Activation (Works) without mobility, labour & structural vulnerability in neo-liberalising Slovakia

2013–2014

ERSTE Foundation Fellowship for Social Research Labour Market and Employment in Central and Eastern Europe

Activation (Works) without mobility, labour and structural vulnerability in neoliberalising Slovakia Jan Grill

Butji&pro&výboris& Activation)(Works))without)mobility,)labour)and) structural)vulnerability)in)neo:liberalising)Slovakia1) ! !

Jan"Grill" University"of"Manchester" ERSTE"Foundation" Fellowship"for"Social"Research" " " Abstract) This" paper" explores" how" Roma" in" eastern" Slovakia" navigate" their" formal" unemployment" and" manage"their"income"generating"strategies"in"the"context"of"state"policies"of"activation,"economic" crisis"and"neoCliberal"workfare"reforms."It"examines"ethnographically"the"concept"of"‘activation’" (to)"work"against"the"backdrop"of"increasing"imCmobilities"faced"by"longCterm"unemployed"Roma" in" Slovakia." Based" on" anthropological" fieldwork" in" Eastern" Slovakia," the" present" paper" will" be" situated" within" the" larger" processes" of" reCdrawing" lines" of" economic" precariousness," formal/informal" distinctions," insecurity," and" politics" of" deservingness" and" moral" citizenship" in" the"transforming"modes"of"governing"minorities"in"Slovakia."Being"officially"categorized"as"longC term"unemployed,"and"even"‘unemployable’"in"public"discourses"in"Slovakia,"most"Roma"combine" various" precarious" economic" strategies," welfare" and" state" workfare" ‘activation’" programmes" in" Slovakia" and" project" their" hopes" to" dreams" associated" with" labour" migration." This" paper" interrogates" ethnographically" some" normative" assumptions" underlying" discourses" surrounding" policies"targeting"longCterm"unemployed"in"Slovakia,"which"evolve"around"their"alleged"‘activity’" and" ‘inactivity’." More" specifically," it" explores" how" ideologies" and" policies" of" labour" activation" operate" on" various" scales" and" in" everyday" practices" of" those" who" are" implementing" them" and" those"who"are"targeted"by"these.""

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

1"The"Social"Research"Fellowship"of"ERSTE"Foundation"generously"supported"this"research"

project."The"main"bulk"of"data"for"this"paper"was"collected"during"the"research"carried"out" between"2012C2014."

1" "

" INTRODUCTION) " The"past"two"decades"have"witnessed"dramatic"changes"in"the"forms"of"public"aid" for" the" poor" in" Slovakia." In" winter" 2004," Slovak" government" trumpeted" a" new" shift"in"the"governance"of"poverty"under"the"banner"of"the"soCcalled"‘New"Social" Policy’" (Nová!Sociálna!Politika!C" NSP)." This" has" been" a" part" of" wider" neoCliberal" socioCeconomic" reCstructuring" and" forms" of" governance," which" started" to" take" place" throughout" the" 1990" (see" Marušák" &" Singer" 2009;" Jurajda" &" Maternova" 2004;" van" Baar" 2011," 2012)." It" was" indexed" by" a" move" from" more" protective" forms"of"welfare"towards"more"disciplinary"workfare"(Wacquant"2010)2."""Based" on"the"moralising"assumption"that"the"previous"welfare"system"gave"a"rise"to"a" growing" generation" of" people" dependent" on" the" allegedly" generous" welfare" system" of" social" benefits," the" coalition" introduced" radical" cuts" into" the" existing" social"system"and"benefits."This"has"initiated"a"redefinition"of"the"criteria"of"what" constitute" the" public" help" for" the" poorest" citizens" and" who" deserves" to" be" entitled" for" it." This" change" has" shifted" the" optics" through" which" a" longCterm" unemployment" was" seen," and" how" it" should" be" dealt" with." It" also" meant" that" it" was" no" longer" the" unemployment" and" increasing" amount" of" people" struggling" with" poverty," which" was" seen" as" a" problem" the" state" needs" to" address." Rather," the"state"deployed"a"line"of"defining"and"tackling"the"problem"as"that"of"‘benefitC dependence’"of"certain"category"of"people,"implicitly"deeming"these"as"failing"and" immoral" citizens." In" this" logic," the" state" shifts" responsibility" to" these" ‘failed" citizens’"(Anderson"2013),"who"are"seen"as"in"need"of"changing"their"individual" attitudes" and" working" habits." The" lowering" of" the" unemployment" benefits" and" social" welfare" was" accompanied" by" an" introduction" of" policies" of" activation3" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

2"This"was"also"accompanied"by"state"efforts,"often"pouring"large"financial"investments"and" subsidies,"to"attract"large"international"companies"to"invest"in"Slovakia"with"a"hope"of"creating" job"opportunities"in"a"labour"market"struck"by"a"rising"unemployment."For"example,"Slovakia"has" become"one"of"the"biggest"producers"of"car"industries"in"Central"Eastern"Europe."The"Slovak" policy"makers"in"the"early"2000"aimed"at"incorporation"of"Slovakia"into"a"global"economy."For"an" overall"historical"overview"on"the"Slovak"‘national"trajectory’"with"regards"to"industry,"see"e.g."

Buzalka"&"Ferencova"2012.""

3"These"policies"can"be"seen"as"a"part"of"what"van"Berkel"and"Borghi"(2008)"call"‘governance"of" activation’"in"which"activation"refers"to"a"mandatory"part"of"workfare"for"the"longCterm" unemployed"who"must"participate"in"various"(often"unpaid"and"voluntary"based)"policies"and" programmes"designed"by"the"state"in"order"to"be"eligible"for"receiving"the"social"assistance"or"

