

more than once a week, 22 percent drink.

portant, but researchers and policy-makers must

likely to drink than those who moved here after

l gga

Smoking

les than

one{ourth of those and older. Smokers

ggs

ond

Mass Communication ond the

lnstitute for Research in Sociol Science. A rondom

somple of 605 aduk North Carolinians uas interuiewed by telephone. The

sonpling enor is plus or minus 4 percent for the

totol somple, but is larger for

co mp ori so ns be

tu een

groups.

Wiggins is associate director for research deuelopment ot

IRSS.

Stalking the Culprits Behind Birth Defects by Christine Sneed

f ! I

culture from gestation davs eight through

n Mart:h 1991. the mvsterious killerstruck

12,

which

would in the womb, but in a test tube they

agai,,r

conesponds approximately to weeks three to six of

can be obserued, manipulated and subjected

Jrrst

the human first trimester.

to microsurgery."

ln effect, this culture system gives investigators a window into orqanogenesis, the period of rapid organ development which occurs during

at the Lineberqer Cancer Center, pioneered the application of a technique called "antisense

in the srnlll torvn ol Brownslille. Texas orre dav apart. twrr childten wete l-rorn

with anencephall,-their brains were exposed and malformed. Thev died within minutes. Since Januarv 1989. 36 cases of children born with this rare defect have been recorded in Brownsviile.

lnd the cause or

causes still remain an enigml. s number one

Bifih defects are the nation

culprit behind infant death. At the same time, the

Recently, Sadler and Ed Liu, professor

the first trimester. It is during this period that most bi(h defects are induced. "The beauty of this system," Sadler explains, is that "all the

oligonucleotide technology" to cultured embryos. Antisense technology combined with the hands-on

developmental processes occur just as they

to study genes important in early development.

severe

model of the culture system enables the scientists Basically, antisense technology

origins of oler 70 percent of defects are unknown. lnvesttgators are

inhibits the genetic signalling that

st1'mied for simple solutions because

controls normal embryonic develop-

manv mal-formations are multi-facto-

ment, At a specific time. a qene inside a cell's nucleus "explesses" itself; that

rial. That is, they can be caused

b1'

is, it churns out copies of its genetic

external factors like drugs or pollutants. or bv qenetic factois, or bY a

message, its coded sequence of

combination.

nucleic acids, in the form of single-

medical and

stranded messengel RNA (mRNA).

health affairs researchers ioined forces to create the UNC CH Birth

somes attach to the mRNA strands

1992 severai

Defects Center. Their

Ball-shaped structures called ribo-

and form proteins by matching amino

misiort. in

acids to the code provided by the

par1. is to [erret out lhe factors

lurking behind developmental

mRNA. These proteins are the signall-

abnormalities. Some like Thornas Sadler. center director and professor

ing agents that tell the cell what to do

ol cell biology and anatomy, are

to multiply, to move, even to die. Using the original mRNA

investigating the baslc genetic

strand, Sadler creates an arlificial

mechanisms of embryonic

mRNA probe whose nucleic acid sequence is complementary, or "anti-

development. Others like Kathleen Sulik, professor of cell biology and anatomv. are also studying the role

sense," to the original. For example,

of external factors in creating

AUGC, then the probe's sequence

defects. Through research they hope

to find better lva)'s to treat, prevent and even cure the many abnotmalities afflicting over 250,000 infants each year in the United States.

if the original sequence began

{ --'â&#x201A;Ź,r.::t. a I i-

r* ^"

,ta -td

t.1,:: | .

%-..-:-:

lt{ir

t.:,..:r ..

-i

:-'::=: {-:.a-!.

would start UACG (the letters stand for the four nucleic acids that make up RNA)

When probes are injected into ,

an embryo, they target mRNA strands

, a,

Sadleis labs in the Isaac Taylor Building are full of test-tube babies.

0f course. you might not realize that

and bind to them. When ribosomes come looking for single-stranded

Mahing Sense with Antisense

\".h

mRNA, instead they find double strands which they cannot attach to.

Meanwhile, the cell's security system detects these abnormal double-

immediatell . because the babies are

stranded compounds and digests

hardll, more than specks, about the size of a digit in the date on a penny.

them with enzymes. The original genetic message is erased and the

These are mouse embryos temoved

Thomas Sadler, Birth Defects Center director, demonstrates the microiniection of

from their molhers and grown in

"antisense" probes into a cultured mouse embryo.

probes released to bind to additional strands. Eventually, most or all of the

E.N.D.E.A.V.O.R.S

targeted mRNA is destroyed. The result, says Sadler, is that "the cell can't make the protein; it doesn't have the message anymore." By inhibiting gene expression in cultured

Cunently, Sadler's research team is focusing

particularly on WNT-1 and WNT-3a. These genes are involved in development of the brain and spinal

embryos and seeing which organs and structures

cord. Although no links have been definitely estab-

develop abnormally, Sadler can begin pinpointing

lished between specific birth defects and the WNT

which developmental events are controlled by which genes. "Now we have the means to get right

genes, antisense offers a means for asking ques-

down to the level where these signals really might be working," he says, 'and if we can leam that, we

Kathleen Sulik's office bookshelf is lined with photo albums containing over 300 "snapshots" ol mouse embryos. These visuals, taken via an elec-

tron microscope, chart the stages of both normal and abnormal embryo development. 0ne micro graph shows an embryo developing normally; twin,

tions, Sadler says. By inhibiting both genes at the same time, Sadler's team has created such bizarre malforma-

hope we might find ways to prevent abnormalities

tions as duplications of the spinal cord. However, if

or to correct them once they occur."

the team targets only WNT-I, the defects do not occur. "WNT-I and WNT-3a are homologous genes,

Discovering links between specific genes and organ development is a difficult venture. "Almost

On the Trail of Prenatal Poisons

antisense technology onto the WNT gene family,

which means the proteins they code for are very

smooth bulbs swell into the cerebral hemispheres. In another picture, an embryo's head bulges into a single conical blob. Had this mouse grown to term it would have been born without a full brain. Sulik and her team are interested in

determining how chemicals introduced from the

every developmental event involves a cascade 0f gene signals as opposed to just one signal," Sadler

similar," Sadler explains. "So, if you inhibit one, the

environment affect embryos'cells to create such

others protein can do the job for the one that's

defects. Embryo cells are highly sensitive to stimuli;

notes. Also, many genes appear to expres them-

mising." Sadler concludes that this compensati0n

selves more than once during development.

gives the embryo a built-in resistance against the

Antisense technology improves on previous

development of defects. Inhibiting only WNT-3a still

techniques which knocked out the targeted genes

results in some spinal abnormalities, leading Sadler

altogether. First, Sadlels technique does not

to conclude that WNT-3a plays a more significant

destroy the gene itself, just the mRNA copy.

role in spinal cord development.

Moreover, since the probes, too, are eventually

Documenting gene expression patterns is the

destroyed by the cellular delenses after about 24

first step toward understanding the miracle of the

hours, eventually the gene, if it expreses itself later,

myriad events that ultimately create complex living

will be able to send out new mRNA and manufac-

organisms-and the possible genetic reasons why

ture the proteins needed then.

the miracle sometimes goes awry.

compounds such as alcohol, pollutants or drugs that may be only somewhat, if at all, harmful to the mother can be devastating to the fetus when passed through the umbilical cord. Sulik and her team examine the effects of environmental teratogens, chemicals that cause defects, by exposing pregnant mice and then removing the embryos a few days later. They examine which areas of cells were affected and chart the degree of malformations. For several years, Sulik has studied the

Using a lSM320 scanning electron

microscope, laboratory specialist Debbie Dehart

(front) and Kathleen Sulih, professor of

cell

biolog and anotomy, obserue details in the structures of a mouse

embryo. With this machine they create electron micrographs of embryos

lihe the images on page 9.

