Developing cross cultural awareness tour in china by Epitome Reference Group

This article was downloaded by: [University of Western Sydney Ward] On: 15 January 2013, At: 21:48 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Higher Education Research & Development Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cher20

Exploiting the Links between Theory and Practice: Developing Students' Cross-cultural Understanding through an International Study Tour to China Kate Hutchings , Pamela Jackson & Rob McEllister Version of record first published: 14 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: Kate Hutchings , Pamela Jackson & Rob McEllister (2002): Exploiting the Links between Theory and Practice: Developing Students' Cross-cultural Understanding through an International Study Tour to China, Higher Education Research & Development, 21:1, 55-71 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07294360220124657

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/termsand-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sublicensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

Higher Education Research & Development, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2002

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

Exploiting the Links between Theory and Practice: Developing Students’ Cross-cultural Understanding through an International Study Tour to China KATE HUTCHINGS Queensland University of Technology

PAMELA JACKSON Queensland Concepts

ROB MCELLISTER Queensland University of Technology

This paper describes and critiques a study tour to China of undergraduate and postgraduate business students in a large business faculty in a university with an emerging focus on internationalisation through building links with global business and industry. The study tour was designed to t with the emerging trend towards internationalisation of business education wherein universities perceive themselves as being international universities based in one city rather than city-based universities who have international students. The literature on the dif culties of cross-cultural understanding and adjustment when business people sojourn to other countries is well documented. Yet, the same dif culties being encountered by students on short-term cultural immersion tours are yet to be adequately documented. This paper serves to address this gap in the literature by examining the experiences of 50 Australian and international students when confronted with a three week immersion into China’s business, cultural and social practices. The paper explores the contributions of the study tour to academic understanding of globalisation. ABSTRACT

Introduction This paper examines a study tour to China conducted with 50 students in a Business Faculty at a leading university in Australia. The key rationales of this study tour were: (a) the need for students to appreciate that theory and practice should not be viewed as being on a continuum, but are integrally linked; (b) the importance of business education having an international focus, that incorporates cross-cultural ISSN 0729-4360 print; ISSN 1469-8360 online/02/010055-17 Ó DOI: 10.1080/07294360220124657

2002 HERDSA

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

K. Hutchings et al.

understanding; and, (c) exible delivery of business programs. The rst two rationales as they applied to this study tour are key themes developed in this paper. As universities make steps forward to develop and implement business education that recognises the ever-increasing interconnectedness of international economies and organisations, the need to elucidate the inherent linkages between theory and practice (industry application) have been highlighted. In referring to the “internationalisation” of business education, authors have stressed the need to develop students’ understanding of international business and technical skills with cultural knowledge (Lane & DiStefano, 1992). It has been argued that students should learn to apply what they have studied in theory in practical application and that to achieve such praxis, universities need to invest in internationalising their programs. This implies a recognition that rather than theory and practice being viewed as polar opposites on a continuum that they should be seen as dialectically linked. A study tour supports this understanding of a dialectic relationship and builds upon, and reinforces, the theoretical and practical linkages developed in a traditional classroom setting. Achieving “internationalisation” of business education is said to be important for three reasons. First, because many graduating students will be nding employment internationally and bene t from having been educated to be effective in differing cultural settings. Second, because rapid changes in national immigration policies have meant that many more nations are considerably more multicultural than they have been in the past and citizens need to be more conscious of diversity in their national and organisational surroundings. Third, because the pace of changes in the international political economy necessitates that people must be responsive to international economic and business forces. Thus, students who receive an internationally focused business education should be more culturally and socially aware and prepared to cope with the rami cations of rapid international economic, political and social change. For our purposes, culturally and socially aware is de ned as recognition of the rich gender, cultural and social diversity in society and preparedness to work with, and appreciate, diversity. This may be achieved, in part, by students having received some education in the principles of cross-cultural understanding and diversity management. Existent literature refers to internationalising business education. Internationalisation is de ned as referring to a geographic spread of economic activities across national boundaries, including worldwide sourcing of markets for labour and raw resources. Globalisation, in contrast, is said to be a more advanced and complex form of internationalisation, implying a degree of integration not previously existent that has a broader agenda than economic expansion (Dicken 1992, p. 1) to encompass a dissolving of the separations between borders and cultures as well as economies (Hirst & Thompson, 1996, p. 1). While internationalisation can be viewed as international economic expansion, globalisation has broader rami cations in terms of implications for business power, government regulatory control and non-government bodies’ power, and societal change (Spybey, 1996). When universities provide such opportunities as study tours abroad they are committing themselves to the principles of internationalisation in marketing their programs

