ORNL-TM-13552 by Jon Morrow

Strategy for the Future Use and Disposition of Uranium-233: Technical Information

P. J. Bereolos" C.W. Forsberg D.C.Kocher A. M. Krichinsky

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ORNLTTM-13552

STRATEGY FOR THE FUTURE USE AND DISPOSITION OF URANIUM-233: TECHNICAL INFORMATION

P. J. Bereolos

ADVANCED INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT SERVICES, INC. 575 Oak hdge Turnpike, Suite B-3 Oak Ridge, TN 3783 1 C. W. Forsberg D. C. Kocher A. M. Krichinsky OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY*

Oak Ridge, Tennessee 3783 1

April 1998

* Managed by Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corp., under contract DE-ACOS960R22464 for the U.S. Department of Energy.

CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ v ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS.............................................................. vii CHEMICAL ELEMENTS....................................................................................

PREFACE ............................................................................................................

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................

xi11

1. METHODS OF 233UPRODUCTION OR FORMATION ................................ 1.1 NEUTRON BOMBARDMENT OF THORIUM ......................................... 1.2 CONTAMINATION LEVELS OF 232UIN 233U.......................................... 1.3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY OF NEPTUNIUM ..............................................

...

1 1 1 2

2 . DECAY CHAINS............................................................................................. 3

3. CHARACTERISTICS...................................................................................... 3.1 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ........................................... 3.1.1 Uranium Metal ................................................................................... 3.1.2 Uranium Oxides ................................................................................. 3.1.3 Uranium Fluorides ............................................................................. 3.1.4 Uranyl Nitrate .................................................................................... 3.2 RADIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES............................................................... 3.2.1 Comparison and 233U ............................................................... 3.2.2 Comparison with Other Isotopes ....................................................... 3.3 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS ......................................................................... 3.4 NUCLEAR CRITICALITY ......................................................................

7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 10 14 17

4 . STORAGE REQUIREMENTS.. ................................................................. ...................... 4.1 MATERIAL FORM ...................................................... 4.2 PACKAGING....... ..................................................... ...................... 4.3CONFINEMENT ................. ...................................................... 4.4 CRITICALITY CONTROL...................................................................... 4.5 SHIELDTNG............................................................................................. 4.6 SAFEGUARDS................................ ................................................... 4.6.1 DOE Requirements ...................................................... 4.6.2 IAEA Requirements ......................................................................... 4.6.3 Elimination of Weapons Potential .....................................................

21 21 22 22 23 24 26

27 29

5 . DISPOSAL REQUIREMENTS FOR 233UDECLARED AS WASTE ............. 31 5.1 RADIOACTIVE WASTE CLASSIFICATION ......................................... 31 5.2 CLASSIFICATION AND DISPOSAL AS HAZARDOUS WASTE ......... 32 ...

111

5.3 RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL OPTIONS .................................... 5 3.1 Near-Surface Disposal of LLW ..................................... 5.3.2 Alternatives to Near-Surface Disposal ....... 5.4 MIXING OF 233UWITH OTHER WASTES.,........................................... 5.5 NUCLEAR CRITICALITY ........................................ 5.5.1 Need to Avoid Criticality.................................... 5.5.2 Nuclear Criticality Control by Isotopic Dilution................................

6 . REFERENCES ................................................................................................

33 35

LIST OF FIGURES Fig. ES. 1. National strategy for future use and disposition of 233U.. ..............................

......_........._._ .. .... . . ........ ..... . .. .. .. ...... .................4 Fig. 2.1. Decay chain of 233U... _........_....... . Fig. 2.2. Decay cham of 732 - U............_ _ _ _..._.._ ..._..._................. ..........................................5

Fig. 3.1. Gamma exposure at 1 ft from 10 kg of U 0 3with varylng amounts of 232U.. .......9

Fig. 3.2. Alpha activity and gamma exposure rate at 1 ft as a function of time calculated for 1 kg 233U(with 100 ppm 232U)as a loose-pour powder (1.5 g/cm3)contained in a 3-in. d i m . by &in. tall can with 20-mil-thick steel walls ...._............................__.... 11 Fig. 4.1. Lead shielding for 233Uwith various concentrations of 232U. ........ . ........_..........25

LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. Half-lives, branching fractions, and principal decay modes for isotopes of uranium and for 232Thand their short-lived decay products ........................ ” . ...........6 Table 3.1. Selected radiological data for isotopes of uranium and thorium and their short-lived decay products and for 2‘”Pu and 241Am _ _ _ _ _ _ .........................................

Table 3.2. Limits on activity concentrations in air and water for releases to the environment for isotopes of uranium and thorium and for 2j9Puand 241Am.. .......... 15 I

Table 3.3. Values of basic nuclear safety parameters.~............................,..................... 18 Table 4.1. DOE nuclear material safeguards categories ... ....__. ... .. .............................____ 26

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AEA ANS

ANSI

Atomic Energy Act American Nuclear Society American National Standards Institute

CFR CtS

Code of Federal Regulations containment and surveillance

DIQ

Design Information Questionnaire disintegrations U.S. Department of Energy depleted uranium

diS

DOE DU EIS

EPA

Environmental Impact Statement U.S . Environmental Protection Agency

GCD

Greater Confinement Disposal

HEU

highly enriched uranium high-level waste

MEA

International Atomic Energy Agency International Commission on Mological Protection

LEU

lowly enriched uranium low-level waste

HLW

ICRP LLW

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission NRC Nevada Test Site NTS NWPA Nuclear Waste Policy Act ORNL

Oak h d g e National Laboratory

RCRA

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

SCALE Standardized Computer Analyses for Licensing Evaluation International System of Units SI spent nuclear fuel SNF S a v d River Site SRS

TIDs TRU

tamper indication devices transuranic

WAC

waste acceptance criteria Waste Isolation Pilot Plant

WIPP

vii

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS Ac Am At Be Bi

F Fr H N

Si Pa Pb Po Pu Ra

Rn Th T1 U

Actinium Americium Astatine Beryllium Bismuth Fluorine Francium Hydrogen Nitrogen Neptunium Oxygen Silicon Protactinium Lead Polonium Plutonium Radium Radon Thorium Thallium Uranium

PREFACE l%s report is one in a series of reports which examines issues associated with the future use and disposition of 233U.A brief description of the other reports is included herein ORNLITM-13550, Strategyfor the Future Use and Disposition of Uranium-233: Overview. This document is a s u m a r y of the path forward for disposition of excess 233 U. It includes required activities and identifies where major programmatic decisions will be required. ORNLITM-13551, Strategyfor the Future Use and Disposition of Uranium-233: History, Inventories, Storage Fucilities, and Potential Future Uses, This document includes the sources, historical uses, potential future uses, and the current inventory of 233 U. The inventory includes quantities, storage forms, and packagmg of the material. ORNLITM-13553, Strategvfor the Future Use and Disposition of Uranium-233: Options. T h s document describes the proposed dsposition alternatives, the technical advantages and disadvantages of each option, and the institutional issues associated with each option. ORNLRM-13524, Isotopic Dilution Requirementsfor 233UCriticality Safety in Processing and Disposal. Thls document analyzes criticality issues associated with processing and Qsposmg of 233U. ORNL/TM-135 17, Dejnition of Weapons-usable Uranium-233. This document develops a definition of non-weapons-usable 233Uto provide a technical basis for changing the safeguards and security requirements for storing, using, and disposing of 233Uthat is isotopically diluted with =*U.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This document provides a summary of technical information on the synthetic radioisotope 233U.It is one of a series of four reports that map out a national strategy for the future use and disposition of 233U(Fig ES 1). The technical information on 233Uin this document falls into two main areas. First, material characteristics are presented ~ the more well known strategic fissile materials, 2 3 5 ~ along with the contrasts of 2 3 3 to and plutonium (Pu). Second, information derived from the scientific information, such as safeguards, waste classifications, material form, and packaging, is presented. Throughout, the effects of isotopically &luting 233Uwith nonfissile, depleted uranium (DU) are examined. Minute amounts of 233Uare formed as a decay product of 237Npin spent nuclear he1 (SNF). However, the material under consideration in this report has been intentionally produced by the bombardment of natural thorium w t h neutrons in nuclear reactors Uranium-233 is a long-lived isotope with a half-life of 1 592 x lo5 years. It decays directly to 229Th,which is also relatively long-lived with a half-life of 7340 years. For the same mass of material, the alpha activity of 233Uis more than three orders of magnitude greater than that of 235Uand about one order of magnitude less than that of 239Pu

A sipficant factor in the production of 233Ufrom thorium is the formation of 232U, which is an undesirable contaminant isotope. The presence of even small amounts of 232U is important in determining the radiological properties of materials consisting mainly of uranium. The decay chain of 232Uis quite different from that of 2j3U. Although 232Uis the longest-lived isotope m its decay chain, it has a half-life of only 68.9 years. Therefore, in planning for disposal of 233U,the amount of 232Ucontamination becomes insignificant. However, for interim storage, handling, and use, the decay cham of 232U presents several complications. The primary consideration is the decay product ’‘*TI, which emits a 2.6-MeV gamma ray. The quantities of 232Upresent with 233Udetennine the radiation shielding requirements, and sigmficant shielding is usually needed. Also included in the decay chain of 232Uis 22%, which exists as a gas under standard conditions. Therefore, storage facilities must have adequate delay tlmes in ventilation systems to prevent this material from escaping before it has decayed to a filterable particulate form. Finally, 232U lacks the equivalent of a long-lived “stopper” isotope like ”% that can be used to ‘‘break” the decay chain through a chemical separation. Only very brief periods (Le., weeks) of relief fiom penetratmg gamma emitters can be realized by removmg ’”Th (1.9-year half-life), the first decay product of 232U Uranium and its compounds can cause biological damage both chemically and radiologically. It is in the radiological properties of 233Uthat one sees important contrasts with other isotopes of uranium. Uranium-233 has a higher specific actiwty than does 235 U or natural uranium. Additionally, 233Ualmost always contains 232U,with its much shorter half-life, very high specific actinty, and associated gamma emissions. Therefore, radiation damage to humans exposed to a given mass of 233Uis potentially much more severe: relative to exposure to the same mass of the other prevalent uranium isotopes. Even in the absence of 2j2U,one g of 233Uhas the same radiological significance as xiii

1.5 g 234U,4400 g 235U,150 g 236U,or 28000 g 238U.In all materials of concern to this report, 233Uis the most important long-lived radionuclide. Uranium can form a variety of chemical compounds. Triuraniurn octaoxide (U308)is the most thermodynamically stable form in dry air and is the prefened storage form. Uranium is also stored in a variety of other chemical forms including uranium metal, oxides other than U308,and fluorides. Uranium-233 and other uranium isotopes have no significant differences in their chemical and physical properties-except for the effects of greater levels of radiation on chemical compounds associated with the 233U. Because 233Uis readily fissionable, nuclear criticality is also an important concern during storage and disposal. The minimum critical mass of 233Uis less than that of 23sU. While in storage, criticality may be controlled primarily through geometry. However, during long-term dsposal, geometry cannot be guaranteed. Therefore, isotopic dilution becomes an attractive alternative for with DU (99.8 wit % 238Uand 0.2 wt % 235U) criticahty control. Dilution of 233Uto -0.53 wt % with DU (a) minimizes the potential for long-term criticality, (b) is equivalent to -1 wt % 235U,and (c) is the criticality limit for a 233Usystem in a homogeneous mixture containing water, uranium, and silicon oxide. Isotopic dilution also helps prevent nuclear proliferation. Because u3U is fissile, it may be used to produce nuclear weapons. Isotopic dilution of 235Uto 20 wt % is already the preferred method for 235Udemilitarization in the United States. Technical analysis indxates that isotopic dilution to -12 wit % 233U(a) minimizes the potential for use of 233 U in nuclear weapons and (b) is equivalent in terns of nuclear weapons use to 20 wit % 235 U. However, unlike the situation with 235U,there is neither federal regulation nor international agreement on the amount of isotopic dilution necessary for 233Uto minimize its weapons potential. Therefore, all 233Uneeds continual safeguards - physical protection, surveillance, and accounting. If 233Uwere declared a waste, it would be classified presently as low-level waste (LLW). However, waste containing significant amounts of 233Uprobably would not be suitable for shallow-land disposal. The chsposal options for such waste include (after isotopic dilution with DU) a geologic repository or a greater confinement dsposal facility. The latter type of facility has been operated in the past at the Nevada Test Site. ~ other wastes presents geologic dsposal options. If the 2 3 3 were ~ Processing of 2 3 3 with processed with high-level w-aste (HLW), the resulting waste would be classified as HLW. If the 233Uwere processed with transuranic (TRU) waste, the resulting waste would be classified as TRU waste provided that the concentrations of long-lived alpha-emitting transuranic radonuclides still exceeded 100 nCi/g. Wastes containing 233Umight also be regulated as solid hazardous waste under the authority of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Indeed, it is a U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) policy to manage all of its radioactive waste according to the requirements o f RCRA, unless such waste is found not to be hazardous, as defined under RCKA, depending on its nonradiological properties.

xiv

O N DWG 98-3893 U-233 from Outside Facilities

Existing Short-Term U-233 Storage

U-238

Assessment of Programmatic Uses and DilutiodTreatmentPackaging Material Treatment Needs -$ Processes

Off-Gas Treatment

Short- or Long-Term Storage and Use

U-233 with potential future uses

Long-Term Storage or Disposal in a Geological Repository

Fig. ES.l. National strategy for future use and disposition of 233U.

