Study abroad learning activities a synthesis and comparison

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Study Abroad Learning Activities: A Synthesis and Comparison Charles R. Duke Journal of Marketing Education 2000 22: 155 DOI: 10.1177/0273475300222010 The online version of this article can be found at: http://jmd.sagepub.com/content/22/2/155

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AUGUST 2000 JOURNAL OF MARKETING EDUCATION

Study Abroad Learning Activities: A Synthesis and Comparison Charles R. Duke

Learning activities are described for study abroad tours with appropriateness discussed in terms of study tour characteristics of location, integration with academic credit, and time spent on the tour. Journal writing is the most versatile activity.

Company visits are the most impressive to students. Simulations engage students but require computer technology. Projects require sufficient research resources. Lecture/testing and treasure hunts require more time on tour.

Continuing interest in globalization of marketing curricula, especially for national accreditation, stems from the need for increased U.S. competitiveness in the global economy, the increased importance of foreign trade, the continuing need to integrate ethnic diversity into marketing education, and the need to meet changing demands of a dynamic environment (Cui 1996; Johnson and Mader 1992; Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995). Many creative education approaches have been developed ranging from seminars to courses and fully developed programs.

For learning to occur, students may need to experience other cultures and practice some of their marketing through activities (Schuster et al. 1998). Study abroad programs are accessible and allow students to experience different places and cultures. Many are available from universities within the United States and foreign universities providing a service to American students (Institute for International Education 1997). The challenging role of the professor in these study abroad tours varies greatly but may include classroom instructor, tour director, mentor, parent, and facilities manager (Johnson and Mader 1992; Schuster 1993). This review does not address the critical nonacademic roles of the professor but concentrates on some of the specific learning activities that can be used in the academic work of a study abroad tour.

For a professor participating in study abroad teaching, developing courses to meet academic standards while satisfying the students’ needs for free time and touring may seem to be a difficult task (Brokaw 1996; Gordon and Smith 1992; Johnson and Mader 1992). Several techniques for integrating the student’s experiences under varied conditions have been described in the literature (Brokaw 1996; Gordon and Smith

1992; Johnson and Mader 1992; Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995; Schuster et al. 1998). This review of alternative study abroad settings describes various activities from the marketing education literature and considers the appropriateness of these activities in different study tour settings.

ELEMENTS FOR ALTERNATIVE STUDY-ABROAD SETTINGS The application of the tools and techniques might vary with the methods of operating a study tour. Because study abroad programs vary widely, it is difficult to say which study abroad setting is most popular or which level of course is most often presented. The issues discussed here are drawn from a synthesis of the descriptions already available in the literature and from suggestions taken from the experiences of those who have participated in study tours.

Location

Multilocation tours move from one location, city, or country to another during the academic session and attract students who are interested in seeing several different cultural areas.

Some courses focus on cultural issues as a part of the course work (Schuster et al. 1998), and others simply focus on the content of the course with students gaining cultural experiences through their sightseeing and living in new cultural atmospheres (Gordon and Smith 1992). Because movement from one location to another makes this type of session fast paced, professors are faced with the conflicting needs of completing course requirements versus satisfying students’ desire for more free time to tour a location (Gordon and Smith 1992; Schuster 1993). This conflict can be eased by the clear communication of requirements and timing, as well as briefings, before the tour begins. The number of locations for a tour must be chosen with care to enhance the academic experience. Each additional stop on a multilocation tour interferes

Charles R. Duke is a professor in the Department of Marketing at Clemson University.

Journal of Marketing Education, Vol. 22 No. 2, August 2000 155-165 © 2000 Sage Publications, Inc.

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with the time available for course content because more time is needed for travel, recovery from travel, start up of classes, and packing for the next location.

Single-location tours take place in a single city for the entire length of the study abroad session. Students have the opportunity to become familiar with a single location, permitting a more in-depth cultural experience (Brokaw 1996).

Compared with a multilocation tour, staying in a single location reduces the time it takes to pack and unpack, travel to different locations, learn the location of critical services (restaurants, banks, laundry, entertainment, etc.), and become accustomed to a different culture and language. The immersion philosophy of a single location gives students time to feel comfortable in another culture and attempts to increase their confidence about being successful in global business (Brokaw 1996).