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

Theory and Practice in Cross-cultural Understanding

internationally and exposing their students to organisations internationally. Arguably, the study tour moves beyond this in exposing students to different cultures and diversity. To this end, the study tour has the potential for developing cross-cultural understanding and appreciation of diversity at home and abroad. Such understanding build upon a foundation of cross-cultural sensitivity that focuses on managing emotions and using problem solving when confronted with new and challenging situations (Marx, 1999). Literature on international business education suggests the necessity for business students to learn about other countries through immersion. Porth (1997) and Tucker (1997) highlight the value of study tours in expanding traditional classroom learning to an international setting and providing students with marketable skills in the workplace (most notably their experience in applying learnt skills in crosscultural understanding). Given competition amongst graduates in an increasingly tight labour market, the student that has a range of skills, ability and knowledge that transcends the traditional is eminently employable. Study tours expand horizons for students, academic researchers and the broader university institution alike, in that they are a platform to build links and associations with global industry. The study tour can contribute valuable outcomes for a student that is global thinking in the sense of being aware of the need to have skills that are concomitant with the cross-cultural understanding and diversity management required in the modern international organisation. The study tour described herein was designed to provide students with the opportunity to apply their knowledge of cross-cultural understanding and for the university to demonstrate its commitment to exible delivery and international experience. China was chosen as the country in which to conduct a study tour because of its strategic and economic importance to Australia. As Australia’s fourth largest trading partner, and the world’s largest recipient of international foreign direct investment, China looms large in the current and future trading and expansion plans of many Australian organisations. Despite this, very little attention has been given to recognising the cultural and social knowledge required to do business effectively in this expanding market (IRIC, 1995). In a survey of Australasian managers, Australian managers were ranked poorly in terms of their adaptability skills, cross cultural skills, language skills, and leadership skills (IRIC, 1995). It was suggested that Australian managers have limited exposure in the global market (Commonwealth Government of Australia, 1995, p. 69). That report also suggested that international best practice may not be widely pursued in Australian enterprises or in management development—factors that are retarding Australian business’ further penetration of Asian markets. Providing students with experience of China’s culture and business practices is one important way in which institutions may help to ensure that future Australian managers and employees have greater cross-cultural understanding. Literature Review For many people, going to a foreign country to live and work with strangers is a puzzling and threatening prospect (Furnham & Bochner, 1986). The challenges facing the student who travels abroad to study are equally confronting. Hofstede

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

K. Hutchings et al.

(1980, p. 277) states “forced exposure to an alien cultural environment can put people under heavy stress”, or create what was de ned by Oberg (1960) as culture shock. To do business effectively in a new environment or to explore another culture through a study tour requires moving beyond culture shock to an understanding of the relationship between cultural values, managerial values and business decisionmaking (Black & Mendenhall, 1990) and central importance being given to international competence. As a corollary to the process of globalisation has been the recognition of the need to make management education more internationally focused and future business leaders more internationally and interculturally competent (Lane & DiStephano, 1992). The International Association of Universities (1998) supports the need for business schools to be more international in their strategy, claiming higher education must integrate an intercultural dimension into its teaching and research, if it is to ful l its role and maintain excellence. Kwok, Arpan and Folks (1994) and Dufour (1994) also highlight the importance of formal education in intercultural competence, while Davidson and Kinzel (1995) argue for the possibility of companies altering their selection criteria to better target applicants capable of being developed into global managers. This development of global managers may be facilitated by providing business students with some of these “cross-cultural competencies in mainstream management development” (Fish & Wood, 1997) that may allow them to “ t in” or negotiate interactive aspects of the host culture (Ward & Kennedy, 1996). Gniewosz (2000, p. 321) identi es that there has been “a healthy increase in formal agreements between Australian universities offering international business degrees with overseas business schools”. This shift to a more international focus is highlighted by Australian universities now claiming to be international universities based in Australia rather Australian universities with international students. According to Porth (1997) the international study tour course may be a legitimate answer to critics of management education who urge business schools to “go global” and to create stronger ties with the business community. Yet, foreign travel alone is not the panacea for internationalising people. The challenge for the business school is how to devise a short-term study program that is effective in exposing the student to the host country without attempting to create “three week experts”. The challenge for those who facilitate such study tours is to blend hands-on experience with cultural knowledge to provide students with an adequate foundation from which to build perspective but not to permit them to believe that they have complete cultural understanding. Porth (1997) and Tucker (1997) de ne the essence of an international study tour as involving both traditional classroom learning and experiential learning opportunities in an international setting. Porth (1997) proposes a three-phase model: (a) pre-departure/classroom phase; (b) on-site phase; and (c) return to campus phase. Jones et al. (1992) suggest a model commencing with a nine-week pre-departure phase including resident and guest lecturers, reading and research assignments, orientation sessions and other activities. The second, or on-site phase, spans approximately three weeks and comprises 12 to 15 visits to business rms.