1. METHODS OF 233UPRODUCTION OR FORMATION Uranium-233 is a synthetic isotope dmovered in the early 1940's by John G o h a n at the University of California, Berkeley (Gohan 1943). It is a fissile isotope that can be used in nuclear reactors to generate heat and electricity. In isotopically purer concentrations, it can be used in nuclear weapons. Uranium-233 is produced by neutron bombardment of natural thorium, and it also is the decay product of long-lived 237Np.During neutron bombardment of thorium, z2U is also formed in various concentrations, and its presence usually governs precautions that must be taken while handling the main product, 233U.

1.1 NEUTRON BOMBARDMENT OF THORIUM The principal method of producing 233Uis by bombardmg 232Thwith neutrons in an accelerator or a reactor:

232Th

*-.

n>Y

233Th 22.3 min

P-

233pa 27.0 d

P-

2 3 3 ~

The Thorex solvent extraction process is used to separate uranium fiorn spent thorium fiel. Typically, the Thorex process removes more than 99 % of the 232Thin the spent fuel. Therefore, 232 ~h is usually present only i r ~small quantities in 2 3 3 materials. ~ 1.2 CONTAMINATION LEVELS OF uzIJ

IN 233U

Uranium-232 is another synthetic isotope of uranium formed along with w3Uduring inadlation of ='Th and within a reactor. Although "%I is not found in significant mass abundance m nature, its concentration m thorium he1 influences the lower bound on 232Uformation in reactors. The formation of 232Uin thorium fuel is shown below-

-t n,2n Y, n

232Th

231Th

1.0633 d

B-

I__)

*31~a

n, Y

1,31

P-*

232u

n,2n

n, Y 230Th

233U

Both the amount of 232Uand the ratio of 232Uto 233Uproduced increase with increasing neutron flux and irradiation time. The minimum energy threshold for the (n,2n) and (y,n) reactions is 6.34 MeV, so 232Uformation is largely dependent on the neutron and gamma energy dstribution in the reactor (Till 1976; Meichle 1965).

With increasing knowledge about thorium, several methods were developed to produce lowcontaminant 233Uat a reasonable cost. A simple improvement was to avoid using ores that are rich in 230Th.Th~savoidance reduced one reaction pathway for producing 232U.Ores with low 130Tli concentration are readily available (e.g., monazite). Another way of reducing 232Uproduction was to lower the exposure of the thorium targets to high-energy neutrons. There were two ways to acoomplish this task. First, the reactor was loaded so that the targets were exposed to only a lowenergy neutron flux. Second, the use of short irradlation times minimized the fissioning of newly formed 233Uand the consequent production of high-energy fission neutrons and gamma rays in close proximity to the still-fertile natural thorium. Short irradiation times also reduced the heat generation in the target, thus allowing methods to cheapen the target fabrication process, such as using thorium oxide instead of thorium metal (Boswell et al. 1966). For a single-core fueling cycle under reactor conditions, the resultant 232Uconcentration would be typically less than 0.05% by mass of total uranium. Multiple cycles could build the 232U concentration up to 0.15 %. Under low-power, weapons-production reactor conditions, 232U concentrations were held to as low as 5 ppm (on a total uranium basis) for an irradiation cycle. Although 232Uhas a slight tendency to fission upon neutron capture, its dilute concentration (and its association with highly fissile 233U)presents an insipficant contribution to nuclear criticality. 1.3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY OF NEPTUNIUM

Small amounts of 233Uare produced by the decay of 237Np.Neptunium-237 is a decay product of 237U,which is produced in nuclear reactors primarily through multiple neutron caphue by 235Uand, to a lesser extent, (n, 2n) reactions with 238U.Therefore, 2331Jwill be present in spent nuclear fuel (SNF). However, because 237Npis long-lived (2.2 x 106-yearhalf-life), only a small amount of 233Uwill be produced in tlus manner before disposal of the material. Because separating the 233Ufrom the other uranium isotopes present in reactor fuels is very difficult, SNF is generally not considered as a source for 2331J.

2. DECAY CHAINS The decay chain of 233Uis a part of the Neptunium Series Uranium-233 is a long-lived isotope (1S92 x 105-yearhalf-life) that decays to a series of alpha-emitting and beta-emitting radionuclides (Fig. 2.1) Its first decay product, 22FTh,also has a long half-life (7340 years). These long half-lives mean that the decay products after 229Thwill not be present in significant quantities during short-term storage and handling. The remaining decay products in the chain are relatively short-lived. Three isotopes (221Fr,213Biand@ 'T )l' in this series also emit sigmficant intensities of higher-energy gamma rays. The decay chain ends with the stable product 2mBi. One of the most significant characteristics of 232Uis its decay chain (Fig. 2.2). Uranium-232

has a short half-life of 68.9 years followed by the even shorter half-lived series of mostly alpha-

emitting decay products. Because of the short half-life of 232U,its decay products are present soon after production. The last member of ths decay chain, 208T1,emits a beta particle accompanied by a highly energetic (i.e., extremely penetrating) gamma emission (2.6 MeV). Other, less energetic gamma emissions from 1' 2BX are also of concern, although they occur at considerably lower yields than does the 20LtTI emission. The presence of 232Uand the gamma emissions associated with its decay chain dictate many of the precautions required in handling 233U. Another hazard associated with the 232Udecay chain is the presence of " O h . At normal temperatures and pressures, radon exists as a gas. As a gas, 220Rncan cause problems during both storage and handling because of its mobility. Table 2.1 (based on Browne, Firestone, and Shirley 1986) lists the half-life of each long-lived isotope of uranium and its shorter-lived radioactive decay products, the branching fraction for each short-lived decay product in the decay of its long-lived parent isotope, and the principal decay modes for each isotope and its decay products These data are dso given for 232Th.For purposes of comparison, data for 239Puand 241Am,whch are important alpha-emittmg transuranic (TRU) isotopes in high level waste (HLW) and TRU waste, are also included.

The shorter-lived decay products listed with each isotope of uranium or thorium in Table 2.1 are those that would achieve secular equilibrium with the long-lived parent isotope within a short period oftime after chemical separation Therefore, these decay products generally would be of concern in determining the rdological properties of any materials containing uranium or thorium during handling or d~sposd.The branchmg fraction for each decay product determines its activity relative to the activity of the long-lived parent isotope at equilibrium. .

Except for 732U,the decay chain for each isotope of uranium also includes a long-lived %topper" radionuclide that can be used to "break" the decay chain by a chemical separation. Specifically, 233Udecays to 229Th(Tl,2= 7340 y), *%Uto "@ll~(T,,~ = 7.54 x 10" y) ,w5Uto 231Pa(Tl~= 3.276~10"y), 236Uto 232Th(T1,2= 1.405 x 10" y), and 238Uto 234U(T1,2 = 2.454 x IO5 y). Because of their long half-lifes, these decay products will not be important in determining radiological properties during handling of chemically separated uranium. Except for the presence of 22sRaand 228Ac,the decay chain for 232This the same as is that for 232U.For comparison, the isotopes, 239Pu and 241Am, decay to the longer-lived "stopper" isotopes, 235Uand 237Np, respectively. Due to their long half-lives, these decay products are nct radiologically significant.

ORNL DWG 98-3894

U-233 1.592~ 16 y

Gamma Emissions of Note

Th-229 Th-229 7340 y

Ac-225

Ra-225 14.8d

Fr-22 1 4.9 m

At-2 1 7 0.0323 s

Po-2 13 4.2 ps

la/

Pb-209

Bi-2 13 45.59 m

3.253 h

2.20 m

Fig. 2.1. Decay chain of 233U.

Bi-209 stable

ORNL DWG 98-3895

Gamma Emissions of

U-232 68.9 y

~h-228 1.913 y

Ra-224 3.66 d

Rn-220 55.6 s

Po-2 12 0.298p.s

/ la /a/l.olâ&#x20AC;? /I

Po-2 16 0.150 s

Bi-2 12

Pb-2 12 10.64 h

Tl-208 3.053 m

64%

Pb-208 stable

P-

Fig. 2.2. Decay chain of 232U.

Table 2.1. Half-lives, branching fractions, and principal decay modes for isotopes of uranium and for 232Thand their short-lived decay products

Isotope

Short-lived decay product"

232u

Half-life 6.89

1O'y

Branching

Principal decay modes

fraction 4c

Alpha

1.913 x 10째y

1.o

224Ra

3.66 x 10째d

1.o

220b

5.56 x 10's

1.o

Alpha

216p0

1.50 x lO-'s

1.o

Alpha

212Pb

1.064 x 1O'h

1.o

Hetalgamma

22an

212Hi

*l2P0 208T1

1.0092 x 1Ooh 2.98 x lo-' ps

3.053 x l o o m

Alpha Alpha

1.o

Alpha, BeWgamma

0.6407

Alpha

0.3593

Betdgamma

2 3 3 ~

1.592 x 10sy

Alpha

2 3 4 ~

2.454 x 10sy

Alpha

"5v

7.037 x 108y

Alpha

1.0633 x 10' d 2MU 2 3 8 ~

Betalgamna

2.342 x 107y

Alpha

logy

Alpha

4.468 234n

1.o

2.410 x 10' d

Beta/gamma

234mpa

1.17 x 10째m

1.o

Beta/gamma

234~a

6.70 x 1Ooh

0.0016

Bedgamma

1.405 x 10"y

232n

228Ra

5.75 x loo y

22RA~

6.13 x 10' b

Alpha 1 .o

1.o

Beta

Betalgama

22-d

239pu' 24IAme

2.41 1 104y

Alpha

'Short-lived decay products are those with half-lives of a few years or less which nomally should be present and in activity equilibrium with long-lived parent isotope shortly after chemical separation. b Values from Browne, Firestone, and Shirley 1986. 'Number of atoms produced per decay of long-lived parent isotope. dData for *'*Th and its decay products are listed following entry for '"U. e Data for 23'pu and 24'Amare provided for comparison only. These isotopes would not be present in chemically separated uranium.