2" "

targeting" the" nationCstate’s" longCterm" unemployed" citizens." These" efforts" at" ‘labour" activation’," in" the" forms" of" temporary" training" courses," EUCfunded" projects" of" ‘reClearning’" working" skills," workCtoCdeserveCwelfare" programmes" and" many" others," have" proliferated" across" Europe" in" the" last" decade" (Serrano" Pascual"and"Magnusson"2007;"van"Berkel"&"Borghi"2008)."" " This" shift" represented" a" new" effort" in" managing" the" historically" ambivalent" public" attitudes" towards" poverty" in" Slovakia," shifting" the" emphasis" on" the" continuum" of" deserving" and" undeserving" poor" alongside" the" moralising" yardstick" assessing" individual’s" efforts," motivation" and" proCactive" search" for" formal"jobs"indexed"by"active"carving"out"of"selfCentrepreneurial"self."The"longC term" unemployed" citizens" were" interpellated" as" subjects" in" need" of" ‘activation’" through" soCcalled" Activation" Works," which" were" meant" to" lead" into" their" reC incorporation" into" the" formal" labour" market" and" enhancing" their" prospects" at" socioCeconomic" mobility." " Ultimately," I" shall" argue" that" this" particular" reC fashioning" also" contributed" to" reCinscribing" moral" distinctions" between" ‘good’" and"‘bad’"citizens,"those"who"are"seen"as"trying"actively"to"find"wage"work"and" those"who"are"passively"waiting"for"receiving"different"forms"of"state"support."In" Slovakia," these" moral" distinctions" were" firmly" entangled" within" the" historically" developed" racialised" hierarchies" and" marginalisation" of" Roma/Gypsies," which" continued"to"be"reanimated"and"vested"in"the"new"forms." " The" changes" were" not" explicitly" defined" as" targeting" primarily" Roma/Gypsy" groups" and" public" debates" and" discourses" surrounding" its" introduction" rested" primarily" on" socially" defined" rhetoric" regarding" the" general" characteristics" of" unemployed" and" their" conditions." However," the" frames" and" representations" overlapped"with"historically"ethnicised"vision"of"those"seen"as"‘lacking"workingC habits’"–"i.e."in"the"Slovak"context"this"was"the"case"of"Roma"minority"(see"Dráľ" 2008)."Considering"the"relative"overrepresentation"of"Roma"amongst"the"poorest" and" most" marginalised" segments" of" Slovakian" society" (Filadelfiova" et" al." 2007;" Gerbery" et" al." 2007)," the" effects" of" these" reforms" were" disproportionally" and" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" benefits"(ibid."332)."For"an"interesting"critical"assessment"of"this"‘activation"governance’,"see" Newman"2007;"Serrano"Pascual"&"Magnusson"2007;"van"Baar"2011,"2012.""

3" "

significantly" felt" by" the" majority" of" the" Roma." The" Roma" in" Slovakia" occupy" locations" of" ‘structural" vulnerability’" (Quesada" et" al." 2011)" reinforced" by" the" racialised"practices"of"discrimination"experienced"in"their"efforts"at"entering"the" labour" market." " With" the" state" social" assistance" suddenly" halved" and" the" basic" benefits"fallen"under"the"subsistence"minimum,"most"of"the"poor"had"to"readjust" to" the" new" conditions" and" develop" new" survival" strategies." Although" these" responses" varied" depending" on" the" particular" regional" and" local" contexts," most" of" poor" Roma" experienced" greater" level" of" material" deprivation" paralleled" by" a" growing"significance"of"informal"economic"practices"combined"with"the"lowered" state" support" and" the" newly" created" soCcalled" ‘Activation" Works.’" In" local" settings," a" successful" combination" of" these" strategies" have" become" the" only" avenue," albeit" significantly" reduced" and" shrinking" since" 2004" to" date," available" for" maintaining" an" income" sufficient" for" survival." These" changes" also" propelled" many" Roma" to" migrate" westwards" with" prospects" of" greater" socioCeconomic" opportunities"and"existential"movement,"with"the"Slovakian"accession"to"the"EU" being"seen"in"particular"as"providing"new"hopes"for"securing"better"futures"(Grill" 2011;" 2012;" Pine" &" Kaneff" 2011)." Many" Roma" considered" the" state" reforms" in" winter" 2004" as" a" symbolic" ‘last" drop’" to" what" they" saw" as" already" unbearable" prospects" for" living" conditions" in" Slovakia" and," especially" those" with" sufficient" volumes"of"social,"economic"and"cultural"capitals,"oriented"their"futures"towards" the"opening"of"British"labour"market"for"Slovak"citizens"in"May"2014.""But"while" some" succeeded" in" materialising" this" vital" illusion" and" strivings" for" better" lives" abroad," many" were" left" behind" or" returned" without" attaining" the" mobilities" embodied"in"the"‘going"up"to"England’"(Grill"2012)."" " This" paper" explores" how" one" particular" form" of" the" new" policies" of" labour" activation," ‘Activation" Works’," was" implemented" on" the" ground?" It" asks" what" effects" have" it" had" on" the" long" term" unemployed" Roma" in" two" localities" at" the" rural" margins" of" Slovakia?" What" kinds" of" responses" have" these" policies" encountered" in" relation" to" the" particular" social" locations" and" historical" trajectories"of"the"Roma"participants?"How"do"the"Roma"actors"understand"these" ‘activation" works’?" And" to" what" extent" do" the" reCdrawing" of" the" criteria" for" recognised"as"‘actively"searching’"shape"and"influence"their"identities,"capacities" 4" "

and" sense" of" belonging" located" within" the" local" and" nationCstate" hierarchies?"

What"kind"of"strategies"and"dispositions"do"they"develop"in"response"to"different" types"of"projects"envisioning"labour"activation"in"conjunction"with"specific"kinds" of" moral" agents" and" citizens?" What" relations" and" location" did" these" policies" of" activation" occupy" in" comparison" to" other" potential" avenues" for" socioCeconomic" mobility"embraced"by"the"poor"Roma?"By"drawing"on"empirical"examples"from" an"anthropological"research"in"one"particular"region"of"east"Slovakia,"it"aims"to" empirically" contribute" to" the" larger" theoretical" discussions" of" the" relationship" between" the" new" forms" of" neoliberal" governing" of" poverty" and" Roma" (im)mobilities" (van" Baar" 2011;" 2012)," as" well" as" comparative" studies" of" workings" and" effects" of" policies" of" labour" activation" (see" e.g." Larsen" 2001;" Roberman" 2014)." Spaces" of" activation" can" be" seen" as" sites" of" struggles" for" imposing" different" principles" vision" and" division" structuring" and" distributing" unequally" the" negotiations" surrounding" social" citizenship" in" which" various" situated"actors"play"an"important"role"in"reCdistribution"of"state"assistance"to"the" poor"(cf."Thelen"et"al."2011;"Matejskova"2013;"Roberman"2014)."This"paper"aims" to" explore" ways" in" which" policies" of" labour" activation" get" implemented" within" particular" power" hierarchies," across" nested" scales" of" state" institutions," and" the" experiences"of"those"participating"in"these"projects."" " The" paper" starts" by" introducing" the" research" setting," methodology" and" field" research." I" will" provide" a" brief" contextualisation" of" the" research" localities" and" deployed" ethnographic" methodology." The" paper" then" outlines" the" field" of" activation"in"social"policies"and"locates"it"within"the"changing"landscapes"of"postC socialist"forms"of"unemployment"and"state’s"shift"towards"neoliberal"governing" of" the" poor" and" workfarism." Drawing" on" comparative" literature," it" shows" the" forms"of"reasoning"and"assumptions"behind"the"shift"form"welfare"to"workfare," and"provides"a"brief"overview"of"how"the"Activation"Works"developed"since"their" first" implementation" in" 2004." Particular" attention" will" be" paid" to" analytically" scrutinising" key" notions" present" in" the" Activation" Works," such" as" ‘working" habits,’" ‘spaces" of" socialisation’" and" the" implicit" theory" of" moral" behaviourism" blaming"the"individuals’"skills"and"motivations"for"their"status"of"unemployment" (rather" than" wider" structural" inequalities)" while" also" resting" in" essentialising" 5" "