Another type of single location tour combines a home base with structured travel to other locations (Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995). In a stable and familiar base, students feel immersed and comfortable. In addition, a stable and familiar base provides the structure for experiencing multiple cultures during targeted trips to specific business or cultural destinations. This structure requires more planning and coordination to ensure that the structured side trips operate smoothly.

Depending on the costs that are incurred and the transportation available, trips may be limited to those that can be completed in 1 day so that the students can return to their home base each evening (Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995). Structured travel relieves the stress of choosing and arranging for individual travel but limits the choices of where each individual can go and how each can stay.

Tour Integration with Academic Credit

The integration of academic credit into the tour is dependent on each university’s goals, objectives, and attitude toward the tour as an appropriate source of academic credit. Some programs use the international setting to teach conventional courses for full credit toward degrees. This approach permits professors to gain international experience teaching familiar courses without the pressure of developing new preparations.

Students are also more familiar with the courses and know generally what to expect from the academic experience.

Some programs offer short tours during a conventional domestic course using normal academic session time before or after the tour to prepare or debrief students on the tour experience. This type of tour can be tied directly to very specific course objectives for a highly directed learning experience. Teaching a typical domestic course, either partially or completely, in an international setting tends to enhance the integration of the course material into what seems to be better retention (Johnson and Mader 1992).

Some programs offer study tours more as a service experience in which there is no course grade or credit given. The use of the international trip as a structured tour, even though it is

ungraded and not focused on a specific curriculum requirement, may permit more relaxed integration of academic issues (Gordon and Smith 1992; Schuster 1993). This integration may be enhanced if the tour is preceded with a graded course to introduce the concepts and culture being explored (Brokaw 1996). This reduces the intensity of workload on the professor, since course content and grading are not a required element of the experience.

Other programs may offer the study tour as a dedicated and required element of a degree program, especially for an executive MBA. Academic requirements may include conventional course material but also emphasize interaction with international business people through visits or interviews (Schuster et al. 1998). This targeted approach focuses the student on the international business experience and enhances students’ cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral learning.

Because this type of trip requires significant coordination with international businesses and students’ time (i.e., executive MBAs), significant resources are required for planning and executing the trip and for pre- and posttrip sessions (Schuster et al. 1998).

Some study tours provide the opportunity for integration across disciplines. For example, an integrative capstone-styled course may be offered, either as a required course or as an elective, with students and professors from multiple disciplines participating (Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995). Having a more complex interaction of multiple disciplines requires careful specification of prerequisites and may be limited to graduates only (Schuster 1993). This integrative program may also mix graduates with undergraduates using relatively high teacher-student ratios to enrich the learning experience (Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995).

These are likely to be graded for credit and are useful in degree programs, although not as core courses.

Time Spent on the Tour

Programs of 2 weeks or shorter have been described in the literature (Brokaw 1996; Gordon and Smith 1992; Schuster 1993), as well as programs of 3 weeks (Johnson and Mader 1992). Some of the more complex programs that have been reported are 4 weeks long (Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995).

Other program lengths exist in practice but have not been described in the marketing literature.

A shorter time period for the tour is less expensive and increases the potential number of students who can participate. In addition, shorter tours offer the opportunity for more participation by nontraditional students who work full-time but may be able to leave their jobs for a shorter tour (Brokaw 1996; Gordon and Smith 1992; Schuster 1993). Shorter tours limit the time available for academic integration of ideas, but this integration may be covered in pre- or posttour sessions. In addition, shorter tours may limit the number of locations visited and reduce the ability of the student to become comfort-

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able with international situations (Brokaw 1996; Johnson and Mader 1992).

Longer time periods offer more flexibility for multiple locations and the opportunity for immersion into foreign cultures on the part of the student (Johnson and Mader 1992; Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995). Academic issues can be more easily integrated, and schedule timing becomes less critical if more time is available. The drawback of having more time is that the cost of the tour increases; hence, fewer students are able to participate. In addition, longer programs are less likely to be suitable to nontraditional students who are unable to leave their jobs for longer periods of time.