3. CHARACTERISTICS 3.1 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Uranium exists as a pure metal, and because of its strongly electropositive nature. it forms compounds with all nonmetallic elements except for the noble gases. Uranium has four oxidation states in aqueous media +3, +4, f5, and +6. The IT3state is very unstable with respect to '' and hydrogen. V4(knotvn as oxidation and is a red-wine color. V3reduces water, yieldmg U the uranous ion) is metastable with respect to oxidation by nitrate and is a deep-green color. The +5 state, UOZ-', tends to dlsproportionateto IT4and UOg2. The +6 state, U0g2(uranyl ion), is yellow and is tbe most prevalent and important aqueous state. It can be reduced to the +4 state chemically, photochemically, or electrochemically. 3.1.1 Uranium Metal

Pure uranium is a heavy metal that exists as silver-white or black crystals. It is ductile and malleable (Uranium Storage Assessment Team 1996). It melts at 1132"C, boils at 3818OC, and has a density of 19.04 g/cm3. (By comparison, lead melts at 327.3OC, boils at 1750"C, and has a density of 11.35 g/m3).When uranium metal is in the form of solid chips, shavings, or dust, it can be a dangerous fire hazard if exposed to heat or flame in air. Uranium dust can also be an explosion hazard if exposed to flame in the presence of oxygen. Uranium metal can react vigorously7even violently, with oxidizing agents. Solid pieces, larger than 1/16-in. dim., will not spontaneously ignite (Peacock 1992), but their surfaces will corrode. The corrosion rate depends on surface area, temperature, humidity, and the presence or absence of oxygen. Corrosion of uranium metal has two primary consequences. First, it converts a cohesive metal soiid to a dispersible oxide dust. Also, under humid conditions, a by-product of corrosion, hydrogen, can lead to a fire or an explosion hazard or can contribute to container pressurization. 3.1.2 Uranium Oxides Uranium owdes are the most significant compounds with regard to storage The uraniumoxygen phase diagram is complex. Many binary oxides and crystalline modifications have been reported Three of the uranium oxides are common in 233Uprocessing and storage areas: uranium dioxide (UOZ), uranium trioxide (UOS), and triuranium octaoxide or pitchblende (U308), which is sometimes simply referred to as uranium oxide. Uranium dioxide is the most common compound used (in a compressed pellet form) in reactor fuels and is a significant intermedate in metal manuhcture. It exists as brown-black or sometimes green-black crystals that are fairly stable chemically. At high temperatures, nonstoichiometric forms exist with variable oxygen ratios ranging fiom UO163 to UO:!25. In very finely divided form, U 0 2 is potentially pyrophoric. Another significant intermediate in metal manufacture is UOj. It is a yellow-red powder that is chemically stable, except for hydrate formation, and is routinely prepared by thermal decomposition of nitrate or peroxide.

The most stable oxide i s U308,an olive-green powder. Its stability makes it best suited for long-term storage (Cox 1995). It is the primary oxide formed by burning (above 650째C) in excess air and by corrosion after extended air exposure, so it can be derived readily from the other oxides. Because U308 has more uranium atoms per hydrogen atom than the other two prevalent uranium oxides, proportionally less moderation is provided by waters of hydration. 3.1.3 Uranium Fluorides

Uranium fluorides are extensively used in the 235Ufuel cycle to enrich natural uranium. However, fluoride compounds have less significance for the synthetic 233U.Uraniuni tetrafluoride (UF4) is nonvolatile and was used in the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment. However, HF is often chemically absorbed on UF,. This absorption can cause storage problems by accelerating corrosion of storage packages. Also, UF4 can be directly fluorinated to form uranium hexafluoride (UF& which is volatile. Uranium hexafluoride is highly reactive with water and moist air, forming uranyl fluoride (U02F2) and releasing hydrogen fluoride, both of which are chemically toxic. Inhalation and ingestion of UF6 result in acutely serious health threats. Consequently, UF, must be stored in gas-tight, corrosion-resistant canisters.

3.1.4 Uranyl Nitrate Uranyl nitrate solution, U02(N03)2, is an important intermediate in the purification of uranium by solvent extraction. It is formed by the aqueous reaction of nitric acid (HN03) and uranium oxides. It forms a yellow cake that corrodes iron cans and degrades some plastics. Uranyl nitrate solutions can be absorbed through the skin. 3.2 RADIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

The radiological properties of any material depend on the activity of various radioisotopes that are present. The activity of a ra&oisotope is defined as the number of disintegrations (dis) per unit time. The conventional unit of activity is the curie (Ci), which is defined as 3.7 x 10" dish, and the International System of Units (SI) unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq), which is defined as 1 dish. The activity of any radioisotope is related to its mass by its specific activity. 3.2.1 Comparison of 232Uand 233U

The most important factor that determines the external radiation field for 233Uis the quantity of 232Upresent, because of the high-energy gamma radiation emitted by the 232Udecay product 208 T1. Figure 3.1 shows the calculated radiation levels over time (after chemical separation to interrupt the decay chain producing '''Tl) at several concentrations of 'j2U (Krichinsky 1975). These calculations were made for a distance of 1 ft from 10 kg of U03 packed in a cylindrical can with a 6-cm radius, 12-cm height, and 12-mil wall thickness. After the initial increase as the activity of gamma-emitting decay products increases, the radiation levels are roughly linearly proportional to concentration of 232U.The maximum levels are reached after about 10 years.

ORNL DWG 98-3896

1000

100

x 1000 ppm U-232 BBI 100 ppm U-232 A 10 ppm U-232

0.1

0.01

200

400

GOO

I I

1000 1200 Time after purification (days) 800

1400

1600

1800

Fig. 3.1. Gamma exposure at 1 ft from 10 kg of UO, with varying amounts of 232U.

2000

In addtion to the gamma activity of the 232Udecay chain, the gamma activity of 233Uitself and of residual fission products must be considered. Although 233Uis principally an alpha emitter, penetrating gammas are produced in 233Udecay, primarily in the 40- to 320-keV region. However, because of their relatively low energies and intensities, these gamma emissions can easily be shielded. For the residual fission product activity, a practical goal seems to be about lo6 dis/min per gram 233Uthat produce 0.5-1.0 MeV gamma rays. This is about the minimum activity to be expected in the Thorex process product (Arnold 1962). However, the residual fission product content of 233Ucan be decreased to almost any desired level by decontamination beyond that obtained in the Thorex process. In the long term, in comparison with 233U,the quantity of 232Ubecomes less of a factor because of its short half-life. Figure 3.2 shows the long-time radioactivity for 1 kg of 233Uwith 100 ppm of 232U.Despite the relatively high initial concentration of 2321J;after 50 years the contribution to alpha activity from the 232Uand 233Uchains is roughly equivalent. After 500 years, the radioactivity from 232Uand its decay products is negligible, while the rahoactivity of the 233U chain is still increasing. Th~sis of major importance when considering disposal in a geologic repository.

3.2.2 Comparison with Other Isotopes In regard to the radioisotopes of greatest importance, materials containing high concentrations of 233Uare unusual compared with more familiar types of radioactive waste containing high concentrations of alpha-emitting isotopes (i.e., HLW and TRU waste). Thus, it is useful to compare rahological data for 233Uand other isotopes of uranium that may be present with the data for other alpha-emitting isotopes which commonly occur in radioactive wastes. In addition, because the abundances of different isotopes are usually reported in terms of mass rather than activity, it is useful to discuss the relationship between mass and activity abundances of different isotopes of uranium in order, for example, to identify the mass abundance of 233Uat which &IS isotope would present the greatest radiological concern in the materials. The basic ra&ological data for 233Uand the other longer-lived isotopes of uranium which may be present in materials containing 233Uare summarized in Table 3.1 [based on Scldeien (1992): Kocher (1980), and Unger and Trubey (198 l)]. Data also are included for the alpha-emitting TRU isotopes 239Puand 24â&#x20AC;&#x2122;Am,which are important long-lived isotopes in HLW and TRU waste and for 232Th. Table 3.1 lists the specific activity, thermal power, specific gamma-ray dose constant, and mean gamma-ray attenuation coefficient in lead. These radiological data are described in the following paragraphs. The specific activity listed in Table 3.1 is defined as the activity per unit mass of the given isotope. Thus, shorter-lived radionuclides have relatively high specific activities and longer-lived radionuclides have lower specific activities. Only the specific activities of the long-lived parent isotopes of uranium or thorium are listed, because the activity of any shorter-lived decay product at equilibrium is determined by the initial activity of its long-lived parent isotope and the branching fraction for the decay product, as given in Table 2.1.

ORNL DWG 98-3897 +Gamma

U-233 chain alpha radioactivity

--o-Total

Exposure Rate at 1 ft (R/h)

--=atu-232 chain aipha radioactivity alpha radioactivity Gamma Activity

BOO00

AlDha Activity

70000

60000

50000

> * 0

40000

2rcl

30000

20000

10000

1. E 4 2

I.E-01

1.E+OO

1.E+01

1.E+02

1.E+03

1.Et04

1.E+05

Time (y)

Fig. 3.2. Alpha activity and gamma exposure rate at 1 ft as a function of time calculated for 1 kg 233U(witlt 100 ppm 232U) as a loose-pour powder (1.5 g/cm3) contained in a 3-in. diam by &in. tall can with 20-mil-thick steel walls.

1 .E+06

Table 3.1. Selected radiological data for isotopes of uranium and thorium and their short-lived decay products and â&#x201A;Źor 239Puand 241Am

Specific activity (Ci/g)b

Thermal power (W/g)'

2.1 x 10'

6.9 x lo-' (5.2)d

8.9 x (1.3 x

7.2 x 10'

7.1 x lo-]

7.9 x

3.3 x lo2

7.4 x lo-'

1.1 x

8.1

220Rn

8.2 x lo-'

3.6 x lo-''

1.5

21"0

8.8 x lo-'

9.0 x

9.7 x lo-'

4.2 x 10"

2.7 x lo-'

1.1 x 10'

3.7 x 10.'

1.9 x lo-'

1.0

7.3 x lo-'

0.0

1.9 x lo-'

6.1 x lo-'

5.5 x lo-'

2.8 x

2.9 x lo-'

7.1 x lo2

7.8 x

7.2 x 102

Isotope * 2 3 2 ~

228~h 224b

21 "pb

2 3 3 ~

234u 23su

9.6 6.2

10-~

"'Th

2.4 6.5

io4

6.0 x lo4 (6.3 x

2.2 x

2 3 3 ~

1.8

IO-^

3.4 x lo-'

10-~

1.8 x lod 8.6 x lo-' (1.0 x 1 0 y

(rendh-pci)'

(cm-'f

3.4 x lo-? (8.8

2.3 x 10'

5.5 x lo-:

6.8 x 10'

7.4 x

7.2 x IO2

6.5 x IO-' (1.5

7.2 x IO2

23dTh

1.4 x lo-''

7.5 x

1.5 x lo2

234mpa

1.7

1.0 x

9.8 x lo-'

234

8.0 x

(table continued on next page)

10-~

3.2

10-~

1.1

Table 3.1. Selected radiological data for isotopes of uranium and thorium and their short-lived decay products and for ugPu and '"Am (continued)

Specific activity (Ci/g)b

Thermal power (W/g)"

(rem-pCi)'

P (cm-'>'

1.09 x lo-'

2.7 10-~ (2.7 x

6.8 x lo-' (2.1 x 10-6)d

8.3 x lo2

228-

7.7 x 10-l2

0.0

22gA~

9.0 x lo-''

8.4 x lo-'

9.9 x lo-'

2Z8Th

3.6 10-~

7.9 x

7.3 x 10'

2 2 4 h

3.8

10-~

1.1 x lo-*

8.1

4.2

io-'

3.6 x lo-''

1.5

216p0

4.5 x

io-'

9.0 x

9.7 x lo-'

2'2Pb

2.1 x 10-l0

2.7 IO-'

1.1 x 10'

1.9 10-~

1.9

Isotope

'32Th

21 ZSl

3.8

z39Pu 241

Arm

6.2 x lo-* 3.4

1.0

0.0

9.5 x 10-'O

6.1 x 10-7

5.5 x lo-'

2.0

3.0 x IO-'

8.6 x 10'

1.2 x lo-'

3.1 10-~

2.6 x lo2

* Indented entries are short-lived decay products listed in Table 2.1, which are assumed to be in activity equilibrium with long-lived parent isotope. Activity per unit mass of long-lived parent isotope obtained from Table 8.4.1of ScNeien (1992). At equilibrium, activity of each short-lived decay product per unit mass of long-lived parent isotope is equal to specific activity of parent multiplied by branching fraction for decay product given in Table 2.1. Values are given per unit mass of long-lived parent isotope and are based on total energy of all ionizing radiations per decay of particular isotope given in Kwher (1980), energy of recoiling decay product nucleus, specific activity of parent isotope, and branching fractions for short-lived decay products given in Table 2.1. Value is total for long-lived parent isotope and its short-lived decay products when all decay products are in activity equilibrium with parent. Specific gamma-ray dose constant obtained from Unger and Trubey (1981), gives external photon dose-equivalent rate in tissue (remlh) per unit activity ($1) at distance of 1 m from uzlshielded point source in air; see also Table 6.1.2 of Schleien (1992). fMean gamma-ray attenuation coefficient in lead obtained from Unger and Tmbey (1981); see also Table 6.1.2 of Schleien (1992). Reciprocal of value gives thickness of lead (cm) required to reduce external photon dose-equivalent rate at distance of 1 m from point source in air to 5 % of its unshielded value.

