Eco- Tirana: Ecologizing the city from UHI

ECO-TIRANA: ECOLOGIZING THE CITY FORM THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECT

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF ACHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING OF EPOKA UNIVERSITY

BY

ENEIDA BERISHA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE

JUNE, 2016

1

Approval of the thesis:

ECO-TIRANA: ECOLOGIZING THE CITY FROM THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECT

submitted by Eneida Berisha in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Department of Architecture, Epoka University by, Prof. Assoc. Dr. Sokol Dervishi Dean, Faculty of Architecture and Engineering Prof. Assoc. Dr. Sokol Dervishi Head of Department, Architecture, EPOKA University Prof. Assoc. Dr. Sokol Dervishi Supervisor, Architecture Dept., EPOKA University Assist. Prof. Dr. Anna Yunitsyna Co-Supervisor, Architecture Dept., EPOKA University

Examining Committee Members: Prof. Dr. …………….. _____________________ ………………. Dept., ………….. University Prof. Dr. ……………. _____________________ ………………. Dept., ………….. University Assoc. Prof. Dr. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, _____________________ ………………. Dept., ………….. University

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I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work.

Name, Last name: Eneida Berisha

Signature:

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ABSTRACT

ECO-TIRANA: ECOLOGIZING THE CITY FROM THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECT

Berisha, Eneida M.Sc., Department of Architecture Supervisor: Prof. Assoc. Dr. Sokol Dervishi

“The city does not stand at the point where nature and artifice meet nor are human settlements consequences of culture modifying and imposing its needs on natural or wild places.�[Genovese et. al., 1998] As a matter of fact, the city of the 21st century is under attack because of its rapid urbanization and industrialization. What resurfaces is the concept of the eco-city - a city built and living within the means of the environment, a breathing ecosystem. Tirana, the densely urban capital of Albania is currently on the precipice of this issue: it is growing steadfastly, and with more problems than ever. It is so far away from being ecologically healthy. As such, one of its prevailing and damaging issues is the formation of urban heat islands. This

paper

breaks down the definition of the eco-city from world scale to Tirana scale, stopping majorly on the concerning actuality of urban heat islands. It addresses concerns in urban scale aiming to give solutions in a policy level for the growing cities of the 21st

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century, while the hands-on approach on the case of Tirana proves as a precedent and a future model of mitigation.

Keywords: urban heat islands; policies; model; simulation

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ABSTRAKT

TIRANA EKO: PËRMIRËSIMI I QYTETIT NGA EFEKTI I ISHUJVE TERMIK URBAN

Berisha, Eneida Master Shkencor, Departamenti i Arkitekturës Udhëheqësi: Prof. Assoc. Dr. Sokol Dervishi

“Qyteti nuk fillon në momentin ku natyra dhe mjeshtëria takohen, dhe vendbanimet njerëzore nuk janë pasojë e ndryshimit të kulturës, e cila imponon nevojat e saj mbi vendet natyrore apo të egra” [Genovese et. al., 1998]. Faktikisht, qyteti i shekullit të XXI-të ndodhet nën sulm për shkak të urbanizimit dhe industrializimit të menjëhershëm. Rishfaqet koncepti i qytetit ekologjik: një qytet i ndërtuar dhe që ekziston brenda kushteve të mjedisit, pra një ekosistem. Tirana, kryeqyteti i Shqipërisë me dendësi të lartë urbane, ndodhet në front të kësaj cështjeje dhe has më shumë probleme se mëparë për shkak të zgjerimit urban të palëkundur. Tirana është shumë larg të qënurit ekologjikisht e shëndetshme. Si e tillë, një nga problemet aktuale e më të dëmshme është formimi i ishujve termik urban. Kjo tezë zbërthen përkufizimin e qytetit ekologjik duke filluar në shkallë botërore deri tek ajo e Tiranës, duke ndaluar kryesisht mbi aktualitetin shqetësues të ishujve termik urban. Teza i drejtohet problemeve në shkallë urbane me qëllim dhënien e zgjidhjeve në formë strategjish për

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qytetet në zhvillim të shekullit të XXI-të; si dhe trajton në mënyrë të drejtpërdrejtë situatën e Tiranës duke e paraqitur atë si një shembull tip të ardhshëm për parandalim.

Fjalët kyçe: ishuj termik urban; strategji, model, simulim

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Dedicated to my parents

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my special thanks to my supervisor Prof. Assoc. Dr. Sokol Dervishi for his continuous guidance, encouragement, motivation and support during all the stages of my thesis. I sincerely appreciate the time and effort he has spent to improve my experience during my graduate years.

I am also deeply thankful to my family and colleagues for their constant support.

My sincere acknowledgements go to my thesis progress committee members, for their comments and suggestions throughout the entire thesis.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iv ABSTRAKT ............................................................................................................... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ ix LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... xii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. xvii CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1.

Motivation ..................................................................................................... 1

1.2.

Objectives ...................................................................................................... 3

1.3.

Literature Review .......................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................ 6 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND .............................................................................. 6 2.1.

Eco-cities ....................................................................................................... 6

2.2.2.

Description ............................................................................................. 6

2.2.3.

Arcosanti and Arcology ........................................................................ 11

2.2.4.

Existing and Proposed Projects ............................................................. 18

2.2.

Urban Heat Island Effect .............................................................................. 21

2.2.1.

Description ........................................................................................... 21

2.2.2.

Urban Heat Island Mitigation techniques .............................................. 24

CHAPTER 3 .............................................................................................................. 31 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 31 3.1.

Overview ..................................................................................................... 31

3.2.

Tirana – scale .............................................................................................. 32

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3.3.

Case Study ................................................................................................... 35

3.3.1.

Selection Criteria .................................................................................. 35

3.3.2.

Approach .............................................................................................. 38

3.3.3.

Measurements ....................................................................................... 41

3.3.4.

Comparative overview of the selected areas .......................................... 50

3.4.

Simulation and Calibration........................................................................... 55

3.5.

Questionnaires ............................................................................................. 63

CHAPTER 4 .............................................................................................................. 65 RESULTS.................................................................................................................. 65 4.1.

Simulation ................................................................................................... 65

4.2.

Model Calibration ........................................................................................ 71

4.3.

Questionnaires ............................................................................................. 75

CHAPTER 5 .............................................................................................................. 81 DISCUSSION............................................................................................................ 81 5.1.

Simulation ................................................................................................... 81

5.2.

Questionnaire ............................................................................................... 82

5.3.

Scenarios ..................................................................................................... 89

5.3.1.

Tannerâ€&#x;s Bridge .................................................................................... 90

5.3.2.

Ramazan Begu ...................................................................................... 96

5.3.3.

Prokop Myzeqari .................................................................................. 99

CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................ 105 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................ 105 6.1.

Contributions ............................................................................................. 105

6.2.

Future works .............................................................................................. 106

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 109 APPENDIX A.......................................................................................................... 115 THERMAL COMFORT QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................................... 115

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLES Table 1.Resolving the pressures cities put on nature [Vasishth, 2015] ........................ 10 Table 2.Mitigation measures [Mahdavi, Kiesel, & Vuckovic, n.d] .............................. 26 Table 3.Albedo Table [Rosenthal, Crauderuff, Carter, 2008] ...................................... 27 Table 4.Climate data for Tirana [BBC, 2015] ............................................................. 33 Table 5. Climate for 2015 [Wunderweather, 2016] ..................................................... 34 Table 6.Information about the areas [Wunderweather, 2015] ...................................... 36 Table 7.Daily temperatures for the zones (winter) ...................................................... 37 Table 8.Categories of urban morphology.................................................................... 39 Table 9.Categories of building typology ..................................................................... 40 Table 10.Temperature data for January 2015 .............................................................. 51 Table 11.Temperature data for July 2015 ................................................................... 53 Table 12.Participants according to their age group ..................................................... 75 Table 13.Participants according to gender .................................................................. 76 Table 14.Reasons for being in the area ....................................................................... 76 Table 15.Degree of discomfort ................................................................................... 76 Table 16.Level of comfort .......................................................................................... 77 Table 17.Differences in temperature in relation to the surroundings ........................... 77 Table 18.Reasons for UHI .......................................................................................... 78 Table 19.Impacts from UHI ....................................................................................... 79 Table 20.Solutions for UHI ........................................................................................ 80 Table 21.Scenarios considered ................................................................................... 90 Table 22.Scenario used for Tannerâ€&#x;s Bridge ............................................................... 90 Table 23.Scenarios used for RB ................................................................................. 96 Table 24.Scenarios used for Prokop Myzeqari Street .................................................. 99

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. The sun sets on a building at Arcosanti, the “urban laboratory” established in the 1970s in the Arizona desert. [Burcham, 2015] ...................................................... 14 Figure 2. Conceptual Plan By Paolo Soleri in “Arcosanti: The City in the Image of Man” [Soleri, 1961] ................................................................................................... 16 Figure 3. The Arcosanti shell [Tamura, n.d] ............................................................... 17 Figure 4. Project entry 2008 Asia Pacific - "Dongtan Eco-City urban concept, Shanghai, China": Map showing the long term vision [LaFargeHolcim Foundation, 2015] ......................................................................................................................... 18 Figure

5.

Pictured

left,

the

Chicago

Pedway.

Right:

PATH,

Toronto.

[ChigagoSeriousSeats and TheStar, 2015] .................................................................. 19 Figure 6 .Images from Crystal Island [Etherington, 2015] .......................................... 20 Figure 7. Satellite image of multi-nodal heat island in Atlanta GA [Oke, 1973] .......... 22 Figure 8. Sketch of the urban heat island effect [Woolum, 1964] ................................ 23 Figure 9. Mean annual surface temperatures for Paris and Surroundings [Critchfield, 1983] ......................................................................................................................... 24 Figure 10. Modular Cool Roof and Green Roof System of Sustainable South Bronx‟s Smart Roof Demonstration Project [Rosenthal, Crauderuff, Carter, 2008] .................. 28 Figure 11. Sustainable South Bronx‟s Smart Roof [Rosenthal et. al., 2008] ................ 30 Figure 12. Heat exposure map of Tirana [European Centre for Environmental Health, 2015] ......................................................................................................................... 33 Figure 13. Climate during January 2015 ..................................................................... 34 Figure 14. Location of the weather stations/case studies [Wunderweather, 2015] ....... 35 Figure 15. Temperature difference between areas for January 2015 ............................ 38 Figure 16. Site specifics of the areas as shown in the map .......................................... 39 Figure 17. Satellite view [Geoportal Asig, 2015] ........................................................ 41 Figure 18. View of the main road ............................................................................... 42

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Figure 19. Map of TB ................................................................................................ 43 Figure 20. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly ....................... 43 Figure 21. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly ...................... 44 Figure 22. Satellite view of the area [Geoportal Asig, 2015]....................................... 44 Figure 23. View of the main road ............................................................................... 45 Figure 24. Map of RB ................................................................................................ 46 Figure 25. Climate data for the 21st of January 2015 ................................................... 46 Figure 26. Climate data for 21st July 2015 .................................................................. 47 Figure 27. Satellite view of the area [Geoportal Asig, 2015]....................................... 47 Figure 28. View of the main road ............................................................................... 48 Figure 29. Map of PM ................................................................................................ 49 Figure 30. Climate data for 21st January 2015 ............................................................ 49 Figure 31. Climate data for 21st July 2015 .................................................................. 50 Figure 32. Maps of all three selected areas ................................................................. 50 Figure 33. Comparison for January 2015 .................................................................... 52 Figure 34. Comparison for July 2015 ......................................................................... 55 Figure 35. Work order for ENVI-met ......................................................................... 58 Figure 36. Extraction of orthophotos (first row) and translation to background maps for ENVI-met (second row) ............................................................................................. 59 Figure 37. Translation of the map to ENVI-met data for TB ....................................... 62 Figure 38. Translation of the map to ENVI-met data for RB....................................... 62 Figure 39. Translation of the map to ENVI-met data for PM ...................................... 63 Figure 40. Climate map for Tannerâ€&#x;s Bridge, 21st of January ...................................... 65 Figure 41. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly ....................... 66 Figure 42. Climate map for Tannerâ€&#x;s Bridge, 21st of July ........................................... 66 Figure 43. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly ....................... 67 Figure 44. Climate map for Ramazan Begu Street, 21st of January.............................. 67 Figure 45. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly ....................... 68 Figure 46. Climate map for Ramazan Begu, 21st of July ............................................. 68