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

Theory and Practice in Cross-cultural Understanding

Literature has consistently highlighted the problems and con ict inherent where expatriates lack cross-cultural skills (Sargent & Matthews, 1998; Thomas & Toyne, 1995). Maximising the performance of expatriates in international postings, and particularly in transitional societies where unpredictability and uncertainty are more pronounced, is an integral element of human resource management as organisations endeavour to ensure their employees are trained to think globally. The achievement of adaptability and cross-cultural sensitivity of employees will involve signi cant training, planning and support by organisations (Garonzik, Brockner & Siegel, 2000; Shaffer & Harrison, 1998) and educators. Some of the cross-cultural problems that arise in international assignments may be alleviated by developing people with international intercultural competence. The literature in this area has traditionally focused on the personal characteristics and skills of individual communicators in interaction with culturally different others (Hammer, Nishida & Wiseman, 1996; see also Martin & Hammer, 1989). Factors have been identi ed that suggest likelihood of individuals achieving competent communication across cultures and “minimising understanding” (Gudykunst & Kim, 1984,p. 191) and include: tolerance of ambiguity; open-mindedness; empathy; interaction management; ethnocentrism; exibility; and stress management skills (Hammer, 1989). A study tour can also play in supporting exible delivery. Aspects of exible delivery have been used in Australia since the early 20th century but have gained increasing importance and prominence over the past ten years as tertiary organisations compete to meet the requirements of adult learners and an increasingly diverse population base. The impetus of exible delivery has two foci. First, the recognised need for organisations to cater to students’ competing demands of work, study and family, and second, to create an environment that fosters deep learning (Toohey, 1999). A study tour contributes to many of the aims of exible delivery as a learning tool. Offering face-to-face work and opportunity for independent research with on-campus and off-campus elements encourages not only individual time management but also practical application of learning (Beattie & James, 1997). Study tours make a valuable contribution in delivering learning in a exible manner, and, students will better live in a global society if they are encouraged and supported in cultural diversity in our educational environments. Methods The aim of this paper is both to describe and to evaluate. That is, to ask what happened on the study tour, how it links to theoretical approaches, and what rami cations the study tour has for students’ learning. The paper presents the study tour as a case study with a description, and analysis, of the study tour. Case Study Methodology Barley (1990, p. 220) notes, “whether doing longitudinal, cross-sectional, observational, archival or experimental, all research stems from and remains caught in a

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

K. Hutchings et al.

tangled web of practical, personal and theoretical agenda”. Without negating this limitation in undertaking qualitative research over the more scienti cally justi able quantitative research, there is still much to be gained from utilising a case study approach to research. Indeed, this paper in its description and responses to a study tour offers what Van Maanen (1979) calls a “confessional tale”. Moreover, this approach to doing research blends what Barley (1990, p. 220) unashamedly refers to as the “precarious balance between controlled and uncontrolled, the designed and the unexpected”. To this end, this study is not so much concerned with how many experienced what, but rather the feelings and attitudes and responses behind those experiences, and what this tells us about the development of cross-cultural understanding, and international intercultural competence. Selection and Pro le of Participants The study tour described herein was offered through a Faculty of Business and was available to both undergraduate and postgraduate students. The students were selected on the basis of academic merit (GPA—grade point average) and an essay outlining what s/he would gain from the study tour. The selection of the academic organisers was on the basis of academic standing, knowledge of the culture, and the ability to sensitively manage cross-cultural awareness. Two of the academics had conducted previous tours to China and the third had conducted research projects in China. One of the academics is employed full-time by the university; the other two, part-time. All three have taught cross-cultural studies. Fifty students were selected to participate in the study tour. The students were required to have completed one semester of study prior to enrolment, but there was no stipulation to complete language study prior to enrolment. The majority of the applicants were enrolled in the International Business major. Table 1 details further demographic data of the student cohort. Analysis Although, as Barley (1990, p. 234) argues, “participant observation and other forms of qualitative research pose a variety of challenges foreign to most quantitative studies”, participant observation is not without the ability to be organised, categorised and analysed. Participant observation was used throughout the tour as well as in the post-tour period. Analysis is made from academic observations, students’ responses during feedback and de-brief sessions and from data collected from learning journals, as well as in theoretical proposition with arguments developed in relevant literature. Overview of the Study Tour Program Porth (1997) suggests that the ideal study tour incorporates three elements: a pre-tour preparation program; the actual tour itself; and a post-tour debrie ng session. This study tour incorporated all three elements with the pre-tour sessions

Theory and Practice in Cross-cultural Understanding

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

TABLE 1. Demographic pro le of students Gender

65% female 35% male

Age group

30% mature aged 70% under 25 years of age

Language

80% English as a rst language 20% NESB

Previous travel

40% never travelled overseas previously 40% travelled overseas previously 20% lived in another country