The thermal power listed in Table 3.1 is defined as the energy per unit time emitted by all ionizing radiations (including the energy of the recoiling decay product nucleus) per unit mass of the given isotope. Thus, shorter-lived radionuclides have relatively high thennal powers, and longer-lived radionuclides have lower thermal powers. For each shorter-lived decay product, the thermal power is normalized to unit mass of the long-lived parent isotope, taking into account the branching fraction given in Table 2.1. The thermal power in watts per gram @e.,joule per second per gram) can be converted to units of watts per curie by dividing by the specific activity. When expressed in terms of activity, the thermal power depends only on the energies and intensities of emitted radiations, but does not depend on the half-life of the radionuclide. The specific gamma-ray dose constant (r)and mean gamma-ray attenuation coefficient (p)in lead listed in Table 3.1 are useful indicators of the potential importance of external radiation exposure. These quantities depend on the energies and intensities of all photons emitted in the decay of the given isotope. The specific gamma-ray dose constant is defined as the dose-equivalent rate in tissue per unit activity at a distance of 1 m from an unshielded point source in air. The conventional unit of dose equivalent is the rem and the SI unit is the sievert, with 1 Sv = 100 rem. The reciprocal of the mean gamma-ray attenuation coefficient is defined as the thickness of lead that would be required to reduce the external dose rate at a &stance of 1 m from a point source in air to 5 % of its unshelded value. The specific gamma-ray dose constants and mean ganuna-ray attenuation coefficients in lead listed in Table 3 . 1 usually cannot be used to estimate external dose from a finite source containing the isotopes of concern, because the shielding that would be provided by the source itself is not taken into account. However, these data are useful indxators of whether external exposure would be an important concern for materials containing these isotopes. For example, external exposure is a much greater concern for 232Uand its short-lived decay products than for 233U,primarily because the "'Bi and '08Tl decay products of 232Uemit high intensities of high-energy photons but 233U emits only low intensities of lower-energy photons (Kocher 1981). This conclusion is indicated riot only by the much hgher specific gamma-ray dose constant for 232U,with its short-lived decay but also by the much products present in activity equilibrium, compared with the value for 233Uz lower mean gamma-ray attenuation coefficient in lead for the important '"Bi and 208T1decay products of 232Ucompared with the value for 233U. The high attenuation coefficient for 233U,and for several of the other isotopes listed in Table 3 . 1 which emit only low-energy photons, indicates that self-shielding by a finite source would reduce the external dose by large factors. 3.3 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

In addition to potential radiation effects from external exposure, uranium and its compounds present biological hazards when ingested or inhaled. Chemical toxicity appears as kidney damage and acute necrotic arterial lesions. Soluble uranium compounds (e.g., uranyl nitrate) are relatively easily absorbed into the body, resulting in relatively high organ burdens per unit intake. Inhaled insoluble compounds have a highly toxic effect to the lungs because of radation damage (Sax 1968). Some compounds associated with certain forms of uranium can also be toxic (e.g., HF that often is absorbed on UF, and is also a chemical reaction product between UF6 and water). The lack of a "stopper" isotope in the decay chain of 232Uresults in a dose from ingestion or inhalation about four times greater than the dose from tlie same activity intake of 'j3U (Till 1976). Table 3.2 lists the concentration limits in air and water for releases to the environment which have 14

Table 3.2. Limits on activity concentrations in air and water for releases to the environment for isotopes of uranium and thorium and for 23% and 241Ama

Isotope 232u

Clearance class D

W Y

Concentration limit in air (pCi/mL)' 6x 5

Concentration limit in water (pCi/mL)' 6 x lo-'

10-l~ 10-l~

D W Y

3 x lo-= 5

D W Y

3 x 101 x 10-l2 6x

3 x lo-'

D W Y

3 x lo-'*

D W Y

232Th

4 10-l~ 6x

3 x lo-*

239pu

W Y

2 x lo-'

24'Am

2 3 3 ~

234u

235u

23%

238u

io-'*

10-l~

3 x lo9

10-l~

2 x lo-*

'Values obtained from Table 2 of 10 CER Part 20 ( U . S . NRC 1991)give limits in air and water for releases to unrestricted areas which may be accessed by the public Concentration limits are inversely proportional to radiation doses per unit activity intake via inhalation (air) or ingestion (water) b Clearance of inhaled radionuclides from respiratory tract in matter of days (D) for soluble chemical forms, weeks (W) for chemical forms with intermediate solubility, and years (Y) for insoluble chenucal forms. Uranium or thorium in insoluble oxide forms should be Class Y . Corresponding concentration limits in units of pg/mL can be obtained by dividing values in units of pCi/mL by specific activity of isotope given in Table 3.1.

been established by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) (U.S.NRC 1991) in its radiation protection standards for the public. The limits on activity concentrations in air and water for releases to unrestricted areas that may be accessed by members of the public as given in Table 3.2 are based on a limit on an annual committed effective dose equivalent of 50 mrem (0.5 mSv) from halation and ingestion, respectively. The effective dose equivalent is a weighted sum of dose equivalents to dfferent organs or tissues defined by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) (1977), and the committed dose is the dose received over 50 years following an acute intake of a radionuclide. For any radionuclide, the committed dose includes the contributions from any radioactive decay products arising from decay of the radionuclide in the body. For inhaled materials, concentration limits for different lung clearance classes (i .e., solubilities in the lung) are given. The concentration limits for Class Y materials should be appropriate for materials containing high concentrations of uranium in an insoluble oxide form. Any thorium present in the materials also should be Class Y. The concentration limits in air and water presented in Table 3.2 are inversely proportional to the internal doses per unit activity intake via inhalation and ingestion, respectively. The dose per unit activity intake of a radionuclide is a measure of its radiotoxicity. Thus, the data in this table indicate that the longer-lived isotopes of uranium (Le., excludng 232U)are less radiotoxic than the shorter-lived 232U,239Puor 241Am,and that all longer-lived isotopes of uranium have essentially the same radiotoxicity. The limits on activity concentrations in air and water in Table 3.2 may be converted to mass concentrations in units of pg/mL by lviding by the specific activity of the particular isotope given in Table 3.1, Thus, for example, the concentration limit for 233Uin air for Class Y materials corresponds to a mass concentration of 5 x lo-â&#x20AC;&#x2122;â&#x20AC;&#x2122; pg/mL, whereas the corresponding mass concentration for 235Uis 3 x lo-*pg/mL. However, for purposes of radlation protection and radiation dose estimation, the activity of an isotope rather than its mass, usually is the quantity of interest. The quantities of the various radioisotopes in the materials of concern to this report are usually reported in terms of mass. However, as noted previously, the quantity of interest in addressing ralological concerns, including ralation doses from management and disposal of the materials and from any accidental releases, usually is the activity of the various isotopes. For any radioisotope, the mass and corresponding activity are related by the specific activity given in Table 3.1. In this section, the specific activities of the different isotopes in the materials given in Table 3.1 are combined with the radiation doses per unit activity inhaled or ingested, which arc inversely proportional to the concentration limits in air or water in Table 3.2, to estimate the mass abundance of 233Urelative to that of the other isotopes above which the 233Uwould be the most important radiological concern. The radiological significance of 233Urelative to 235Uis described as follows. The data in Table 3.2 show that the doses per unit activity inhaled or ingested are essentially the same for 233U and 235U.Therefore, 233Uwould be radiologically more significant in the materials if the activity of 233 U exceeds the activity of 235U.Based on the specific activities of the two isotopes given in Table 3.1, the activity of 233Uwould be greater than the activity of 2351Jif its mass abundance exceeds about 0.02% of the mass abundance of 235U.In other words, 1 g of 233Uhas the same radiological significance as 4400 g 235U.

A similar analysis for the other long-lived isotopes of uranium (i.e.,'excluding 232U)gives the following results: 1 g 233Uhas the Same radiological significance as 1.5 g 234U,150 g 236U,or 28,000 g 238U.As a further example, consider highly enriched uranium (HEU) with mass abundances of 93 wt % 235U,6 wt % 238U,and 1 wt % 234U.This isotopic distribution is typical of weapons-grade HEU (Uranium Storage Assessment Team 1996). One g of 233Uhas the same radiological equivalence as 150 g of weapons-grade HEX. All 233Umaterials contain small amounts of 232U.Because of its high specific activity and the presence of its shorter-lived, photon-emitting decay products, the activity of =*U is often sufficiently high such as to be an important radiological concern. However, because of its relatively short half-life, the 232Uis of concern primarily during storage or operations. It should not be an important concern compared to that of 233Ufollowing disposal, especially if the materials were placed in a disposal facility which isolated the waste eon1 the biosphere for several hundred years or more Finally, 233U materials also contain some 232Th.However, based on the very low specific activity of ths isotope compared with the values for 232Uand 233Uand the other radiological data given in Tables 3.1 and 3.2, the small amounts of thorium that would be present would not be radiologically significant. The analysis previously described shows that for potential radiation effects from ingestion or inhalation, 2 3 3 is ~ the most important isotope rachologically in all oftbe materids of concern to this report. Therefore, it is reasonable to identify the materials in terms of h s isotope.

3.4 NUCLEAR CRITICALITY Because 233Uis readily fissile, care must be taken in the design of process equipment and procedures to avoid cnticality. The critical mass of 233Uvanes from a few hundred grams to a few tens of kilograms depending on density (or concentration), moderation, reflecbon, geometry (or shape), interacbon with other fissionable material in an array, and presence of neutron absorbers Table 3.3 summarizes the calculated single-parameter llmits for metals, oxldes, and solutions of 233 U and 235Ureflected by an effectively infinite thickness of water (Pruvost and Paxton 1996) Nuclear criticality of fissile material is controlled through the balance of neutron production (i.e., through the fission process) with neutron losses (i.e., leakage from the fissile material system or nonfission neutron capture). Two common approaches to ensuring subcriticality are geometric spacing of fissile material, which enhances neutron leakage from the system. and use of neutron absorbers. Geometrically safe design of equipment in a large-capacity processing plant i s expensive. Many hfferent neutron absorbers (boron, gadolinium, cadmium, 238U) are available. However, nuclear criticality in 233Usystems can best be avoided by isotopic dilution of the 233U with the nonfissile neutron absorber 238U. It is important to note that because all uranium isotopes will not separate from the fissile uranium (which have the same chemical characteristics, the could be 233Uor ?J) in any norrnal chemical process, either before or after disposal.

Table 3.3. Values of basic nuclear safety parametersa

r--

Mass offissiie metal

2 3 3 ~ 235

u metal ( 5 wt % 2 3 5 ~ )

233U02with less than 1.5 wt % water 233U02with less than 1.5 wt % water 233 U308with less than 1.5 w t % water 235U308with less than 1.5 wt % water U03 with less than 1.5 wt % water UO2F2 solution

235u02~2 solution 233

233

U02(N03)2solution

UOANOd, solution

â&#x20AC;&#x153;based on Pruvost and Paxton ( 1 996).

6.0 20.1 10.1 32.3 13.4 44.0

0.54 0.76 0.55

0.78

Cvlinder 4.5

.....

7.3 7.2

11.6 9.0 14.6

2.9 1.1 4.0 1.3

4.6 2.5

11.7 14.4

_-.I_

4.4 3.1

4.9

General dilution requirements using DU (in this case, 0.2 w-t % 23sUand 99.8 wf /o 238 U) were developed to ensure the subcriticality of infhte homogeneous mixtures of 233U,DU, quartz sand [silicon dioxide (SiO,)], and water (HzO), and of infIIlite homogeneous mixtures of uranium enriched in 235Uplus DU. Quartz sand and H20 were selected as the most restrictive materials for subcriticality that are naturally occumng in large process systems and geological environments. Other neutron-absorbing compounds consisting of iron, calcium, and sodium cannot be ensured to be present in any specific proportion; consequently, they were not considered in this study. The Standardized Computer Analyses for Licensing Evaluation (SCALE) software and neutron cross sections (Lockheed Martin Energy Systems 1995) were used to evaluate subcritical mixtures of these materials. The selected subcritical value for the infhte-medium neutron multiplication factor (k,) for the u3U mixtures was k, 5 0.95. The limiting subcritical enrichment (Paxton and Pruvost 1987) for optimally moderated homogeneous aqueous systems is w-ell defined to be 1 wt YO235Uand 99 w-&YOusU. The 1 wt % 235Uvalue was used to define the subcritical DU dilution relationship for uranium enriched in 23sU. Using the results of the, computational study for 233Udilution and knowledge about the subcriticality of aqueous, homogeneous 1 wt % 23sUenriched uranium, a simple equation was developed to define the necessary DU dilution to ensure the subcriticality of 233Uand uranium enriched in 23sU. The developed relationship for the most enriched uranium, and DU is based upon the commonly accepted restrictive combinations of 233U2 concept that hvo or more mixtures of optimally w-ater-moderated, subcritical (ie., maximum k, I 1 .O), mfinite-medwn fissile materials may be homogeneously combined atid remain subcritical if the composition of the materials remains homogeneous. The neutronic computations performed in this study used the SCALE system, MAX, and CSASlX sequence (BONAMI, NITAWL, XSDFW), with the 238-energy group ENDFB-V neutron cross-section library, The computations were executed on the Oak k d g e National Laboratory (ORNL) Computational Physics and Engineering Division Nuclear Engineering Applications section workstation, CAO 1.