APPROPRIATENESS OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES Issues in Learning

Learning can be facilitated by making abstract concepts more concrete and relevant. This is done by providing a deeper understanding of marketing and developing higher levels of cognitive skills (Butler and Laumer 1992). Certain types of activities have been suggested as effective in developing higher order cognitive skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation by requiring the student to take a more active role in the learning process (Krishnan and Porter 1998; Stuart and Tax 1994). Learning activities may be associated with levels of learning ranging from the lower skills of knowledge, comprehension, and application to the higher skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Stuart and Tax 1994). Experiential methods tend to facilitate learning by increasing the level of cognitive activity required by the student (Stuart and Tax 1994). Student involvement and experiential learning are critical components of successful instruction because of the applied nature of the marketing discipline (Kamath and MacNab 1998). Experiential activities also offer the potential for more cheating in some ways and require some preparation to be successful from the student’s point of view (Schibrowsky and Peltier 1995). Study abroad sessions provide the opportunity to fully implement experiential techniques to observe, discuss, question, and practice some of the principles of international business (Schuster et al. 1998).

Multiple constructs have been used to express the apparent need to engage students in the learning process to progress through these learning levels more efficiently and rapidly.

Various experiential learning methods have been suggested and integrated into marketing programs (Kamath and MacNab 1998). These experiential methods have been defined as learning by observing and then doing, integrating abstract concepts with experiences of personal knowledge, and engaging directly in an activity (Schuster et al. 1998).

Some of these methods are commonly used in conventional courses, with activities such as class discussion, group projects, journals, cases, and scavenger hunts (Krishnan and Porter 1998).

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Often, experiential learning methods use the concepts of collaborative learning activities that typically involve students working in groups to solve problems or understand meanings. This enables students to observe and use skills that others possess and to learn from the successes and mistakes of other students (Krishnan and Porter 1998). Collaborative activities include problem-solving exercises, informal small groups, simulations, case studies, role playing, and other activities that require students to interact with each other to apply what they are learning (Myers and Jones 1993).

The construct of active learning tends to go beyond these activities and suggests that students take more control over their learning process. Students become actively involved in their learning experiences and are exposed to adult learning experiences with collegial work that explores new concepts (Drafke, Schoenbachler, and Gordon 1996; Wright, Bitner, and Zeithaml 1994). This concept is suited for a study abroad setting in which students are continually exploring their new environment and discovering new marketing concepts and applications.

Because students vary widely in their learning styles, a diversified set of instructional approaches within a course should increase the overall level of learning within the class (Krishnan and Porter 1998). A wide range of teaching pedagogy and techniques may be used in study abroad settings.

The techniques discussed here are limited to conventional lecture and tests, company visits, journal writing, treasure hunts, projects, and simulation, which have been previously discussed in marketing education literature. Other creative and imaginative approaches to study tour education can be evaluated and shared with colleagues. A summary of the main issues comparing each learning activity with the elements of study abroad settings is provided in Table 1.

Lecture and Tests

Lectures are perhaps the most familiar technique for a professor leading a tour and for the students who are participating. Adjusting lectures to use the international setting for special examples is common and advisable. The advantages (familiarity, relieving some of the students’ uncertainty about course operation) are offset by the opportunity lost from not taking advantage of other, more interactive techniques (Johnson and Mader 1992). In addition, conventional classroom or meeting space for lecture and tests may not be available in some locations or may be too expensive for the tour to use.

Classic lectures and tests are a very passive learning approach (Wright, Bitner, and Zeithaml 1994) and probably are best limited to generating knowledge and comprehension (Krishnan and Porter 1998). Lecture in combination with company visits and guest speakers improves presentation and leads to more active learning (Gordon and Smith 1992).

Lectures are more suited to the stability of single locations, although multilocation tours can schedule meeting space (see Table 1). Longer tours offer more time to complete a lecture

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TABLE 1 APPROPRIATENESS OF ACTIVITIES Downloaded from jmd.sagepub.com at University of Western Sydney on January 15, 2013

Activity Criteria

Lecture and Test

Company Visits

Journals

Treasure Hunt

Projects

Simulation

Location

Better for single location; requires tables or meeting space

May be better with multilocation due to more variety

Useful in all locations

May be better with multilocation due to cross-cultural comparisons

May be better with single location due to stability and effort needed

May be better with single location if technology needs to be stable

Tour integration with academic credit

Better for conventional credit course

Good with all; better with less structured courses

Versatile for use with all levels of courses

Versatile for use with all levels of courses

Versatile for use with all levels of courses

Versatile for use with all levels of courses

Time spent on tour

Longer tours provide time to study and test

Longer tours provide more time; shorter tours may use these as the entire focus

Useful with all lengths of tours

May be better with longer tours due to time needed for specific search

Must match project size with resources and time available

Longer tours permit more iterations

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course while allowing the students time to enjoy their destinations. Lecture on tours is suited to more conventional credit courses. Lecture on tours aimed at higher interaction with the local businesses is less appropriate.