.*.%*.-.-*

...

"â&#x201A;Ź. -r{

;

E.N.D.E.A.V.O.R.S

effects of retionoids, compounds closely related

now must administer pregnancy tests before pre-

says, "we're using much lower doses than most

to Vitamin A. She is particularly interested in 13cis retinoic acid, better known as the oral acne treat-

scribing the treatment.

people consider teratogenic.' A critical factor is -Even relatively low doses of retinoic acid timing.

ment Accutane9 Sulik's work on retinoids has been aided by her research on another project,

known, the harmful potential of less potent Retin A, a topical form of retinoic acid, has not been fully

she says. Some researchers suggest that Retin A

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS).

determined. Yet the market for these skin creams,

poses no threat because not enough retinoic acid

used as both an acne treatment and a cosmetic

is absorbed through

wrinkle minimizer,

fetal development. Sulik cautions that in deter-

Back in 1983 Sulik heard about some alarming news coming into the Centen for Disease Control. Several infants from acros the nation

Although the risks of Accutane@ are well-

is booming.

In a collaborative effort with the Environmental

given early in gestation can cause defects in mice,"

topical application to affect

mining the harmful potential of low retinoic acid doses, investigators must be aware of what

were reported as being born with similar severe

Protection Agency, Sulik's team has exposed preg-

birth defects. One factor in common among the babies' mothers was that they were all using

nant mice to varying amounts of retinoic acid

to look for. "The orally administered retinoid gives

to determine the lowest dosage at which the

you a typical pattern of malformation, and that's

AccutaneP CDC docton dubbed the babies'

compound can still cause defects. So far, she

the pattem some researchers have been looking for as a result of the topical exposure," Sulik explains. "A lot of times you only see

ailment retinoic acid embryopathy (RAE) The infants' plight caught the interest

what you are looking for. What ['ve tried to

of Sulik and coinvestigators M. C. Johnston,

impress is that you shouldn't necesarily

profesor at the UNC-CH Dental Research Center, and W. S. Webster, a

expect to get the same pattem with the

prolesor at

the University of Sydney, Australia, when

topical treatment."

they noticed similarities to the defects resulting from FAS. "We had written a

posible risla, Sulik simply urges caution

paper describing a spectrum of malfor-

when using both oral and topical

Until further studies ascertain all

mations asociated with FAS called the

retinoids. Physicians recommend that

DiGeorge sequence. As it turned out,

women discontinue any retinoic acid

a lot of the kids that had RAE also had

usage at least a month before becoming

pregnant. Sulik concurs: "Nobody dies

the DiGeorge sequence. From our alcohol research experience we knew when during

from pimples or wrinkles, so the best thing to do is to avoid retinoids il you're

development the embryo is sensitive to the

induction of these malformations. So we decided to see if we could make them with retinoic acid.'

resulting cellular damage in the fetuses.

planning a pregnancy,'she advises.

Toward a Cure

Sulik's team exposed pregnant mice to retinoic acid on their eighth or ninth day of gestation, and then examined the

Sutit'r und Sadlers research are just

E Mo

examples of the many projects going

on at the Birth Defects Center. The need

Mouse embryo deueloping normally (gestation day 11)

for this kind of investigation is presing.

The studies demonstrated that the infants

0f the 3600 babies bom with birth defects

with RAE had been exposed to the retinoid

each year in North Carolina, many could

very early in gestation, most likely early in the fourth week. "This is before many

have been prevented with proper prenatal

women are even aware that they've

defects are caused. But by building on the

care and better understanding of how

become pregnant," Sulik notes.

information they have uncovered so far,

Retinoid-induced birth def ects seem

these researchers are optimistic about the

to be a case of too much of a good thing.

future. "Our work is progresing toward not

Retinoic acid is naturally present in rela-

only achieving a better understanding of

tively low concentrations in embryos and plays a key role in governing structural

the causes of birth defects,' Sulik says, "but also toward their prevention."

formations such as fingers and facial features. The mechanisms by which

exces

retinoic acid upsets normal development

Sodler's research discussed in this article

are cunently under investigation.

is supported in full by $368,843

Since introducing Accutaneo on the

= Z

market in the early 1980s, manufacturers have been required to include package

fron the

Nationol tnstitute of Child Health and

E Humon Deuelopment. Sulih's reseorch

wamings urging pregnant women to avoid the drug. However, due to the number of

children born with RAE and to studies like

Mouse embryo exhibiting aprosencephaly, no forebrain. This embryo

Sulik's, these warnings have been made much more prominent. Also, physicians

G.5 mg/hg on gestation day seuen.

uas remoued from a mother which had been exposed to retinoic acid

uas supported by $150,000 from the Enuironmentol Protection Agenq; it is also supported in port by $130,191 from

the National lnstitute of Child Health and

Human Deuelopment.

E.N.D.E.A.[r0.R.S

ry for Public Health Care Costs neu method for determining Medicaid reimbursoble costs thot giues the state's public health deportments

UNC-CH researchers deuise o

a much needed transfusion of funds by Christine Sneed

f I I

n 1992 two nurses and a single part-time social

supporting health services for some of the state's

involved was multiplied by his/her hourly wage

worker handled a caseload of 326 needy chil-

neediest citizens never make it to the local level.

and the sum was considered the total cost of the

ar.n through the child senice coordination

Kilpatrick and his team undertook the chal-

program in Cleveland County, NC. In rural Swain and Craham Counties, patients faced a daunting

the invitation of Chris Hoke, Assistant State Health

six-month wait for an appointment at the health

Director for the NC Department of Environment,

department's child care clinic. While public health

Health and Natural Resources (DEHNR). Hoke

lenge to revamp the state's cost-finding method at

providers at all of the state's 87 local health depart-

turned to the UNC{H School

ments know services need improving, there simply

of Public Health for several rea-

has not been money available.

0r so it seemed

-ln

Kilpatrick's reputation.

CH researchers proved otherwise.

ing with the people at Medicaid

The state's health departments

will receive an

we knew that they had worked with Dr. Kilpatrick in the past on a major cost study involving

departments were entitled to Medicaid reimburse

this was a researcher recom-

ment all along. For example, in 1992 the cost for treating one child in a clinic was considered to be

mended by Medicaid," Hoke explains. "We re very comfort-

$48.76, and for serving one child through an out-

able working with the school,

reach program t0 be $60.00. According to the new

and we know the quality of the

is $52.69 per

intlinic

treatment

child. For service coordination, the

If properly adjusted for inflation, this figure

could be accurate if labor time and wages were all that go into the cost of providing a screening. But

talk-

fiscal year. The increase is the result of the new methodology that "finds" costs for which the health

methodology, the true cost of

was billed at $37.31 for 1992.

sons, not the least of which was

until a new cost{inding method created by UNC-

additional $12 million in Medicaid funds during this

service. For example, a cancer detection screening

pharmacies, so we knew that

people there," he adds. The University also gains from this kind of collaboration.

actual cost is $80.00. In the past, many of the health care expenses that could have been supported by Medicaid were simply not included in the cost determination

Michel Ibrahim, dean of the School of Public Health. says. "This is the type of qras-roots

process, says Deparlment of Health Policy and

assistance universities can pro-

Administration Chair Kerry

vide to our communities. Dr.