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Figure 47. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly ....................... 69 Figure 48. Climate map for Prokop Myzeqari, 21 st of July.......................................... 69 Figure 49. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly ....................... 70 Figure 50. Climate map for Prokop Myzeqari, 21 st of July.......................................... 70 Figure 51. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly ....................... 71 Figure 52. Model Calibration for 21st of January, TB ................................................. 72 Figure 53. Model Calibration for 21st of July, TB ...................................................... 72 Figure 54. Model Calibration for 21st of January, RB ................................................. 73 Figure 55. Model Calibration for 21st of July, RB ....................................................... 73 Figure 56. Model Calibration for 21st of January, PM ................................................. 74 Figure 57. Model Calibration for 21st of July, PM ...................................................... 74 Figure 58. Temperature comparison chart for the 21st of January measured hourly .... 81 Figure 59. Temperature comparison chart for the 21st of July measured hourly .......... 82 Figure 60. Participants according to age groups.......................................................... 83 Figure 61. Participants according to gender ................................................................ 83 Figure 62. Graph illustrating the reasons for being in the area at the time of the questionnaire .............................................................................................................. 84 Figure 63. Graph illustrating the degree of comfort for the three areas........................ 85 Figure 64. Levels of thermal comfort ......................................................................... 86 Figure 65. Evaluation of the temperature difference between the area studied and its surroundings .............................................................................................................. 86 Figure 66. Public evaluation for the reasons behind UHI ............................................ 87 Figure 67. Evaluation of the impacts of UHI .............................................................. 88 Figure 68. Evaluation of possible mitigation solutions for UHI .................................. 89 Figure 69. Implementation of impermeable materials for TB ...................................... 92 Figure 70. Climate map of Tanner‟s Bridge for S2 ...................................................... 93 Figure 71. Climate map of Tanner‟s Bridge for S2 ...................................................... 93 Figure 72. Implementation of vegetation for TB ......................................................... 94 Figure 73. Climate map of Tanner‟s Bridge for S1 for January ................................... 95

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Figure 74 Climate map of Tannerâ€&#x;s Bridge for S1 for July .......................................... 95 Figure 75. Implementation of Senegalia Greggii for RB ............................................. 97 Figure 76. Climate map of Ramazan Begu Street for S 1 for January ........................... 98 Figure 77. Climate map of Ramazan Begu Street for S 1 for July ................................. 98 Figure 78. Implementation of Senegalia Greggii and Tamarix Gallica for PM .......... 100 Figure 79. Climate map of Prokop Myzeqari Street for S1, January .......................... 101 Figure 80. Climate map of Prokop Myzeqari Street for S1, July ............................... 101 Figure 81. Implementation of impermeable materials for PM ................................... 103 Figure 82. Climate map of Prokop Myzeqari Street for S 2, January .......................... 104 Figure 83. Climate map of Prokop Myzeqari Street for S 2, July ................................ 104 Figure 84. Water system network [Tirana Municipality, 2016] ................................. 107 Figure 85. Urban system map according to construction period ................................ 108

xvi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

UHI

Urban Heat Island

SRI

Solar Reflectance Index

TB

Tannerâ€&#x;s Bridge

PM

Prokop Myzeqari

RB

Ramazan Begu

S1

Scenario nr. 1

S2

Scenario nr. 2

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1.

Motivation

Scientists have been discussing the issue of „climate departure‟ for years now, a topic referring to the moment when the average temperatures – be they of a certain location or the whole globe – would change at such a rate that old climate would be left behind.

Commonly, this is referred to as a “tipping point”. According to Fisher, some cities will hit a peak quite soon [Fisher, 2013].

Scientifically speaking “climate departure” of a city is reached when the average temperature of its coldest year is projected to be warmer in comparison to the average temperature of its hottest year between 1960 and 2005. Fisher brings forth a simple example. If we assume the climate departure point of Washington D.C is 2047 – the coldest year for D.C measured after that year would still be warmer than any year before 2005. In simpler words: every year after 2047 would be hotter than any temperatures measured before 2005. The study published in the scientific journal Nature, claims that, overall, Earth would surpass climate departure in 2047; while some cities do so much earlier.

Many cities are more critical than others: such as that of Lagos in Africa – vulnerable to flooding and projected to hit climate departure in 2043; and Kingston, Jamaica, expected to pass in 2023. In the words of the Director of the Department of Global Ecology at the Carnegie Institution for Science, Christopher Field, the boundary from one climate to the

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other, and leaving behind the climate of the past, “happens surprisingly soon”. However, the study shows that even if it is now too late to stop climate departure, there are methods in slowing it down. The answer relies in mitigating climate change effects.

The topic of eco-cities has been the talk of the century, but it has yet to become tangible by most of the cities of today. Many modern towns are going through rapid urbanization and technological advancement. Cities are struggling to keep up with modernization, and as such, the necessity to build prevails that of safe-building. The latter term reflects a way of thinking of the city as an ecosystem, rather than a “human artifact”. The faults of the expeditious construction mirror back to the environment first and consequently to the climate.

The first documentation in 1818 by Luke Howard with the study of London‟s climate and its „artificial excessive heat‟ in contrast with the country brought forth a groundbreaking discovery [Gartland, 2010]. Heat islands are widespread in urban and suburban areas because of the absorption and retain of the sun‟s heat by construction materials. This does not happen in rural areas, where there are natural materials. The main reasons behind the heating are two. Firstly, the urban materials are watertight and impermeable, thus there is no moisture available for dissipation of the heat. Secondly, the dark materials jointly with the canyon-like configurations of buildings and pavement collect and trap the energy of the sun. During the day temperatures of dark, dry surfaces in direct sun reach up to 88 degrees Celsius. In contrast, the surfaces with moist soil and vegetation reach only 18 degrees Celsius, under the same exact conditions.

Anthropogenic heat or human produced heat, as well as slower wind speeds and air pollution in urban areas contribute to heat island formation.

During the summer, in some urban areas, shade around the buildings creates cooler areas. Nevertheless, in most cities, the effects of the summer heat island are seen as an issue. They cause human discomfort, health problems, higher pollution and higher energy bills. Besides the effects on global warming, heat islands affect even habitability of urban and suburban areas.

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The urban heat island effect is especially noticeable in Tirana, where new buildings are continuously being constructed. As the capital of Albania and on the major cities in the Balkans that is booming, Tirana cannot escape the damaging effects of heat islands. It is a disconcerting because it is not something causing only minor discomfort. The outcomes go as beyond as serious harm on human diseases and mortality. Moreover, there is predominant waste in money with the need for energy use, infrastructure and building maintenance. Adding on top the most construction techniques Tirana provides a thorough study of the area and the topic.

This paper focuses on eco-cities first and foremost. The need to study eco-cities continues to be crucial; nowadays more than ever – with the threat of climate change hovering above – and this will be pointed out throughout. Secondly, the focus is passed to Tirana, and the certain areas named “zones of interest”. Thirdly, shifting to urban heat islands, models are presented and displayed, deriving as a conclusion some future solutions, for Tirana-scale and global scale.

1.2.

Objectives

The following paper aims to address the concept of the „eco-city‟ by introducing the very first terms and arriving to the most recent ones. The case studies presented will provide a comparison between the eco-cities of the future and those of today. How easy is to conceive of the eco-city today? The case of Tirana sets to bring a milestone, as a grounded and concerning issue. The meaning of the eco-city is reinstated with Tirana, and the urban heat island effect is a prevailing issue. The current problems of Tirana are illustrated and presented, displaying the cases and areas studied.

This research aims to give solutions in the form of policies in urban scale, as well as showcase models for the case studies. However, a future model for Tirana better addresses the problematic, keeping in consideration what should be done in the future. A

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cityâ€&#x;s size is inseparable from the urban heat island intensity, and subsequently, the case of Tirana showcases a greater impact.

The following paper aims to address this issue by presenting case studies of three urban areas with different characteristics and urban morphology. This will provide a comparison between the areas themselves and reinstate that heat islands are, first and foremost, a prevailing problem. The current problems of Tirana are illustrated through synoptic data for the climate of these areas. A new framework is presented appropriate and efficient in optimizing Tirana. Models are then showcased, illustrating the present situation and the proposed solutions.

1.3.

Literature Review

Eco-cities were first introduced by Richard Register [1975], as the way of rebuilding cities so they fit nature in a balanced way. A set of list was presented by Mark Roseland [1997] as the first sample of what a city should fulfill in order to be considered as an eco-city. There have been previous researches done in the attempt of explaining ecocities in the larger context as well as its implications in benefitting the city [Harvey, 2011 and Graedel, 2011]. There have been thorough planning and implementations in Asia, and in city scale [Fook, 2010 and Kenworthy, 2011 and Ewing, 2009]. The guiding principles of heat islands serve as a good introduction in the understanding and mitigation of heat [Gartland, 2008 and Arabi et al, 2015 and Shishegar, 2015]. The studies made for Greater Manchester in adapting buildings and infrastructures to climate change show the all-encompassing decisions and impacts [Cavan and Aylen, 2012 and Kazmierczak and Cavan, 2011 and Kazmierczak, 2012]. Going back to the history of cities and the definition [Genovese et. al., 1998] will give a clear understanding of what the cities of the 21st century will need.

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Arnfield [2003] and Blazejczyk et al. [2006] have conducted studies to discuss and quantify the UHI (urban-heat island) phenomenon. There have been descriptions of the characteristics and patterns through Voogt [2002] and Hart & Sailor [2007]. The guiding principles of heat islands serve as a good introduction in the understanding and mitigation of heat [Gartland, 2008 and Shishegar, 2015]. Numerous studies have been carried out illustrating that the UHI phenomenon is evidently different during the course of different seasons, as well as between night and the day [Oke, 1981 Gaffin et al. 2008].

Through Gaffin et al. [2008] it has been concluded that summer and fall periods hold the most crucial changes in terms of UHI, coinciding with the seasonal wind speed.

Anthropogenic heat emission [Taha, 1997] and the properties of the materials covering the surfaces are the main causes for the rise in temperature.

In this paper is presented a new framework, appropriate for optimizing Tirana at first, and then passing to the global scale. The analysis is based on a literary summary of previous concepts and case studies, and a series of researches based on four spots in Tirana. Models are then presented, illustrating the current situation and the proposed solutions.

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CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1.

Eco-cities

2.2.2. Description

The notion of the city is not something to be taken lightly. As a matter of fact, it has been the topic of many debates, starting from its first entry in the English language in the thirteenth century [Genovese et. al., 1998]. The city is strongly linked with the built environment, and the community. Urban settlements are what make a city. The human presence is the sole definer, as illustrated by civilization. Nevertheless, it would be an oversimplified statement. “The city does not stand at the point where nature and artifice meet nor are human settlements consequences of culture modifying and imposing its needs on natural or wild places”, [Genovese et. al., 1998]. It would be an exaggerated generalization of the complex formula of human settlement. This is the first error we commit. As rightly stated by Anne Spirn, the city stands “dependent upon the importation of energy and materials which are transformed into products and consumed, and the by-products – thermal, material wastes – released… it is an „open‟ system whose continued survival depends upon the continued import of energy and materials”, [Spirn, 1984]. Thus, the city is never isolated. The crucial interconnection happens between

6

human and natural systems. Together they form what is called a “built natural infrastructure”.

Likewise, the city of the 21st century faces more issues than the ever. The definitions have started being questioned since globalization started slowly taking its toll on the identities of cities. Additionally, industrialization and the fast-paced technology are causing major damages. The concept of the “eco-city” was born out of one of the first organizations (Urban Ecology) focused on eco-city development, founded by Richard Register in Berkeley, California in 1975. The organization itself started as an idea of reconstructing cities so they become balanced with nature.

Inspired by this, a recent intensive study was undertaken for the area of Greater Manchester, called the Greater Manchester‟s Adaptation Imperative (Four Degrees of Preparation). What once was the worst case scenario on future climate – a 4 degree Celsius increase in global temperature by the close of the 21st century – is now looking increasingly possible. The project makes a prediction about the Greater Manchester of the 2050s, where annual mean temperature could have increased by up to 35 degrees Celsius; winter could be up to 36% wetter and summers 36% drier. Actions are undertaken under three main priorities: firstly, safeguarding of future prosperity; secondly, protecting the most vulnerable in society; and lastly, building the resilience of the essential infrastructure.

“Urban Ecology” worked on planting trees along main streets, building solar greenhouses, and within the Berkeley legal system, they managed to pass environmentally friendly policies and encourage public transportation. The movement then proceeded with its next step: the creation of The Urban Ecologist, a journal that they began to publish in 1987.

There are no set criteria for what should be considered an “eco-city”, although there have been suggestions including the social, economic and environmental qualities of the

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eco-city. The ideal “eco-city” [Roseland, 1997] has been transcribed to have the following requirements:



Operates on a self-contained economy, where the resources are found locally



Has a completely carbon-neutral and renewable energy production



Has a well-planned public transportation system that follows this priority: walking first, cycling, then public transportation; as well as a good city layout



Considers resource conservation – creating a zero-waste system – where the efficiency of water and energy resources are maximized, and there is a waste management system that will allow recycle waste and reuse



Restores environmentally damaged urban areas



Ensures affordable and modest housing for all ethnic and socio-economic groups and improve jobs opportunities for disadvantaged groups, such as women, minorities and disabled people



Decreases material consumption and increases awareness of environmental and sustainability issues while promoting voluntary simplicity in lifestyle choices



Supports local produce and agriculture

Moreover, as Thomas Graedel stated in Industrial Ecology and the Ecocity, the design of the city must allow for grow and evolution as the population grows and the needs change. Actual implementation of the principles of the eco-city is difficult to achieve.

However, it brings a lot of advantages, such as sustainability and efficiency. One of the major obstacles is the existing infrastructure. The physical city layout and the current local bureaucracy cannot be surmountable in terms of large-scale sustainable

8

development. Many cities either cannot afford or are just not willing to make the necessary integration for eco-city development. Furthermore, when taking the first step into becoming an eco-city, the management and planning of sustainable programs require constant upkeep, as they are associated with many following challenges. The cities wanting to become more sustainable face the adaption of existing structures and the concurrent management of sustainable urban expansion and development. Although there are countless examples worldwide, the development of eco-cities is limited due to the high costs and numerous challenges associated with sustainability.