Ethnicity

35 Australian 10 South East Asian 3 Indian 1 USA 1 European

Major

60% International Business 20% Double degree Law and Business 20% Management/HRM

providing orientation and research preparation (as suggested by Jones et al., 1992) as well as logistical information and an overview of cross-cultural preparation and diversity management. It incorporated 11 lectures, 15 site and factory visits, 8 presentations, 8 cultural activities, 2 Mandarin classes, and 2 research sessions, in addition to formal dinners with feedback sessions and scheduled free time. The debrie ng session involved formal and informal evaluations of the study tour as well as opportunities for critiquing the unit. Pre-departure Preparation Assisting in the Achievement of International Intercultural Competence An aim of this tour was to lay the foundations for the students to develop intercultural competence. Gudykunst & Kim (1984) discuss a three stage approach to learning intercultural competence beginning with: (a) the psychological framework of an intercultural perspective; followed by, (b) interaction with members of another culture; and nally, (c) context-speci c training with another country. This approach was followed for the study tour in the form of: (a) cross-cultural knowledge provided during pre-departure seminars; (b) interaction with students of a Chinese background during seminars and pre-departure get-togethers; and (c) the study tour itself. Carrel (1997) identi ed four approaches to the examination of intercultural communication competence, three of which are culture-general and one culture-speci c. These are: (1) the individual trait approach documenting characteristics of successful and unsuccessful intercultural communications (Dodd, 1994; Hammer, 1989); (2) the perceptual approach in which attitudes and motivations are studies (Martin & Hammer, 1989); (3) the behavioural approach in which

K. Hutchings et al.

speci c skills are assessed (Dodd, 1994); and (4) culture-speci c—the speci c communication rules for interaction with culture X (Gudyunst & Kim, 1984; Triandis, 1973). Of these, three of the approaches, 1, 2 and 4, were addressed in brie ngs.

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

Brie ngs There were ve brie ng sessions held for this tour, ranging in duration from 3 to 5 hours. This process provided the students with necessary pre-departure information, enabled the academics to formalise the procedures for assessment and monitoring of the academic component of the study tour, and provided a forum in which students would be familiarised with culture shock and approaches to developing cross-cultural understanding. The rst brie ng included sessions on collaborative communication, a general overview of the study tour in respect to academic and cultural, and a brief logistics orientation on issues such as accommodation, health, climate, security and money. The second brie ng focused on pre-departure awareness. Table 2 provides a selection of issues and recommendations that were covered in this brie ng. The third brie ng covered an overview of China’s history, economy, political system and its relationship with Australia, as well as information on doing business in China and negotiation. Students worked in small groups to discuss a range of topics posed as discussion questions by the unit coordinator. These discussion questions were developed in response to the readings dossier that was provided to students at the rst seminar. The fourth brie ng addressed issues pertaining to travelling abroad. In regard to dealing with managing culture shock and moving towards cross-cultural understanding, students were introduced to the symptoms of culture shock and phases of adaptation (see Marx, 1999). Students’ were introduced to Beamer’s (1992) ve levels of learning intercultural communications: (a) acknowledging diversity; (b) organising information according to stereotypes; (c) posing questions to challenge stereotypes; (d) analysing communication episodes; and, (e) generating “other culture” messages. The rst three were addressed during brie ngs and the fourth during the tour itself. The fth is acknowledged as being beyond the developmental processes of a study tour and would probably require a lengthy stay within a speci c culture. In acknowledging diversity, students were introduced to basic concepts of bias, stereotypes and ethnicity (Beamer, 1992) and asked to consider their worst-case scenarios of differing cultures. In considering stereotypes, students were asked to describe their assumptions about China, be they positive or negative. Students were advised that having stereotypes is useful in developing understanding of the unfamiliar (Beamer, 1992) but to achieve cultural competence and understanding, it is essential to move beyond basic stereotyping. The students were encouraged to consider a differing culture according to the three dimensions of cross-cultural management, namely orientation, task approach and communication style (see Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998).

Theory and Practice in Cross-cultural Understanding

TABLE 2. Pre-departure issues and recommendations Issues

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

Cultural differences

Temperature Local food

Pre-departure recommendations

Local rituals

Dress for the cold Try a little of everything to be polite and shop for your own requirements Be aware and try not to judge

Cultural shock

Overwhelmed? Immersing in the culture Crowds

Be a team player Building local links Build personal space

Logistical issues

Train ticketing system Having ready cash

When to buy, where to buy, and waiting times Exchange enough money and then keep it safe Have a “Take me Home” card Identify and look out for your buddy Have a phone card. Use E-mail

Moving as a group Contacting home Getting around

Language differences Lost in a foreign destination

Invest in a Chinese/English language book Have a take home card or phone card

Infrastructure

No No No No

Don’t take the destination for granted Familiarise with your environment Be proactive Have contingency plans

Shopping

Negotiating Western versus Eastern Rituals

Expect it! Negotiating; looking and then buy

Health

International destination Major sickness Contaminated water Minor sickness Pollution/cold

Immunisations Have travel insurance Carry a water bottle Carry a medical kit Limit amount of time exposed

power toilets hot water telephone access

Assessment The unit required students to complete a research report, to be presented as an initial literature review due prior to departure and a nal essay due two weeks after return from the study tour. The students were expected to use their ndings from the literature review as a basis for asking questions during site visits and lectures. The assessment provided the opportunity for students to complete independent self-directed study and they were encouraged to research their own area of interest. Students were also required to complete a (non-assessed) learning journal in which students recorded their thoughts and experiences pre-, during, and post-tour. The

K. Hutchings et al.

journal was to be used to assist in the preparation of their essay and also for de-brie ng.