Kilpatrick. Kilpatrick

directed the team of UNC-CH faculty and graduate

Kilpatrick

students that created the new method for determin-

ately applicable with direct

ing the statewide average cost per service for 40

benefit to North Carolinians."

types of health services provided to Medicaid

patients. When costs go unreported, both health

study was immedi-

Since Medicaid reimburses

on a fee per service basis, the state needs a method for accu-

department patients and state taxpayers get short-

rately determining the average

changed. Cunently the federal government covers

cost for providing each of the

about two{hirds of Medicaid service costs in Nofth

health services. In a nutshell,

Carolina. That is, for every dollar state and county

the old method developed rates

governments pay, the federal government pays two.

by asking staff at a few sample

But Medicaid covers reported costs only. If the

health departments to log the

-q

local health department "bills" Medicaid at a rate lower than the actual cost of providing the service,

vices over a one-month period.

Mothers ond infants like this young patient at the Orange Coung child care clinic stand to benefit most from the increased. Medicaid funds, Many

other sources of funds must be used to subsidize

For each service, the time

health department directors report matemal and child health programs to

Medicaid services. Ultimately, funds that should be

estimate of each staff member

be one of their top priorities for improuement.

time they spent providing ser-

E.N.D.E.A.V.O.R.S

improved services-even to services that were previously unavailable to them. As a result of the funds now becoming available, the Swain and Graham Counties'child care clinic has been able to increase staff and

cut waiting time by 50 percent, says District Director R. W. Childers. Jan Eckard, Cleveland County health department administrative assistant, notes that two nurses have been

hired in child coordination service. They are not only alleviating the current caseload, but are also reaching out to children not yet being served. With the new methodology, the cost-finding proces finally enters the aqe of modern technology. Doctoral student Richard Holmes,

who developed the cost models and data collection procedures for the project, also created a Lotus-based

Daniel Reimer, )range Coung health director, and Kerry Kilpattich, chair of health policy and administration, explore the aduantages of IINC{H deueloped cost finding software. The Lotus-based program enables health departments to accurately trach expenses and to determine the auerage cost of proliding Medicaid seruices.

software program of the model. With the efficiency of computerization, Hoke anticipates that DEHNR will soon begin conducting cost studies of the health departments annually.

"ln the past we did cost studies every five to six years-when we could get

around to it," he says. 0f course, he adds, "lf you're

what about the cost of electncity and heat? What

of stepdown allocation for building maintenance,

about the cost of laboratory tests? What about the administration that organizes the clinic? "The old

utilities, administrative costs, etc. until all expenses

not doing a cost study but every five years, then

have been accounted for. Thus the final cost for a

you're losing a bunch of money because you're

method just mised a lot of legitimate costs,"

cancer detection screening, $83.85, now more accurately reflects the true cost of providing that service.

not keeping up with inflation."

Kilpatrick sums up. "These are costs that are bome by the taxpayen and that ought to be supported by

"And that's fair," Kilpatrick asserts. "lf

Moreover, this software has been distributed to all 87 health departments, enabling them to track

Medicaid payment. But if you neglect to include

Medicaid has agreed to reimburse the actual

their own costs accurately and easily. The new

those things in the cost determinations, then the rates

costs, then they should pay their share for all costs

methodology will also enable the health depart-

Medicaid pays will be too low at the local level.' One of the UNC-CH team's priorities was to

properly attributable to Medicaid patients, n0 m0Ie

ments better to negotiate a niche for themselves

and no les."

in the new market evolving out of reforms in the

'find" these unreported expenses and to make

Another major source of inaccuracy in the old method was the small sample size of health depart-

nation's health care system. As Kilpatrick aserts, "There's no reason why

For example, the cost of a cancer screening does

ments-usually only seven to 1&-used to calculate

a local health department couldn't think of itself

involve the sum of the clinicians' wages per time

the statewide average costs. The UNC-CH team

as an accountable health plan to provide services."

spent, as the old method recognized. But it also

increased the sample size to 26 health departments.

However, he continues, "lf they're going to play

involves the management services of the health

These facilities were carefully selected to represent

that role, they're going to have to know what the

department director who keeps the clinic running

all of the state's 87 health departments from urban

costs are, and

every day. Furthermore, a cancer screening often

to rural, wealthy to needy and large to small. The team worked closely with the staffs of

fee schedule to be competitive in the bidding to

these health departments to make the new method

directors didn't have an accurate method to

figures for the director's salary and for the labora'

as user-friendly as posible. William Zelman, profes-

measure their

tory. These figures were gleaned from the state audited expense reports of the individual health

sor of health policy and administration and the team's expert in managerial accounting, notes,

provides them a vehicle to be more competitive

departments. Working from general to specific,

"The local health departments were an integral part

the method breals down the director's salary and

of developing the methodology. We designed a lot of it by going out and asking them, 'What ought to

efits either directly or indirectly. "lt's upgraded our

including the cancer detection clinic. Likewise the method proportionally "shares" the total laboratory

be in here? What makes sense to you?"'

side physicians and many, many things," Columbus

expense among all the clinics that use lab tests in

Medicaid patients can look forward to more

enthuses. She adds with a laugh, "[ wonder some-

their treatments. The method continues this proces

attention from larger staffs and to expanded and

times how we got along without

them a part of the individual costs per service.

entails laboratory tests. The UNC-CH methodology starts with the total

distributes it among all the clinics s/he ove$ees,

Thanks to the fairer reimbursements,

will have to be able to develop

provide services. Previously, health department

costs-now they do. This model

competitive marketplace." Thanks to the new model, the entire state ben-

equipment, our staff, our leverage working with outCounty Health Depa(ment Director Marian Duncan

it." a

E.N.ID.E.A.V.0.R.S

EatingAway at Pollutip

Among the Most Promising Tools for Neutralizing Soil Pollution Are a Host of Tiny )rganisms by Scott Lowry

fitured out just a generation

water was pristine, that the microorganisms had

We're working on cleaning it up, but it's going

0r s0 ago that pollution is a problem.

been filtered out and the pollutants had stuck to all

to take awhile. The problems are large and the

The evidence was everywhere, Irom

the soil particles as the water worked its way down.

resources that are available are growing, but

the perpetual dull haze smudging Los Angeles to

Well, one ol the things we have found is that some

they're still not enough compared to the magnitude

millions of dead fish clogging Lake Erie to the

groundwater's not clean." 0ne ol our biggest envi-

of the problem."

chemical stew oozing underfoot in Love Canal.

ronmental challenges now is t0 clean up the water

Thirty years of research, legislation and coopera-

in our subtenanean aquifers; to do that we must

many towns and along major roads between them.

tion have made a real difference. Air pollution

also clean the soil through which it percolates.

You may occasionally have noticed a large dirt

e finally

alerts in Los Angeles decline in frequency every

That soil is often contaminated with poten-

The problem is as close as the gas stations in

pile, olten covered with plastic sheets, where a

year. Fishing in the Great Lakes is making a come-

tially hazardous stuff. Plumes of gasoline spread

back. Property values in Love Canal-well, two out

beneath many old gas stations. Military bases sit

probably contaminated by leakage from the large

of three isn't bad. Besides, the problems of Love

atop vast pools of various petrochemicals, volatile

storage tanks. To get rid of that contamination, the

Canal are a long way from Chapel Hill, right?

organic compounds, even toxins seeping from

soil is usually dug up and trucked to a landfill.

chemicals dumped as long ago as the end of

Cleaning up such a gas station, a smail job com-

are not as far away as many think, warns Frederic

World War II. No state is exempt from the eco-

pared to many contaminated sites, typically can

Pfaender of the Department of Environmental

logical nightmares of legal and illegal chemical

cost as much as $800,000 to $1,000,000.