How to put the eco in eco-city?

The one significant way of ecologizing the city is letting nature do what it does best and not opposing the natural flow of processes and functions. Thus, it makes sense to transform existing cities into eco-cities and to retrofit the built environment, while making sure that new urban development obeys the principles of eco-city design (Table 1). The key element here is working with nature – not trying to control and dominate it.

The suggestion comes that “to begin, we might try the Ecological Golden Rule: do unto others – including plants, animals and the Earth itself –as you would have others do unto you. Dividing the golden rule into two, we might embrace the social ecological commandments taught to every pre-kindergarten child: be nice to others and clean up after yourself. Refining this a bit further, we could say that there are three major environmental prescriptions into which most others fit: Conserve, recycle and preserve biodiversity” [Register, 2006].

9

Table 1.Resolving the pressures cities put on nature [Vasishth, 2015] If the problem with cities is that…

Then the solution is for cities to…

They contain huge amounts of

Entrain storm-water into the ground, using

impervious surfaces (roofs, roads,

porous pavement and vegetation and trees

driveways, pavement)

and cisterns and roof gardens Increase energy efficiency and conservation

They import huge quantities of energy (fossil fuel, electricity)

Use distributed energy generation and renewable energy

They import huge quantities of nutrients

Grow more food in cities

(food) Use less stuff They import huge quantities of raw materials

(Sustainable Production and Consumption, SCP)

They export huge amounts of waste matters

Divert more solid waste from landfills (increase recycling, composting, and reuse of materials)

They are islands of heat (2 – 4 degrees C

Heat Island Mitigation (cool roofs, green

hotter than the countryside)

roofs, trees)

They consume nature (farmland, open space, parks, wetlands)

Create more nature within cities (urban farms,

open

wetlands)

10

space,

parks,

bioswales,

2.2.3. Arcosanti and Arcology The idea of the Eco-city – that is, being balanced with nature – can be achieved through energy-efficient settlement patterns, which are space-saving and pedestrian-oriented.

Simultaneously, the water cycles, the habitat structures and the material flows should b e sustainable. Overall, an eco-city should be an attractive place to work and live. Its structures should yield health, well-being and safety of the inhabitants. Another key element is the transportation and the public spaces which should be intertwined with greenery.

The necessity of transportation is crucial for every city, but in the eco-city, individuals need to rely on environmentally-friendly transport modes. Many authors question the term of “qualified density” which allows for a building density which facilitate public transportation, shorter walking distance, all the while being ecological, economical and social [Eryildiz, 2011]. A perfect mixture of different usage of land is another element.

Living and working in the city should be easier. The infrastructure should offer cultural and economic opportunities. It has been proven that in densely populated areas, by introducing greenery, bodies of water, and even simply planting trees along roads and making roofs, terraces and facades green, can make for an incredible improvement.

There have many projects of eco-cities. Some examples are Dong Tang designed in 2005, Masdar in 2008, and the first predecessor of eco-cities being Arcossanti, designed in 1970. However, the first eco-city of the world is Dong Tang [Eryildiz, 2011]. The presented examples below are divided in 7 main categories taken as priorities in the formation of eco-cities. Those divisions are population, cost, surface, transport, water, waste, and energy.The smallest cities considered here, are Masdar and Arcosanti. The latter was constructed as an experimental town. The architect Paolo Soleri wanted to demonstrate how urban conditions can be improved while the environmental impact is kept low. The goal was to combine architecture and ecology, in what Soleri coined with a single word: arcology. The city was set out to accommodate 5.000 inhabitants but now

11

the population fluctuates from 50 to 150 people. Other cities, such as Dong Tang and Chunch chang in China and Globe Town have planned to host approximately 500.000 inhabitants. The cost of these projects varies solely based on the number of people, the design philosophy and the technology. For instance, Dong Tang is expected to cost more since it is a coastal city. Surface cover is another important factor, as it sets the ratio between built area and greenery. In terms of transportation, the goal of eco-cities is to employ the zero-emission and no-carbon waste solution. Potable water and water accessibility is also relevant. In Masdar city, the water will be provided by desalination plants fuelled by solar power. In addition, all cities will be implementing the 80% recycling technique, where 80% of the water used will be reused for crop irrigation etc.

Furthermore, every city will recycle and reuse 90% of the waste, decreasing the damage done upon the environment. In order to be a fully-functional eco-city, the energy management should be top priority. Masdar city, for example, will start using renewable power resources. On the other hand, Globe Town uses non passive systems – the subsoil is exploited and it stores ice and water to keep the houses cool during the summer. While Masdar and Dong Tang produce their own energy through solar and wind energy, and through bio-fuel and recycled city waste.

A thorough analysis has begun for the Greater Manchester area, where the city region has become increasingly vulnerable to storms and heavy rainfall over the past 10-15 year. The project has helped in establishing a baseline for the Eco-cities blueprint and emphasized the importance of building adaptive capacity and facilitating knowledge exchange across the city region. As indicated by the researchers, there is a difference between mitigation and adaption. The first refers to reducing greenhouse gas emissions: like lowering the carbon footprint and protecting forests. The second involves decisionmaking into how to better cope with the effects of the changing climate: from planting more trees to make shade. Nevertheless, thereâ€&#x;s a blurred line between the two when regarding certain decisions such as planting trees along the roads. They provide shade and cool the air, and adapt the cities, but they also reduce further need for air conditioning and so mitigate future climate change. The project is all-encompassing and

12

multi-facetted. These are some of the opportunities presented [Kazmierczak and Connelly, 2009]: 

Behavior change – by communicating the threats and the benefits of adaption



Local relevance – adaptation happens first in a local level then passes to a global context



Employment – new jobs are opened by the process



Economic growth potential – the damaging effects are impacting the economy.

By preventing them, the prospects increase.



Tourism – the higher temperatures and drier summer benefit the tourist economy



Capacity Building – a greater commitment helps strengthen government structure



Partnerships – the scale and scope may lead to a potential to drive partnerships between institutions and organizations.



Strengthening policy and legislation – by recognizing the damages and thinking of adaptation techniques, policy makers are stimulated to think over current frameworks.



Strengthening planning – the future of the urban areas is rethought



Multifunction benefits – starting from lower bills, health improvement, increase of property values etc.

It was long before eco-cities became well-known that Soleri envisioned Arcosanti [Soleri, 1973], the city able to accommodate 5.000 people in the Arizona high desert, 70 miles north of Phoenix. Although, the projections have failed, Arcosanti continues to

13

exist as an urban laboratory (Fig.1). It remains focused on innovative design, community, and environmental accountability.

Figure 1. The sun sets on a building at Arcosanti, the “urban laboratory� established in the 1970s in the Arizona desert. [Burcham, 2015]

The concept of Paolo Soleri was simple. He thought of arcology, a term he coined about the portmanteau of architecture and ecology. However, as it is uncompleted, the structure would have been able to provide space for residential, commercial, agricultural facilities, but with very little environmental impact. The difference between a large building and an arcology, according to Soleri, was that the latter would be selfsustainable, and it would lessen the impact of human habitation in the ecosystem. An arcology is designed to provide power, air, water, climate control, food production, sewage treatment etc., to its population.

The very first version was proposed by Frank Lloyd Wright, [1939] called the Broadacre City. It was a version that in contrast to an arcology, was completely two-dimensional and depended on a road network. His plan had on focus transportation, agriculture and commerce systems in order to support an economy. The Broadacre City was an

14

antithesis of the city and an apotheosis of the suburbia. It predicted a train station and few offices and apartment buildings, and for apartment dwellers to comprise a small minority. In the plan, the transport was mainly fulfilled through automobiles while the pedestrian existed within the confines of 4000m2 plots where the population was concentrated. As claimed by critics, Wright‟s plan failed because he did not consider population growth.

On the other hand, Buckminster Fuller‟s Old Man River‟s City project deemed a domed city with a capacity of 125.000 people as a housing solution in East St. Louis, Illinois.

The Old Man‟s River City was truly a massive housing project: the building – a circular multi-terraced dome – planned on providing 230m2 of living space to each family.

The „arcology‟ term proposed by Paolo Soleri‟s later solutions described ways of addressing cities in three dimensions [Soleri, 1961]. Similar to Wright he thought of changes in transportation, agriculture and commerce. He explored reductions in land reclamation, in resource consumption and duplication and called for an elimination of private transportation. He advocated for shared resources such as public transit and public libraries. He favored waste reduction, energy conservation, recycling of materials and renewable energy sources. He thought that cities should be dense and not sprawling.

The impact on the ecosystem could be prevented by allowing a sprawl upward and not outward, so people could live closer together. The areas surrounding should be preserved as green and natural landscapes.

The large and compact structures and the solar greenhouses would be closely located, in order to be in proximity to the dwellers. The idea is that people should be able to live, work, shop without needing cars. The concept of arcology (Fig.2) for cities makes architecture, ecology, biology, urban design, sociology, environmental studies and art melt into one.

15

Figure 2. Conceptual Plan By Paolo Soleri in “Arcosanti: The City in the Image of Man� [Soleri, 1961]

A city should function as a living system. Arcology, architecture and ecology as one integral process, is capable of demonstrating positive response to the many problems of urban civilization, population, pollution, energy and natural resource depletion, food scarcity and quality of life. Arcology recognizes the necessity of the radical reorganization of the sprawling urban landscape into dense, integrated, threedimensional cities in order to support the complex activities that sustain human culture.

The city is the necessary instrument for the evolution of humankind� [Soleri, 1961].

He attacked the sprawl as a massive factor in damaging the ecosystem. According to him, the problem with the sprawl was the fact that they transform earth, by turning greenery and farms into parking lots. The amount of time and energy transporting people, goods and services is done over the expanse of the landscape. His proposition was for urban implosion rather than explosion [Soleri, 1977].

16

Arcosanti became an experiment „arcology prototype‟, being a demonstration project under construction in central Arizona (Fig.3). The purpose was to demonstrate Soleri‟s designs and applications of the principles of arcology to create a pedestrian-friendly urban form. Soleri‟s vision included a number of greenhouses, which would in turn let in hot air and heat the East Crescent through pathways and tunnels.

Figure 3. The Arcosanti shell [Tamura, n.d]

Often called a “utopian eco-city” [McCartney, 2015], its fifty – sometimes one hundred – residents and visitors believe it holds the key to sustainable living. However, only five percent remains completed. The prototype started out in 1970 and it continues to draw in architects and city planners. Solery dreamed about a walkable, intimate and selfsustaining compact city, able to provide residential, commercial, agricultural and public spaces. The apses that dominate the skyline are two multipurpose public spaces, one is for the bell foundry while the other serves as the town square. Everything in Arcosanti is built with concrete, which radiates during the night the heat of the day. The complex is comprised of thirteen main buildings, with a central hall, various apartments, a bakery, a swimming pool and common rooms. The garden area is currently under construction.

As stated by Dorn-Giarmole, the built environment and living processes interact “as organs, tissues and cells do in a highly evolved organism”. The systems collaborate and

17

minimize waste, while the circulation of people and resources is maximized. The structures use solar radiation/power for lighting, heating, for cooling and food production.

2.2.4. Existing and Proposed Projects

Many countries in the world proposed projects of sustainable design, with the principles of the arcology and later, those of an eco-city. For instance, the project of Dongtan near Shanghai, aimed to be a new eco-city (Fig.4). Its first goal was to house 10.000 inhabitants and to be showcased in the Shanghai World Expo in 2010. The expectations for this city were high: by 2050 it would reach one-third the size of Manhattan, with 500.000 inhabitants. The city, presented at the United Nations World Urban Forum and meant to be built by Arup – the British engineering consultancy firm – was planned to be ecologically friendly, be self-sufficient in water and energy, and use zero energy building principles [Kane, 2005]. Waste would be considered as a resource and be recycled.

Figure 4. Project entry 2008 Asia Pacific - "Dongtan Eco-City urban concept, Shanghai, China": Map showing the long term vision [LaFargeHolcim Foundation, 2015]

18

Dongtan‟s plan proposed only green transport along its coastline. People would arrive at the coast, park their cars and travel through pedestrian and cycling routes, or use sustainable public transport vehicles. Inside the city, the vehicles would be working on electricity and hydrogen. However, as a multi-facetted project, it is currently failing to meet expectations and deadlines, and some have even named it a Potemkin village (Ethical Corporation).

Other common examples that have arcology features are: The Chicago Pedway, The Las Vegas Strip and the PATH from Toronto (Fig.5). These examples utilize the sustainable transport system by functioning as underground tunnel systems, connecting buildings and people.

Figure 5. Pictured left, the Chicago Pedway. Right: PATH, Toronto.

[ChigagoSeriousSeats and TheStar, 2015]

A project that stands out is that of Crystal Island (Fig.6), planned by Foster and Partners, in Moscow, Russia. The building project was set to have 2.500.000 square meters of floor space and a height of 450 meters – the largest structure on earth. The superstructure – akin to a tent – would rise in 450m and form a second skin and act as a thermal insulation from the Moscow weather for the main building. The skin is flexible: set to be closed during the winter to prevent heat loss, and open during the summer for natural cooling of the space. This building would be able to house cultural, exhibition, hotel, apartment, retail and office spaces, but also a school for 500 students. The main

19

power systems would be solar panels and wind turbines [Crystal Island, 2007]. The project stopped in 2009 due to the global economic crisis.