Examinations are always stressful, and in this situation study time will compete with the lure of other activities available in foreign locations. Managing the balance of student motivation for academic tests versus students’ desire to spend time touring is a delicate task, since students’ overall satisfaction with the experience is critical to the success of any program (Brokaw 1996; Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995). This balance can be enhanced with good communication, clear objectives, and some creativity in scheduling when conflicts arise (Brokaw 1996; Gordon and Smith 1992; Johnson and Mader 1992; Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995).

As with conventional domestic courses, tests may be varied in style. With single locations and longer tours, students have more opportunity to prepare for exams. Traveling between multiple locations reduces study time available and increases the diversions. Conventional test formats (multiple choice and closed-book exams) are less popular in study abroad tours apparently because other learning activities in the courses are so much more engaging. Students have suggested that, where possible, open exams (open book or open notes) with more integrative question styles are preferable in the study abroad setting.

Company Visits

International examples of integrated marketing can be relayed dramatically by seeing an organization firsthand (Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995). Companies may show actual operations or make a presentation with the students asking questions. Managers and workers relay their experiences, and students learn not only about company actions but also about what individuals do in their jobs. Visits may highlight both good and bad marketing practices. Perhaps one of the biggest challenges is to arrange meaningful visits well in advance, since some cultures value advance planning and others value more spur-of-the-moment scheduling. Additionally, having English interpreters scheduled may be necessary (Gordon and Smith 1992; Johnson and Mader 1992; Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995). Company visits provide forceful integration of academic issues introduced in the class. This increase in realism does not ensure an increase in learning above that of knowledge and comprehension unless the students are presented with a problem to solve for the company (which may rise to the level of applications or possibly analysis).

Company visits are possible for both single-location and multilocation formats (see Table 1). Multilocation tours provide more variety in terms of types of companies. Conventional courses may be enhanced by company visits, but the visits will decrease the time available to cover conventional content material. Specialized classes may concentrate on

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company visits as the focus of their experience. Longer tours offer the opportunity to visit more companies. Naturally, longer tours with conventional courses can make very good use of several company visits, since the flexibility to integrate other features into the course increases with time.

To provide structure to help undergraduates focus on marketing issues, a marketing audit format (see Table 2) can be provided as a guide for the students to prepare questions (Zikmund and D’Amico 1996). Each student might choose among the companies for individual analysis using a structured company visit form with specific topics chosen for that company. Company visits are well liked, help the students to understand marketing problems, make the course more interesting, and are recommended as a part of the tour whenever possible.

When arranging a company visit, it is advisable for the professor to provide the company with a discussion guide to ensure that the discussion focuses on the issues that are relevant to the course. By attempting to manage the presentation, the professor is more likely to have successful visits that maximize the course objectives. In addition, students might prepare before leaving the United States by doing research on the companies to develop appropriate questions.

Journal Writing

Journal writing has been suggested for many different applications in education. Observations, analysis, and insights are communicated through active involvement by finding examples, integrating concepts, increasing cultural awareness, and encouraging discussion of global marketing issues. Instructions can be more structured for nonbusiness majors and lower division students but less structured for more experienced business students. Students tend to resist keeping the journals at first and may need examples to help them understand the style of answers that are expected (Brokaw 1996; Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995). Journal writing reinforces concepts and allows the student to interpret, summarize, give examples, and suggest why certain concepts apply to specific situations. These tasks permit the student to progress through comprehension and application, perhaps even reaching the analysis level of learning.

Journals are perhaps the most versatile and popular activity among students (see Table 1). They are appropriate for both single-location and multilocation tours and tend to be appreciated in all types of formal or informal academic courses. Some view journal writing as more important on longer tours because students can see the changes in their own work. Others feel that journals on short tours are important because the time passes too quickly and students may forget some of their experiences without writing them down.

Students are given a structured list of marketing concepts and asked to describe what they observed along with their impressions and how the marketing activity compared with their U.S. frame of reference. Using the techniques and for-

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TABLE 2 TYPICAL MARKETING AUDIT TOPICS AND QUESTIONS Environment How are environmental trends monitored?