Problems asociated with soil pollution

Sciences and Engineering. The UNC-CH

profesor

dumps and spills.

has spent years studying soil pollution and innova-

cleaning tools. Now he is increasingly directing his efforts to getting environmental experts together t0

leam from each other and to better educate those outside their field. As information accumulates,

approach takes advantage of the fact that nature

"We're mouing into an era where the really

significant questions, whether it's global climate change or deforestation or

the experts need to bring it before the public and

biodiuersig or uhateuer issues you uant to tolh about, are not going to be addressed

policy-makers who know Iittle about the problems

by indiu idual researchers, "

involved. For instance, many people do not realize

has provided us with a more efficient way t0 get rid

of contaminants. Living in the ground are countles

microorganisms-bacteria, of

ungi, even some kinds

worms-just waiting for the chance to take a bite

out of pollution. They work cheap, too. Pfaender estimates that using bioremediation to degrade

leakage from a gas station can cost as little as $100,000 to $200,000.

that it is our need for clean water that places a

premium on understanding processes in the soil.

Those big numbers are causing many to turn

to a cleanup technique called bioremediation. This

tive ways to clean up the mes, particularly techniques that use microorqanisms, nature's own

gas station was recently demolished. That soil was

While the lower cost of bioremediation is "North Carolina's problems may be trivial rela-

attractive to companies with toxic sites, researchers

"Half of all the people in this country drink groundwater," says Pfaender. "Until the early 1980s,

tive to places like New Jeney, Ohio, Pennsylvania

and regulators are excited by how thorough the

and New York," Pfaender says. "But we certainly

microorganisms are. As Pfaender puts it, "lf you do

we had always made the asumption that ground-

have contamination here, just Iike anyplace does.

physical-chemical methods, Iike air stripping where

the contaminants, what have you done? You've

Some chemicals are more difficult to clean up than

is relating the microbial breakdown activity to toxicrty," Pfaender says. "We found that during

you pump air through waste material and volatilize

It isn't always so simple, Pfaender continues.

transferred them from the water or soil to the air.

are petroleum hydrocarbons. Two such contami-

the cleanup of trichloroethylene, the microbes are

You haven't gotten rid of them; all you've done is

nants are polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and

move them. It's the same thing if you dig the conta-

volatile organic compounds.

producing a metabolic by-product that's actually more toxic than the trichloroethylene. Its existence

minated soil up and carry it away. You've iust moued il. The advantage of using microorganisms

hydrocarbons into the soil on a large scale for ovel

We have been dumping polynuclear aromatic

is transitory, but if someone were to use that

water

halfway through the proces or not run the treat-

a century. The Environmental Protection Agency

ment system properly, they might have something

break it down into its mineral elements. It's not just moved. it's gone. Other than some very expensive

estimates that as many as 3,000 sites are contami-

that's more toxic. And polynuclear aromatic hydro-

nated with wood treating wastes. "lt started when

carbons are toxic compounds to start with, so if you

incineration and chemical oxidation techniques, it's the only technology that actually gets rid of the

we started building railroads acros this country

clean up 50 percent of them with some bioremedia-

and we wanted railroad ties that didn't rot," he

tion strategr, that really may have very little impact

contaminants."

explains. "Creosote's what we used. What's

on the toxicity. In Iact it's the toxicity that we care

creosote? Creosote's a mixture ol polynuclear

about: an 80 percent reduction's lovely, but if it's

is that when they break

Bioremediation

down pollution, they often

is thorough because of

fundamental differences between our metabolisms and those of microorganisms. "lf you or l-or any

animal-qet a toxin into our body, we use the strategl of metabolizing it one or two steps, then com-

aromatic hydrocarbons, a bunch of chemicals that are very, very hazardous." Other soil pollutants result from more recent activities,

bining it with some natural molecule and excreting

Pfaender says. "Volatile organic

it," Pfaender explains. "The animal body isn't concerned with utilizing the stuff, it's just concemed

compounds (VOC), things like

with getting rid of it. For microorganisms in the

trichloroethylene (TCE), are the pollutant of the '90s. They're

soil or water, it's a different strategy. For them, it's

every.where, because for three

potentially something to eat. But they need a bal-

generations these chemicals were

anced diet, if you will. If they're going to break

used as degreasers. They're still

down something completely that has carbon as

used as degreasers. When you

parl of the molecule, they also need nitrogen and

take a machine apart, what's the

phosphorus. 0ne part of bioremediation strategy

first thing you do? You clean the

is to provide the rest of the things in their diet that

grease off of it, of course. When

they need."

you're done, you've got dirty solvent. What do you do with it? For several generations, we dumped

While the lower cost of bioremediation is attractiue to companies uith toxic sites, researchers and regulators are excited by

hou thorough the microorganisms are.

it on the ground. The groundwater becomes contaminated

with VOCs

as it percolates

through the ground."

Bioremediation may be

good way to get rid of these pollutants, but we need to understand

Sometimes, as in the cleanup of the oil spill

what happens down there.

in Alaska's Prince William Sound after the wreck

Pfaender emphasizes that we

of the Exxon Valdez in March 1989, we can fairly

must be concerned with more

easily bring the necesary nutrients to the pollution,

than whether cerlain microbes

with spectacular results. 0nce containment and

can break down a specific chemi-

removal efforls were complete, says Pfaender. the

cal. He is pleased that his group at

! I I

best gues was that natural weathering proceses

the University has taken a leading

would take about seven years to break down the

role in understanding what hap-

residue from the ll-million-gallon spill. But the

pens as microorganisms feed on

EPA and Exxon stimulated microorganisms able

Among the tools used to clean up this I l-milliongallon spill of crude oil

to break down crude oil. cutting clean-up time

contaminants in soil. "The contribution I'm

in half.

proudest of from our work at UNC

that cut the process from an estimated seuen years to less than four.

on the beaches of Prince William Sound, Alasha, were microorganisnts

TIiQ

become engineering questions. We're moving towards the applications phase: how do you take the science that we understand in the laboratory

and move it out into the real world in a practical, cost-effective way?" Pfaender has decided to serue as an administrator as well as a researcher. He is now the director

I', I \l

[-L

of the Carolina Federation of Environmental

-l

Programs, established last fall to promote environ-

mental research, teachinq and service across the University's depa(ments, institutes and pr0grams. The Federation is also working to increase collaborative research among universities in the Research Triangle (Pfaender notes that environmental research strengths at UNC-CH, North Carolina State

and Duke University complement each other with

very little overlap) and to communicate with policy-makers at the local, state and federal Ievel. His

{

new job, Pfaender acknowledges, will not be easy. "A large part of what the Federation is about,"

says Pfaender, "is getting groups of people to

communicate and work together. That's hard for universities, because for the last two generations we've hired people based on their ability to func-

tion

as independent entrepreneurs. Now we're

Professor Frederic Pfaender and doctoral student Lisa Carmichael of the Department of Enuironmental Sciences and

moving into an era where the really significant

Engineering study microorganisms to determine their effectiueness for cleaning up a Superfund site in Minnesota.

questions, whether it's global climate change or deforestation or biodiversity or whatever issues you want to talk about, are not going to be addresed

still toxic, then you're not succesful."

there's more than one organism involved. The

by individual researchers. The diffrcult issue is

processes out in the real world generally are not

simply getting people to work together, getting

to elimination of toxins is a natural result of

catalyzed by individual organisms but by groups

people to be comfortoble working together."

Pfaenders emphasis on understanding what goes

of organisms, by what we call consortia. Different

on not in the laboratory but in the outside world.

types of organisms working together as a consor-

He argues that because the soil is such a complex

tium can do some things that the individual

"We're mouing towards the applications

environment, no laboratory experiment can hope

organisms can'1."

phase: how do you take the science that

Looking beyond breakdown of contaminants

to replicate it exactly. Indeed, the very techniques

Just because the organisms are out there

that provide the control needed for laboratory

doesn't mean they are always going to clean up

experiments produce potentially unrealistic results. biologists have spent the past century perfecting

pollution. Pfaender cites the persistence of trichloroethylene contamination as a good example. "Trichloroethylene is actually a fairly fragrle chemi-

techniques to study individual cultures of organ-

cal. There are a lot of dilferent microbial mecha-

isms, such methods offer limited usefulness in

nisms that break it down. Which raises the question

understanding basic processes in soil.

of why's there so much of it around? We need to

For instance, Pfaender points out that while

"lf someone uere to use that uater

halfway through the process or not run the treatment system properly, they might haue something that's more toxic."