Historic validation studies (Jordan et aI. 1986; Primm 1993) using ENDF/B-V neutron cross sections have demonstrated that water-moderated, homogeneous, single and multiunit 233Ucritical systems have calculated kef > 0.95 (average kef = 0.99). Therefore, the CSAS 1X sequence was and DU (is., 0.2 wt % 235Uand 99.8 wt % executed for various combinations of Si& H20, 233U, usU) to calculate a subcritical multiplication factor for an infinite, homogeneous, medium, k,, approximating 0.95. The use of a k, acceptance value of 0.95 for this 233Uscoping study is not hlly justified because integral eaxperimentaldata for combined SiO,, HzO, 238U,and 233Umixtures are not available for data testing and validation. Additionally, specific validation and analytical studies involving the use of configuration-controlledhardware and s o h a r e relative to these systems and materials are necessary to satisfy criteria for computational safety evaluations. Obtaining experimental benchmark data is a primary hurdle for researchers before they can complete such a specific validation. Because the physical and chemical conditions of 23'U and 235Ufor some types of process and disposal options cannot be guaranteed, the results of this isotopic dilution study were reduced to the most restrictive possible combination of materials (i.e., Si02, H20, DU, 233U,235U,and 238U) that will ensure subcriticality. This approach also ensures criticality control for typical process systems. As determined from these computational studies, the most restrictive combination of materials is a homogeneous mixture of uranium and water. For this study, the mixture was assumed to be a mixture of water molecules and uranium atoms. Under these restrictive conditions, a simple equation was developed to ensure the subcriticality of 233Uand uranium enriched in 23sUby dilution with DU. The equation defines the quantity of DU that must be blended with 'j3U and various enrichments of 235U.The mass of DU is expressed in terms of 233Uand enriched uranium masses as: DU = 188. g233U+

(2). EU,

Eq. (3.1)

where

DU = g of DU (i.e., 0.2 wt % u5U) E = 100% x g 235U/(g238U+ g 235U) EU = g of total U - g 233U. Use of this equation results in a mixture of uranium that contains 4 wt % 235Uand and 236Umay be considered to be 238U,provided the atom ratio < 0.53 wt % 2331J In Eq. (3. l), (234U+ u6U)/235Udoes not exceed 1.O. If the calculated quantity of DU [using Eq. (3. l)] is negative, the uranium material already contains 238Uin sufficient quantity to ensure subcriticality, and no additional DU is needed. Equation 3.1 is a good first approximation for &luting u3U and enriched uranium, provided that the mixture is homogeneous and consists of uranium compounds (excluding compounds of beryllium and deuterium) and water. The presence of other fissionable materials or non-neutronabsorbing, highly neutron-moderating elements, such as nuclear-grade carbon, beryllium, or deuterium, has not been considered in this work. Though other scattering or absorbing nuclides may be present in a mixture, their effects have not been accounted for in estimating the required DU mass for dilution of 233Uand enriched uranium.

235

Because the dilution equation uses DU as the diluent to approximate an equivalent 1 wt %

U enriched uranium and water-moderated system, the potential for an autocatalytic criticality accident (Kastenberg et al. 1996) is rendered impossible, because homogeneous systems of 1 wt % 235 U or -0.53 wt % 233Ucannot be made critical as a mixture of U and H20.

4. STORAGE REQUIREMENTS The characteristics described in the previous two sections lndicate that 233Urequires special considerations when it is being stored or handled The requirements for 233U-bearingmaterial are generally much stricter than those for HEU or Pu. This section will describe six basic requirements: material form, packaging, confinement, criticality control, shielding, and safeguards. Each of these is based on a characteristic of 233U:chemical form for long-term material stability, packaging for reliable containment, safeguards because of its potential use in weapons, criticality control because of its fissionability, ventilation because of the formation of radiologically or chemically toxic volatiles in the decay chain or by radiolysis, and shielding because of its radiological properties. The objective will be to state the requrements, to compare and contrast them to HEU and Pu, and to show the effect of isotopic dilution on the requirements. (Because of the chemically identical nature of all uramum isotopes, the elemental term, wanturn, will be used where chemical characteristics prevail). 4.1 MATERIAL FORM

For long-term storage, 233Umust be in a stable form that poses m i n d impact on containment and criticality control. The overwhelmingly prderred form for long-term storage is U30s (Cox 1995). It is the most chemically stable form under normal storage conditions, and it acquires the fewest waters of hydration fie.,moderators) per uranium mass of any uranium compound. Other forms of uranium may be acceptable for certain storage conditions ( e g , shorter storage periods, inert atmospheres, and special packaging forms such as clad fuels). Metal has the advantage of being very compact (with extremely hgh density) when stored as large billets and having no waters of hydration. However, its metallic nature can only be relied upon if its surfaces are protected from oximzing atmospheres to prevent any conversion to oxides (with a resultant volume increase and powdery surface) and a tendency to acquire commensurate waters of hydration. Adhtionally, because of the high specific activity of 233U,(whch for pure 233Uis about one order of magnitude lower than 239Pu,but can exceed that activity with higher levels of w2U contaminant) contaminants must be kept to a minimum. Contaminants also must be factored into storage considerations because they tend to evolve to gases as they absorb the energies of . radioactive decay emissions. For example, 233U fluorides tend to evolve fluorine gas that can pressurize the storage container or contaminate the storage area atmosphere with its toxic and corrosive by-product, hydrofluoric acid. A greater problem is water contamination (hydration and adsorbed waters) which decomposes radiolytically to form hydrogen and oxygen gas. Hydrogen gas is not only a container pressurization problem, but also a potentially explosive-mixture problem. In a similar manner, plastics used in packaging may also decompose radiolytically to generate hydrogen (and carbon mono- and dioxides) that, when combined with air, also can create a potentially explosive atmosphere. Care must be exercised in treating these radolytx gases to prevent any toxic, corrosive, and explosive consequences.

4.2 PACKAGING

The packaging material for 233Umust reflect compatibility with (a) the chemical nature of the contained material and the storage atmosphere and (b) the high specific activity of the stored radionuclides. Similar to Pu, the high specific activity of 233Uand its associated isotope, 232U, essentially eliminates using organic materials for primary container construction, except during brief periods of storage. Because of rabolytic degradation of hydromrbons, even organic materials in gasketing and bag-out layers (i.e., outside the primary can) cannot be relied upon for maintaining their integrity and therefore also must be considered a source of radiolytic gas generation. The container's material of construction must also be compatible (i.e., resist corrosion upon contact) with the contained material and with the storage environment. For example, type 304L stainless steel provides a robust barrier in the absence of chlorides (exccpt as trace impurities) both in the contained material and in the storage atmosphere. Similarly, aluminum provides a reliable barrier in the absence of nitrates. Multiple layers of packaging can be made of different materials of construction to address complex compatibility issues. Containers of 233Umay be closed such that they provide a gas-tight seal for, or allow venting of, evolved gases. A seal is usually achieved by welding, although other closures are possible. Sealed containers trap evolved gases up to a pressure at which the container fails and vents to its surroundings. Sealed containers containing 233Uwith water or plastic trap evolved hydrogen. Therefore, to avoid a hydrogen explosion or deflagration, particular care must be exercised when handling and opening containers that have been sealed for an extended period of time. Consequently, it is highly desirable that materials to be stored are dried before the containers are sealed. Containers that allow venting of evolved gases either have designed, filtered vents, or they allow leakage of such gases through imperfect closures (e.g., screw-top lids). If gas leakage is a possibility (either via imperfect closures or as a result of a sealed container failure), then ventilatiodconfinementsystems (discussed later) are warranted.

4.3 CONFINEMENT On a unit mass basis, the alpha activity of 233Uis one order of magnitude less than that of 239Pu,but is three orders of magnitude greater than that of 235U.Thus, the alpha decay characteristics (and, therefore, the Confinement requirements) for 233Uare between the other two strategic fissile materials. The presence of 232Ucontributes additional alpha activity which can cause the activity of '"U-bearing material to exceed that of 239Pu,Containment and ventilation are used to protect workers and the public from halation exposure to 233Uby maintaining radiological confinement of designated areas. Confinement provides a physical barrier and ventilation draws air from areas of lower raQological contamination to areas of hgher contamination. Adhtionally, ventilation provides a means of filtration before atmospheric discharge. The hgh specific activity of "'U (and 232U)promotes evolution of gaseous decomposition byproducts from contaminants (such as water and plastics). These by-products include potentially explosive components (e.g., hydrogen) which must be isolated or carned away by a reliable ventilation system.

Material confhement is also challenged as alpha particles (with a mass of 4 atomic units) are ejected at high energies from their immedate parent nuclides (with masses ranging from 212 to 232 atomic units). The parent nuclides react to the alpha particles’ ”pushing off’ by recoiling to this force. This phenomenon is known as “alpha recoil.” In materials with significant concentrations of 23zU(tens of ppm or higher), the net effect is a slight migration of radioactive particles. A properly designed confinement and ventilation system prohibits migration particles to areas of lower contamination and sweeps them into areas of higher contamination or to filters. The ventilation system also can become important for dissipating the heat generated by these highly energetic alpha emissions. Unlike the decay chains for 235Uor Pu, one of the products in the 232Udecay chain includes a radioactive inert gas, 22kn,with a 55.6 s half-life. Any decay product immediately dissociates from any compound to which its parent was bound However, since Rn is inert, it will not form a new bond after dissociation Furthermore, because it is a gas, it will join the other gases in its environment and can pass unhindered through particulate filter media. Therefore, the presence of requires retention of the off-gas to allow this isotope to decay through significant amounts of 220h several half-lives to ensure that it has transmuted to the filterable decay product, z16Po.It is important to note that 2zoRnretention is more crucial at higher 232Uconcentrations (10 ppm or greater) and for conditions during which purging of evolved radon is facilitated by gas flow through the bulk material (which is more typical durmg processing such as air-sparging of liquids). However, even for dormant storage, ”%I evolution must be considered in ventilation system design Similar arguments may be made for Ventilation in the example of 233Ustored as UF,which has a significant vapor pressure Allowing this material to escape containment would be hazardous not only radiologically but also chemically because of the release of HF and Fz. Both of these latter materials are toxic and corrosive to ventilation and filtration equipment that is not particularly suited for this service. The requirement for ventilation becomes less crucial with high-integrity packages such as those considered to be “special form” (49 CFR Part 173) with two corrosion-resistant, certifiedwelded layers of metal containers. As long as their integrity is intact, such special form canisters can be considered reliable for contaming alpha particles, recoiling parent particles, radon, and even raclolytically generated gases. 4.4 CRITICALITY CONTROL

Because 233Uis readily fissile, care must be taken in the design of storage hcilities to avoid criticality. DOE requires adherence to the American National Standards Institute, Inc./American Nuclear Society (ANSUANS) nuclear criticality safety standards (US. DOE 1992a; ANSYANS-8.1 1983). Nuclear criticality of all fissile material is controlled through the balance of neutron production (Le., through the fission process) with neutron losses (Le., leakage from the fissile material system or nonfission neutron capture). This ratio of neutron production to neutron loss ( k d ) must be kept less than I under all circumstances. Typically, kefis kept less than 0.95.

Two common approaches to ensuring subcriticality are geometric spacing of fissile material and using neutron absorbers. Geometrically safe configurations enhance neutron leakage from the system, although such designs may be expensive. Many different neutron absorbers (boron, gadolinium, cadmium, 238U) are available. It is important to note that because all uranium isotopes have the same chemical characteristics, the 238Uwill not separate from the fissile uranium (which - m . any normal chemical process. could be 233Uor 235U) Ideally, the k,tr should be established based on experiments with an allowance for uncertainty. In practice, especially for 233U,there is a lack of experimental data. In such cases, calculational methods, as described in Section 3.4, may be used. Bias is then established by correlating the calculations to known experimental results. Trends in the bias are used to extend beyond the range of experiments. A key concept in criticality control is the double contingency principle. This principle, which is a safety factor that is built into storage design, requires at least two independent changes in system conditions before a criticality accident can occur.