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

The Study Tour The study tour was of 17 days duration. Four days were spent in Shanghai, the business capital of China and the home of major trade associations and commissions. The remainder of the time was spent at a host university in Suzhou, two hours from Shanghai. Staying at this university gave the students experience of living in rural China, access to two major industrial zones and an opportunity to mix with local Chinese students. In addition to the pre-departure lectures, the study tour included eleven formal lectures provided by the unit coordinator and senior academics from the host university. These were delivered in English and in most cases were supported by printed handouts. Each session consisted of a lecture followed by questions and discussion. Following morning lectures, the afternoons were spent on site visits to international and local businesses in the region. Representatives of Australian trade agencies in the region also provided brie ngs. In addition to the academic activities of the tour, there were also social activities. The formal social events included: a welcoming banquet and a farewell ceremony (and presentation of certi cates); an acrobatic performance; and a networking function at the Australian Consulate. Furthermore, in their free time, students were encouraged to make their own contacts with representatives of local industries. For instance, one student, who studies law, made connections with an international law rm. Another, who studies and works in banking, was able to connect with the local branch for some work experience. During the study tour, students were provided with opportunities to develop skills in the fourth stage of the intercultural learning model developed by Beamer (1992), namely, analysing communication episodes. Hammer et al. (1996) in their study of Japanese culture developed four situational stereotypes for interpreting effectiveness in intercultural communication: (1) competitive/task; (2) personal/social; (3) acquaintance/social; and (4) impersonal/task. Utilising this classi cation of errors in cross-cultural communication we can identify errors made by students during the study tour. In respect to competitive/task, we saw student errors when asking questions on site visits. These included mistakes they made in respect to Chinese culture in not waiting for the senior person to speak rst and interrupting business people mid-response. In regard to personal/social, we saw student errors when interacting with local Chinese students. These included mistakes in asking the Chinese students to show them their dormitories or asking to take a taxi rather than walking — factors which embarrass the Chinese students as a result of their markedly differing living standards from the Australian students. In reference to acquaintance/social, we saw student errors in shopping. These included mistakes in insulting shopkeepers by not bargaining or worse, telling them that their products were poor quality. Finally, in regards to impersonal/task, we saw student errors in gift giving. These mistakes

Theory and Practice in Cross-cultural Understanding

included forgetting to bring a gift or embarrassing the host by providing a too expensive gift.

Post-tour De-brie ng

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

The fth brie ng session was a debrief two weeks after the study tour. During this students were asked about their likes and dislikes from the cross-cultural experience and their impressions of China. Small and large group activities were used to obtain this information.

Differing Experiences of Social Groups There was no formal attrition from the study tour, although one student who was own home early due to illness. That is not to suggest that the experience was entirely positive for all students, but that dif culties experienced were managed by the academics. Where students were experiencing dif culties adapting to the culture, they were provided with pastoral care and referred back to some of the pre-tour literature on dealing with culture shock. The primary problems students referred to involved practicalities in terms of different food, different hygiene and facilities, and climate (sub-zero temperatures). In respect to the actual process of doing business, negotiation and communication, and organisational structures and societal hierarchies, very few dif culties were encountered. No signi cant gender differences in respect to culture shock or adaptability were noted amongst the students with the exception that females made more frequent note of the differing hygiene standards. There were minor differences in the coping abilities of students who had travelled abroad previously and those who had not, but this was largely in respect to con dence in moving away from the group to seek out people to interview in relation to individual research projects. In addition, the pre-tour brie ngs promoted group cohesion. As a result, those who had travelled were willing and able to assist the less experienced. These differences also largely correlated with age of the students, with the older students generally having had more travel experience and exposure to other cultures abroad and work experience. There were, however, some notable differences between the experiences of undergraduate students and postgraduate students. These differences related primarily to differing expectations rather than actual ability to cope with difference. The undergraduate students viewed the tour as being largely about an opportunity to experience another culture and learn something about its business practices. The postgraduate students (many of whom had already been in the workforce or were employed full-time) had a more pragmatic agenda in undertaking the tour. Several of them suggested that they would have preferred more opportunities for networking with senior business leaders rather than just being provided with a presentation at a factory site—many viewed the tour as being an opportunity to seek work. However, in respect to coping strategies, no signi cant difference was noted between the undergraduate and postgraduate students.