"We've made a mistake for a long time by

we understand in the laboratory and moue it out into the real uorld in a practical, cost<ffectiDe uay?"

Still, people are learning to work together. The progress he has seen in his two decades at

understand what to do to make those organisms

the University makes Pfaender optimistic about

that we know are out there do it. It turns out that the en4rmes that break the TCE down need to be

our campaign to minimize soil pollution. "Bioremediation is a whole area of endeavor that

turned on; the organisms need the proper signal to

didn't exist

turn those enzymes on. Well, we need to find ways

ordinary economic potential and potential to

to get the signal there."

solve some of the environmental problems that

While there are still many such questions to be answered about how bioremediation works,

are out there, to make this a better, cleaner place

Pfaender believes that research will soon take a new direction. "We're trying to figure out where

to live."

15 years

ago. lt's one that has extra-

Professor Pfaender's reseorch discussed

this orti-

Iooking at individual organisms," he says. "We were thinking, 'Well, maybe we just don't know which

and for what pollutants bioremediation works and where it doesn't," he says. "We're coming close to

knob to turn or which button to push to make the

the point where we understand the biology well

Department of Energy of $122,000 and a three-yeor gront hom the National lnstitute for Enuironmentol

bugs do what we want.' What we've learned is

enough that many of the remaining questions will

ond Health Sciences of $508,000.

cle is funded in part by o onelear grant hom the

E.N.D.E.A.V.0.R.S

Smiling and Beautiful National Geographic's Photographs of Non-Westerners Help Put Americans at Ease by Dottie Hom

knowledge. In the proces, the reading public's

s Digest," say Lutz and Collins. The

wo profesors were eating lunch in a cam-

Reader

pus pub when the students around them

Geographic alimates that 37 million people world-

original vision of what was interesting or aestheti-

burst into cheers. [t was 1983. and a television had just announced that the United States had

wide see each isue. lndependent market research indicates that as many as 20 percent of all

cally pleasing about the world outside United States

invaded Grenada. The professors, Catherine Lutz

American adults look at each isue.

by its presentation as scientific fact." With its selec-

Founded in 1888, the Socieg was a burgeon-

and Jane Collins, then asistant profeson at the State University of New York at Binghamton, were

astounded.

-We

wondered what reality the wound-

ing profesional organization for its first

publishing

a scientif ic

10 years,

journal called,Natronol

Geographic. In 1889, the inventorAlexander

borders was validated, elaborated, and heightened tively chosen facts backed up by the Society's

scientific aura, the Geographic is in a unique and powerful position to create an image of the nonWestern world.

ed and dying Grenadians had for those students," say Lutz and Collins in their recently published

Graham Bell became head of the Society. Bell

book. "Had they heard of Grenada before that day?

hired Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor to build circulation

authority and prestige, Lutz and Collins turned

Did they know anl,thing of the history of U.S. inter-

to the photographs themselves. 0ne-quarter to

vention in the Caribbean? What preexisting Iideas] about America and the third world did they hold?"

him to make lValrbnol Ceographic les like a scholarly journal and more like popular magazines like flapers. 1899, encouraging

The magazine's editorial policy, in place since

The professors further wondered what role the

After looking into reasons for the Society's

onefifth of all Geographic articles feature nonWesterners. Lutz and Collins'sample consisted of

one randomly selected photograph from each of

American media had had in creating these

it was first articulated by Grosvenor in 1915, indi-

the 594 articles featuring non-Western people

students' ideas about the third world.

cates that 'nothing must be printed which is not

published between 1950 and 1986. Studying

strictly according to fact," that'everything printed

photographs from this period allowed the

pology at UNC{H, and Collins is an asociate

in the Magazine must have permanent value,'and

researchers to look at the effects of decolonization

profesor of sociology at the University of

that "nothing of a partisan or controversial charac-

and the Vietnam War. The researchers looked at 22

Wisconsin. The two have collaborated on a

ter is printed." By claiming to be strictly accurate,

specific characteristics of each photograph, allow-

research proiect evolving out of the questions that arose that day. "Our interest was, and is, in

non-partisan and of enduring value, the magazine "presents itself as on a mision that is educational,

ing for a quantification of pattems in the magazine.

the making and consuming of images of the nonWestem world," say the researchers. "We [want] to

scientific, and benign," say Lutz and Collins.

age of those depicted, whether people are smiling

know what [the] popular [media] tells Americans about who 'non-Westerners' are, what they want,

augment the Society's prestige. During World War

photograph, whether it focuses on a ritual, whether

Il, the Society furnished maps to the U.S. Army

there is female or male nudity, and whether the

and what our relationship is to them." Lutz and

Map Service and other government organizations.

people photographed look at the camera.

Collins chose to study a respected and powerful

"lts 1944 map of japan was used for planning air

Lutz is now an associate professor of anthro

Close ties to the federal govemment further

Characteristics studied included world location, the in the photograph, whether Westerners are in the

In addition, the researchers considered photo-

institution which regularly presents the rest 0f the

offensives against Japan," say Lutz and Collins.

graphic elements including color and composition.

world to Americans National Geogrophic maga'

"lts spellings of geographic locations were adopted

They looked at how the sample image related to

zine. Having more influence than the magazine's

by major wire services in the 1940s." Through its

other photographs in the article and at captions

text are its photos: Geogrcphrc marketing research

self-presentation, f ederal ties, scientif ic origins

explaining the sample photograph. Lutz and Collins

8l percent

and sponsorship of research, the Society today

were then ready to map out pattems in the images

maintains a reputation as a scientific institution.

Nationol Geographlc presents of the third world.

indicates that while

of subscribers

habitually look at all of the photographs, only

However, theGeoqrophic relies on reader

percent read all or most of the stories. Lutz and

The Nationol Geographic photograph, not

Collins chose to study photographs of non-

subscriptions for income and to attract further

surprisingly to those who have looked at the

Westemen in the magazine. The result is their

revenue from advertising. Its goals are not only

book, Reoding National Geogrophrc, published

to educate, but also to build circulation through entertaining its readers. "Editors tended to choose

magazine, p0rtrays non-Westemers as exotic. -Nearly one-fifth of all photographs with nonWesterners in them feature people engaged in or

photographs that were likely to appeal to an

preparing for a

selves, the researchers delved into the National

American audience," explain Lutz and Collins,

Geographic Society's history, trying to discover

citing

nanow sense of sacred and formally organized group behavior," say Lutz and Collins. "ln more

how the magazine has become such a revered

tographs the grotesquely exotic, including

American institution. " lN otiono I Geo graphic'sl subscription rate is the third largest for magazines

tographs of cannibalism, mutilation or tatoo. "These [images] were then fed back to the reading

in the United States-following W Guide and

public

by the Univenity ol Chicago pres in 1993. Before looking at the photographs them-

as one category

of interest-getting pho-

as examples of the latest, brightest,

pho

scientific

ritual-ritual being defined in the

than half of the photographs in the sample set, the non-Westerner is shown in indigenous dres, tribal Iashion, and/or ritual costume. "Exoticism involves the creation of an other

E.N.D.E.A.V.O.R.S

who

but-at

imp0rtant-beauti-

Iin our sample] show one or more people smiling,"

in native dres of lavalava and loincloth use micro-

ful," say Lutz and Collins. The people depicted in

say Lutz and Collins. Americans' idealization of

scopes and pipettes in their clasrooms. The bright

strange

least as

Geographic photographs are not only diflerent, but

youth

are often picturesque and sexually alluring. "The

percent of photos in the magazine include at least

Indian woman is often dressed not simply in an

one older person and an older person is fore

crosed." Images like this one suggest that while the

everyday sari, but in a gold-embroidered one, and she is festooned with jewelry," say Lutz and Collins.

grounded in only a fraction of those photos.