What population trends are expected to affect existing and planned strategy?

What social and psychological patterns are expected to affect buyer behavior patterns?

How are present and pending legal developments affecting your operation?

What are the effects of competitors on your operation?

Objectives Are the marketing objectives of your department consistent with overall company objectives?

Should these objectives be altered to fit changing environmental variables?

Are objectives consistent with one another?

How do objectives relate to marketing strengths and market opportunities?

Strategy What is the relationship between objectives and strategies?

Are resources sufficient to implement the strategies?

What are the company’s weaknesses?

How do you compare your strategies with those of competitors?

Product decisions How are new products developed within your business unit?

How are existing products evaluated?

How are products phased out of the line?

Pricing decisions How are pricing decisions made?

How do pricing decisions reflect the influences of competitors and the concerns of channel members?

Distribution decisions How are channel members selected, evaluated, and dropped if necessary?

How are channel members motivated?

How are decisions to modify channel structures reached?

Promotion decisions How are promotion mix decisions made?

How are salespeople selected, monitored, and evaluated?

How are payoffs associated with promotional efforts estimated?

Market information How is marketing research information transmitted to, and used within, the business unit?

Is a global information system in place?

Activities and tasks How are tasks scheduled, described, and planned?

How are the responsibilities of individuals determined?

What spans of supervision, reporting relationships, and communication patterns exist? How are they evaluated?

Personnel What level of competence has been attained by personnel in each position?

Are remedies to problems, if necessary, being planned? What are they?

What is the state of morale? Motivation? What are present plans in these areas?

Describe career development paths. Are replacements for personnel in key positions being groomed?

NOTE: Adapted from Zikmund and D’Amico (1996).

mat of Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb (1995), a list of marketing terms can be provided in course materials (see Table 3). The terms can be classified as retailing, price and distribution, advertising and promotions, products, and buyer behavior.

Students are asked to find examples of these terms in everyday experiences during the trip.

The amount of work assigned depends on the length of the trip and the importance of journals in the grading scheme.

Entries can be required for a minimum number of concepts from each category and/or a minimum number of entries during the trip (see Table 4). To ensure that the students are

engaged during the entire length of the trip, a minimum number of entries can be required during each week. Examples can be provided for different types of entry (Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb 1995). The purpose of managing the number and timing of entries is to ensure that students consider marketing issues continually during their tour. Both students and professors will notice a maturation in course content knowledge and tolerance toward other cultures with each week’s entries.

Students are highly involved with their journals and feel good about the work done on their journals. The personal attention given to journal writing by the instructor promotes

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TABLE 3 JOURNAL TOPICS Price and distribution

Advertising

Product

Retailing

Buyer behavior

Agent Bait pricing Cash discounts Derived demand Discount Differentiated marketing Advertising theme AIDA Bait and switch Buying center Comparative ads Contest Cooperative advertising Frequency Generic product Institutional advertising Brand equity Distributor brands Family brands Generic products Innovator Inseparability Catalog showroom Chain store Convenience store Brand image Cognitive dissonance Cultural environment Culture External search

Export management Loss leader Markup pricing Penetration pricing Prestige pricing Price bundling Jingles Noise Packaging Pioneering Point of purchase Premium Primary demand ads Product advertisement Public relations Publicity Market Market penetration Market segmentation Positioning Product advertisement Product enhancement Corporate chain Department stores Distributor brands Fad Fashion Message content Motivation New product

Price elasticity Skimming price policy Tariffs Vertical integration Vertical systems Wholesaler Puffery Reach Rebate Reminder advertising Sales promotion Sampling Selective distribution Telemarketing Testimonials Trade show Product line Service level Shopping products Specialty products Trademark Trial ability Hyperstores Mass merchandiser retailer Scrambled merchandising Norms Opinion leader Reference group Social class Subculture

NOTE: Adapted from Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb (1995).

TABLE 4 EXAMPLE JOURNAL ENTRY Date: 25 May 1998 Location: Aix-en-Provence, France Accompanied by: Katie and Sally Time: 4:00 p.m.