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

K. Hutchings et al.

The most notable differences in coping with a differing culture were between the students of Chinese ethnicity and the non-Chinese students. The primary advantage held by the students of Chinese ethnicity (including Singaporeans, Malaysians and Taiwanese) was their ability to speak Mandarin. That the students who spoke Mandarin coped well with everyday issues is in agreement with the literature on expatriates that suggests language and non-verbal communication skills are major assets in adapting to another culture (Shaffer, Harrison & Gilley, 1999). Interestingly, while the students of Chinese ethnicity had a language advantage over the non-Chinese speaking students, they also noted that there was some indirect discrimination against them as being other than Peoples Republic of China (PRC) Chinese. That is, local Chinese were aware that the other Chinese were not from the PRC and hence treated them, in effect, as non-Chinese. The Chinesespeaking students in the group noted that the local Chinese were more willing to accept the non-Chinese students. This actually parallels the treatment of third country nationals noted in the literature on expatriation (Brooke, 1988). Overall, the students coped very well with exposure to different customs, values and experiences. This suggests that they developed what Hannerz (1996) refers to as a cosmopolitan identity, including a willingness to interact with the “other”. This suggests that for this cohort of students there has been some movement towards being part of a culture rather than accidental tourists (Tyler, 1985). Three reasons for this may be suggested. First, the students all had experience in mixing with a wide range of individuals from varying cultures within their university study environment and to this end can be seen to have “involvement with a plurality of contrasting cultures on their own terms” Hannerz (1996, p. 103). Second, the students had received some training in, and knowledge of, basic principles in cross-cultural understanding and measures for dealing with culture shock. Third, the unit undertaken was an elective freely chosen by students who already had a positive orientation towards experiencing another culture and/or some previous studies of Asian business and culture. This augers well for viewing these students as being part of the movement towards Hannerz’ (1996, p. 111) one world culture in which world culture is viewed as being more than a sum of its separate parts. Potentially, the students also contribute to a world in which stereotypes of nationalities can be broken down in favour of a recognition of the role that individuals play (Chao, 2000) and that rather than having third world/ rst world binaries and cores and peripheries, we can become more aware of relationships and interactions as being affected by the intercultural relations of individuals.

Discussion A speci c survey of the students’ intercultural effectiveness was not undertaken. However, it is possible to make some comments about the students’ responses to culture shock and their cultural adaptability from data collected. In the responses noted below students are referred to according to whether they are male or female

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

Theory and Practice in Cross-cultural Understanding

(M or F), undergraduate or postgraduate (U or P), below 25 or over 25 ( , 25 or . 25) and Chinese-speaking or non-Chinese speaking (C or N). In feedback sessions conducted during the tour and the fth brie ng, students were asked to talk about their encounter with China from the perspective of any culture shock they experienced, whether they believe that they moved beyond this to develop some cross-cultural understanding, and differences they noted between Chinese and Australian business. The students were also encouraged to make comments along these lines in their learning journals. As an ice-breaker for the fth brie ng, the students were requested to use one word to describe their experience of China. The single word exercise provided a range of responses that encompassed feelings of culture shock as well as movement towards adaptation and understanding. Culture Shock In respect to culture shock experienced by the students, a number of issues were identi ed. First, most students did experience some initial culture shock in the form of sickness, loneliness, a bad experience of some local Chinese habits (e.g. hygiene), and feelings of sadness, depression, fear and anger. Students’ responses to this included, “my rst impressions of China were the dirt, crowding, pollution—this was pretty dif cult to cope with” (FU , 25N) and “I really do not like the food. I miss some of the comforts of home” (MP , 25N). In contrast, some students were very eager to try every new experience and some paid the penalty of poor eating and drinking habits that necessitated a trip to the local pharmacy or a day in bed. Second, students’ initial feelings of isolation and homesickness were exacerbated by the telephone system not being a reliable means of communication. As one student noted “although I can speak the language and feel a little more relaxed in that sense, I still feel the need to make contact with my family at home” (FP , 25C). These initial experiences of culture shock were managed partially through forming teams and the introducing of students to local Chinese students who could help build the cross-cultural links required. Informal meetings and gatherings soon emerged. Contact with family and friends was managed through visits to the local Internet cafes. Comradeship with local students and between groups of Chinesespeaking and non-Chinese speaking groups quickly formed and students were taking opportunities to immerse in the culture by hiring bikes, taking walks in gardens and dealing with the local Chinese for social reasons and for business opportunities. Moving Towards Cross-cultural Adaptability and Understanding Despite some initial hesitation and fear of a new environment, the con dence of the students grew signi cantly from the rst feedback session held three days into the tour until the third session held the night before departure. One student noted “despite my initial trepidation and I guess some inability to adapt straight away, I found that the tour raised my awareness of the activities of international business in an international environment … I got to observe rst hand the operations, experi-