Figure 6 .Images from Crystal Island [Etherington, 2015]

It was indeed Richard Register who first coined the term eco-city, as an abbreviation for ecological cities, but it was arcology that which influenced him. After a visit in Arcosanti to follow “Two Suns” – a seminar by Soleri, introducing the sun we know and that of human evolution – Register decided to organize a presentation on cities, ecological issues and Soleri‟s work. In 1975, Register with 25 arcology enthusiasts, would go on to form the Arcology circle. The collective‟s objective was to help create and build ecological cities, while learning and educating along the way. Their perspective was not focused only to new cities but also in fixing the communities they lived in. In 1979 Arcology Circle organized the conference “Planning and Constructing Integral Neighborhoods”. By that time, Register had started using the word „eco-cities‟, becoming what it is today. Soleri‟s „‟arcology” became synonymous to cities that could be defined by a single structure. Register et al. thought the eco-city as encompassing an altered state of the city, which would not be under the decisions of a single person.

Nevertheless, the Integral Neighborhood was good urban ecology – which ultimately led to them changing the name to Urban Ecology [Ecocity Builders, 2015].

20

2.2.

Urban Heat Island Effect

2.2.1. Description

It is a known fact that cities are warmer than the surrounding and rural areas. This phenomenon is apparent on nights with clear skies and light winds where radiation cooling is favored. Although in rural areas it is more evident, the excess heat absorbed during the day in the city remains at higher levels even during the night. The advective cooling of the city by winds happens during days and nights with strong winds, minimizing the differences. This relative warmth is why the city is referred to as an urban heat island (UHI).

According to Ackerman there are a large number of factors contributing to the warmth of cities:



In urban areas, the lack and the small quantity of vegetation does not allow evaporative cooling. The streets, the buildings, the sidewalks absorb solar energy. While in rural areas, the energy absorbed evaporates water from the vegetation and soil.



Having less water in cities makes for another disadvantage. The pavements are largely nonporous, and there‟s less evaporative cooling which furthers the higher temperatures.



Heat from buildings, vehicles and trains also contributes. It can be as much as one-third of that received from solar energy.



The thermal properties of buildings add heat to the air by conduction. Some materials are better conductors of heat than the vegetation of the rural area such as: asphalt, tar, and brick, concrete.

21



During the day, due to the reflections off the buildings, solar energy is trapped.

The canyon structure of tall buildings enhances the warming effect.



Strong winds influence the urban and rural separation. Weather phenomena; in this case, serves to reduce the urban heat effects.



The urban heat island may increase precipitation and cloudiness in the city.

The urban warming effect is visible even from satellite radiometers. The image of Atlanta, GA, is an example of surface-based measurement. This records the energy reflected and emitted from the land, from roofs, pavements, vegetation, bare ground, water, etc., or as named radiant emissions.

A town with a population of 10.000 people or under is considered rural and does not require adjustments for urbanization [Peterson, 2003]. Regardless, Oke [1973] and Torok et al [2001] show that even towns with 1000 people have urban heating of about 2.2 C compared to the rural areas (Fig.7).

Figure 7. Satellite image of multi-nodal heat island in Atlanta GA [Oke, 1973]

22

A conclusion was put forth by Runnalls and Oke (2006): “Gradual changes in the immediate environment over time, such as vegetation growth, or encroachment by built features such as paths, roads, runways, fences, parking lots, and buildings into the vicinity of the instrument site typically lead to trends in the cooling ratio series. Distinct rĂŠgime transitions can be caused by seemingly minor instrument relocations (such as from one side of the airport to another, or even within the same instrument enclosure) or due to vegetation clearance. This contradicts the view that only substantial station moves, involving significant changes in elevation and/or exposure are detectable in temperature data.â€?

The urban heat island is clearly apparent in numerous statistical studies of surface air temperatures over the years including Woolum (Fig.8), [1964] and in the depictions below from Critchfield [1983] (Fig.9).

Figure 8. Sketch of the urban heat island effect [Woolum, 1964]

23

Figure 9. Mean annual surface temperatures for Paris and Surroundings [Critchfield, 1983]

Research has been done to derive the magnitude of the UHI effect (Fig.8 and Fig.9). In an effort to draw the frequency, time-dependency and magnitude of UHI intensity, a research supported by the European Union [Mahdavi et al. 2013) looked at eight Central-European cities, precisely Budapest, Ljubljana, Modena, Padua, Prague, Stuttgart, Vienna and Warsaw.

2.2.2. Urban Heat Island Mitigation techniques

There are many ways in effectively mitigating UHI effects. The following strategies take cue from the results based on ENVI-met of the actual situation. This part examines the benefits of the reduction of temperatures due to urban heat island effect strategies like changing the surface properties of the built environment.

24

The main methods are two: changing the permeability and/or increasing the albedo of surfaces; and increasing vegetation in urban areas. The increase in vegetation can be made through adding trees alongside streets and close to buildings to serve as a shade from solar radiation. This is also the most common mitigation solution. Another method is done through green roofs – adding vegetation systems – in buildings to reduce heat gain. While highly reflective materials and cool pavements can surely mitigate the urban heat island effect. The price of implementation is lower than that of green roofs, with less than $2 per square meter for material, while green roofs are $12-$15 per square meter [Rosenthal, Crauderueff & Carter, n.d].

The reference day data clearly demonstrates the existence and the magnitude of the UHI effect even for the coldest month of the year. The mitigation measures included below demonstrate ways how to intervene in buildings and in the urban habitat. Each of them cause changes in variable attributes. For instance, the green roofs modify the emissivity, the thermal conductivity, density, and the surface albedo. The scales of intervention in Table 2 may be categorized in three: buildings, pavements and green areas. The impact of these mitigation measures can be estimated through calculation and modeling methods.

25

Table 2.Mitigation measures [Mahdavi, Kiesel, & Vuckovic, n.d] Category

Measure

Expected benefits

Buildings

Cool roofs

High solar reflectance and high thermal emissivity

Green roofs

Shading (intensive green roofs) and evapotranspiration

Green facades

Reducing ambient air temperature, shading properties, natural cooling, control airborne pollutants, energy efficiency

Faรงade

construction

and Reducing

retrofit

reducing

cooling/heating ambient

air

load,

temperature,

improving building envelope quality Geometry of urban canyon Fresh air advection, cool air transport

Pavements

(new project)

into the city

Cool pavements

Decreasing ambient air temperature

Pervious pavements

Storm water management

Green

Planting trees within the Shading and evapotranspiration, lower

Areas

urban canyon

peak

summer

air

reducing air pollution

Parks, green areas

26

temperatures,

2.2.2.1.

Albedo and Solar Reflectance Index (SRI)

During the summer materials absorb heat and retain solar energy. Albedo measures a given material‟s reflectance and it is a common way of measuring its heat capacity. The scale of the albedo is from 0 to 1, with 0 meaning the material does not reflect and 1 meaning the given material reflects all solar energy. Table 3, taken from EPA [2005], gives the albedos of some materials within the urban fabric.

Table 3.Albedo Table [Rosenthal, Crauderuff, Carter, 2008] Materials

Albedo

Highly Reflective Roof

0.60 – 0.70

Corrugated Roof

0.10 – 0.15

Colored Paint

0.15 – 0.35

White Paint

0.50 – 0.90

Tar and Gravel Roof

0.03 – 0.18

Red/Brown Tile Roof

0.10 – 0.35

The Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) measures the material‟s temperature in the sun. It is measured by multiplying the albedo with the material‟s emittance. The latter is also from a scale of 0 to 1, with 0 meaning the material emits no absorbed heat, and 1 meaning the materials emits all the absorbed heat.

27

2.2.2.2.

Cool Roofs and Benefits

Cool roofs, with their high SRI material, qualify for energy efficiency. If they contain albedo levels of 0.25 for slopped roofs and 0.65 for flat roofs they fulfill the EPA‟s Energy Star standards. One way of adapting roofs is through the usage of a high-albedo single-ply membrane which could be of polyurethane, elastomeric or acrylic. The adaptation can be applied to preexisting roofs or can be easily set up in new constructed roofs. Figure 10 shows an example of cool roof implementation made for South Bronx.

Figure 10. Modular Cool Roof and Green Roof System of Sustainable South Bronx‟s Smart Roof Demonstration Project [Rosenthal, Crauderuff, Carter, 2008]

In New York City the most common material used is the black asphalt roofing material, which possesses a low albedo from 0.05 – 0.15 [EPA, 2005]. During the summer season the temperatures of dark-colored roofs with low albedo can reach up to 87.8°C. While metal-surfaced roofs and roofs with aluminum coating have a significantly higher albedo, their thermal emittance is relatively low ranging from 20% to 60% - opposed to the usual 80% for all traditional roofs. For this exact reason – whether it be New York or

28

other cities – the summertime temperatures are higher. A roof with low albedo coupled with low emmittance contributes to nocturnal heat island effect, gathering heat during the day and radiating it at night.

Cool roofs instantly decrease surface temperatures, thus decreasing the risk of healthrelated problems due to the heat. The main two potential benefits, amongst lower the levels of health problems, are also: the reduction of fossil fuel emissions and the lowering of the ozone levels. In terms of lifespan, a roofing material with a high albedo and SRI lasts longer than a traditional roof. This is all thanks to the reflection qualities of the damaging ultraviolet (UV) rays that traditional roofs absorb. The passing of time and the heat flux causes deterioration of the roof, leading quite inevitably to roof replacement. Substitution leads to production of waste, high energy consumption and higher costs for municipalities and building owners alike. All are factors which augment environmental pollution.

Another significant contributor to the UHI effect is the land-cover. Pavements can reach up to 65°C [Asaeda et. al., 1996] and their quality to absorb heat only increases over time. For example, black asphalt with its albedo of 0.04 undergoes a radical change – reaching an albedo of 0.12 with the passing of time [Pomerantz et. al., 2000]. Asaeda et. al. [1996] illustrated the way a light-colored with an albedo of 0.45 managed to hit a peak at 49°C instead of the usual 65°C for traditional asphalt.Other mitigation measures which are viable and highly efficient include permeable surfaces. These surfaces allow evaporation which in turn cools the air. [Asaeda et. al., 1996] recommend the use of porous urban paved surfaces as a method in cooling the air. Permeable pavements with high albedo can ultimately lower energy use for street lighting and reduce and filter storm water runoff. These pavements, as proved by Brattebo and Booth [2003], can mitigate storm water runoff, and this water contains low percentage of zinc, copper and motor oil.

29

2.2.2.3.

Green roofs

The living vegetative systems located atop buildings are named „green roofs‟. These systems can either be considered “extensive” or “intensive” depending on the depth of their growth. Intensive green roofs usually contain 15cm or more soil substrate, with a potential in a larger variety of vegetation (Fig.11). Extensive green roofs contain only 5cm of soil substrate with only basic plants, generally sedums. Green roof construction varies. Figure 11 showcases an example starting from the first layer – roof deck, insulation and waterproofing; second layer – for protection and safety; the third, being drainage and capillarity layer; the fourth, being root permeable filter layer, the fifth for extensive growing media; and lastly, plants and vegetation.

Figure 11. Sustainable South Bronx‟s Smart Roof [Rosenthal et. al., 2008]

Similar to cool roofs, green roofs decrease the temperatures of the roofs by enabling evaporation and evapo-transpiration, but not in the same exact manner. Cool roofs reflect solar energy while green roofs lower temperatures with their shading, insulating, evapo-transpirative and evaporative qualities [Liu, 2002]. Studies from Penn State University for Green Roof Research state that green roofs are up to 40°C cooler than traditional roofs. Research has been conducted on the direct impact of green roofs. Such were the results derived: almost a retain of 80% rainfall in comparison to traditional roofing materials. The city of Tirana has a combined state of sewage and storm water drainage problems, causing flood or release of sewage systems.

30

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1.

Overview

A cityâ€&#x;s size is inseparable from the urban heat island intensity, and subsequently, the case of Tirana showcases a greater impact. It is a current problem in Central Europe, namely Budapest, Ljubjana, Modena, Prague, Stuttgart, Vienna and Warsaw [Mahdavi et al., 2014]. The following paper aims to address this issue by presenting case studies of three urban areas with different characteristics and urban morphology. This will provide a comparison between the areas themselves and reinstate that heat islands are, first and foremost, a prevailing problem. The current problems of Tirana are illustrated through synoptic data for the climate of these areas. A new framework is presented – appropriate and efficient in optimizing Tirana. Models then follow, illustrating the present situation and the proposed solutions. Arnfield [2003] and Blazejczyk et al. [2006] have conducted studies to discuss and quantify the UHI (urban-heat island) phenomenon. There have been descriptions of the characteristics and patterns through Voogt [2002] and Hart & Sailor [2007]. The guiding principles of heat islands serve as a good introduction in the understanding and mitigation of heat [Gartland, 2008 and Shishegar, 2015]. Numerous studies have been carried out illustrating that the UHI phenomenon is evidently different during the course of different seasons, as well as between night and the day [Oke, 1981 Gaffin et al. 2008]. Through Gaffin et al. [2008] it has been concluded that summer and fall periods hold the most crucial changes in terms of UHI, coinciding with the seasonal

31

wind speed. Anthropogenic heat emission [Taha, 1997] and the properties of the materials covering the surfaces are the main causes for the rise in temperature.