assumptions" about" Roma" collective" characteristics." In" the" second" part" of" the" paper," these" theoretical" and" largeCscale" analytical" implications" are" then" compared"with"ethnographic"findings." " Rather"than"deploying"ethnographic"tools"to"capture"simplistically"some"kind"of" imagined"‘local’"or"even"a"generic"‘natives’"point"of"view’,"the"ethnographic"tools" are" deployed" to" situate" a" multiplicity" of" competing" perspectives" within" the" location" these" occupy" in" social" fields" and" with" varying" volumes" of," unequally" distributed," accumulated" forms" of" capitals.4"This" also" means" studying" different" scales" and" shifting" nested" hierarchies" of" the" state" and" its" local" citizens" rather" than" relying" on" a" binary" opposition" between" ‘state’" and" ‘ordinary" people’" (cf."

Herzfeld"1997)."For"the"matter"of"clarity"and"a"lack"of"space,"my"writing"strategy" follows" what" we" can" broadly" define" as" several" particular" points" of" view" on" the" realities" of" Activation" Works." Thus," I" introduce" vacillations," ambiguities," similarities" and" differences" between" perspectives" of" particularly" situated" local" mayors," the" coordinators’" of" activation" works," social" and" community" workers," and" the" longCterm" unemployed" Roma" participants" in" the" Activation" works."

Finally,"the"paper"concludes"by"way"of"discussing"the"key"issues"emerging"from" the"research." ) RESEARCH)SETTINGS)AND)METHODOLOGY)) ) The"research"is"based"on"a"comparative"fieldwork"among"Roma"groups"from"two" localities" in" the" east" of" Slovakia" and" the" transnational" networks" of" Roma" migrants" originating" from" this" region." I" shall" call" these" two" localities" Tarkovce" and"Rijava,"both"situated"in"Zemplín"region"of"Slovakia.5"" Once"a"show"box"of"trumpeted"socialist"progress"embodied"by"various"factories," since" 1989" this" region" has" been" particularly" hit" by" the" closing" down" of" various" industries" and" companies" previously" providing" an" employment" for" most" of" the" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

4"This"approach"draws"on"theoretical"and"methodological"framework"of"Pierre"Bourdieu"

(Bourdieu"1986,"2000;"Bourdieu"&"Wacquant"1992)."

5"The"real"names"of"the"villages"have"been"changed"by"the"author."These"two"localities"differ"in" their"size."According"to"the"official"information"provided"by"the"municipalities"(statistics"from" 2009),"Tarkovce"has"4333"inhabitants"and"Rijava"has"about"635"inhabitants."

6" "

Roma" men" and" women." " During" the" socialist" period," state’s" efforts" at" incorporating"Roma"into"the"production"process"via"formal"employment"formed" one"of"the"key"principles"of"official"policies"and"discourses"ascribing"‘citizens"of" Gypsy" origins’" more" equal" social" citizenship" (see" Stewart" 1997;" Donert" 2008)."

Roma" in" Rijava" and" Tarkovce" were" no" exceptions" and" practically" all" worked" in" factories," construction" work" companies," shoe" factories" and" local" agricultural" cooperative" collectives." " Following" the" end" of" socialism," most" of" the" Roma" lost" their" previously" stable" jobs" amidst" the" socioCeconomic" restructuring" leading" to" privatisation" and" closing" down" of" industries" and" agricultural" farms." This" socioC economic" restructuring" was" accompanied" by" a" withdrawal" of" welfare" state" services"and"reCemergence"of"ethnicised"and"racialised"categorization"of"Gypsies" frequently" overlapping" with" being" labelled" as" workCshy" and" notions" of" (unC )deservingness." Thus," the" structural" disadvantaged" position" occupied" by" the" Roma" amalgamated" with" the" ethnic" stigmatization" and" discrimination" in" the" context"of"accessing"the"formal"labour"market.""

Due"to"a"high"percentage"of"impoverished"population"and"regional"asymmetries," itself" partially" reinforced" by" the" outmigration" of" young" and" highly" educated" residents"westwards,"these"eastern"borderlands"of"Slovakia"has"now"become"one" of" the" most" emblematic" areas" symbolizing" rural" poverty" in" Slovakia" characterized" by" one" of" the" highest" rates" of" longCterm" unemployment." In" May" 2013," 19.35%" of" the" population" of" Michalovce" area" was" unemployed." This" rate" has"slightly"decreased"to"17.87%"by"October"2013."Its"unemployment"rate"would" have"been"even"higher"if"not"for"the"migration"to"western"parts"of"Slovakia,"Czech" Republic" and" western" European" countries.6"Being" already" a" region" with" one" of" the"highest"labour"migration"rates"in"the"former"Czechoslovakia"(and"even"prior" to"its"birth),"this"survival"strategy"increased"in"its"significance"amidst"the"socioC economic"discord"and"neoCliberal"transition"in"1990s."""