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

K. Hutchings et al.

ence the culture … meet with individuals involved in applying theories of international business” (MU , 25N). Another student (FU , 25N) suggested that “as participants in the study tour, we became aware of the opportunities and challenges of a career in international business. We met peers who have made the commitment to a foreign posting and were able to discuss the positives and negatives of the expatriate posting”. Moreover, as one student noted, the exposure to an “alien cultural environment quickly reinforces the need to develop the necessary skills to be effective in that environment” (FP . 25C). Further, another remarked, “this really could be a career enhancing opportunity. An opportunity to network … to introduce yourself or just evaluate opportunities in the eld” (FP . 25N). A student also noted “I thought maybe I would have no problems adjusting because I spoke Chinese. Of course, this was an advantage but I still think I experienced some culture shock as China is not as developed as Taiwan. However, I do think I adjusted fairly quickly … I could also see real advantages of a tour like this. You would not want to be sent to China for your job if you had never been there, but just by visiting you had some experience … this would probably make you a more suitable person for an overseas posting” (FP . 25C). Another Chinesespeaking student said, “yes, there were similarities with my own culture (especially the language!) But in some ways it was different. I felt I grew personally … .and the visit did make things sink in … it encouraged me to want to learn more about China and perhaps work there one day” (FU , 25C). Differences between Chinese and Australian Business Culture Some of the differences students noted between Chinese and Australian business culture and negotiation strategies included issues mentioned in brie ngs such as the importance of family relationships, the importance of guanxi (connections), a very hierarchical organisational structure, a formalised business environment, authoritarian leadership style, and the value of the word over legal documentation. However, students also commented on issues of which they believed they were not previously aware of or which were consolidated in their minds from their own experiences or exposure to company representatives’ presentations/brie ngs. These included: realisation of the need to be exible; that negotiations are often a very lengthy process; the importance of establishing a relationship; the value of mianzi (face); and the need to reach common ground and avoid confrontation. Contributions to Global Consciousness A study tour may make some contribution to understanding of global consciousness (characterised as moving towards a recognition and appreciation of increasingly global diversity and interdependence). The tour did give students an opportunity to learn something about their own experiences of culture shock and cross-cultural understanding. While it is not suggested that a three week experience of living in China is any kind of panacea for intercultural competence (and by no means a

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

Theory and Practice in Cross-cultural Understanding

substitute for a strategic, comprehensive cross-cultural training program), it did provide students with strategies to move from shock to cross-cultural adaptability. Further, the students had the opportunity to build their learning about cross-cultural communication and to appreciate what is required to become more like the cosmopolitans to which Hannerz (1996) refers. An important consideration in providing students with some skills in achieving cross-cultural understanding is the recognition that, as future business professionals and leaders, they will live in a society increasingly characterised by international labour mobility and multiculturalism. The international manager or employee will be an individual who will spend their working lives in several distinct job areas working for several organisations as well as making several sojourns to various international postings. This means that the new style employee will need to be cosmopolitan, multilingual, multifaceted and what Schneider & Barsoux (1997, p. 157) refer to as a capacity to operate “across national borders somewhat like James Bond”. However, not only do students need to be trained and prepared for this mobility, but even those who do not move to another nation face the recognition that the domestic work environment also requires some responsiveness to differing cultures (Tayeb, 1996, p. 76). Since the 1980s governments in most advanced industrial societies have implemented legislation on anti-discrimination and af rmative action and diversity management programs that mandate all organisations to give equal treatment to people of various ethnicities (and gender and abilities) in their recruitment and selection, training and development and compensation procedures. The provision of knowledge and skills in cross-cultural understanding does, make some effort towards developing graduates who are receptive to diversity, capable of transforming their perspectives, and hence, interculturally competent. For Robertson (1992, p. 5) the boundaries between societies have become more porous because they are more subject to interference and constraint from outside. He suggests, however, that this should not lead people to believe in the demise of the nationally constituted society but rather that we need to develop images of the global whole whilst allowing for individual positioning and constructions of the individual (Robertson, 1992, p. 5). A study tour that allows students to focus on the individual and move away from constructed prejudices and stereotypes at national levels, makes some contribution to understanding the signi cance of culture in a globalised world and to transcend a limited internationalised focus to an understanding of globalisation with its cultural focus. Address for correspondence: Dr Kate Hutchings, School of Management, Queensland University of Technology, GPO Box 2434, Brisbane, Queensland 4001, Australia. E-mail: k.hutchings@qut.edu.au References Barley, S.R. (1990). Images of imaging: notes on doing longitudinal eldwork. Organization Science, 1(3), 220–245.