3.2.

Tirana – scale

Grimm et. al., and Pickett et. al., [2000] point out that there is a distinction between ecology in cities and ecology of cities. The latter refers to the study of the urban context as an ecological system, while the first refers to the study of fragments of nature within the urban context. Even though this is an utterly important distinction, the concern remains as to what ways cities themselves can be ecologic. Rather than trying to increase fragments of nature within urban areas, we need to be worried with the pervasive replacement of built grey infrastructure with natural, green infrastructure.

Tirana is the densely urban capital of Albania, and currently stands on the frontlines of the issue of the steadfast growth and urbanization. It is so far way from being ecologically healthy. Recently, it has experienced changing weather patterns such as rising temperatures and extreme weather events. The effects have been catastrophic – flooding, riverside erosion – and there is an urgent need in planning the city smartly. The most prevalent damage is caused by the Urban Heat Island effect. As a booming city with ample economic activities, a large population and high density, the effects are more ubiquitous (Fig.12). The urban structures generate an excessive amount of heat from solar radiation and other sources.

32

Figure 12. Heat exposure map of Tirana [European Centre for Environmental Health, 2015]

Tirana has a humid subtropical climate which receives enough precipitation during the summer to not be deemed under the Mediterranean climate. The summers are dry and humid, while the winters are mostly cool and wet Snow falls seldom, but it melts quickly.

Below is given (Table 4) an overall outlook on Tirana‟s climate, introducing the changes in temperatures.

Table 4.Climate data for Tirana [BBC, 2015] Climate data for Tirana Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Peak °C

19

22

26

28

33

37

41

40

35

31

25

22

41

Avg high

12

12

15

18

23

28

31

31

27

23

17

14

20.9

Mean °C

7

7

10

13

17.5

22

24

24

20.5

16.5

12.5

9.5

15.29

Avg low

2

2

5

8

12

16

17

17

14

10

8

5

9.7

−9

−8

−4

−1

3

6

11

10

5

1

−3

−7

−9

°C

°C Record

33

low °C 135

152

128

117

122

86

32

32

60

105

211

173

1,353

Avg days

13

13

14

13

12

7

5

4

6

9

16

16

128

Sunshine

124

113

155

210

248

300

341

341

270

217

90

62

2,471

Precipm m

hours

Meanwhile, the table attached (Table 5) illustrates the clear change in temperatures in 2015.

Table 5. Climate for 2015 [Wunderweather, 2016] Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Max

18

21

23

23

31

33

Avg

12

13

14

17

23

Min

7

8

11

12

16

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

39

38

37

29

24

18

26

31

29

27

21

17

11

19

23

22

22

17

4 13

20

Temperature °C

15 10 5

High

0

Avg Low

-5 -10 1

3

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 Days for January 2015

Figure 13. Climate during January 2015

34

The figure attached (Fig.13) illustrates the clear change in temperatures in 2015.

3.3.

Case Study

3.3.1. Selection Criteria

All data is taken from Weather Underground, a network of climatologists and meteorologists dedicated to providing weather information and sharing it with everyone since 1993. The network is comprised of over 180.000 personal weather stations, marking actual weather data points and providing forecasts.

The areas studied coincide with the three current weather stations located in Tirana (Fig. 14). All three differ in location, as they vary from very dense urban areas to rural areas.

However the study area expands to a radius of 100 meters to better reflect the qualities of each area and make the necessary comparisons.

Figure 14. Location of the weather stations/case studies [Wunderweather, 2015]

35

Besides providing information about the climate, Weather Underground measures also the differences in latitude, elevation and longitude between the three areas (Table 6).

Table 6.Information about the areas [Wunderweather, 2015] Latitude

Longitude

Elevation

Tanner’s Bridge

41.33

19.83

111m

Ramaza Begu

41.30

19.85

176m

41.33

19..81

112m

Road Prokop Myzeqari Road

The areas, namely Tanner‟s Bridge (TB), Prokop Myzeqari Street (PM) and Ramazan Begu (RB) were chosen for their diversity in typology, material cover, land cover, building height and land use, and the existence or lack of street canyons.

According to Bai and He (2014) the urban landscape can be categorized as follows: land cover and land use. These will be taken as reference for the study.

Land cover is split into: 

Impervious land cover: artificial lands such as roads, roofs, and parking lots paved by impenetrable materials such as asphalt, concrete, bricks, etc.



Vegetated land cover: consisting of natural and artificial lands paved by penetrable vegetation such as arbor, shrub and grasses



Bare soil: sand or soil not covered by vegetation or simply impervious lands



Water: Land covered by water bodies such as river, ponds and lakes

36

Land use is differentiated by: 

New residential: land which is used by families for private residences or dwellings



Old residential: the land used by families with private residences or dwellings, dense low-rise apartment buildings and less open space



Villas: lands used by single or multiple families for private residences or dwellings with free-standing homes and greater open spaces



Industrial: lands for industrial purposes, like workplace, factories, warehouses and associated infrastructure



Institutional: lands for schools, colleges, universities, and research institutes

To illustrate the differences between the areas, the 21st of January 2015 was taken as a reference. The rise in temperatures is noticeable (table 7 and figure 15). There is a significant rise in the two highly urbanized areas (Tanner‟s Bridge and Prokop Myzeqari road), and certain to remain high even during the night. Meanwhile, Ramazan Begu road, which is located in the outskirts of the city and a neighborhood, comprised of houses surrounded by fields – the temperatures remain low: 17°C measured as the highest and 0°C as the lowest.

Table 7.Daily temperatures for the zones (winter) 21 January 2015

Tanner’s Bridge

Highest

Lowest

17.8

5.8

37

Ramazan Begu road Prokop Myzeqari road

17

0

18.9

8.2

20 15 Tanner's Bridge

10

Ramazan Begu 5

Prokop Myzeqari

0

Highest

Lowest

Figure 15. Temperature difference between areas for January 2015

3.3.2. Approach

It is undeniable to consider UHI without first considering the urban morphology of each of the presented cases. The characteristics studied for each of these areas are listed in the two tables below, starting from the materials most common for surface covers, the percentage of built area, the percentage of use of concrete for cover, and that of shingled roofs (table 8) to overall properties of buildings: height, typology, and presence of street canyons. The maps below emphasize the level of intervention in the surface area and a visual comparison between the numbers of buildings per each case (Figure 16). The maps are an abstract decomposition of the satellite images of the areas. The dark green color symbolizes the patches of greenery (grass, trees, etc), while the blue color shows any presence of a body of water (such is the case of TB in the first map, Figure 16). The buildings are illustrated with red and brown depending on their roof material. Red demonstrates the buildings with shingled roofing while with brown are painted the buildings with flat roofs, with dark-colored concrete roofing material.

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Figure 16. Site specifics of the areas as shown in the map

For instance, as the surface built area looks extremely low for case RB – Ramazan Begu Street, at just 15%, it is possible to derive the relation with the temperatures measured on the 21st of January (Table 8).

The area consists of mainly of residential buildings with greenery introduced by the locals through patches of cultivated agriculture in their gardens, and with the persistence in not imposing construction in the green open fields. The same cannot be said for the two other cases, with the presence of barely any greenery (case PM – Prokop Myzeqari Street), existing only in the main roads, or solely due to the parks nearby.

Table 8.Categories of urban morphology Materials TB

bricks, masonry, shingles, glass, concrete

RB

Land-cover

Shingled

Concrete

Built area

35.2%

64.8%

60%

80%

20%

15%

parks and patches of grass of the Lana River

bricks,

through yards of

masonry, glass

houses and wide open

39

fields PM

bricks, masonry, shingles, concrete, glass

solely through trees planted along the

52%

48%

88%

roads

Evidence suggests that due to the existence of high-rised buildings within the areas, the creation of street canyons is to be noted (Table 9). Urban canyons – commonly known as street canyons – result when streets with high-rised buildings on both sides create an environment resembling canyons. Prokop Myzeqari Street with buildings reaching up to 10 stories high, and a distance between buildings not well-designed, faces this problem.

The similar cannot be said for TM and RB, where respectively, buildings respect the distance set by urban regulations, and buildings are at most 3 stories high and with no relevant impact even if they were in close proximity.

Table 9.Categories of building typology Height TM

RB PM

5-7 stories

3 stories

>10 stories

Building Typology housing (apartments) and services housing (villas)

Street Canyons

No

No

housing (apartments and spread out villas)

40

Yes

3.3.3. Measurements

Presented below are the specific attributes of each case:

3.3.3.1.

Tanner’s Bridge

Located along the main boulevard “Zhan D‟Ark”, the site is particular with its variety of building heights and typology. However, what is peculiar out this case is the presence of the Lana River along the boulevard. The proximity to the body of water in this scenario amplifies the quality of air. It contributes to a significant decrease in temperatures.

Nevertheless, the roads and the buildings remain of concrete and impermeable a material, which in turn heightens the effects of the heat island.

Figure 17. Satellite view [Geoportal Asig, 2015]

Greenery is separate (Fig.17), with the two sides of the river and the parks nearby, but in comparison to the other cases, there are clear signs of vegetation amidst construction.

The zone is prevalent with high-rised apartments and villas but the land cover is mixed

41

use: residential and retail. However, these two elements seem to make only a slight difference in temperature (Fig.18).

Figure 18. View of the main road

Tannerâ€&#x;s Bridge (TB) is an area with a rich urban texture, with a diverse land cover, building typology and land use. The urban tissue is characterized by old traditional villas; build during the ottoman and communist period, and by new buildings. The new buildings are all 5-7 stories high apartment buildings, where the first floors are used for retail and services such as restaurants, bars, and even educational (Fig.19). These buildings use dark-colored concrete as roofing material, which is ultimately impermeable and a contributor in the urban heat island effect. However, the shingled roofs of the two-stories high villas with their surrounding garden – accumulated together keep the air cool. Figure 19 shows an abstract version of TB.

42

Figure 19. Map of TB

The graphs below show the difference of temperatures hourly during the month of

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

21-Jan

0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

Temperature °C

January (Fig.20) and July (Fig.21) for the year 2015.

Time (hours)

Figure 20. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly

43

Temperature °C

50 40 30

20 10

21-Jul 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

0

Time (hours)

Figure 21. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly

3.3.3.2.

Ramazan Begu:

Located in the outskirts of Tirana and the site is particular with its villas and patches of greenery. However, what stands out is the presence of the fields surrounding the villas.

The presence of a body of greenery in this scenario amplifies the quality of the air (Fig.22). It makes for a lowering of temperatures. Nevertheless, the roads and the buildings remain of concrete and impermeable a material, which in turn heightens the effects of the heat island.

Figure 22. Satellite view of the area [Geoportal Asig, 2015]

44

It is a fairly rural area, very far away from the urbanization of Tirana and its noisiness.

Greenery is the most predominant in this area (Fig.23). The open fields offer cooling while the residents seem to have gone overboard with abundant gardens. The zone is prevalent with small villas and the land cover is only residential.

Figure 23. View of the main road

Ramazan Begu Street (RB) is an area with a rich urban texture (Fig. 24), with a land cover taken by unbuilt parts of fields, a building typology characterized by low-rised buildings and residential land use. The urban tissue is characterized by new villas; built by the owners themselves. These buildings are differentiated by their roofs into buildings with flat roofs and pitched shingled roofs. The main road (Fig. 23) is lined up with olive trees providing shading and clean air. Apart from the pleasantness of walking down the pathways, which are wide enough to accommodate only pedestrians, the lack of high-rised provide an open view towards the horizon – free of urban canyons.

The graphs below show the difference of temperatures hourly during the month of January (Fig.25) and July (Fig.26) for the year 2015.

45

0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

Temperature °C

Figure 24. Map of RB

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 21-Jan

Time (hour)

Figure 25. Climate data for the 21st of January 2015

46

21-Jul 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

Temperature °C

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Time (hour)

Figure 26. Climate data for 21st July 2015

3.3.3.3.

Prokop Myzeqari

Located in the center of Tirana, the site is particular with its variety of building heights.

However, what stands out is the presence of these buildings near each other. The presence of these buildings in this scenario amplifies the bad quality of the air (Fig.27).

The roads and the buildings are of concrete and impermeable a material, which in turn heighten the effects of the heat island (Fig.27). Additionally, the proximity of buildings accentuates urban canyons which do not allow good ventilation of the area.

Figure 27. Satellite view of the area [Geoportal Asig, 2015]

47

Here greenery seems to disappear, popping out only in-between villas and apartments as modest gardens. The zone is prevalent with high-rised apartments, but the land cover is mixed use: residential and business.

Figure 28. View of the main road

Prokop Myzeqari Street (PM) is an area with a rich urban texture (Fig.29), with 80% of it built, a building typology characterized by high-rised buildings. The urban tissue is characterized by apartments; and a few villas. These buildings are differentiated by their roofs into buildings with flat roofs and pitched shingled roofs. The main road (Fig.28) are not lined up with trees and there is few evidence of greenery in the whole neighborhood.