For" the" local" Roma" inhabitants" mobile" during" the" socialist" period," the" postC socialist" period" brought" about" transformation" structure" and" forms" of" labour" migration." They" were" no" longer" Czechoslovak" citizens" with" stable" and" secure" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 6"Additionally,"the"official"unemployment"rates"do"not"include"those"who"participate"in"the" Activation"Works"and"similar"types"of"training"projects."

7" "

jobs" employed" by" various" stateCowned" construction" companies" requiring" spending" several" weeks" away" from" their" homes." The" new" conditions" turned" them"into"Slovak"migrants"working"within"the"field"of"unstable"and"frequently"as" undocumented" cheap" labour" force" on" various" construction" sites" in" Czech" Republic"(e.g."road"or"railway)."This"type"of"migration"also"reCdrawn"the"gender" lines" and" divisions" as" it" required" mostly" men" migrating" to" work" while" women" with" children" tending" to" stay" behind" in" their" Slovak" homes." In" addition" to" the" effects" of" labour" migration" to" the" Czech" Republic," some" of" the" Roma" families" (especially" from" Tarkovce)" sought" political" asylum" in" the" Western" European" countries" throughout" the" late" 1990s" and" early" 2000s." Most" of" them" were" deported"back"to"Slovakia"but"constituted"a"majority"of"migrants"to"Great"Britain" following" Slovak" accession" to" the" EU" in" May" 2004." Unlike" Tarkovce" Roma," who" built"on"their"previous"migration"experiences,"started"to"migrate"to"Great"Britain" since" 2004" and" have" established" a" wide" range" of" connections" constituting" this" transnational" field," Roma" from" Rijava" started" to" take" part" in" this" migration" relatively" later." With" the" deepening" economic" crisis" and" state’s" cuts" in" social" system," migration" crystallised" as" one" of" the" main" mechanisms" simultaneously" providing" economic" opportunities" and" possibilities" of" hope" for" Roma" (see" Grill" 2011,"2012).""

Methodologically," this" paper" draws" on" a" participant" observation" among" Roma" groups" with" a" particular" attention" being" paid" to" their" participation" and" relationship" to" state" policies" of" activation" and" formal" unemployment" status.7"I" accompanied"local"unemployed"villagers"during"their"Activation"Works"and"also" visited" them" at" their" homes" afterwards." Most" of" the" participants" consisted" of" Roma."In"addition"to"participant"observation"and"hanging"out"with"them"at"their" work"places"and"at"home,"I"conducted"informal"and"semiCstructured"interviews" with" openCended" questions." Apart" from" the" classic" anthropological" method" of" participant" observation," I" have" also" carried" out" research" with" various" state" representatives" and" NGO" workers" in" the" region" and" in" the" capital" city" of" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

7"This"paper"draws"on"ethnographic"fieldwork"conducted"during"the"summer"2013"for"a"project"

examining"Roma"migrations"and"socioCeconomic"mobilities"of"labour"markets"in"Central"Eastern" Europe"(2012C13)."Additional"followCup"fieldwork"was"carried"out"during"summer"2014."

Moreover,""some"of"the"research"findings"include"data"collected"during"my"previous"longCterm" research"in"East"Slovakia"and"among"Roma"migrants"in"Great"Britain."

8" "

Bratislava 8 ." Informal" interviews" and" discussions" were" held" with" social" and" community" workers" in" the" selected" localities," as" well" as" with" regional" coordinator"of"the"Social"Development"Fund"(SDF)."In"constructing"my"argument" I"also"draw"on"the"information"obtained"through"interviews"with"village"mayors" who" were" representing" the" state" authorities" responsible" for" coordinating" the" Activation"Works"on"the"local"level."Interviews"with"the"Roma"respondents"were" conducted" in" Romani" and" Slovak," while" the" interviews" with" official" authorities," institutional" workers" and" nonCSlovak" villagers" in" Slovak." In" addition" to" ethnographic" research," I" conducted" a" desk" research" focusing" on" policy" documents," changing" legislation," analysis" of" representations" of" various" policies" and"tools"of"activation"in"Slovak"media,"and"reviewed"existing"research"on"labour" markets"and"employment"in"Central"Eastern"Europe." " It"must"be"noted"that"some"of"the"data"were"collected"during"my"previous"longC term"research"among"Roma"migrants"in"Slovakia,"the"Czech"Republic"and"Great" Britain" (Grill" 2009;" 2012)," and" during" my" follow" up" research" stays" with" the" networks"of"Roma"in"east"Slovakia"and"in"their"labour"migratory"pathways.9"This" longCterm"immersion"and"engagement"with"the"social"world"of"Tarkovce"village" enables" me" to" reconstruct" changes" that" happened" between" 2006C2013" in" the" area"of"unemployment"and"within"the"field"of"Activation"Works."Before"delving" into"findings"illustrated"through"ethnographic"data,"I"outline"a"brief"overview"of" Activation"Works"and"contextualise"them"within"a"wider"historical"development" and"a"body"of"literature." " ACTIVATION)WORKS:)FROM)‘WORK)PAYS’)TO)‘NO)PAIN,)NO)GAIN’)APPROACHES10) """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 8"The"Social"Development"Fund"is"‘the"main"body"in"Slovakia"promoting"social"inclusion"by" supporting"projects"coCfinanced"by"the"European"Social"Fund"(ESF)."The"SDF"acts"as"an" intermediary"body"under"the"Managing"Authority"of"Slovak"Ministry"of"Employment,"Social" Affairs"and"Family.’"(See"http://www.fsr.gov.sk/en/home)"" 9"Additionally,"comparative"perspectives"and"insights"could"be"drawn"from"other"research"

projects"assessing"effects"of"projects"targeting"unemployed"Roma"through"various"trainings" programmes"supported"by"EQUAL"EU"and"European"Social"Funds"(Hurrle"&"Grill"2007,"2012)."