In addtion to the technical practices previously described, administrative controls should also be established to prevent accidental criticality. These may include process analyses, material control, emergency procedures, and operational control and review. Most of these factors take added importance in processing facilities at which factors such as their geometries may be subject to change. 4.5 SHIELDING

Uranium-233 compounds often must be handled in shielded enclosures because of the high external rahation hazard (Horton 1972). The external radation field for 233Udepends on many factors. Among these are the surface area of the source and the distance from the source. Selfshielding because of the density and geometry of the material is another factor. Finally, external shieldin2 can be used to reduce the field. While self-shielding and stainless steel containers provide a small reduction in the external radiation field, the primary shieldmg materials used to protect workers and the public are lead and concrete. Again, the amount of material needed depends primarily on the amount of uzU present. Figure 4.1 shows the necessary lead shielding to reduce the dose from 1 kg of 35-d aged 233Uto 2 mR/h at a distance of 1 m (Arnold 1962). Diluting the 233Uwith DU may help reduce the shield thickness requirements. The added uranium mass will provide an addtional degree of self-shielding, but will pose a substantially larger mass (and volume) to be shielded, which will increase the overall shielding mass.

1G 14

4.1

I-

. . 4

100

150

200

232

250 300 U concentration (ppm)

1 t

350

Fig. 4.1. Lead shielding for 233Uwith various concentrations of z32U.

400

450

500

4.6 SAFEGUARDS Because of its fissile nature, 233U may be used to produce nuclear weapons. Therefore, safeguards to prevent theft must be applied. Currently, DOE requirements are used exclusively for the nation's 233Uinventory (U.S. DOE 1994). However, the United States is under international treaty obligations which could place the 233Uunder International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards as well (U.S. DOE 1992b). The requirements of these two organizations are similar. Both organizations use a graded approach to safeguards in which material that is most effective in making nuclear weapons is placed under the greatest control. Table 4.1 summarizes the different levels of the DOE requirements. IAEA requirements, which correspond roughly with DOE Attractiveness Level B, are also given for comparison. The specifics will be discussed ia further detail in the following sections. Table 4.1. DOE nuclear material safeguards categories

WA-Not applicable bIAEA values are included far cornparison

4.6.1 DOE Requirements

Under DOE Orders, 233Uis separated into four categories according to the amount of material present and its attractiveness level. The attractiveness levels correspond to the ease in which the material can be used in creating nuclear weapons. The most attractive materials (Level A) are assembled weapons and test devices All quantities of Level A fall into Category I. Pure products (e.g., pits, major components, buttons, ingots, recastable metal, and dlrectly convertible materials) form Level B. These fall into categories I-IV according to the amount of material. High-grade material [e.g., carbides, oxides, solutions (2 25 nitrates, fuel elements and assemblies, alloys, and mixtures] fall into Level C , which is also further separated into four categories according to the mount of material. Level D consists of low-grade materials (e.g., solutions with 1-25 g/L or process residues that require extensive reprocessing). These materials are classified as only Category 11, 111, or IV. 'The lowest level of attractiveness (Level E) consists of gram quantities or greater of uranium existing as highly irradiated forms and solutions (U.S. DOE 1994).

a),

It should be noted that ?hese categories make no distinction as to the isotopic concentration of U. This is in sharp contrast to 235U.Material enriched to 50 wt % 23sUor greater falls into attractiveness Level C (or greater). Material enriched to greater than or equal to 20 wt % and less 233

falls into Level D. Less than 20 wt % enrichment in "'U belongs to Level E. Because u3U was not originally deployed in nuclear weapons or commercial nuclear power plants, sdeguards requirements as a function of isotopic levels have not been developed.

than 50 wt % in ?J

There are three fimctions of material control. access controls, material surveillance, and material containment. Each of these hnctions also takes a graded approach based on the category. Access controls are concerned with preventing unauthorized personnel access to materials, data, and equipment. The graded approach ranges fkom sunple administrative controls for Category IV material to extensive, complex procedures for Category I material Access controls are also designed to prevent Category I11 and I V materials of Levels B or C fiom accumulating into Category I or I1 mounts. Finally, there is a performance requirement that tests to detect unauthonzed access to Category I or I1 matenal be at least 95% effective. Material surveillance has as its goal the detection of unauthorized flows of materials out of the material containment areas. This goal is accomplished using sensors, patrols, logs, tamper indication devices (TIDs), portal monitormg, waste monitoring, and other adrmnistrative checks. As w t h matenal access, the perfbrmance requirement for Category I and I1 material is that ~ ~ ~ t h o ractions i~ed must be detected in at least 95 % of tests Surveilfance ensures that Categories I and I1 materials are only used in the authorized locations described below Category I11 materials that are outside of locked storage areas are also required to be kept under surveillance within authorized areas. The requirements for Category IV material are site-specific. Material containment is broken into three areas subject to access controls and surveillance. The Materials Balance Area is the general tern for any area in which nuclear material is used, processed, or stared. In accordance with the graded approach, the Protected Area, which is used for Category I1 materials, has stricter access controls and increased surveillance. Finally, withm the Protected Area is the Materials Access Area, in which Category I material is used, processed, or stored. 4.6.2 MEA Requirements

M A is the branch of the United Nations concerned with controlling the spread of nuclear weapons. While the responsibility of protecting fissionable material lies with individual nations, MEA is authorized under its statute to establish and administer nuclear materials safeguards. These safeguards are designed to verify that nuclear materials and other nuclear-related items are not used to further any military purpose. IAEA also applies safeguards (at the request of a nation) to any of that nation's atomic energy activities (IAEA 1956) Currently, about 1000 U S sites and facilities are eligible for IAEA safeguards Th~smeans that the U S government has declared that the site 1s not cntical to nahonal secunty and that IAEA has the right to pick the site for nnplementation of safeguards However, because of Its lirmted budget, it has generally been IAEA's policy to lmit its selection of sites m declared nuclear weapons states In this way. it can concentrate on preventmg the further spread of nuclear weapons to nonnuclear states Only three sites (vaults at Y-12, Hanford, and Rocky Flats) in the United States have some of their mventones under IAEA safeguards All three were selected by voluntary offer agreements for ivhch, for political reasons, the U S government paid IAEA to implement safeguards IAEA is also overseeing the downblendmg of Russian material at the Savannah fiver Site (SRS) and Kazak matenal at Babcock and Wilcox

The first IAEA activity is verification of storage design. For this phase, a storage facility would complete IAEA's Design Information Questionnaire (DIQ). Typically, there is a two-month period after selection before the DIQ is due. The second stage of the process is verification of the stored quantity of nuclear material. Verification is accomplished by measuring items via sampling by destructive assay on a small selection of random items and nondestructive assay of a larger fraction of the items. IAEA then places the items under containmentfsurveillance (US) using cameras and TIDs. Future inspection and inventory activities depend on the designation of the storage area and the safeguards approach applied by IAEA. At the worst extreme, hture irispections (twice a month) would verify a random sampling of TIDs and perform gamma spectrometry verification of a random sampling of items. During an annual physical inventory, a random sampling of items would be removed for nondestructive measurements. The option of opening containers and removing samples for destructive measurements is reserved by IAEA. Because of the extreme gamma radiation hazard of 233U(due to the presence of z32U),significant handling precautions and expenses would be incurred. Currently no 233Uis under IAEA safeguards. However, IAEA does make recommendations on the physical protection of 233U(IAEA 1980; IAEA 1989). These recommendations depend on the following categorizationsaccordng to mass: 2 kg or more of unirradiated 233Uis Category I, between 500 g and 2 kg is Category 11, and 500 g or less is Category 111. Radologically insignificant quantities and irradiated 233Uare exempted from these classifications. In contrast, as with DOE regulations, 235U is categorized not only by mass but also accordmg to three levels of enrichment: greater than 20%, 10-20%, and up to 10%. Similar to DOE regulations, U E A safeguards do not account for different isotopic levels of 233U.The limited use of 233Uto date has not warranted development of such safeguards regulations.

The recommendations of IAEA for protecting materials have certain concepts which are generic to all three categories. Materials need to be stored in areas to which access is controlled. All personnel working in the facility need to be trained about the importance of physical protection and the appropriate responses in cases of emergency. Alarms and guards should be used to detect and respond to sabotage or unauthorized removals of material. Finally, a security survey should be made whenever a significant change in a facility or its function takes place. This survey is a critical examination to evaluate, approve, and specify physical protection measures. As in DOE requirements, storage of Categories I and I1 nuclear materials requires a protected area. This area is under constant surveillance: either by guards or electronically, and is surrounded by a physical barrier. Access to t h ~ sarea is kept to the minimum necessary and controlled through a limited number of entry points.

Category I materials are isolated further in an inner area within the protected area. (This corrcsponds to the Materials Access Area of DOE requirements). This inner area is arranged with a minimum number of alarmed entrances and exits (ideally, only one). The storage area itself should be alarmed and locked. ,4uthority as to who has these keys should be tightly controlled. Electronic surveillance should be effected using at least two independcnt transmissions"

4.6.3 Elimination of Weapons Potential

The surest way to safeguard 233Ufrom theft or misuse is to eliminate its ability to be used for weapons. Studies indicate that 233Ucan be made unsuitable for military use by diluting it with DU to a fissile concentration of 12 wt % (Dubrin 1995; Benedict et al. 1981). This level of dilution is equivalent to diluting weapons-grade HEU with '38U to 20 wt % 235U. Earlier stules on demilitarization of the large quantities of weapons-grade HEU indicate that isotopic dilution of 235Uwith 238Uis the preferred demilitarization option (US. DOE 1996a). The U.S. government has issued a Record of Decision (U.S. DOE 1996b) making isotopic dilution the official policy for demilitarization of HEU. Given the relatively low cost, assured technical feasibility, and acceptance for demilitarization of HEU, the same approach may be used for demilitarization of 233U.It is noted that any 233Uinventory that contains sufficient 23s11(>20 wt % 235U)is classified as HEU; therefore, isotopic dilution is the stated policy for demilitarization of this material. As with safeguards categories, the required levels of isotopic llution to eliminate weapons potential for 233Uhave not been implemented in DOE orders or IAEA regulations.

5. DISPOSAL REQUIREMENTS FOR 233UDECLARED AS WASTE Current legal and regulatory requirements for disposal of waste materials containing '"U are discussed in this section. Most requirements for disposal of any waste containing 233Udepend on the activity concentrations of that isotope and the activity concentrations of other radionuclides that are present. In addition, if waste materials exhibit certain chemical characteristics or contain particular hazardous chemicals, then disposal must comply with requirements for solid hazardous waste developed under authority of the Resource Consemahon and Recovery Act (RCRA).

5.1 FUDIOACTIVE WASTE CLASSIFICATION All waste materials containing 233Uof concern to this report were produced as a result of operations of nuclear reactors. Therefore, because the use of nuclear reactors is authorized only under the Atomic Energy Act (AEA), these radoactive materials would be managed under authority of the Act. Furthermore, DOE currently is responsible for management of these materials because they were generated at DOE sites or under DOE agreements. The different classes of radioactive waste arising from operations of the nuclear fuel cycle that have been defmed in law include SNF, HLW, TRU waste, LLW, and urafllum or thonum rmll tailings.

Any waste materials Containing 233Uand any wastes arising from further processlng of these materials would! be classified as LLW, regardless of the concentrations of 233Uor any other radionuclides. This classification is based on the current legal definitions of LLW and the fact that the materials containing manly 233Uand any wastes arising from further processing of these materials do not meet the classification cntena for HLW or TRU waste (as well as SNF or mill tailings).