48

Figure 29. Map of PM

The graphs below show the difference of temperatures hourly during the month of January (Fig.30) and July (Fig.31) for the year 2015.

15 10 5

21-Jan

0 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

Temperature °C

20

Time (hours)

Figure 30. Climate data for 21st January 2015

49

Temperature °C

50 40 30

20 10

21-Jul 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

0

Time (hours)

Figure 31. Climate data for 21st July 2015

3.3.4. Comparative overview of the selected areas

The three areas have clear physical differences, as seen on the respective maps (Fig.32).

These changes, i.e. the percentage of greenery existing, the percentage of impermeable materials, the ratio of built and unbuilt areas, the percentage of concrete etc, are detected in slight changes in temperature.

Figure 32. Maps of all three selected areas

The table below (Table 10) makes a confrontation between the three areas studied.

50

Table 10.Temperature data for January 2015 Hour

Tanner’s Bridge

Ramazan Begu

Prokop Myzeqari

00h

9.4

11.2

10.5

01h

9.1

10.4

9.8

02h

8.6

10.3

9.3

03h

8.1

10.1

8.9

04h

7.6

9.7

8.7

05h

8

9.9

8.7

06h

9.8

10.5

8.2

07h

10.8

11.4

8.8

08h

12

12.1

9.3

09h

13

13.2

11.1

10h

14.6

14.1

12.2

11h

14.9

14.4

13.4

12h

15.8

14.7

14.7

13h

15

14.7

16.5

14h

14.2

14.7

17.2

15h

14.2

14

17.2

16h

13.3

13.9

18.8

17h

13

13.2

18.2

51

18h

13

13

17.2

19h

11.3

12.7

16.5

20h

11.3

12.3

15.8

21h

11.1

12.3

13.4

22h

11.3

12.4

13.2

23h

10.7

12.4

9.6

20 18

Temperature °C

16 14 12 10

Tanner's Bridge

8

Ramazan Begu

6

Prokop Myzeqari

4 2 0

Time (hour)

Figure 33. Comparison for January 2015

For the month of January 2015, there is an evident and anticlimactic difference between the areas. For instance, even though January signals the continuation and the peak for the winter season, the temperatures remain high – with the highest being 18°C. The

52

graph below (Fig.33) makes a confrontation between the three areas studied, for the month of July.

For the month of July 2015, there is an evident and anticlimactic difference between the areas (Fig.34). For instance, even though July signals the continuation and the peak for the summer season, the temperatures remain high – with the highest being 39.7°C. Table 11.Temperature data for July 2015 Hour

Tanner’s Bridge

Ramazan Begu

Prokop Myzeqari

00h

30.9

29.9

29.8

01h

29.3

29

29.3

02h

29.1

28.9

31.8

03h

26.9

28.2

28.8

04h

26.4

27.5

28.1

05h

26.3

27.4

27.8

06h

25.9

27

27.2

07h

27.3

27.4

28.8

08h

28.8

28.5

30.2

09h

30.1

29.9

31.6

10h

32

30.2

33.9

11h

34

32.2

35.8

12h

36

34.1

37.7

13h

37

34.4

38.7

53

14h

37.9

36.7

39.7

15h

38.6

36.4

38.9

16h

37.8

36.7

37.8

17h

36.9

35.9

36.9

18h

36

36

36.1

19h

34.1

34.5

34.5

20h

32.4

33.5

34

21h

31.5

32.6

32.5

22h

31

32.2

32.3

23h

30.3

31

31.1

The graph above (Table 11) makes a confrontation between the three areas studied, for the month of July.

54

45 40

Temperature °C

35 30 25 20

Tanner's Bridge

15

Ramazan Begu

10

Prokop Myzeqari

5 0

Time (hour)

Figure 34. Comparison for July 2015

3.4.

Simulation and Calibration

There exists a deeply rooted connection between urban planning, architecture and the microclimate and the only means in viewing this complexity is through meteorological models such as the microclimate simulation ENVI-met. The human perception of atmospheric conditions is defined by processes taking place on two different scales. On the one hand there are large scale processes in the upper layers of the troposphere that govern the path of air masses on their way around the globe. These large scale processes define what we usually call „weather" by determining the path and exchange of air masses with different physical properties around the globe. On the other hand there also are smaller scale processes within the lowest layer of the troposphere. The meteorological conditions within this layer are also influenced by the large scale processes, but the exchange processes between soil, water, buildings and plants and the

55

atmosphere superimpose upon these large scale processes to create a special microclimate which can intensify or counteract large scale weather and climate trends.

The good - or bad - thing about microclimate is that humans can directly and almost instantaneously influence it. The best example for this human influence on microclimate is the so called urban heat island (UHI). The term UHI describes the observation that the air temperature in cities can be significantly higher than in the surrounding rural areas.

This effect is caused by artificial surface materials, lower vegetation density and the modification of the windfield by buildings [Oke, 1982]. Because of the numerous interactions and non-linear correlations among the different aspects of microclimate it is not always possible to develop generalized guidelines for microclimatic advantageous urban planning and architecture.

An action that might prove beneficial in one city, e.g. the optimization of wind blow, might have undesired side effects in another city with different (mesoscale) climate conditions. Therefore the best approach for urban planners and architects who want to assess the impact of their projects on urban microclimate is to simulate their specific project with the help of microclimate modeling software.

Similarly, the approach taken into consideration for the selected areas aim to identify the differences of the air temperatures and wind speed within the selected 24hour timeframe – for the 2 dates – and between one another. The challenge living through with ENVImet and its development is the necessity to run the simulation faster, and model larger areas within an acceptable time frame. Right now, the biggest advantage of ENVI-met is its adaptability and flexibility – the chance to make microclimate simulations even on a personal computer and laptop.

Numerical modeling is a tool frequently used for urban climate studies. Nevertheless, the value of the output of modeling depends solely on the accuracy and its input data.

Therefore all data is, first of all, tried for accuracy. The input materials, as stated even above, come directly from the weather stations located at Tanner‟s Bridge, Ramazan

56

Begu and Prokop Myzeqari. The calibration process relied on a trial and error method, heuristically discovering whether the predictions based on the computation model would deviate from the actual measurements.

In order to start with the simulation in ENVI-met, the input files for the three areas were all created and personalized to fit to the dimensions (usually converted to .bmp files).

The base maps were those from the orthophotos found from the State Authority for Geospatial Information (ASIG), 2015. These maps underwent an abstraction phase, where only buildings, vegetation and roads and pathways were emphasized (Fig.36).

These maps were used as background images over which geometry of the area was drawn.

The simulation process is divided into steps (Fig.35). The first one, started in the section SPACE of ENVI-met Headquarter, involves the creation of the geometrical characteristics of the area that will be simulated. The abstraction maps, created before, serve solely as reference for inserting buildings, building heights, materials, and vegetation (Fig.36).

57

Figure 35. Work order for ENVI-met

58

The characteristics of an area that can be manipulated in ENVI-met are divided into: buildings, soil and surface, vegetation, receptors, sources, single walls and DEM. For this analysis the only options that will be changed fall in the category buildings, soil and surface, and vegetation. Based on the background image and the urban analysis, for each area: the building height was inserted; the land cover materials and vegetation were selected as: 

[ST] Asphalt Road



[PD] Concrete Pavement Dark



[LO] Loamy Soil



[00] Default Unseald Soil;



[GG] Grass 50 cm aver. dense.

Figure 36. Extraction of orthophotos (first row) and translation to background maps for ENVI-met (second row)

59

The second step for the numeric modeling is the Configuration Wizard, which aids in the creation and editing of simulation files. Here, the two dates taken in consideration are the 21st of January and the 21st of July, 2015. This step requires the inputs of the highest and lowest temperatures measured – found in the climatic information provided by Weather Underground – and the highest and lowest humidity, for each date.

The third step is to run the simulation, by selecting the appropriate grid able to fit the area studied. All three cases used version 100x100x40. As it is typically recommended before running the simulation, a check is made. This is useful for showing any possible mistakes in outputs and giving the users the opportunity to fix them before doing a trial of the simulation.

The last step is completed by using Leonardo 2014 from the menu of ENVI-met Headquarters. This is where all the results of the simulations are seen. The Data Navigator on the right side of the screen helps select and display the simulation results.

After the main data file is selected (whether it be under File Set A or File Set B), the display options are either in a two-dimensional or three-dimensional map. For each of them it is necessary to assign the Source for the data, the map layers and elements.

When everything is set, the button Extract 2D will display the map of the area for the time period selected. All three cases studied followed the directions below: 

Main Data File: Chosen from folder Atmosphere



Data: Air Temperature (°C)



Contour: Wind Speed (m/s)



Symbol: <unchanged>



Vector: x – flow u (m/s); y – flow v (m/s); z – flow w (m/s)



Special: Objects



Type of 2D view: x-y

60

The sidebar on the left of the screen shows Map Control options. For all the maps displayed in the following pages, these options were selected (visible): 

Datalayer Settings



Datalayer Legend



Speciallayer Settings



Contourlayer Settings

The following information was used as input for ENVI-met SPACE Configuration: 

Main model area grid: 60 – x, 60 – y and 30 – z



Number of nesting grids: 5



Soil A: Default Unseald Soil



Size of grid cell in meter: dx – 1.00; dy – 1.00; dz – 1.00



Wall Material: Concrete slab



Roof Material: Concrete slab



Location on Earth: Tirana/Albania

61

Figure 37. Translation of the map to ENVI-met data for TB

Figure 37 illustrates extracted map readable by ENVI-met.

Figure 38. Translation of the map to ENVI-met data for RB

Figure 38 illustrates the extracted map for Ramazan Begu Street, readable by ENVImet.

62

Figure 39. Translation of the map to ENVI-met data for PM

Figure 39 illustrates the extracted map for Prokop Myzeqari Street, readable by ENVImet.

3.5.

Questionnaires

The current state of Tirana and the studied urban heat island effect – together with the potential for rise of temperatures – are a major concern. Of immediate concern should be the demand of energy during the summertime, because of the high temperatures. In a future scenario, the greater demand for electricity forms high levels of power plant emissions and the eventual need for additional generating capacity. The levels of air pollution, as always, present an imminent threat to the wellbeing of populations – the same way summertime temperatures present when they reach extreme levels due to the urban heat island effect.

The heat island effect has a significant impact on health and wellbeing, especially during the summer. For cities like New York, as mentioned by Buechley et al. [1972], the problem in public health has been acknowledged for decades. For instance, the heat wave of 1966 in New York City caused a higher mortality in comparison to its suburbs.

63

The same goes for the rise of temperatures during the night-time, making a slightly more significant increase in the risk of mortality rates caused by heat.

On one hand, the way the heat island effect damages public health is through the rise of ambient air pollutants. Harmful smog, or otherwise named ground-level ozone, is formed at a faster rate during the prolongation of high temperatures. Scientific studies have found that the pollution of the ozone air, causes respiratory problems, damages in lung tissue, asthma attacks and much more.

On the other hand, the increase in temperatures demands an increase in cooling of the commercial and residential buildings, causing unavoidable high levels in power plant emissions. Thus, health is affected through other air pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and particulate matter [Kinney, 1999; Amdur et al., 1991].

Possible strategies in keeping, first and foremost â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the vulnerable part of the population, unharmed are: provision with access to areas that are air-conditioned; implementation of health-alert systems running on air quality. Nevertheless, technically speaking, the most tangible solution is through green roofs. They allow a visible reduction in outside air temperature and reduction of indoor temperatures.

For the purpose of establishing the degree of comfort and the impact UHI has on public health, the inhabitants and passers-by were asked to fill in a questionnaire comprised of nine questions. These questions were compiled based on a recent study on the Urban Heat Island Effect of The Central Business District (CBD) area in Singapore. The questions will be posed to the public to evaluate their opinion, the feasibility of mitigation solutions, and how conscious they are to the urban heat island effect.

64

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

4.1.

Simulation

Figures 40 to 51 give the results of the simulation. The climate maps illustrate the major heats spots of the respective areas, and wind direction of the selected zones.

Figure 40. Climate map for Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bridge, 21st of January

65

Temperature °C

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Simulation

0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:0012:0014:0016:0018:0020:0022:00 Time (hours)

Figure 41. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly

Figure 41 and Figure 42 showcase the actual climate conditions for the 21st of January and 21st of July respectively. As shown, Lana River allows for ventilation of the area, keeping the air cool at less than 10 °C for the winter season.

Figure 42. Climate map for Tanner‟s Bridge, 21st of July

66

21-Jul

0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

Temperature °C

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Time (hours)

Figure 43. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly

Although the same goes for the summer season, the lowest temperature is 28.89 °C, while the highest is 34.78 °C (Fig.42 and Fig.43).

Figure 44. Climate map for Ramazan Begu Street, 21st of January

67

21-Jan

0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

Temperature °C

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Time (hours)

Figure 45. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly

Figure 44 and Figure 45 showcase the actual climate conditions for the 21st of January and 21st of July respectively. As shown, the open fields allow for ventilation of the area, keeping the air cool at less than 10 °C for the winter season.

Figure 46. Climate map for Ramazan Begu, 21st of July

68

Temperature °C

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Simulation

0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:0012:0014:0016:0018:0020:0022:00 Time (hours)

Figure 47. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly

Although the same goes for the summer season, the lowest temperature is 28.89 °C, while the highest is 34.78 °C (Fig.46 and Fig.47).