10"The"Slovak"motto"used"by"the"official"ministry’s"materials"was"‘Pracovat"sa"oplati’."It"is" translated"here"as"‘work"pays’"(though"the"ministry"translates"it"as"‘making"work"pay’)."Dral"

9" "

" Several"international"organisations"characterised"the"Roma’s"recent"situation"in" the" field" of" employment" as" falling" into" an" ‘inactivity" trap,’" being" ‘outside" the" labour" force’," or" as" being" ‘economically" inactive’" (World" Bank" 2005," 2008)" and" facing" a" ‘dependency" trap’" (UNDP" 2002)." The" Roma" are" often" classified" as" ‘inactive,’"‘unskilled’"and"largely"dependent"on"social"benefits"or"associated"with" a"high"participation"in"informal"economies.""As"a"part"of"neoliberal"reforms"and" new" forms" of" governing" social" and" minorityCrelated" affairs," the" Slovakian" state" introduced" a" set" of" tools" aimed" at" the" ‘activation’" of" longCterm" unemployed" in" 2004."In"contrast"to"the"benefit"dependence"and"economic"‘inactivity’,"these"were" seen"as"a"first"step"for"the"poor"to"contribute"to"society"in"which"it"is"a"‘work"pays" (off)’."Although"the"policy"makers"might"not"have"been"explicit"in"discussing"the" seemingly" deCethnicised" law" reforms," their" referent" was" implicitly" addressing" the"racialised"poor"largely"overlapping"with"Roma"minority"in"the"imaginary"of" Slovak" public." This" was" apparent," for" example," in" the" official" reasoning" of" ‘Activation" Works," which" policyCmakers" describe" in" terms" of" preserving," reC learning" and" reCacquiring" ‘working" habits’" and" increasing" motivation" for" work."

These"works"were"aimed"to"target"those"‘who"lack"deepCrooted"working"habits," have" generally" lower" standards" of" living" and" more" numerous" families" as" is" common" in" society.’11"This" particular" conjunction" of" ‘working" habits’" and" ‘more" numerous" families’" merged" together" echoed" two" key" tropes" through" which" Roma/Gypsies" has" been" stereotypically" represented" in" dominant" discourses" as" benefit" scroungers" who" ‘lost’" their" working" habits" and" those" who" preferred" to" have"‘more"children’"(than"the"‘decent’"nonCRoma"Slovaks)"in"order"to"live"out"of" benefits."" " In" the" official" state" rhetoric," the" ‘Activation" Works’" were" conceived" as" a" temporary" tool" for" reCentering" official" labour" market." LongCterm" unemployed" can"receive"an"extra"incentive"of"63,07"EUR/month"(in"2013)"in"addition"to"their" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" (2006;"2008)"translates"it"as"‘working"pays"off’."Similarly,"the"Slovak"idiomatic"expression"‘bez" práce"nie"su"koláče’"can"be"literally"translated"as"‘there"are"no"cakes"without"a"work’"but"I" translate"it"here"into"the"similar"English"idiom"of"‘no"pain,"no"gain’."

11"Zakon"c."5"99/2003"Z.z."o"pomoci"v"hmotnej"nudzi"(Act"on"Assistance"in"Material"Need" No."599/2003);"Zakon"c."601/2003"Z.z."o"zivotnom"minime"(Act"on"Subsistence"Minimum" No."601/2003"Coll)."

10" "

unemployment"benefits"by"participating"in"practical"works,"educational"activities" and" trainings" for" local" municipalities," state" or" NGO" organisations." In" the" last" decade," the" Activation" Works" has" become" one" of" the" key" active" labour" market" policy"measures,"with"55,000"activation"allowances"paid"out"per"month"in"2013" (Kureková" Mýtna" 2013).

12

"Its" overall" aim" is" to" ‘support" acquirement,"

maintenance," deepening" or" enhancement" of" knowledge," professional" skills," practical" experiences," working" habits" in" order" to" enhancing" (chances" in)" work" careers" on" the" labour" market.’13"For" most" of" the" unemployed" Roma" enrolled" in" this" programme," this" is" in" practice" translated" into" working" for" local" municipalities" for" up" to" 20" hours" per" week." Despite" the" possibility" of" participating" in" various" educational" trainings" preparing" the" longCterm" unemployed" for" the" reCentering" of" labour" market," most" of" the" Roma" work" predominantly"in"lowCskilled"physical"jobs"on"the"level"of"local"municipalities."" " Underlying"the"state’s"‘activation’"reforms"was"the"idea"that"unemployed"people" suffer" not" only" from" deprived" material" conditions," but" also" from" some" kind" of" intellectual" and" psychological" poverty" or" ‘idleness’" due" to" their" state" as" ‘longC term" unemployed’." The" poorest" people" receiving" benefits" were" casted" homogeneously"as"‘passive’"to"their"fate;"dependent"on"benefits;"not"able"to"find" themselves" a" job;" or" as" not" able" to" manage" their" livelihood" and" living" for" the" moment.""In"the"interviews"with"various"social"workers"and"state"officers,"these" tropes"appeared"frequently"as:"‘they"don’t"know"how"to"live’,"or"‘they"live"from" day" to" day’." Thus," the" idea" of" ‘activation’" becomes" closely" associated" with" moralising" assumptions" about" ‘deservingness’" and" ‘willingness’" to" work" among" the"poor"in"Slovakia."" ) The" reform" resonated" with" the" dominant" discourses" of" ‘ethnicised" laziness’" associated" with" the" Roma" groups" in" Slovakia" (Dráľ" 2006)." In" his" insightful" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 12"Although"there"are"no"available"statistical"data"including"information"based"on"ethnic"

categories,"several"reports"indicate"that"Roma"participation"in"Activation"Works"are" disproportionally"higher"than"the"nonCRoma"Slovaks"(Filadelfiova"et"al."2007;"COLSAF"2012;" Kurekova"et"al."2013)."For"example,"COLSAF"report"estimates"80%"of"participants"being"Roma" (2012).""

13"Predpis"č."417/2013"Z."z."Zákon"o"pomoci"v"hmotnej"núdzi"a"o"zmene"a"doplnení"niektorých" zákonov"(http://www.zakonypreludi.sk/zz/2013C417/suvislosti)"