Marketing concept: Trademark Comments: When I was packing to go abroad, I worked diligently to conserve space. So I decided to leave my special conditioner thinking that I could go without it for six weeks. However, I decided to search for a suitable substitute. When I got to the hair care section of the store, I felt overwhelmed by the numerous bottles, all with labels in French that I could not read. After wandering aimlessly without a clue of what each bottle contained, I saw the trademark of Pantene Pro-V. Because a trademark ensures that the product was one that I knew about and was high quality, I began to look for the colors that identified the type of conditioner that I wanted (I knew the colors from the labels in the US). Even though I could not read what was on the labels, the exclusive trademark relieved my anxiety about getting the wrong product or an imitation. Trademarks not only help with recognition, they also are a universal language.

NOTE: Adapted from Moncrief, Shipp, and Lamb (1995).

good student-teacher relations. Journals apply to real life and help students understand marketing problems. Student attitudes toward journals tend to improve, since journals are more engaging for an international experience than is expected by students at the beginning of the trip. Journal writing tends to be a favorite of students after their course completion.

Treasure Hunt

This special type of activity provides students with a targeted assignment to find products in an unfamiliar marketplace. It is similar to journal writing but requires students to find a specific product. Students must compare price and service and find where products are sold, since outlets vary

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TABLE 5 TREASURE HUNT SEARCH PRODUCTS Item Auto parts Pens, pencils, notebooks Paperback books Cold tablets Uncooked chicken Vegetables Nail polish Baby food Milk Fresh flowers Frying pan

Typical U.S. Locations

Possible Foreign Locations (Country Dependent)

Hardware store, discount store, department store, drug store, auto parts store Supermarket, discount store, drug store Supermarket, discount store, drug store, convenience store, book store Supermarket, discount store, drug store, convenience store, book store Supermarket, meat store Supermarket, convenience store Supermarket, drug store Supermarket, convenience store Supermarket, drug store (some), convenience store, gas station Supermarket, convenience store, florist Supermarket, discount store, catalog showroom, department store, kitchen supplies store

Specialty auto parts store Specialty stationery store Book store, airport, bus terminal Pharmacy Chicken store (in some, but not all, meat stores), open air market Vegetable store, open air market Department store, pharmacy Pharmacy, vegetable store, bakery Grocery stores, bakery; only powdered milk in some places Street vendors, florists Specialty kitchen store, department store

NOTE: Adapted from Johnson and Mader (1992).

TABLE 6 EXAMPLE TREASURE HUNT ENTRY Product Milk

Type of Outlet Grocery

Store Name Conand

Location in Store

Price

Near back, with creamers

15,000 Lire

Differences from the U.S.: Milk is offered in much smaller containers than in the U.S. Plastic gallon jugs are not available. In the U.S., milk is considered a convenience product and is extensively distributed. In Europe, milk is not as common and is rarely found in stores other than supermarkets. The biggest difference is that the milk is most often packaged in sealed cartons that are not refrigerated and have a shelf life [of] about a year. The taste is different; not as smooth or maybe as sweet as in the U.S. Apparently, Europeans do not drink milk as often and the industry seems to be much smaller.

NOTE: Adapted from Johnson and Mader (1992).

across cultures. Comments are made on their observations about the differences in outlets across boundaries and cultures. This active involvement helps to immerse students in their surroundings and to become familiar with how people shop in other cultures (Johnson and Mader 1992). Descriptions of this type require application of marketing concepts that lead the student into higher learning activities. Depending on the instructions and the level of the course in a curriculum, more analysis and synthesis might be required from the student.

This type of activity is appropriate for both single-location and multilocation tours, although multilocation tours offer the best opportunity for cross-cultural comparisons (see Table 1). Treasure hunts are appropriate for both conventional academic credit courses and for those courses with less structure and less emphasis on the academic content. Because this exercise requires the students to spend time searching for products, it is best suited for longer tours in which students have more time to spend on directed educational activities.

A list of some everyday items modified from Johnson and Mader (1992) may be included in the course materials (see

Table 5). One potential assignment could be for students to find where one-half of the items on the list are sold in different countries. Preprinted forms provided in a course packet might ask for information on the type of outlet, name of the store, where the item was physically located in the store, and the price (Johnson and Mader 1992). Because the items are common to student purchasing experience, and because each student chooses items with which they are familiar, students might be asked to comment on the differences between marketing of the products in the United States versus other countries (see Table 6). In addition, students can be encouraged to comment on the differences in the way these products are marketed across the various countries visited.