LLW is currently defined only by exclusion as waste that is not SNF,HLW, TRU waste, or uranium or thorium mill tailings Furthermore, the current legal definitions do not descnbe the constituents or properties of LLW. Also, in contrast to the definitions of HLW and TRU waste, the definition is not related in any way to requirements for safe handling, storage, or disposal While most LLW contains relatively low concentrations of any radionudides and is expected to be acceptable for near-surface disposal, LLW also can contain high concentrations of longer- and shorter-lived radionuclides and require a disposal system similar to that for HLW or TRU waste. It also should be noted that LLW does not include naturally occurring radioactive material other than source material or racfioactive material produced in an accelerator, because these types of nonfuel-cycle wastes are not subject to federal regulation under authority of the AEA HLW is defined as the waste stream that directly results from the chemical reprocessing of SNF. Therefore, waste materials containing mainly 233Uwould not be classified as HLW even if they resembled HLW (a) in having hgh levels of decay heat and external radiation, due primarily to the concentrations of shorter-lived ralonuclides (Le.,232U), and (b) in having high concentrations of long-lived alpha-emitting radionuclides, because they are not wastes which arise directly from chemical reprocessing of SNF.

By definition, TRU waste contains > 100 nCi/g of alpha-emitting TRU radionuclides with half-lives > 20 years. Therefore, waste materials containing mainly 233Uwould not be classified as TRU waste, even though they resembled TRU waste in having high concentrations of long-lived, 31

alpha-emitting radionuclides, because the concentrations of alpha-emitting TRU radnonuclides with half-lives greater than 20 years would be less than 100 nCi/g. Potentially, waste materials containing mainly 233Ucould be classifiable as HLW if the definition in Clause (B)* of the Nuclear Waste Policy Act (NWPA) were implemented by the NRC to include waste other than the primary wastes from chemical reprocessing of SNF. Such a reclassification would require a petition to the NRC. Alternatively, the materials and wastes arising from further processing of these materials possibly could be classifiable as TRU waste if the definition of TRU waste in the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) Land Withdrawal Act were modified to include waste nith high concentrationsof alpha-emitting, non-TRU radionuclides. Although either of these classifications of wastes containing 233Ucould be reasonable, based on the radiological properties of the waste, they require changes in regulations (to classify as HLW) or changes in law (to define as TRU waste).

5.2 CLASSIFICATION AND DISPOSAL AS HAZARDOUS WASTE Radioactive wastes regulated under authority of the AEA may also be regulated as solid hazardous waste under authority of RCRA. Indeed, current DOE policy specifies that all of its radioactive wastes shall be managed in accordance with requirements of the AEA and RCRA, unless the waste is shown not to be hazardous as defined under RCRG (U.S. DOE 1988). However, 233Uwaste should not be classified as hazardous under RCRA because (a) the materials are not ignitable, corrosive, or reactive as defined under RCRA, or these characteristics result from the chemical form of the uranium, which is exempted from regulation under RCRA; (b) any cadmium in the materials is serving its intended purpose as a neutron absorber to prevent nuclear criticality and, thus, is not classified as a waste under RCRA, and the materials should not contain significant quantities of any other hazardous substatices of concern to the toxicity characteristic; and (c) the materials should not contain any listed hazardous wastes.

This conclusion also should apply to any wastes arising from further processing of U-bearing waste materials. However, it may be necessary to reconsider, on a case-by-case basis, the question of whether any such wastes containing cadmium would be considered hazardous under RCRA, especially if the cadmium were no longer serving its intended purpose as a neutron absorber to prevent nuclear criticality. 233

Should wastes containing 233Ube classified as hazardous under RCRA, the conclusions regardmg treatment and disposal requirements may be summarized as follows: The type of disposal system that would be required (e.g., a near-surface facility or geologic repository), based on ra&ological properties of the waste, would not be affected.

The current legal definition of high-level radioactive waste is contained in the NWPA, and the definition has two parrs as follows: (a) the highly radioactive material resulting from the reprocessing of SNF, including liquid waste produced directly in reprocessing and any solid material derived from such liquid waste that contains fission products in sufficient concentrations, and (b) other highly radioactive material that the NRC, consistent with existing law, determines by rule requires permanent isolation.

If wastes containing 233Uwere classified as hazardous because they are ignitable, corrosive, or reactive, as defined under RCRA, due to the presence of substances other than radionuclides (i.e., uranium), the wastes would need to be treated to remove the hazardous characteristicsprior to disposal. After treatment, the wastes would no longer be classified as hazardous under RCRA. If wastes containing w3U were classified as hazardous because of the presence of cadmium, the wastes would need to be treated to remove the toxicity characteristic before disposal of the waste, unless it can reasonably be demonstrated that there wll be no migration of hazardous constituents from disposal units for as long as the waste remains hazardous. After treatment, the wastes would no longer be classified as hazardous under

RCIW.

If any listed hazardous wastes were introduced into wastes containing 233U (e.g., during processing), the wastes also would need to be treated prior to disposal (unless the condition of no migration from hsposal units can reasonably be demonstrated), but the treated wastes still would be classified as hazardous under RCRA. As noted previously, waste which IS ignitable, corrosive, or reactive due only to the presence of uranium would not be classified as a hazardous waste under RCRA and, thus, would not require treatment under RCRA to remove any such hazardous charactenstics However, the waste acceptance cntena (WAC) for any potential hsposal facility presumably would require that the uranium not be in a chemcal form whch is igmtable, corrosive, or reactive, m which case the uranium would need to be converted to a suitable chemical form (e g ,oxide) before dsposal

5.3 RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL OPTIONS

Based on the conclusion that waste materials containing 233Uand any wastes arising fiom further processing of these matenals would be classified as LLW, a number of options for disposal are available which depend essentially on the concentrations of 233U.LLW containing mainly 233U generally would be intended for disposal in a near-surface facility at the generating site. If the waste would not meet the acceptance criteria for such a facility or if the generating site does not have such a facility, it would be disposed of at another DOE site with a near-surface facility that could accept the waste. However, wastes containing high concentrations of 233Uprobably would not be acceptable for near-surface disposal at any DOE site. The disposal criteria and the attendant options are discussed below. 5.3.1 Near-Surface Disposal of LLW

DOE is responsible for hsposal of its own LLW under authority of the AEA The Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act is concerned only with commercial LLW and, thus, does not apply to DOE'S LLW unless it is sent to a commercial dlsposal facility, an alternative which is not precluded by existing law or regulations.

Most LLW is intended for disposal in near-surface facilities. Current DOE policy encourages dsposal of its LLW at the major waste-generating sites (US.DOE 1988): Oak Rdge, SRS, Idaho, 33

Hanford, Nevada, and Los Alamos. These sites also may receive LL,W fiom other DOE sites without disposal facilities or waste that is not acceptable for hsposal in a facility at the generating site. For example, below-grade dsposal of any waste was phased out at ORNL in the early 1990s (Lockheed Martin Energy Research 1997). However, as described below, LLW containing high concentrations of long-lived radionuclides may not be acceptable for near-surface disposal at any DOE site. Currently, near-surface disposal of DOE's LLW is regulated only according to requirements in Chapter I11 of DOE Order 5820.2A (U.S. DOE 1988). The NRC's licensing criteria for nearsurface disposal of rahoactive waste, as stated in 10 CFR Part 61, which are intended to apply primarily to commercial LLW, do not apply to DOE's LLW unless it is sent to a commercial disposal facility. In addition to performance objectives for limiting radiation dose to individual members of the public, current DOE requirements include a performance objective for limiting dose to inadvertent intruders onto disposal sites after loss of active institutional control at 100 years after disposal (U.S. DOE 1988). The performance objectives in the DOE Order are used to establish WACS for near-surface disposal facilities in the form of concentration limits of radionuclides in waste. For example, for 233U> 235U,and 238U,an analysis for a near-surface disposal facility at SRS showed that the limits on average uranium concentrations over the disposal site are on the order of 1-5 nCdg (Lockheed Martin Energy Systems 1994), and the concentration limits â&#x201A;Źor indvidual waste packages might be ten times higher if the limits on average concentrations over the site are to be met (Wood et al. 1994). The concentration limits for 232Uwould be about an order of magnitude higher. Although such concentration limits are established on a site-specific basis and, thus, would not be expected to be the same at all sites, similar results should be obtained for nearsurface disposal facilities at most DOE sites other than SRS. The analysis described above suggests that LLW containing concentrations of 233U,235U,and U substantially less than 100 nCi/g could be unacceptable for near-surface disposal at most DOE sites. ms conclusion is consistent with a statement by the NRC that near-surface disposal 23 8

of large quantities of DU that would be generated at a commercial uranium enrichment facility is not appropriate. The expected concentrations of 238Uin these wastes are as high as 60 nCi/g (U.S . NRC 1994). Even though the DU would be Class-A waste, as defined by the NRC in 10 CFR Part 6 1, and Class-A waste normally is acceptable for near-surface disposal with minimal requirements, disposal of large quantities of DU in any concentrations was not contemplated by the NRC in the development of 10 CFR Part 6 1. In particular, near-surface disposal of these wastes may not ensure protection of future inadvertent intruders onto disposal sites, as required by 10CFRPart61.

5.3.2 Alternatives to Near-Surface Disposal For DOE LLW with concentrations of radionuclides sufficiently high that it would not be acceptable for near-surface disposal at the generating site or at my other DOE site, an alternative disposal facility would be required. The following two alternatives could be considered. The first alternative would be to consider use of the Greater Confinement Disposal (GCD) facility at the Nevada Test Site (NTS). This facility uses deep, lined boreholes that emplace waste &Tell below the ground surface but far above the water table. In the past, the GCD facility has disposed of high-activity LLW and some TRU waste. Therefore, disposal of waste with high 34

concentrations of 233Upresumably would be acceptable, although a WAC for 233Uwastes has not been developed for this facility. However, a disadvantage of this alternative is that the GCD facility is not currently disposing of waste. Disposal activities were terminated following a finding by the State of Wevada that disposal of radioactive waste in the GCD boreholes constitutes a form of underground injection in wells that is prohibited by regulations developed by the US.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act. Therefore, dlsposal of additional waste in the GCD facility could occur only if the findmg by the State of Nevada were overturned. Other facilities located well below the ground surface are being considered at the NTS for disposal of highactivity LLW that is not acceptable for near-surface disposal, including disposal in surface craters produced by underground testmg of nuclear weapons. However, no such facilities have yet been developed.

If it would not be acceptable to dispose of high-activity LLW in any of the facilities at the NTS described above, the only remaining current alternative is disposal with SNF and HLW in a geologic repository. This alternative would be consistent with the NRC's current requirements for disposal of commercial LLW in 10 CFR Part 61. These requirements specifj, that waste that is not generally acceptable for near-surface disposal-the so-called greater-than-Class-C wasterequires chsposal in a geologic repository, unless dsposal elsewhere is approved by the NRC on a case-by-case basis (US. NRC 1989). However, the particular environmental standards, licensing criteria, and WACs that would apply to disposal of high-activity LLW in a geologic repository are currently unknown.

5.4 MIXING OF 233UWITH OTHER WASTES

The disposal options dlscussed above assume that the matenals containing m a d y 233Uand any wastes arising from further processing of these materials would be managed and disposed of separately from other wastes However, alternatives mvolwng mixwig of these wastes with HLW or TRU mstes before disposal could be considered, particularly if the materials would not be acceptable for dsposal in any existmg facilities for LLW at DOE sites There are no legal or regulatory prohibitions to convertrng solid LLW c o n t a m g hgh concentrations of 233Uto liquid form and rnixrng the liquld wastes with the much larger volumes of HLW at the SRS or Hanford sites In addmon, the resulting wastes should not present any technical challenges for safe disposal that would not be considered for HLW in its present form The resulting wastes would be managed as HLW, based on the classification of its most nnportant component, and would be mtended for disposal in a geologic repository There also are no legal or regulatory prohbitions to mixing LLW containing hgh concentrations of 233Uwith TRU wastes. If the resulting wastes would be classified as TRU waste, the definition of which does not depend on the concentrations of any non-TRU radionuclides, the wastes would be intended for disposal in the WIPP facility, provided the WACs for that facility are met. As in the alternative of mixing with HLW described previously, the resulting wastes should not present any technical challenges for safe disposal rhat would not be considered for TRU waste in its current form. However, there may be other issues that would need to be addressed.

Alternatives for disposal of materials containing mainly 233Uand other wastes containing high concentrations of zj3Uthat would involve mixing with HLW or TRU wastes would need to be justified compared with managing and disposing of these materials separately from other wastes. Mixing with other wastes could be justified, for example, if it would allow more timely lsposal in existing or planned facilities, or it would result in substantial cost savings for waste management and disposal.