11" "

analysis"of"the"discourses"surrounding"the"new"social"policies"and"reforms,"Peter" Dráľ"(2006;"2008)"illustrates"how"seemingly"universalist"reforms"reproduce"and" further"contribute"to"the"symbolic"exclusion"of"marginalised"Roma."Although"not" phased,"the"reforms"drawn"on"very"implicit"ethnicised"vision"of"social"problems" and"deeply"ingrained"stereotype"of"‘ethnicised"laziness’"ascribed"to"Roma.""Dráľ" argues"that"the"reform"simultaneously"pivoted"on"this"ethnoCculturalist"framing" and" thus" also" contributed" to" its" further" reCentrenchment" through" the" implementation"of"policy"reforms."Immediately"after"its"initial"implementation"in" 2004,"the"new"reform"stirred"a"heated"political"debate"and"also"resulted"in"forms" of"social"unrest"and"largely"peaceful"protests"in"several"localities"across"eastern" Slovakia" (Dráľ" 2008;" Marušák" &" Singer" 2009;" Makovicky" 2013)." The" state" labelled"these"forms"of"protests"as"‘ethnic"riots’"and"looting,"evoking"ethnicised" image" of" the" ‘Roma" riots’" and" called" for" a" military" intervention." Makovicky" (2013)"shows"how"the"ethnicised"framing"of"the"reforms"and"political"responses" to"the"wave"of"social"unrest"relates"to"the"historical"continuation"of"the"soCcalled" ‘Gypsy"problem’"formulated"during"the"communist"period"in"Czechoslovakia"and" further"permutated"throughout"the"1990s"and"beginning"of"21st"century"(see"also" Scheffel"2005;"Donert"2008;"Sokolová"2008).14""" " The" 2004" new" policy’s" rhetoric" of" ‘work" pays’" operated" within" an" ambiguously" defined" term" pracovat!(referring" to" work" as" a" productive" activity" and" a" labour" practice)"rather"than"zamestnanie!(employment),"and"thus"allowed"to"construct" the" problem" in" terms" of" moral" commitments" and" civilizational" values" (cf."

Makovicky" 2013)." " In" her" study" of" Slovak" neoliberalism" as" ‘authoritarian" populism,’" Makovicky" (2013)" shows" how," by" circumscribing" the" reforms" and" protests" as" ‘Roma" problem’," the" policy" makers" refracted" the" optics" from" unpopular" political" reforms" (affecting" not" only" the" Roma" but" all" vulnerable" groups"in"society)"and"from"deepening"of"class"inequalities"by"appealing"on"the" populist" sentiments" of" being" themselves" hardCworking" and" spokespersons" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 14"During"the"socialist"period,"the"existing"inequalities"were"explained"by"reference"to"problems"

related"to"social"class"and"public"discourses"avoided"ethnicisation"of"what"tended"to"be"seen"as" ‘social"problem’"(though"still"framed"and"addressed"under"the"rubric"of"‘citizens"of"Gypsy" origins’)"(see"also"Donert"2008)."However,"as"Horváth"and"Kovai"(2012)"shown,"this"silence"and" avoidance"of"the"uses"of"‘Gypsy’"category"in"public"did"not"mean"that"the"Roma/nonCRoma" distinction"ceased"to"exist"on"the"local"level."

12" "

located" ‘on" the" side" of" decent" people’." The" policyCmakers" contrasted" this" by" foregrounding"the"essentialised"image"of"Roma"people"who"were"constructed"as" lacking" not" only" working" habits" but" crucially" also" a" willingness" and" selfC responsibility"for"finding"work"(ibid."86;"cf."van"Baar"2011,"2012).""The"image"of" hardCtoCgovern," troublesome" minority" and" then" moral" panic" linked" to" alleged" criminalised" behaviour," they" implemented" neoCliberal" reforms" hinging" on" the" ideas"of"selfChelp"and"of"being"a"good"citizen"through"‘honest"work’"(Makovicky" 2013:86)." " The"reforms"introduced"in"2004"in"Slovakia"initiated"the"move"from"the"right"and" entitlement"for"welfare"to"workfare."The"significant"downsizing"of"public"aid"was" accompanied" by" the" symbolic" ‘offered" hand’" of" the" state," which" guaranteed" reduced" income" and" possibility" to" gain" an" extra" topCup" activation" allowance" throughout" the" first" decade" of" 21st" century." This" shift" entailed" moving" the" responsibility"to"individual"citizens"for"coping"with"poverty."But"it"also"crucially" indexed"a"change"in"defining"the"optics"and"scope"of"the"‘problem’"from"that"of" dealing"with"poverty"to"fighting"longCterm"welfare"benefits"dependency"(Serrano" Pascual"2007:"15)."This"shift"reflected"a"wider"tendency"within"Europe’s"political" landscape"(Serrano"Pascual"and"Magnusson"2007;"van"Berkel"and"Borghi"2008;" Roberman"2014)"but"acquired"particular"dynamics"with"the"process"of"Slovakian" accession" to" the" EU" in" 2004." " Serrano" Pascual" (2007:14)" identifies" three" distinctive" features" of" this" ‘paradigmatic" shift’" centering" around:" 1)" individualisation"in"which"it"is"individual’s"behaviour,"attitude"and"morality"that" has" to" be" changed" (rather" than" fairer" redistribution" of" wealth" or" conditions" on" labour" markets);" 2)" the" ultimate" goal" and" extent" of" successful" citizen" revolves" around" the" status" of" ‘being" formally" employed’" and" autonomous;" 3)" ‘contractualisation’"as"the"key"principle"in"which"citizens’"entitlements"for"state" support" and" ‘deservingness’" are" directly" derived" from" their" alleged" morality," assessments"of"their"efforts"and"(un)employment"status."" " In" Slovakia," one" can" trace" the" transforming" nature" of" Activation" Works’" implementation"since"2004."The"reforms"in"2004"were"trumpeted"by"the"ruling" parties"under"the"banner"of"progressive"politics"C"as"painful"for"some"in"a"shortC 13" "

term" but" as" inevitable," healthy" and" beneficial" in" a" longCterm" horizon." This" rhetoric"was"even"accentuated"in"light"of"the"coming"Slovakian"accession"to"EU"in" May" 2004." In" the" context" of" 2004" reform" the" responsibility" was" shifted" to" the" individual"unemployed"people"who"were"portrayed"as"being"given"hand"but"the" responsible" to" take" the" initiative" themselves." In" other" words," the" state" can" be" seen"as"setting"up"a"scheme"through"which"people"can"be"activated"if"they"show" an" effort" to" selfChelp." While" the" policies" of" Activation" Works" and" its" practical" implementation"on"the"local"level"came"under"criticism"in"political"and"academic" debates" (see" e.g." Oravec" and" Bošelová" 2006)," the" principle" of" activation" continued" to" underpin" further" state" reforms," as" well" as" international" intraC governmental"and"nonCgovernmental"organisation’s"project"(Hurrle"et"al."2012)."