Projects

Group projects offer the opportunity for interactive learning from peers and challenge all group members to be fully engaged in the process. Techniques for managing these group processes can be found in the literature (Strong and Anderson 1990). Smaller individual projects can be used to cover specific topics in a course. More conventional comprehensive

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TABLE 7 PROJECT TOPIC LIST Assignments 1 2

3 4 5 6

7

8 9

10

How are older persons treated in the foreign country compared to the United States, both in stores and in public places?

What do you notice about general public behavior abroad as compared with the United States, especially in terms of formality, politeness, patience, etc.?

Compare the amount/variety of cooked and microwave or prepared foods in the grocery stores What do people drink with their meals, and does it vary between dinner and lunch?

What types of point-of-purchase displays are typically found in small specialty stores abroad? Department stores abroad?

Compare the product breadth and depth of a women’s or men’s clothing store abroad with a similar store at home. How does this vary with a camera store? A grocery store?

Compare the price variation among one line of products in a specialty store (e.g., a shoe store) with a similar store in the United States Compare how people dress for school or work with similar dress in the United States How do newspaper advertisements depict women in ads?

Men? Children? How does this compare with the United States?

Is it the same with television ads?

How does package design differ between U.S. and foreign products? For local products (e.g., laundry detergents)?

For global products (e.g., Kellogg’s Corn Flakes, Kodak film, Nescafe)?

Possible Topics Market segmentation; elderly market; culture How you address the target market in advertising, sales promotions, etc.; culture Product lines; retailing; culture; environment; consumer behavior and attitudes Product lines; retailing; services; culture; consumer behavior/choice Sales promotion; promotional mix; culture; retailing; consumer behavior Product lines; retailing; culture

Pricing; product lines; retailing

Culture; consumer behavior; fashion Attitudes; social norms; promotion; consumer behavior

Packaging; product concepts; international marketing; product lines; promotion

NOTE: Adapted from Johnson and Mader (1992).

group projects may be used to integrate many topics across the entire length of the course. The active involvement of the student is thought to increase students’ understanding of the impact of culture on marketing decisions. Some projects may need to be planned before departure so that research can be done. Caution must be used to ensure that appropriate technology be available to complete projects, such as research materials access, computers, printers, Internet access, and so on (Gordon and Smith 1992; Johnson and Mader 1992). Depending on the level of the course in the curriculum, projects may provide the student with the opportunity to progress through application and analysis (for foundation courses) or through synthesis and evaluation (for advanced courses). The wide variety of assignments for projects make this a versatile activity.

Whereas small projects might be successful with either single-location or multilocation tours, more substantial projects are more appropriate for single-location tours, since the student requires some time and stability to work through analysis (see Table 1). Projects are more aligned with credit courses, whether conventional or specially adapted for the tour. But projects are versatile and can be used in a noncredit situation where there is a specific focus with the tour itself.

Additionally, substantial work may be done ahead of time to make completion of the project less of a chore while on the tour. This is more appropriate when some type of pretour

course is required and the students have the background to start the project before the course begins. In addition, the professor must be available to instruct and supervise prior to the tour, which may not always be possible for some teaching workloads. Larger projects are more compatible with longer tours, but shorter projects may be appropriate for any length of tour. A primary concern that cannot be overemphasized is that resources to complete projects (library, Internet, computers, etc.) are difficult to find for the students during a study tour. Therefore, the projects themselves must be clearly thought through to be appropriate.

One style of smaller project assignment might use a list of suggested short projects revised from Johnson and Mader (1992). However, students are permitted to suggest other topics for approval by the professor (see Table 7). Projects can be limited in length, for example, to about five handwritten pages each (remember that computer and printer access may be limited on trips). Groups can prepare an analysis and comparison of marketing activities for the project ideas. Each person can participate in more than one group project during the course. Groups do not always have to be the same for each of the projects.

Projects increase involvement and help students learn much about marketing. A significant caution is that students become frustrated by the lack of reference materials and tech-

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nology when they are away from the normal university environment. Also, comments indicate that students with little prior experience with group projects are somewhat perplexed by the stresses of teamwork.