West is seen as changing, and as an active agent of

As part of the magazine's idealization, it rarely shows non-Westerners engaged in conflict. "0nly

the change in its society, non-Westerners are seen

Appealingly clad the people photographed become objects of beauty, glamorous entities laid out on

four photographs from the entire sample show local

origin, and changing only now, in response to con-

the page for the Westem viewer's consumption.

people fighting or threatening to fight or giving

tact with Western civilization and modernization.

The photographed people's human

depth-their

is also reflected in the magazine:

only

evidence of previous violence," say Lutz and

lighting and the smiles seen in these pictures suggest that the threshold to modernity has been

as static, not having evolved since their societies'

"0ne of the themes of our book

is the

kind of

feelings, circumstances, and history-are often

Collins. "ln fully twelve percent of our sample pho-

work the lVolrbnal Geographic does for readers who

subjugated in the photographic image to the aes-

tographs, however, there is some military presence,

have anxieties about their place in the world," says

thetic appeal of their feathery headdreses or

particularly men in uniform. In these photos, the

Lutz, indicating that the book reassures readers that

streals of colorful body paint. The focus on dress

military

is presented as a regular, not unpleasant

and activity draws attention away from more sub-

part of everyday life in the third world, but is rarely

stantial differences and conflicts of interest that

seen in internal or cross-national conflict." Lutz and

may exist between cultures and "make[s] the entire n0ti0n of difference among people easily

Collins consider the magazine's coverage of the Vietnam War: "An early article in October 1961

digestible," say Lutz and Collins.

shows little evidence of the war itself. Only two of

Moreover, the magazine suggests that in the

its fortytwo pictures show soldiers, one of training

ways that really matter, beneath their dress and

exercises, the other of a patrol headed through and

rituals, non-Westerners are Iike us. The Ceographic's

dwarfed by a magnificently ornate city gate in Hue. Three pictures, on the other hand, focus on beauti-

depictions of non-Westem women are one way in

which the magazine draws parallels between

ful young women, with captions describing one

Western and non-Western culture. "The [nonWestern] woman is exotic 0n the surface (she is

with a 'face

dressed in an elaborate sari and has a golden nose

ring) but her difference

is erased at another, deeper

as radiant as the moon' or generalizing to 'the grace and charm of Vietnamese women."'

Lutz and Collins reflect on the effects of such

idealization. Representing non-Westerners as

level (she is really just a mother, and like the

healthy and happy, as neither suffering nor hungry,

American woman, interested in making herself

allays any anxieties Westerners may have about a

beautiful through fashion)," say Lutz and Collins.

need to change the world and help those in need,

"Photographs of women become one of the

say the researchers.

primary devices by which the magazine depicts 'universal human values,' and these include the

non-Westerners as timeles. For example, many

values of family love and the appreciation of emale beauty itsell." Geograp hrc photographs

TheGeographic also tends t0 present photographs of ritual in the magazine are accompa-

present the mother<hild relationship as timeless

nied by text indicating that the ritual is part of an ancient tradition. "The caption to a 1962 photo

and sacred, as "esentially and intensely loving

graph of a New Guinea marriage feast notes that

regardles of social and historical context," say the

'tribal life still lies locked in millenniumsold pat-

researchers. A picture that recurs intheGeogrophic is

ol a non-Western infant asleep in a cradle with its

terns,"' say the researchers. The Geographrc thus suggests that these rituals are timeless rather than

mother visible behind. Peaceful and harmles, the

a contemporary event that has evolved through

sleeping infant serves to neutralize any threatening

time into its present form.

difference between the adult in the photograph and the viewer, say Lutz and Collins.

ldealization

is another feature of

The Geogrophic also favors images and text that contrast ancient and Westem ways of life.

Notionol

Museum of Natural History, which never preserr'es

Often, the magazine seems to present only two worlds, say the researchers: "the world before 'the West' and its technological and social progress came t0 'the rest'and the world after. The narrative

old or feeble elephants or zebras for display. Until

structure of many images is one of progres or

Geogrophic's images of non-Westerners. Lutz and Collins compare the magazine to the American

the late 1970s, the ill, pockmarked, deformed, and

modernization." For example, the researchers

hungry were almost never present in,Nolrbnol

give the title of an article: "Progress and Pageantry

Geographic. Even since the late 1970s, these people

in Changing Nigeria: Bulldozers and penicillin,

have been presented only sparingly, in marked con-

science and democracy come to grips with colorlul

trast to the images presented by much of the

age-old customs in Britain's largest colony" (1956).

American media, of war and starvation in non-

The researchers describe one photograph, pub-

Western countries. "Almost onethird of all photos

lished in a 1967 afticle on Micronesia: "Teenagers

E.N.D.E.A.V.OrR.S

people in other societies are much like them, share

people we spoke with expresed little skepticism

people in the third world and about how the United

common goals that are not in conflict with

about the photos as oblective documents,' say

States relates to third-world countries.

American goals, and are not living in poverty or

Lutz and Collins.

unhappines. It

is the

popularity of this message

How has the National Geographic Society

What effect does Lutz hope the book will

responded to the book, which has been reviewed

New York Times,The Neu Yorher, Science

that is largely responsible for the magazine's

have? "We would want people to have picked up

popularity, says Lutz.

the idea that you can do a critical reading of mas media photographs,'she says. "There are so many

magazine, The Notion and other publications? The

The

themselves, the researchers also set out to find how

ways in which a photograph can be a culturally

public aflairs oifice responds to inquiries with the statement: 'The National Geographic Society has

others read them. They interviewed 56 people,

constructed view of the subject. We hope to have

no comment on this book, except to say that it is

asking them a set of questions gauged t0 get at theil

taught people how to look at things like vantage

in our opinion without merit or relevance." Lutz

thinking about cultural differences. In addition, they presented each person with a set of 20 pho tographs from Notional Geographic, and asked him

point or to wonder about the selection proceses for this picture, to wonder which photographs were left out." The authors' other goal for the book is to

recalls what happened when she participated in a

or her to comment on each photograph. "The

encourage Americans to examine their ideas about

Not wanting to simply read the photographs

discussion of the book on National Public Radio's program "Talk of the Nation." "Some Geogrophic photographers were ready to join in on the discussion, and then were told not to participate," she says. "So,

Ithink there

is a diversity of

opinion

among staff members at the magazine." Given the researchers' Iargely critical reading of Geographic photographs, what does Lutz think is the magazine's most positive attribute? It is one of the few places where large numbers of Americans can find images of other cultures, says Lutz. "While they'd have to do this imaginative work themselves, readers might imagine a critique of our own society based on seeing that people elsewhere live in

different ways." Lutz also notes that while race

clearly

is an

isue in the magazine, lhe Geographic

hasn't presented heavily racist stereotypes. "[t is unlike some other American media outlets Iike

Hollywood movies that have horrible distortions and racist images," says Lutz. Having written the book, what does Lutz now think about the original question which was the impetus for the research: Why were those students cheering the U.S. invasion of Grenada? "[ would

gues a lot of those students had no idea where or what Grenada was," says Lutz. "The unreality of a lot of the,Natronol Geographic pictures corresponds to the unreality that the Grenadian people had for the students during the invasion." Lutz attributes lhe Geographic's unreality to the magazine's neglecting the history of non-Western cultures and instead presenting non-Westerners as timeles until they come into contact with the West. "lf you don't talk about history and about why people might o L E

! 6

actually be diflerent from us and have different goals, then you can't explain why, for example,

Saddam Husein invaded Kuwait. You can't explain conflicts of interest. You can't explain how people might feel dilferently about questions like, 'Who owns the oil of Kuwait?' or'What is America's place

in the world?' The Geographic rarely challenges

Contrasts between ancient and Westem ways of life are a fauorite theme in National Geographic photographs

people to question American goodnes and power

of non-Westemeru, says associale professor of anthropologt Catherine Lutz. Photographs /ifte tftts one, tahen in the city of Fez el Bali, Morocco, and published in the March 1986 National Geographic, suggest that the

and its place. Its kindly view of the rest of the world has involved decades of not covering the unpleas-

cultures of non-Westemers are unchanging until contact with the West brings new ways of life. Sugesting

ant facts of pove(y and of subtly suggesting

that these Moroccans are acquiing a teleuision, the picture inplies that the people depicted aspire to a

American culture is what all aspire to. Our way

more Westem lifestyle.

of life goes unquestioned."