Moreover," as" Škobla" (2011)" agues," this" development" coCexisted" simultaneously" with" trends" towards" rhetoric" of" punitive" paternalism" articulated" in" political" debates" and" public" policies" addressing" the" soCcalled" ‘Roma" question’." In" 2013/14,"Slovakian"government"introduced"further"reforms"completing"the"shift" towards" obligatory" welfare." These" changes" legally" anchored" the" enforced" participation"in"mostly"subpar"employment"as"a"precondition"for"public"support" of" the" longCterm" unemployed.15"If" ‘Work" pays’" motto" proposed" the" optional" activation," the" new" ‘Roma" reform’" forces" participation" in" workfare" in" order" to" deserve"the"state"benefits’"support."One"of"the"main"proponents"and"coCdesigner" of" the" reforms" in" 2013" was" the" plenipotentiary" for" Roma" communities" in" Slovakia."Criticising"all"the"previous"social"policy"measurements"as"ineffective,"he" frequently"characterises"the"reform"as"signalling"a"new"orientation"towards"the" philosophy" of" ‘no" pain," no" gain.’" The" reform" introduces" not" only" the" general" condition"for"unemployed"to"work"for"their"benefits,"but"it"also"gives"a"power"to" state" authorities" to" withdraw" the" state" support" in" case" of" children’s" high" absenteeism" in" school" attendance," lack" of" willingness" to" work," or" punitive" penalisation"of"public"offenses.""These"recent"changes"further"evidenced"the"shift," which" happened" between" 2004C2013." " While" the" principle" of" activation" was" initially" framed" as" a" tool" for" ‘reCsocialisation’" at" workplace" and" for" ‘reClearning" lost"working"habits’,"by"the"2013"it"has"become"a"tool"for"enforcing"the"poor"to" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 15"At"the"time"of"the"writing,"it"remains"unclear"how"these"reforms"get"implemented"and"work"in" practice"and"what"will"be"the"role"of"Activation"Works"in"these"new"conditions."

14" "

work"if"they"want"to"deserve"the"state’s"help"(cf."Škobla"2011)."Moreover,"the"setC up"of"activation"works,"similarly"to"the"examples"discussed"by"Sveta"Roberman" in" the" case" of" similar" schemes" in" Germany" (Roberman" 2014)," often" led" those" engaged"in"these"works"to"‘performances"of"the"seriousness"of"work’"and"acts"of" simulation"of"work"and"employability"(ibid.)." " Several" other" studies" discussed" the" concept" and" practices" of" ‘Activation" Works’" in" Slovakia" (Oravec" &" Bošelová" 2006;" van" Baar" 2011," 2012;" Kureková" Mýtna" 2013)."In"one"of"the"early"assessments"of"its"effects,"Oravec"and"Bošelová"(2006)" point" out" several" problematic" aspects." They" suggest" that" participation" in" the" Activation"Works"does"not"increase"chances"for"entering"the"labour"market"and" instead" results" into" a" ‘new" form" of" modern" slavery’" (2006:15)." The" Roma" employed"through"the"Activation"Works"continued"to"do"the"same"tasks"but"were" being"paid"much"less"due"to"their"enrolment"in"the"Activation"Works."Rather"than" helping" the" stigmatised" unemployed" the" Activation" Works" have" the" opposite" effect"by"cementing"their"position"at"the"bottom"of"the"social"ladder"by"assigning" the" heaviest" or" the" most" meaningless" jobs" to" the" Roma." Combining" Oravec" and" Bošelová’s" empirical" findings" (2006)" with" theoretical" studies" informed" by" Foucault’s" notion" of" governmentality" (Foucault" 1991)," Huub" van" Baar" argues" that"the"failure"to"deliver"the"proposed"goals"the"Activation"Works:" actually" function" as" a" form" of" ethnicityCbased" neoCliberal" governmentality" that" racialises" postC" communist" class" formations," naturalises" ethnic" differences" and" maintains," rather" than" reduces," ‘the" habits’" of" the" majority" to" subChumanise" or" even"dehumanise"the"Roma"(van"Baar"2012:1297)"

In" his" view," the" bioCpolitics" of" Activation" Works" had" ‘dehumanising" effects’" on" the"already"marginalized"Roma"who"were"constructed"as"subjects"of"neoCliberal" governance" of" Slovak" state" and" forced" to" perform" the" deeply" ingrained" stereotypes"as"lazy"and"workshy"by"participation"in"the"Activation"Works."This," in" turn," contributed" to" their" racialization" as" simultaneously" inCactive" and" exploitable"labourers"rather"than"to"their"proclaimed"socioCeconomic"mobilities."

Van" Baar" develops" some" conceptual" tools" and" theoretical" frameworks" through" which"we"could"examine"the"Activation"Works"in"relation"to"wider"socioCpolitical" 15" "

process" and" what" he" calls" ‘neoCliberal" governmentality’." However," his" account" does"not"provide"more"empirically"grounded"examples"of"how"do"those"who"are" the"subjects"of"these"policies,"how"are"they"located"and"how"do"they"respond"to" their" practical" implementation" on" the" local" level." 16 "While" van" Baar’s" work" provides"theoretically"sophisticated"account,"he"does"not"address"how"the"local" hierarchies"and"power"relationships"in"particular"localities"influence"the"ways"in" which"the"Activation"Works"operate"and"how"state"operates"on"different"scales."

Rather" than" contributing" to" the" theoretical" debates" regarding" neoCliberal" governmentality," in" the" rest" of" this" paper" I" aim" to" focus" on" the" experiential" dimensions"of"the"Activation"Works"as"they"relate"to"their"subjects’"struggles"to" navigate"in"the"highly"uncertain"terrains"of"socioCeconomic"changes"and"broader" reCengineering" of" the" state" on" the" local" scales." Moreover," I" will" investigate" how" particularly" racialised" section" of" Slovak" society" participating" in" the" activation" workfare" find" themselves" under" the" increasing" pressure" to" earn" and" deserve" their"social"support"and"social"citizenship"amidst"the"socioCeconomic"crisis"and" further"reproduction"of"their"marginalized"location." " ETHNOGRAPHIC) FINDINGS:) COMPARATIVE) PERSPECTIVES) ON) TWO) LOCALITIES) IN) EAST) SLOVAKIA)