Simulation

Simulations intend to promote active involvement in decision making under uncertainty. Students develop skills in conceptualizing, synthesizing, and adapting to situations (Laughlin and Hite 1993). Many types of games are available, with some being interactive. Along with adaptability, various marketing decision variables are used to give the student a feel for the importance of integrating decisions in a more complete business context (Burns and Gentry 1992; Wellington, Faria, and Nulsen 1996). The variety of simulations available allows the professor the opportunity to use the game as a smaller part of the course or as the centerpiece of the entire study tour. For international experiences, some simulations are designed specifically for international courses.

Others are more generic and do not take advantage of the international setting, but may be quite suitable for the course objectives.

The primary consideration for using simulations on a study tour is the availability of technology to run the simulation (see Table 1). When a simulation requires each student group to use a computer, it becomes difficult. Although most newer portable computers are compatible with all electrical currents, carrying the computers and keeping them working across multiple locations and on longer tours is challenging.

Simulations are more appropriate for single locations because multilocations require the professor to manage the moving of equipment from one place to another.

Because games are inherently interesting, they may be part of either credit or noncredit courses and used as part of either required or specialized courses. A long tour length permits the students to have more iterations in the simulation; shorter tours may not offer the students enough time to adequately take advantage of a game. In cases where professors have prior access to students and the time to do instruction, training on the basics of running the simulation could be done before the tour begins to relieve time pressures during the trip.

One example that has been successfully used on tour is the simulation of business decisions using a basic DECIDE simulation that is designed for foundation courses emphasizing basics of pricing, distribution, new product development, promotions, and other issues. The simulation is not specifically oriented toward international business and provides an adequate although not in-depth consideration of marketing variables along with general business issues for each decision cycle. These features conform to the suggestion that simulations for foundation courses should not be overly sophisticated (Wellington, Faria, and Nulsen 1996). Students can be given intensive training on the simulation and its components. A structured journal can be provided to students for

them to log the marketing rationale for each decision cycle and the analysis of the outcome of that cycle, as well as review the lessons learned from the exercises.

Simulations are well liked by students and allow the students to interact on a more personal level with the instructor outside of the classroom. The suitability of simulations for study abroad courses is dependent on the need for computers and other technology, which will likely have to be carried by the instructor. Simulations may not be appropriate when technology and facilities are limited.

SUMMARY As more universities become involved in study abroad programs, matching instructional activities with the style of study abroad tour will help professors to develop effective course delivery for various levels of learning activities. All of the activities discussed here are considered to have value in a study abroad tour setting. Each activity promotes learning.

Some of the activities are more suited for stationary trips; others are suited for multiple locations.

Company visits are always impressive to students and should be included in any study abroad program. Students are interested in the presentations of real businesses, especially those in the foreign countries visited. With some preparation, students are able to notice significant differences from U.S. company practices. In addition, professors will notice an increase in the business maturity of the students as the session progresses.

Tests are an expected and accepted part of learning activities. Students may not like exams, but they recognize the importance of tests in learning and the appropriateness of tests on a study abroad tour. Some study abroad courses may be focused more on the individual experiences of the students and not on informational content. In these styles of experiential tours, the importance of tests might be lower.

Journal writing is a key element in many active learning discussions. It makes the experience more personal, allows the student to elaborate on concepts, and solidifies learning through thoughtful expression. The student is also able to describe how foreign marketing is different from U.S. marketing. Where possible, journal-writing activities should be considered to increase involvement in marketing issues and to develop a sense of relevance for the subject matter.

Projects are useful, but not as appealing as other activities, especially for students inexperienced with project stress.

Pretrip preparations can facilitate project work and make up for the lack of information resources on the trip that may generate uncertainty and nonconfidence in the project assignment. In addition, the technology-savvy students of today have expressed their need for word-processing systems to do good writing and composition.

The treasure hunt was found to be useful. Whereas the journal-writing exercises allowed students to notice some-

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JOURNAL OF MARKETING EDUCATION

thing that might be used for a concept entry, a treasure hunt required them to intentionally find a specific item. This meant that they had to divert their attention from their normal sightseeing to an intentional search for a specific product. Some students have expressed their disappointment in being required to spend their time in this way when there were other course activities to perform. In addition, the increase of large, U.S.-style stores may make the treasure hunt too easy.

Many tools are available to make the experience of a study abroad tour more dramatic. Each tour situation may require a different set of considerations to develop the most appropriate set of teaching methods. This comparison provides a starting point for comparing learning activities for various styles of tours.

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