Figure 48. Climate map for Prokop Myzeqari, 21 st of July

69

Temperature °C

20 15 10 5

21-Jan

0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

0

Time (hours)

Figure 49. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly

Figure 48 and Figure 49 showcase the actual climate conditions for the 21st of January and 21st of July respectively. As shown, there is poor to very little ventilation between the buildings within the neighborhood. This keeps the temperatures steady and at high levels.

Figure 50. Climate map for Prokop Myzeqari, 21 st of July

70

21-Jul

0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

Temperature °C

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Time (hours)

Figure 51. Temperature chart for the 21st of January measured hourly

Although the same goes for the summer season, the lowest temperature is 28.89 °C, while the highest is 34.78 °C (Fig. 50 and Fig.51).

4.2.

Model Calibration

Figure 52 and Figure 53 illustrate the temperature difference between the measured urban temperatures at Tanner‟s Bridge weather station and the results of the simulation, for the 21st of January and the 21st of July 2015, respectively.

Figure 54 and Figure 55 illustrate the temperature difference between the measured urban temperatures at Ramazan Begu‟s weather station and the results of the simulation, for the 21st of January and the 21st of July 2015, respectively.

Figure 56 and Figure 57 illustrate the temperature difference between the measured urban temperatures at Prokop Myzeqari‟s weather station and the results of the simulation, for the 21st of January and the 21st of July 2015, respectively.

71

18 16 Temperature °C

14 12 10 8

Simulation

6

Measurements

4 2 0

Time

Figure 52. Model Calibration for 21st of January, TB

45

40 Temperature °C

35 30 25 20 Simulation

15

Measurements

10 5 0

Time

Figure 53. Model Calibration for 21st of July, TB

72

16 14

Temperature °C

12 10 8 6

Simulation

4

Measurements

2 0

Time

Figure 54. Model Calibration for 21st of January, RB

40 35

Temperature °C

30

25 20 15

Simulation

10

Measurements

5 0

Time

Figure 55. Model Calibration for 21st of July, RB

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20 18

Temperature °C

16 14 12 10

8

Simulation

6

Measurements

4 2

0

Time

Figure 56. Model Calibration for 21st of January, PM

45 40

Temperature °C

35 30 25 20

Simulation

15

Measurements

10

5 0

Time

Figure 57. Model Calibration for 21st of July, PM

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4.3.

Questionnaires

The questionnaire was conducted to a number of 60 inhabitants â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 20 per area selected.

The individuals willing to reply, were asked questions about themselves, their knowledge on UHI and their opinions as well, on how to better ameliorate the living conditions of the area where they live and work.

Table 12.Participants according to their age group Age Groups

TB

RB

PM

<15

10%

20%

15%

16-20

25%

10%

10%

21-25

5%

15%

35%

26-30

15%

30%

10%

31-40

10%

20%

30%

>40

35%

5%

10%

Questions range from personal, such as questions 1-3, demonstrated from table 1 to table 3, to help determine and measure their answers in an attempt to discuss the effect of UHI in thermal comfort.

Table 12 shows the number of individuals for each area, and which group age they pertain to.

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Table 13.Participants according to gender Gender

TB

RB

PM

Female

45%

50%

60%

Male

55%

50%

40%

Table 13 shows the number of individuals for each area, and which gender they pertain to.

Table 14.Reasons for being in the area TB

RB

PM

Working

25%

25%

15%

Living in proximity

40%

50%

80%

Entertainment

15%

15%

5%

Other

20%

10%

5%

Reasons for being at the area

Table 14 shows that a great motivator for the reason behind visiting each one of these locations is linked to the land use of the area itself.

Table 15.Degree of discomfort Degree of discomfort

TB

RB

PM

-3

-

-

-

-2

-

10%

-

76

-1

30%

15%

-

0

15%

75%

25%

1

5%

-

30%

2

45%

-

20%

3

5%

-

25%

Part of the study was even the confrontation of the levels of discomfort and comfort (thermal and well-being) between the three selected areas (table 15 and table 16 respectively).

Table 16.Level of comfort Thermal Comfort Level

TB

RB

PM

Unacceptable

40%

-

65%

Acceptable

60%

100%

35%

Table 17.Differences in temperature in relation to the surroundings Is the area hotter than the

TB

RB

PM

Yes

25%

5%

50%

No

35%

60%

20%

Same

40%

35%

30%

surroundings?

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Table 17 illustrates a separation between the three areas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; with both Prokop Myzeqari and Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bridge having similar numbers of individuals claiming a change in temperature.

Table 18.Reasons for UHI Reason for higher temperatures Waste emission from vehicles Lack of vegetation Not enough wind to cool down area High amount of

TB

RB

PM

65%

55%

60%

15%

30%

20%

-

-

10%

-

-

-

20%

15% - construction

10%

energy usage Other

Questions 7-9 ask for the genuine opinion of the citizens themselves aiding them, firstly, in being aware on the issue of UHI effects, and secondly, in gathering their input on what methods they think are more feasible in achieving comfort.

Table 18 contains the data for the reasons for UHI in different areas.

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Table 19.Impacts from UHI Resulting Impacts

TB

RB

PM

50%

35%

10%

40%

40%

55%

5%

15%

20%

5%

5%

10%

Illnesses such as headache, sore throat and fever

Physical fatigue

Physiological effects such as mood swings

Lower work productivity due to warmer temperature

+Other

5% – can‟t go out to

-

play

5%

Table 19 shows that inhabitants of each of these areas have experienced discomfort – whether that be big or small – all due to UHI.

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Table 20.Solutions for UHI Most viable TB

RB

PM

Cool pavements

20%

30%

35%

Sky gardens

25%

20%

20%

-

10%

-

55%

40%

45%

solutions to UHI effects

Tropical gardens Laws and regulations

The impacts and solutions, first and foremost, influence the people living and working in these areas. Thus, the last question was focused in gathering their ideas in preventing, and ultimately solving the UHI problem in their neighborhood. Table 20 demonstrates the choices they picked.

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CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

5.1.

Simulation

Figure 58 and Figure 59 demonstrate the difference in temperature for the 21 st of January and 21st of July, respectively. As expected, Prokop Myzeqari Street has higher temperatures than the two remaining areas. The difference in temperature for January between PM and TB is 3 °C, while between RB it is 4 °C. 20 18

Temperature °C

16 14 12 10

Tanner's Bridge

8

Ramazan Begu

6

Prokop Myzeqari

4 2 0

Time (hour)

Figure 58. Temperature comparison chart for the 21st of January measured hourly

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45 40

Temperature °C

35 30 25 20

Tanner's Bridge

15

Ramazan Begu

10

Prokop Myzeqari

5 0

Time (hour)

Figure 59. Temperature comparison chart for the 21st of July measured hourly

Prokop Myzeqari Street has higher temperatures than the two remaining areas, even for July 2015. The difference in temperature for January between PM and TB is 2 °C, while between RB it is 3 °C. All these differences are due to the level of construction and the existence of vegetation and permeable materials.

5.2.

Questionnaire

As shown in the chart in figure 60, the most involved participants for the area of Ramazan Begu Street, belonged to the age group 26-30, with a whopping 30%, while the lowest numbers of individuals questioned were of the ages 40 and more. The same can be said for the area of Prokop Myzeqari Street (PM), where the age group of 21-25 years old, took the lead with a participation of 35%. Dissimilarly, the individuals who participated to the questionnaire for the area of Tanner‟s Bridge (TB) belonged mostly to

82

the last age group â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 40 years older and more â&#x20AC;&#x201C; with 35%, while the ages 21-25 years old participated with a low number of 5%.

40% 35%

Participants (%)

30% 25% 20%

TB

15%

RB

PM

10% 5% 0% <15

16-20

21-25

26-30

31-40

>40

Age Groups

Figure 60. Participants according to age groups 70% 60%

Participants (%)

50% 40% TB

30%

RB PM

20% 10% 0%

Female

Male Gender

Figure 61. Participants according to gender

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The questioned individuals for the area of Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bridge (TB) were mostly male, with a participation of 55%, while female participants made only 45% (Figure 61). For the area of Ramazan Begu Street, the participation for male and female was in equal numbers; while Prokop Myzeqari Street (PM), had an involvement of mostly female inhabitants and visitors, by making up 60% of all the participants.

In this case, (Figure 62) all three areas had high numbers of visitors with the sole purpose of habitation, by 40% for TB, 50% for RB and 80% for PM. To be pointed out remains the number of people working in the areas studied: 25% for TB and 25% for RB. However, for Prokop Myzeqari Street 20% of the participants were visiting the area for other reasons, mainly because of school.

90% 80%

Participants (%)

70% 60% 50% TB

40%

RB

30%

PM

20% 10% 0% Working

Living in proximity

Entertainment

Other

Reasons for being in the area

Figure 62. Graph illustrating the reasons for being in the area at the time of the questionnaire

84

80% 70%

Partipants (%)

60% 50% 40%

TB

30%

RB PM

20% 10% 0% -3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

Degree of discomfort

Figure 63. Graph illustrating the degree of comfort for the three areas

The UHI effect is visible through the results of question number four (Figure 63). As such, Tanner‟s Bridge takes the lead with 45% feeling uncomfortable due to the temperatures. Ramazan Begu Street has a peak of 75% of participants feeling neutral; while Prokop Myzeqari, has only 30% of inhabitants feeling slightly uncomfortable.

Sixty percent of inhabitants of the area of Tanner‟s Bridge find the thermal conditions of the area acceptable (Figure 64). The same goes for Ramazan Begu Street, for which all the inhabitants say it has acceptable thermal comfort conditions. However, 65% of the inhabitants of Prokop Myzeqari consider the area‟s comfort levels unacceptable.

85

120%

Participants (%)

100% 80% 60%

TB RB

40%

PM

20% 0% Unacceptable

Acceptable Thermal Comfort Level

Figure 64. Levels of thermal comfort 70% 60%

Participants (%)

50% 40% TB

30%

RB PM

20%

10% 0% Yes

No

Same

Is the area hotter than the surroundings?

Figure 65. Evaluation of the temperature difference between the area studied and its surroundings

86

The study conducted on the month of April, 2016, had updated questions regarding the current temperatures and whether or not these areas seemed hotter in comparison to their periphery and close neighborhood (Fig. 65). This question derived from the many official meteorological reports stating that the temperatures in Tirana overall, and in specific zones, has gotten higher in relation to the other cities. For Tanner‟s Bridge area, 40% of inhabitants find the temperatures within the area to be the same as that of its surroundings (Figure 66). Sixty percent of the visitors and inhabitants questioned for Ramazan Begu Street consider its temperature to not be any higher than that of its surroundings. The difference is visible for the inhabitants of PM, where 50% think the temperatures are higher than the surroundings.

70%

Participants (%)

60% 50% 40% 30%

TB

20%

RB PM

10% 0% Waste emission from vehicles

Lack of vegetation

Not enough High amount of wind to cool energy usage down area

Other

Reasons of UHI

Figure 66. Public evaluation for the reasons behind UHI

Ramazan Begu is a „newborn‟ in comparison to the construction levels of Prokop Myzeqari and Tanner‟s Bridge, but the latest boom in building apartments and blocks

87

has the inhabitants worried. Thus, there is a large number of citizens pointing out construction as one of the main reason in the raise of temperatures (Fig.66). In the two remaining areas, Prokop Myzeqari and Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bridge, the two main reasons are waste emissions and lack of greenery. Both these reasons are identifiable, as the areas are highly urbanized and very frequented by cars and people. They are two of the major nodes of the road network of Tirana.

60%

Participants (%)

50% 40% 30%

TB RB

20%

PM 10% 0%

Illnesses

Physical fatigue Psychological Effects

Lower Productivity

Other

Impacts from UHI

Figure 67. Evaluation of the impacts of UHI

The most common response (Fig. 67) for the impacts of UHI in relation to public health is that of physical fatigue, by 40% for RB, and 55% for PM. Fifty percent of inhabitants of Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bridge consider the primary impact to be illnesses such as a sore throat, fever and/or headaches.

88

60%

Participants (%)

50%

40% 30%

TB RB

20%

PM 10% 0% Cool pavements

Sky gardens

Tropical gardens

Laws and regulations

Solutions for UHI

Figure 68. Evaluation of possible mitigation solutions for UHI

All the participants are convinced that one of the most important and feasible solutions to the urban heat island effect (Fig.68). This percentage varies from area and it is: 55% for Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bridge, 40% for Ramazan Begu, and 45% for Prokop Myzeqari.

5.3.

Scenarios

As mentioned in chapter 2, there exists a variety of mitigation solutions for the urban heat island effect. The proposed scenarios stated below represent a few of the changes the three areas taken in consideration, Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bridge, Ramazan Begu Street and Prokop Myzeqari Street, could undergo (Table 21). The main goal is the formulation of time-efficient, feasible solutions, which vary depending on the characteristics of each area. The two main scenarios include the adding of vegetation, and the implementation

89

of impermeable materials – mostly for land cover. However, the third scenario serves to illustrate that the application of both options can bring higher benefits.