5.5 NUCLEAR CRITICALITY

5.5.1 Need to Avoid Criticality Nuclear criticality must be avoided in any disposal facility because of the increased potential for releases of radionuclides to the environment. Evidence from nuclear reactors occurring naturally in the geolo~icalpast (Cowen 1976) indicates that such events have generated both added radioactivity and heat over time periods of hundreds of thousands of years. The heat generated creates higher lsposal site temperatures that (a) drive chemical reactions which, in turn, degrade waste packages and waste forms; (b) cause water movement within a disposal sitc that may transport radioactivity to the environment (Buscheck and Nitao 1993) and (c) contribute to major uncertainties in site performance. Nuclear criticality control must also be maintained in the facilities used to store and process

233Umaterial into an acceptable waste form. The potential quantities of 233Urequiring disposition are small, and some of the 233Ucontains 232Uand its lughly radioactive decay products sufficient to

require hot-cell processing.

Existing waste processing facilities may be able to process 233U.These include existing DOE HLW vitrification facilities and proposed TRU waste processing facilities. However, these facilities are not designed for significant concentrations of fissile materials. If such facilities are to be used, nuclear criticality safety controls for 233Ucannot rely on geometry or chemical control without substantially changing plant equipment and operations.

NRC criticality control requirements for HLW disposal are specified in 10 CFR Part 60. These requirements are similar to those for storage. The double-contingency standard is required. now must be less than 0.95 instead Additionally, the calculated effective multiplication factor, LE, of less than 1 for storage. Although elements found in geological deposits may be effective neutron scatterers (e.g., silicon, aluminum, or oxygen) or somewhat effective neutron absorbers (e.g., iron, sodium, or calcium), no assurance can be provided that such elements will remain with the uranium over geological time spans. Several mechanisms cause changes in waste geometry and chemistry over geological time fiames. These include groundwater transport of uranium and mechanical lsturbances of the waste. If criticality control is to be ensured for thousands of years by either geometnc control or chemical control (including neutron absorbers), system performance must be predicted for these lengths of time. Such prediction i s difficult.

5.5.2 Nuclear Criticality Control by Isotopic Dilution

No such &fficulties exist when isotopic chlution is used for criticality control. Isotopic dilution is the addition of 238Usufficient to lower the 233Uconcentration level below that at which

nuclear criticality can occur. It is important to note that all uranium isotopes have the same chemical characteristics if they are in the sitme chemical form; therefore, the 238Uwill not separate from fissile uranium in any normal chemical process during processing or after disposal. If the 233Uis declared to be waste, isotopic dilution converts the material from a fissile material for which nuclear criticality is a major safety concern into another type of very lowly enriched uranium (LEU) waste for which nuclear criticality is not a significant concern. This approach simplifies waste management operations for several reasons. First, it allows the use of existing waste management facilities, such as HLW vitrification plants, to convert the uranium into an acceptable chemical form for disposal. Waste management facilities are not typically designed to be geometrically safe for criticality control, and chemical reactions within such processes may separate uranium from other elements that are neutron absorbers. Second, this strategy allows disposal in a geological repository without creating new and difficult nuclear criticality issues. Finally, isotopic dilution is compatible with expected repository licensing requirements for the control of nuclear criticality.

To ensure criticality control of *33Uby isotopic dilution with 238U,the u3U concentration must be reduced to -0.5 wt % ( E l m et al. 1994) In terms of nuclear criticality safety, this concentration is equivalent to 235Uat an enrichment level of -1 .O wt %. At these concentrations, nuclear criticality will not occur in a geological environment, over time, nor in waste processing operations that have not been designed for fissile materials. For a quantity of 233Ualso containing some 235U,the amount of DU (0.2 wt % 235U)in grams required to ensure criticality control by isotopic dilution in a water-moderated system is given by Eq. 3.1.

The use of isotopic dlution to control nuclear criticality in a disposal facility has already been chosen as the preferred option for criticality control for disposal of any excess usZJ that is dsposed of as waste (US. DOE 1996a; U S . DOE 1994b). The strategy discussed herein for 23%.J follows the strategy for excess 235U.Some of the 233Uinventory also contains 235Usufficient such as to be classified as HEU; that is, it contains >20 wt % 235U.Because the technical, regulatory, and economic factors relevant to HEU are, therefore, relevant for much of the 233Umaterials, the use of a common criticality control strategy for the disposal of any fissile uranium materials is further supported.

6. REFERENCES American National Standards Institute, Inc./AmericanNuclear Society 1983. Nuclear Criticality Safety in Operations with Fissionable Materials Outside Reactors, ANWANS-8.1. Arnold, E. D. 1962. “Radiation Hazards of Recycled 233U-Thori~m Fuels,” p. 253 in Proc. Thorium Fuel Cycle Symposium,TID-7650, US.Atomic Energy Commission, Oak kdge, Tennessee. 3enedict, M., Pigford, T. H., and Levi, H. W. 1981. Nuclear Chemical Engineering, 2nd. ed., McGraw-Hill, New York. Boswell, J. M., McCrosky, R. D., Stringer, J. T., and Woods, W. K. 1966. Production of U-233 with low U-232 content, DUN-SA- 1 1, Douglas United Nuclear, Inc. Richland, Washington. Browne, E., Firestone, R. B., and Shirley, V. S.: eds. 1986. Table of Radioactive Isotopes, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Buscheck, T. A. and Nitao, J. J. 1993. “Repository-Heat-Driven Hydrothermal Flow at Yucca Mountain, Part I,” Nucl. Tech. 104(3), 418. Cowen, G . A. 1976. “A Natural Fission Reactor,” ScientrJicAmerican 235, 36. Cox, S. 0. 1995. Criteriafor the Safe Storage of Enriched Uranium at the Y-12 Plant, Y/ES015, Oak h d g e Y-12 Plant, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Dubrin, J. W. Jan. 23, 1995. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore California, correspondence to K.E. Plummer, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Rdge, Tennessee, “U-233 ’Denatured’ Assay Equivalent to U-235.’’

Elam, K. R., Forsberg, C. W., Hopper, C . M., and Wright, R. Q. 1996. Isotopic Dilution Criticality Safety in Processing and Disposal, ORNL/MD/LTR-51, Requirements for 233U Lockheed Martin Energy Research COT., Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

Gofinan, J. W. 1943. Dissertation: The discovery ofpa-232, U-232, Pa-233, and U-233. The slow and fastfissionability of U-233, Ph.D. thesis in nuckdphysical chemistry, University of California at Berkeley. Horton, R. W. 1972. Safety Analysis: L WBR Support Program in Building 3019 Pilot Plant, ORNL/TM/3567, Union Carbide Corp.-Nuclear Division, Oak kdge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. International Atomic Energy Agency 1956. “Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency,” WWW, http ://wwv.iaea.or.at/worldatom/glance/profile/statute. html#A 1.12. International Atomic Energy Agency 1980. “The Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material,” International Atomic Energy Agency Information Circular,

INFCIRC/274/Rev. 1, Vienna, Austria International Atomic Energy Agency 1989. “The Physical Protection of Nuclear Material,” International Atomic Energy Agency Information Circular, TNFCIRC/225/Rev.2, Vienna, Austria. International Commission on Radlological Protection 1977. Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, I O Publication 26, Ann. ICRP I, No. 3. Pergammon Press, Oxford. Jordan, W. C., Landers, N. F., and Petrie, L. M. 1986. Validation ofKEN0 ?!a Cornparison with Critical Experzments, ORNL/CSD/TM-238, Lockheed Martin Energy Systems, Inc., Oak Rrdge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Kastenberg, W. E., et al. 1996. “Considerations of Autocatalytic Criticalilty of Fissile Materials in Geologic Repositories,” Nucl. Tech. 155(3), 298. Kocher, D. C. 1980. A Radionuclide Decay Data Base - Index and Summary Table, NUFEG/CR-14 13,ORNLNUREG-70, Oak kdge National Laboratory, Oak Rdge, Tennessee. Kocher, D. C. 1981. Radioactive Decay Datu Tables, DOE/”TIC-I1026,U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Krichinsky, A. M. Aug. 7, 1975. Intra-Laboratory correspondence to L. E. McNeese, Oak Rrdge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. “The Radiation Levels for 10 kg of 233U.7’ Lockheed Martin Energy Research 1997. Performance Assessment for Continuing Operarions at Solid Waste Storage Area 6, ORNL-6783/Rl Vol. 1, Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corp., Oak h d g e National Laboratory, Oak hdge, Tennessee, Lockheed Martin Energy Systems 1994. Radiological Performance Assessment for the E-Area Vaults Disposal Facilig, WSRC-W-94, Lockheed Martin Energy Systems, Inc., Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Grand Junction, Colorado. Lockheed Martin Energy Systems 1995. SCALE: A Modular Code System for Performing Standardized Computer Analysis for Licensing Evaluation, NUREGICR-0200, Rev.4 (ORNL/NUREG/CSD-2/R4), Vols. I, 11, and 111, Lockheed Martin Energy Systems, Inc., Oak Ibdge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Meichle, R. H. 1965. “Clean Uranium-233 Production - Methods and Parameters,” Trans. Amer. Nucl. soc. 8(2), 520. Paxton, H. C., and Pruvost, N. L. 1987. Critical Dimensions of Systems Containing ’’’U 239Pu, and 233U:1986 Revision, LA-10860-MS3Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico. Peacock, H. B. 1992, Pyrophoricity of Uranium (U), WSRC-TR-92- 106, Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Savannah Rwer Laboratory, Aiken, South Carolina. P r i m , R. T. 111 1993. Criticality Safety Studies of Building 3029, Cell 4, andIn-Line Storage 40

Wells, ORNLmM-12374, Lockheed Martin Energy Systems, Inc., Oak kdge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

Pruvost, N. L., and Paxton, H. C . 1996. Nuclear Criticality Safey Guide, LA-12808, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico.

Sax, N. I. 1968. Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 3rd ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York. Schleien, B., ed. 1992. The Health Physics and Radiological Health Handbook, Rev. ed.,Scinta, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland.

Till, J. E. 1976. Assessment of the Radiological Impact of 233Uand Daughters in R e ~ y c l e d ~ ~ ~ U HTGR Fuel, 01RNLflM-5049, Union Carbide Corp.-Nuclear Division, Oak fidge National Laboratory, Oak Rtdge, Tennessee. Unger, L. M. and Trubey, D. K. 1981. Specific Camma-Hay Dose Constantsfor Nuclides Important to Dosimetry and Radiological Assessment, ORNLIRSIC-45, Oak &&e National Laboratory, Oak &dge, Tennessee. Uranium Storage Assessment Team 1996. Assessment of Enriched Uranium Storage Safeiy issues at the Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant, Y/ES-O14/R4, Lockheed Martin Energy Systems, Inc., Oak hdge Y-12 Plant, Oak Ridge Tennessee.

U.S. Department of Energy 1988. Radioactive Waste Management, Order 5820.2A, Washington, D.C.

U S . Department of Energy 1992a. Nuclear Crifzcality,Order 5480.24, Washingtoq D.C U.S. Department of Energy 1992b. Sizfeguards Agreement with the international Atomic Energy Agency, Order 1270.2B,Washington, D.C.

U.S. Department of Energy 1994. Control and Accountability ofNuclear Material, Order 5633.3B, Washington, D.C. U S . Department of Energy 1996a. Disposition of Surplus Highly-Enriched Uranium Final Environmental Impact Statement, DOE/EIS-0240, Washington, D.C.

US.Department of Energy 1996b. Record of Decision for the Disposition of Surplus HighlyEnriched Uranium Final Environmental Impact Statement, Washington, D .C.

U.S. Department of Transportation 1992 (as amended). 49 CFR Part 173, “‘Shppers - General Requirements for Shipments and Packaging,” Final Rule, Federal Register 57, 20953. U.S . Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1981. 10 CFR Part 60, “Disposal of High-Level Rachoactive Wastes in Geological Repositories,” Final Rule, Federal Register 46, 13980.

U S . Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1989. 10 CFR Part 61, “Disposal of Radioactive Wastes,” Final Rule, Federal Register 54, 22578. 41

US.Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1991. 10 CFR Part 20, “Standards for Protection Against Radiation,” Final Rule, Federal Register 56, 23360.

U S . Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1994. Safety Evaluation Report for the Claiborne Enrichment Center, Homer, Louisiana, NUREG- 1491, Washington, D.C. Wood, D. E., et al. 1994. Performance Assessment Task Team Progress Report, DOE/LLW-157, Rev. 1, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho Falls, Idaho.

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