A Profile

VITA

Pamela Conoaer Seven yean ago, the project was just getting

means to be a citizen? Sure, you voted in

political groups do you strongly disagree with? How much would you mind if your child's teacher was a

started. Today boxes and boxes full of data crowd

the election last November (didn't you?),

member of such a group? Do you consider yourself

Conover and Searing's offices. Already the proces

to be a good citizen? These and numerous other

of turning that data to useful information is under-

survey questions, along with focus groups, partici-

way, and Conover doesn't expect to lack things to

pant observation and community histories, help

do for a while. "This research project on citizenship is going

ave you given much thought to what it

but did you think about whether that makes you a good citizen?

0r do you just take it for granted?

Pamela Conover is not one to take citizenship

for granted. A profesor at the UNC-CH political

Conover and Searing determine how people in

science depa(ment for

these communities practice citizenship and how

10 years, she has

been fasci-

nated for at least twice that long with citizenship in all its aspects. Citizenship is not just an abstract

they socialize the next qeneration to become citizens.

book will have to do with the practice, the actual

Exploring citizenship is the guiding principle

with the nature of political communities, the role of qender in politics and the role of citizens-how citizens learn how to participate in politics and

How do you feel whenyou see someone burn

your country's flag? Do you recycle? What political groups do you strongly disogree with? Do you consider yourself to be a good citizen?

how they make their decisions," Conover says. "There's a lot more to citizenship than just

ing our first book on citizenship, having to do with the cultural and psychological context. The second

concept to Conover, it is an integral part of her life. for her research. "My research interests have to do

to occupy me for quite some time," she says with a laugh. "My husband and I are in the middle of writ-

voting," she continues. "We have a lot more respon-

behaviors. I've also begun work on a book on deliberation and discusion and the role they play in a democracy using the same data. I have projects strung out for the next

10 years."

These books are not intended just for other political scientists, Conover emphasizes. "We are

deliberately writing so that they're not written in

sibilities. We have a responsibility to discuss

academic jargonese, so that they are acces-

things, we have a responsibility to make

srble to the public. If people have a better

reasonable demands, we have a responsr-

undentanding of what their responsibilities

bility to work, to obey the laws, to educate our children to be good citizens."

their rights are

as citizens, that

citizenship. I hope that l0years from now

Wanting to understand how we live up to those responsibilities-and

well

can only help to improve the practice of that I could say that this citizenship project

rights-

in daily life, Conover and her co-researcher

would be something that would have

and husband Donald Searing, a political

broader impact than the normal academic project."

science profesor at Carolina who special-

The best place to implement these

izes in British politics, are immersed in an

ambitious project to compare what citizen-

lindings, Conover believes, is the educa-

ship means to a cross-section of residents

tional system. She anticipates that the civic

of the United States and England.

education component of the project will

ultimately lead to practical recommenda-

They are comparing responses from three very different cities in the United

tions for high schools and universities as

States with three corresponding cities in

they grapple with an increasingly frag-

England: "We looked at a farming commu-

mented society. But Conover isn't waiting

nity in Minnesota and a farming community

to apply what she learns from the project;

in the Yorlshire dales, a decaying urban

she already uses it to improve her teaching.

community in Philadelphia and one in Manchester. and for our yuppie community.

the political community, because that's

our upper middle class community, we

closely tied to the research I'm doing on

looked at Cary, North Carolina, and

citizenship," she says. "We try and create a

"My favorite is the course I teach in

Brentwood, which is a suburb of London,"

community in the clasroom-we have

says Conover. "ln addition, we went to an

weels to become a community-and stu-

old Hispanic neighborhood in San Antonio

dents learn what norms mean and what

so that we could deal with immierant popu-

happens when they violate norms. We have

community-clas-projects and they learn

lations in the United States."

when they don't do their share people are

How do you feel when you see some-

going to get angry at them. They learn

one burn your country's flag? Do you recycle? Would you recycle if the president

hofessor Pamela Conouer is excited rather than intimidated by the tow-

about the importance of civility and patrio

asked everyone to? Would you turn down

ering boxes holding data on citizenship she has collected with colleague

tism and discusion and deliberation in a

the furnace or start riding the bus? What

ond husband Donald Searing.

democracy. It's a lot of work for me and it's

WHAT IS.,.

'/'.^

4l*.

Frl

ffir ,.w,

A Carolina Professor Explain* An ampersand, explains Profesor David Canz of the Department of Clasics, is a ligature. That is, it is a symbol created by

joining letters into

new form. In this case. the letters are

a single

and T: Latin

el corresponds to English and. Lea{ing through photos and facsimiles ol ancient manuscripts, Ganz shows that the ampersand has taken various foms over the centuries and

it.*

lra

Citizenship includes not onb' duties lihe Doting but ulso cc,tmmunit,v actiuilies lhat help bring people tuQether, us ntembers of the Cut Tou,n Band can testih'.

acros cultures in medieval Europe. Some clearly show the et on which they are based, some look more like our numeral 7 than anything else and some from as far back as the seventh century look just like a modern ampenand. Some inscriptions from the third century use a monogram for the letters

'el' within

words, and

doeument in sixth<entury Roman cunive writing

uses a sort of tilted-umbrella shape for the same

"Teaching shills

iusl as important as teaching

purpose. Not until the seventh century do we find a

knouledqe. A sood liberal arts education does both

ligature used for the conjunction et. meaning ond. Contrary to one imaginative theory. there was not a calligrapher named Amper who created the symbol and lor whom it was subsequently named:

"Ampefs and.' a lot o[ u'ork for the students. but it works because Im

verl excitecl by'it and I can brinq the research

she accepts the iloLk as a chance to parlicipate in

thc communit-v. She is currentll, chair of the Under-

that l'm doinq right at that moment into the class-

gradLrate Task Force, which is part of the current

room. It gets the students excited abolit the topics

Reaccreditation Study and co-chairs the Univeisitv

too and. rnore important. gets students to think

Commithe on the Status of Women. 'The unil,ersitl,

about lhem.'

is a

community and lust like anv other communih

rvhat Conover finds rnosl imporlant in a college edLrcation. "ln terms of turn-

you have to do some rvork to maintain the ties with-

inq out people ready'to play a part in societv. it mat-

become a series of workstations as opposed to an

ten

intellectual and learning community,"

This

abilih to think

less that the1, know and have memorized thc

mechanics of some electoral proces than that the-t

in the corrrnunitv. If I'ou don t do that, then you

So whit lr is

{'lnorer'S

mOSt

impnnant , ,rrrtri-

understand what questions the! need [o ask lvhen

bution

thei confront something in the future. Teachrng

Committee work? None of lhe above, she savs.

skills is iust as imporlant as teaching knowledge. A qorid liberal arls education does both."