Table 21.Scenarios considered Scenarios Vegetation

Materials

S1

S2

5.3.1. Tanner’s Bridge Tanner‟s Bridge (TB) is an area with a staggering 60% built area in comparison to the unbuilt. For this reason both strategies – vegetation and material change – have been considered (table 22). Tanner‟s Bridge, located in close proximity to Lanar River, shows a higher increase in temperatures in comparison to the RB, but still lower than PM. This difference in temperatures between the other two areas is due to the presence of a body of water. The purpose of using all scenarios (S 1 and S2) is to compare the efficiency of both and conclude which one is more feasible (Fig.70 and Fig.71).

Table 22.Scenario used for Tanner‟s Bridge Scenarios Vegetation S1

Materials

O O

S2

90

The materials selected for the second scenario (S 2) are granite, photocatalyctic concrete, and loamy soil (Fig.69).

Granite â&#x20AC;&#x201C; used for pedestrian paths and sidewalks â&#x20AC;&#x201C; has an albedo of 0.3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 0.35. The material is a type of intrusive igneous rock, and predominantly white, pink or gray. In building construction, granite is principally used as a flooring tile in commercial and public buildings. In other cultures, granite was generally used to build foundations for houses.

On the other hand, photocatalyctic concrete is a recently introduced mixture of cement, able to wash away smog, and neutralize pollution. The material is based on particles of titanium dioxide, making its attributes special. The photocatalysis process the material undergoes while it is hit by sunlight makes it capable of breaking down smog or any harmful pollution attached to the concrete substrate [PCA, 2016]. Usually, normal pavements are left with a severe discoloration and/or deterioration. This self-cleaning process makes it easier to keep the maintenance costs of buildings and pavements alike, at low expense levels.

The cleaner the buildings and pavements are the better is the quality of air. Therefore, it is recommended that all concrete products which have a direct contact and exposure to sunlight be substituted with photocatalyctic concrete. City streets are one example.

Pollution is then reduced directly at its source.

91

Figure 69. Implementation of impermeable materials for TB

Figures 70 and Figures 71 illustrate the change in temperatures after the proposal, for January and July 2015, respectively.

92

Figure 70. Climate map of Tanner‟s Bridge for S2

Figure 71. Climate map of Tanner‟s Bridge for S2

93

The plant Senegalia Greggii was selected for the vegetation scenario. The plant was planted along the roads, in-between buildings and even across the open fields which before then were planted only with grass (Figure 72).

Senegalia Greggi is a species which originates in the southwestern United States but occurs everywhere. It is either found as a small tree growing from 10 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 15 m with a diameter of 20 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 30 cm; or as a large shrub. Its grey-green leaves are deciduous and the fibers are often used for construction material and firewood.

Figure 72. Implementation of vegetation for TB

94

Figure 73. Climate map of Tanner‟s Bridge for S1 for January

Figure 74 Climate map of Tanner‟s Bridge for S1 for July

There is a whopping drop of 5 °C as visible even in the map (Fig.73 and Fig.74).

Scientifically speaking, a line of trees has more effect in immediately lowering 95

temperatures than a single tree. Thus, the most significant decrease of temperatures happens along the main road where the new trees are proposed.

5.3.2. Ramazan Begu

Ramazan Begu Street (RB) is an area with a brand new construction boom. This fact is primary in compiling the most appropriate strategy for the mitigation of the heat island effect (Table 23). Ramazan Begu Street, located in the periphery of the city, shows no increase in temperatures â&#x20AC;&#x201C; due to the degree of built surface in comparison to the unbuilt, the heights of the buildings, the land cover materials, and many more urban morphological reasons. The purpose of using the first scenario (S1) is to correlate the degree of urbanization with the urban heat island effect.

Table 23.Scenarios used for RB Scenarios Vegetation S1

Materials

O

The plant Senegalia Greggii was selected for the vegetation scenario. The plant was planted along the roads, in-between buildings and even across the open fields which before then were planted only with grass (Figure 75).

Senegalia Greggi is a species which originates in the southwestern United States but occurs everywhere. It is either found as a small tree growing from 10 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 15 m with a diameter of 20 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 30 cm; or as a large shrub. Its grey-green leaves are deciduous and the fibers are often used for construction material and firewood.

96

Figure 75. Implementation of Senegalia Greggii for RB

97

Figure 76. Climate map of Ramazan Begu Street for S1 for January

Figure 77. Climate map of Ramazan Begu Street for S1 for July

There is a whopping drop of 2 °C as visible even in the map (Fig.76 and Fig.77).

Scientifically speaking, a line of trees has more effect in immediately lowering

98

temperatures than a single tree. Thus, the most significant decrease of temperatures happens along the main road where the new trees were planted.

5.3.3. Prokop Myzeqari

Prokop Myzeqari Street (PM) is an area where 88% percent of the area is taken by buildings and constructions. There is no existence of greenery that may aid in the decrease of temperatures. All of facts are the reasons behind selecting all strategies (table 24). Prokop Myzeqari Street is located in close proximity to one of the main boulevards of Tirana, Boulevard Zogu I and at the centre of the city. It has the highest increase of temperatures in comparison to Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bridge and Ramazan Begu Street.

The degree of built area is higher, and so is the degree of intervention with permeable materials.

Table 24.Scenarios used for Prokop Myzeqari Street Scenarios Vegetation S1

Materials

O O

S2

The plant Senegalia Greggii was selected for the vegetation scenario. The plant was planted along the roads, in-between buildings and even across the open fields which before then were planted only with grass (Fig.78).

Senegalia Greggi is a species which originates in the southwestern United States but occurs everywhere. It is either found as a small tree growing from 10 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 15 m with a

99

diameter of 20 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 30 cm; or as a large shrub. Its grey-green leaves are deciduous and the fibers are often used for construction material and firewood Tamarix Gallica is another plant proposed. It has originated from Saudi Arabia but it is very common in the Mediterranean region. It is herbaceous, and a deciduous shrub or a small tree that can reach up to 5 meters.

Figure 78. Implementation of Senegalia Greggii and Tamarix Gallica for PM

100

Figure 79. Climate map of Prokop Myzeqari Street for S 1, January

Figure 80. Climate map of Prokop Myzeqari Street for S1, July

101

There is a whopping drop of 2 °C as visible even in the map (Fig.79 and Fig.80).

Scientifically speaking, a line of trees has more effect in immediately lowering temperatures than a single tree. Thus, the most significant decrease of temperatures happens along the main road where the new trees were planted.

The materials selected for the second scenario (S 2) are granite, photocatalyctic concrete, and loamy soil (Fig.81).

Granite – used for pedestrian paths and sidewalks – has an albedo of 0.3 – 0.35. The material is a type of intrusive igneous rock, and predominantly white, pink or gray. In building construction, granite is principally used as a flooring tile in commercial and public buildings. In other cultures, granite was generally used to build foundations for houses.

On the other hand, photocatalyctic concrete is a recently introduced mixture of cement, able to wash away smog, and neutralize pollution. The material is based on particles of titanium dioxide, making its attributes special.

The photocatalysis process the material undergoes while it is hit by sunlight makes it capable of breaking down smog or any harmful pollution attached to the concrete substrate [PCA, 2016].

Usually, normal pavements are left with a severe discoloration and/or deterioration. This self-cleaning process makes it easier to keep the maintenance costs of buildings and pavements alike, at low expense levels. The cleaner the buildings and pavements are the better is the quality of air. Therefore, it is recommended that all concrete products which have a direct contact and exposure to sunlight be substituted with photocatalyctic concrete. City streets are one example. Pollution is then reduced directly at its source (Fig.82 and Fig.83).

102

Figure 81. Implementation of impermeable materials for PM

103

Figure 82. Climate map of Prokop Myzeqari Street for S 2, January

Figure 83. Climate map of Prokop Myzeqari Street for S2, July

104

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

6.1.

Contributions

This paper presented a thorough analysis of the urban heat island effect for the city of Tirana, within the context of reinforcing a strategy of development for the eco-city. The study was composed of four major parts. Firstly, a thorough background on what key ideas and concepts make a city ecologically healthy and sustainable served to emphasize the importance of eco-cities, while providing existing examples and possible future implementations. Secondly, an analysis was made for three areas of the cities – Tanner‟s Bridge, Ramazan Begu and Prokop Myzeqari – all, with different urban texture and diverse qualities. These sites where studied in terms of their urban structure and climate conditions. The latter was provided by Weather Underground for the dates of 21 st of January and 21st of July, 2015, signaling the season of winter and summer with the most extreme temperature changes. Thirdly, the urban climate conditions for each case were simulated using ENVI-met. Lastly, based on the various characteristics of each case, strategies of urban heat island mitigation were proposed and implemented.

The application of ENVI-met programming tool has been validated by methods of comparison to the parameters provided by the weather stations. Thus, the model, whether it is used for the actual situation or for the proposed one, has been calibrated.

This aims to prove that modeling tools and measurements of outer thermal conditions may be useful in urban planning. Furthermore, due to its multi-functional uses, ENVI-

105

met is reliable in simulating urban scenarios for the purpose of urban design, architectural interventions and planning. The methodology used in this paper may be used in the contribution of strategies, guide-lines and standards against the urban heat island effect.

An important feature of the work done is the consideration of microclimate. In an interaction where there are numerous inputs, and different aspects correlate with one another, it is often impossible to derive standards which could prove advantageous to architecture and urban planning. The reason stands that as one factor may benefit a city, it may result to have negative effects in another one. Thus, when studying the urban fabric of a city, it is crucial that architects and urban planners firstly assess the impacts of their projects on the microclimate. This paper reinstates that importance by placing the microclimate in the frontline.

6.2.

Future works

This paper presented the results of the project concerned with the extent of urban heat phenomena in the city of Tirana. Once more, the goal of procuring three cases within the city was to yield an understanding of the urban heat island effects. The analysis and the data secured by Weather Underground scientifically prove the existence of an issue in a crucial need to be addressed.

The three cases taken in consideration reflect a strategy in urban-scale. A more comprehensive study and intensive numeric modeling with a larger magnitude would produce better results and a better predictive performance. In the future this may be used in evaluating the intervention needed for Tirana, and a better framework in restructuring and reforming the city as ecologically healthy.

Another field of study may be the micro-scale effect of urban heat island, in impact and in mitigation. A list of structures could be compiled in how a road, a street or even a

106

certain type of plant could lower the temperatures within the city and at what degree.

This would help in addressing the questions of mitigation costs, implementation period, and articulate priorities in improving the situation.

Figure 84. Water system network [Tirana Municipality, 2016]

Additionally, as visible for Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bridge area, the presence of Lana River caused a major shift in temperatures by helping cool the air. By the new administrative regulation the new Municipality of Tirana has expanded by including several communes which have a rich water system (Fig.83). The case of Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Bridge reflects a small fraction of the impact of a body of water. Generally speaking, a properly calibrated tool for the entire water system of Tirana could evaluate its effects, and aid the prediction of different urban intervention scenarios.

107

Figure 85. Urban system map according to construction period

The areas of study, Tanner‟s Bridge, Ramazan Begu Street and Prokop Myzeqari Street, have different urban tissues, comprised of buildings constructed in diverse periods. For instance, Tanner‟s Bridge has a large number of buildings pertaining to the Ottoman Period (Fig.84), while Ramazan Begu Street has buildings constructed mainly after the year 2000. However, Prokop Myzeqari Street, with its closeness to the city centre, is a mixture of buildings constructed during the communist, post-communist era and during the years 2000-2010. An issue to be discussed is the impact of each of these buildings – characterized by their typical surface cover, building materials – in the urban heat island effect.

108

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Hitchhiker‟s

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APPENDIX A

THERMAL COMFORT QUESTIONNAIRE 1. What is your age?

-

<15

-

16 – 20

-

21 – 25

-

26 – 30

-

31 – 40

-

>40

2. What is your gender?

-

Male

-

Female

3. What is the main purpose of you coming here?

-

I work here

-

I stay near here

-

Leisure Purposes

-

Other (Please specify)

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4. Please tick the scale below at the place that best represents how you feel at this moment. You may tick in an appropriate place between two categories, if you wish.

-

Cold

-

Cool

-

Slightly cool

-

Neutral

-

Warm

-

Slightly warm

-

Hot

5. Is the thermal environment at this moment acceptable to you?

-

Unacceptable

-

Acceptable

6. Do you feel that this area is generally warmer as compared to areas such as your neighborhood areas?

-

Yes

-

No

-

About the same

7. What do you think are the causes of the warmer temperature in this area?

-

Waste emission from vehicles

-

Lack of vegetation (such as trees)

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-

Not enough wind to cool down the area

-

The high amount of energy usage

-

Other (please specify)

8. What are the resulting impacts that you face due to the warmer temperature in this area?

-

Illnesses such as headache, sore throat and fever

-

Physical fatigue

-

Physiological effects such as mood swings

-

Lower work productivity due to warmer temperature

-

Other (please specify)

9. On a scale of 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 5 (with 1 being the most feasible), evaluate on the extent to which the solutions to counter UHI would be viable.

-

Cool Pavements (using materials such as asphalt to increase solar, reduce surface heating and also to promote cooling through increased air filtration and evaporation)

-

Sky Gardens (the planting of plants and grass on buildingsâ&#x20AC;&#x; rooftops so as to cool down the temperature of the area)

-

Tropical buildings (building design that emphasizes natural ventilation and shade to help cool the environment down)

-

Laws and Regulations to implement green technology in the area

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