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

K. Hutchings et al.

Beattie, K., & James, R. (1997). Flexible coursework delivery to Australian postgraduates: How effective is the teaching and learning? Higher Education, 33, 177 2 194. Beamer, L. (1992). Learning intercultural communication competence. The Journal of Business Communication, 29(3), 285–303. Black, J.S., & Mendenhall, M.E. (1990). Cross-cultural training effectiveness: A review and a theoretical framework for future research. Academy of Management Review, 15(1), 113–136. Brooke, M.Z. (1988). International management: A review of strategies and operations. London: Hutchinson. Carrel, L. J. (1997). Diversity in the communication curriculum: Impact on student empathy. Communication Education, 46, 234–244. Chao, G.T. (2000). Multilevel issues and culture: An integrative view. In K. J. Klein & S.W. Kozlowski (Eds.) Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Commonwealth Government of Australia (1995). Enterprising nation: Renewing Australia’s managers to meet the challenges of the Asia-Paci c century; Report of the Industry Task Force on Leadership and Management Skills. Vols 1 & 2 (Karpin Report). Canberra: AGPS. Davidson, P., & Kinzel, E. (1995). Supporting the expatriate: A survey of Australian management practice. Asia Paci c Journal of Human Resources, 33 (3), 105–116. Dicken, P. (1992). Global shift: The internationalization of economic activity. 2nd edn. London: Paul Chapman. Dodd, C. (1994). Dynamics of intercultural communication. 4th edn. Madison: Brown and Benchmark. Dufour, B. (1994). Dealing with diversity: Management education in Europe. Selections, (Winter) 7–15. Fish, A., & Wood, J. (1997). Realigning international careers-a more strategic focus. Career Development International, 2(2), 99–110. Furnham, A., & Bochner, S. (1986). Culture shock: Psychological reactions to unfamiliar environment. London: Methuen. Garonzik, R., Brockner, J., & Siegel, P.A. (2000). Identifying international assignees at risk for premature departure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(1), 13–20. Gniewosz, G. (2000). Australian management education for international business activity. Journal of Management Development, 19(4), 318–331. Gudyklunst, W.B., & Kim, Y.Y. (1984). Communicating with strangers. New York: Random House. Hammer, M.R. (1989). Intercultural communication competence. In M. K. Assante & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.) The handbook of intercultural and development communication. (pp. 247– 260). Newbury Park: Sage. Hammer, M.R., Nishida, H., & Wiseman, R.L. (1996). The in uence of situational prototypes on dimensions of intercultural communication competence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27(3), 267–284. Hannerz, U. (1996). Transnational connections: Culture, people, places. London: Routledge. Hirst, P., & Thompson, G. (1996). Globalisation in question. London: Polity. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences. Newbury Park: Sage. Institute for Research into International Competitiveness (IRIC) (1995). Customer’s views of Australian management: Asian-Paci c viewpoints. Perth: Curtin University. International Association of Universities (1998). IAU Newsletter, 4 (1). http://:www.unesco.org/ iau/iaunew41.html Date accessed 09 April 2001. Jones, W.A., Burden, C.A., Layne, B.H., & Stein, K.W. (1992). An innovative foreign study tour program: International business studies in the USA. Review of Business, (Spring), 22–25. Kwok, C.C.Y., Arpan, J., & Folks, W.R. (1994). A global survey of international business education in the 1990s. Journal of International Business Studies, 25, 605–623. Lane, H.W., & DiStephano, J.J. (1992). International management behaviour: From policy to practice. 2nd edn. Boston: PWS-Kent Publishing Company.

Downloaded by [University of Western Sydney Ward] at 21:48 15 January 2013

Theory and Practice in Cross-cultural Understanding

Martin, N., & Hammer, M.R. (1989). Behavioral categories of intercultural communication competence: everyday communicators’ perceptions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13, 303–332. Marx, E. (1999). Breaking through culture shock. London: Nicolas Brealey. Oberg, K. (1960). Culture shock: adjustment to new cultural environments. Practical Anthropologist, 7, 177–182. Porth, S.J. (1997). Management education goes international: A model for designing and teaching a study tour course. Journal of Management Education, 21(2), 190–199. Robertson, R. (1992). Globalization: Social theory and global culture. London: Sage. Sargent, J., & Matthews L. (1998). Expatriate reduction and Mariachi Circles. International Studies of Management and Organisations, 28(2), 74–96. Schneider, S.C., & Barsoux, J-L. (1997). Managing across cultures. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall. Shaffer, M.A., & Harrison, D.A. (1998). Expatriates’ psychological withdrawal from international assignments: Work, non-work and family in uences. Personnel Psychology, 51, 87–118. Shaffer, M., Harrison, D., & Gilley, K.M. (1999). Dimensions, determinants, and differences in the expatriate adjustment process. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(3), 557–581. Spybey, T. (1996). Globalisation and world society. London: Polity. Tayeb, M.H. (1996). The management of a multicultural workforce. Chicester: John Wiley. Thomas, D., & Toyne, B. (1995). Subordinates’ responses to cultural adaptation by Japanese expatriate managers. Journal of Business Research, 32(1), 1–11. Triandis, H.C. (1973). Culture training, cognitive complexity, and interpersonal attitudes. In D. Hoppes (Ed.), Readings in intercultural communication (pp. 55–67). Pittsburgh: Regional Council for International Education. Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1998). Riding the waves of culture. London: Nicolas Brealey. Toohey, S. (1999). Designing courses for higher education. London: Open University Press. Tucker, S. (1997). The international management Fellows Program at UCLA. Selections, 13(3), 24–28. Tyler, A. (1985). The accidental tourist. New York: Knopf. Van Maanen, J. (1979). The fact or ction in organization ethnography. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 539–550. Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1996). Crossing cultures: the relationship between psychological and sociocultural dimensions of cross cultural adjustment. In J. Pandey, D. Singha & D.P.S. Bhawick (Eds.), Asian contributions to cross-cultural psychology. New Delhi: Sage.