It's raising her hvo sons. "Teenage bovs are a real

But citizenship in the academic setting goes

as a citizen? Is it teaching? Her research?

challenge. so Ispend a lot rif time riding roughshod

The word 'ampersand" is instead a contraclion ol and per se ond, the most common old name for the eI ligature. This Latin phrase means "& (the As the impenancl's

nime

has shortened, so

has its status diminished. Once medieval scribes

used it withoul a second thought in everything from government charters to Bibles. School children a

couple centuries ago began the alphabet with per se a" and ended it with "and per se and."

But now the alphabet ends with z, and styls books unanimously caution against using the ampersand except when part ol a company's

oificial name. The once proud ligature has become little more than a curlicue above the seven on vour computer keyboard.

over them and making sure I turn #iem into good

bevond teaching students to be good citizens,

little citizens. Turning out new iittle human beings

Professors, Conover stresses, hal'e responsibilities

that will fit into society is a difficult, under-

Go oheod: Shore that question thot's been distracting wu from your own wark. Wite

not onlv outsrde the unil ersrn' but rvithin. Some

appreciated contribution. Being a parent has

Endeauors at CB* 4100 ar call 96&5625

mav shudder at the thouqht of committee wotk. but

been the most rewarding thing I ve done.' o

ond ue'll find someone to onswer it.

Student Reseorch

SCHOLARLY PURSUITS The Road to Immortality ome people may long for immortality, but we wouldn't want to wish that fate on all the

individual cells in our bodies. Most normal

p53 and retinoblastoma Gb) proteins. The virus' E6 protein attaches to the cell's p53 protein and promotes its degradation. The virus' E7 protein binds to

human cells are mortal: after a finite number of cell

the cell's rb protein, preventing it from performing

doublings, they die. Most cancerous cells, however,

its normal functions.

are immortal. As they divide and spread, they steal

These two cellular proteins that are inactivat-

the body's nutrients from normal cells which have

ed by the virus have well-documented functions.

vital functions to perform. It

They both help keep the cell from growing too

is because of this

ability

to grow beyond their normal lifespan that they posses the power to kill. Despite its consuming growth, a cancerous

cell

is not an intruder from outside the body,

but

much. Studies suggest that the p53 protein serves as a checkpoint: before the cell divides, the p53 pro-

tein works with other proteins to locate and repair any damage to the DNA. "By inactivating these cel-

rather a healthy cell that has gone aslray. En route Io

lular proteins, the virus is telling the cell to continu-

becoming cancerous, the normal cell g0es thr0ugh

ally grow," says White.

an unknown number of changes in its DNA. This acquisition of genetic instability may lead to what

0nce infected with the hunan papillomavirus

biologists call the cell's transformation to immortali-

proteins, White's cells fall into one of three Qroups: those producing both the E6 and E7 viral proteins;

gene or of an entire chromosome? Doctoral student

ty. But, what is the proces by which a normal cell's

those producing only the E6; and those producing

Alicia White wants to understand the genetic abena-

genes are thus led astray? Where do the changes

only the E7. Immediately after a cell begins produc-

tions that may be the first step a healthy cell tahes

begin? "What happens in that window between a

ing viral protein, White tests it to see if it is genetical-

on the path to becoming immortal and possibly cancerous.

normal cell and the immortalization of that cell?"

ly unstable. She looks for a form of genomic

asls Alicia White, doctoral student in the

instability called gene amplification, which means

Curriculum of Cenetics and Molecular Biology.

that there are more than the usual number of a par-

Along with her advisor, Thea Tlsty, associate profes-

ticular gene.

sor of pathology, White is seeking answers to these

questions.

iments with keratinocyte cells, which are a type of

pro

"Cells expresing both the E6 and the E7

teins, or only the E6 protein, had a detectable

To study genetic changes that may set in

Why does a cell suddenly gain an extra copy of a

fie

epithelial cell. Epithelial cells, found in mucous membranes like the mouth, cervix, the lining of the

quency of gene amplification," says White. ln cells

stomach and the deep skin layers, are the types of

motion a cell's progression to cancer, White must

that expresed only the E7 protein, the genomic

cells normally infected by the human papillo-

have some way of inciting cancerous developments

instability was of a different form. Rather than see-

mavirus. White initially studied fibroblast cells

in the strain of healthy human cells in her laborato-

ing an increase in single genes, which are the units

because she wanted to study cells before they had

ry. While most cancers are not associated with a virus, some are. In particular, cervical cancer in

out of which chromosomes are made, she saw

immortalized. While fibroblasts infected with the

duplications of entire chromosomes. These findings

human papillomavirus rarely immortalize,

women is often asociated with the human papillo-

suggest that genomic instability may be the first

keratinocytes infected with the same virus more

mavirus type 16. "Ninety percent of cervical cancer

change that a normal cell undergoes in its conver-

often do. However, now that she has studied that

cells from patients have a copy of type 16 of the virus in them," says White. To put her healthy labo-

sion to a cancerous cell. The results also suqqest that the p53 and rb proteins play important roles in

window before immortalization, White wants to see

ratory cells on the road to cancer, White puts them

a cell's transformation to cancer.

ical host cell.

in contact with proteins of the human papillo-

White next looked at the three groups of viral

how the virus affects cells of the same type as its typWhite says that her main goal is to better

protein-producing cells to see whether their cycle of

understand how cells acquire the genomic instabili-

cells provide a model of the normal cell's transfor-

growth was normal. When exposed to chemothera-

ty which may be the first step a healthy cell takes

mation to a cancerous cell.

peutic drugs, normal cells arrest their regular growth

cycle-they do not continue to proceed towards

toward immortality. "What celluar events turn on this rearranging of the genome?" she asks. "lt seems

cell division. In such a case, says White, "lt could be

that the cell's p53 gene may be a major player in

that these cells sense that there is a sub-optimal con-

this story." 0ther studies, which looked at cells from

dition for growth." When White exposed her viral

patients whose cervical cancer was not asociated with the human papillomavirus, have also implicat-

mavirus virus type

16.

The changes that ensue in the

The human papillomavirus, like all viruses, is a parasite. Merely

nucleic acid surrounded by a

protein coat, not even meeting all the criteria of life, a virus must invade a

living cell in order to repro-

protein-manufacturing machinery to produce pro-

protein-producing cells to the chemotherapeutic drug PALA, the cells continued to grow. "What that

teins dictated by its own DNA. The viral DNA may

told us," says White, "is that these cells are lacking

integrate into the cell's DNA so that every time the

the proper regulation of their growth cycle.'' This

proteins, which caused the cells to produce ver-

cell divides, it will replicate the virus

finding was the same whether the cells were pro-

sions of these proteins that were incapable of per-

ducing only the E6 protein, only the E7, or both.

forming their jobs. Whether the p53 and rb proteins

duce. 0nce inside a cell, the virus uses the cell's

as well.

0nce the human papillomavirus type

invades a cell, its DNA dictates that the cell produce

ed the p53 and rb proteins. In these studies, the can-

cerous cells had mutated genes for the p53 and rb

To finish her doctoral research, White is

are inactivated by viral intervention or are simply

repeating the experiments described above with a

too mutated to function properly, the lack of the

The E6 and E7 proteins are the most prevalent of the

different type of human cell, She first conducted her

normal operation of these proteins seems vital to

viral proteins produced in full-blown cancer cells. Once made, these two viral proteins interact with

experiments with fibroblast cells, which are found

the development of cancer. "The studies are point-

in the body's connective tissues, including tisue lin-

ing to the importance of the p53 and rb proteins in

some of the normal cellular proteins, including the

ings and muscles. She is going to repeat these exper-

cancer," says White.

viral proteins

well

as the usual

cellular proteins.