In" what" follows" I" try" to" ethnographically" unpack" some" of" the" key" issues" and" themes"encountered"during"my"research."For"the"sake"of"clarity"in"presenting"my" findings," I" delineate" several" perspectives" reflecting" particular" locations" within" the" social" space;" mayors," social" and" community" workers," coordinators," and" people" participating" in" the" Activation" Works." I" reconstruct" these" views" and" experiences" for" the" purposes" of" analysis" and" interpretation" here." These" categories"do"not"reflect"any"clearCcut"divisions"and"homogenous"groups"in"the" social"reality."In"fact,"they"are"often"ambiguous,"shifting"and"conflictual."And"I"try" to" show" the" similarities" but" also" point" out" differences" within" the" particular"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 16"But"see"Kurekova"et"al."(2013)"research,"which"provides"one"of"the"most"comprehensive"

evaluation"of"Activation"Works"based"on"original"empirical"research"to"date."However,"even"their" report"suffers"from"a"lack"of"observational"data"and"the"main"bulk"of"data"comes"from"interviews" and"desk"research"whereby"largely"ignoring"some"historically"constituted"hierarchies."

16" "

categories" in" relation" to" individual" trajectories" and" positions" within" the" social" space." " 1.)From)the)mayors’)point)of)view)and)uses)of)Activation)Work(:ers):) Acts) of) compassion,) actions) of) meaningful) work) or) grey) zones) of) exploitation?)

The"perspectives"of"individual"mayors"concerning"the"uses"and"meaningfulness" of" the" Activation" Works" varied" depending" on" their" particular" social" location," historical" trajectory" and" politicalCcumCmoral" orientation." In" both" Rijava" and" Tarkovce," the" mayors" have" been" actively" participating" in" the" local" political" sphere" since" the" late" socialist" period." Both" have" a" very" good" knowledge" of" the" local" villagers" and" were" embedded" within" various" local" hierarchies" and" power" factions," which" contributed" to" the" selection" of" possible" candidates" and" to" the" ways" in" which" they" managed" and" used" the" Activation" Works" in" their" localities."

Considering"its"smaller"size,"the"mayor"of"Rijava"knew"most"of"its"inhabitants"and" also" played" a" more" central" figure" in" organising" and" supervising" the" Activation" Works."" " The"two"mayors"illustrate"different"approaches"in"utilising"the"Activation"Works."

Although"both"used"the"activation"workers"for"maintaining"order"and"cleaning"of" public"spaces"inside"the"villages,"the"mayor"of"Rijava"also"deployed"the"activation" workers" as" cheap(Cer)" labour" force" for" more" qualified" tasks." As" he" puts" it:" ‘I’m" using"them"for"everything"–"even"qualified"jobs."Here"who"wants"(to"work)"I"can" employ.’"In"contrast"to"many"villages"where"activation"workers"spend"long"hours" brushing" streets" several" times" a" week," the" Activation" Works" in" Rijava" led" to" construction" of" new" playground" for" children," a" small" wooden" bridge," a" new" graves"at"the"local"cemetery,"or"a"creation"of"new"park"with"wooden"seats."As"he" proudly" emphasises," all" this" was" done" only" with" the" help" of" ‘the" ones" on" activation"(works).’"He"saw"the"uses"of"activation"workers"in"meaningful"ways"as" positive:"‘Rather"than"paying"some"‘foreign’"[i.e."nonClocal]"companies"big"money," I" will" train" them" [i.e." activation" workers]" myself" and" then" do" these" things" with" them."I"train"them"and"they"can"do"even"these"types"of"jobs.’"The"mayor"criticised" the" financial" incentives" provided" through" the" Activation" Works" and" even" ‘felt" 17" "

sorry" for" them" –" that" they" are" paying" them" so" little" and" one" has" to" still" chase" them" ’" But" he" also" suggested" that" he" could" employ" even" more" people:" ‘I" would" employ"them"without"any"problem."There"is"a"work"(to"be"done"in"the"village).’""

These" material" outcomes" of" Activation" Works" were" positively" appreciated" by" most"of"the"Rijava"villagers,"and"even"some"of"the"activation"workers"themselves" saw"the"outcomes"of"their"efforts"as"doing"at"least"some"meaningful"works."" " In" practice," it" also" meant" that" the" mayor" could" replace" the" more" expensive" service"providers"and"companies"with"the"cheap"and"exploitable"labour"force"of" the" activation" workers." The" issue" of" exploitation" was" also" highlighted" by" a" number"of"activation"workers"who"were"aware"of"the"fact"that"the"same"type"of" jobs"are"paid"much"better"on"formal"and"informal"labour"markets."At"times,"they" also"suggested"that"the"mayor"is"too"demanding"and"ask"for"too"much"work"for"a" person."One"of"his"selfCinvented"regulatory"mechanisms"to"measure"work"results" was"to"divide"work"and"assign"allCyear"maintenance"of"particular"spatial"unit"in" the"village"for"individual"activation"workers.""In"other"words,"an"individual"has"to" cut" the" grass," collect" rubbish" or" remove" snow" in" a" particular" public" area" of" the" village"for"which"they"were"responsible."Individual"workers"are"given"the"task"to" be" responsible" for" cleaning" and" maintaining" one" spatial" unit" in" the" village" over" an"extended"period"of"time."He"explained"this"as"an"easy"way"in"which"one"makes" sure"that"‘they"work’"and"‘I"can"control"it"easily.’"The"issue"of"control"was"seen"as" important" because" ‘if" you" wouldn’t" control" them," they" wouldn’t" work.’" His" individualised" assignments," however," were" also" a" site" of" contention" as" some" of" the" activation" workers" complained" about" the" hard" work" and" demands" without" considering" gender," age" or" health" situation" of" the" workers." For" example," one" woman"complained"to"me"that"she"had"to"‘work"as"hard"as"man."This"is"a"hard"job" –"even"men"have"difficulties"to"keep"up.’"" " In"contrast"to"Rijava,"the"situation"in"Tarkovce"differed"in"several"aspects"as"most" of" the" Activation" Works" were" focusing" on" the" cleaning" of" public" areas" of" the" village"and"mostly"consisted"of"lowCskilled"menial"tasks."For"the"more"qualified" jobs,"the"mayor"employed"a"team"of"workers"on"regular"contracts"(none"of"which" was" Roma)." " Although" they" differed" in" the" actual" deployment" of" activation" 18" "

workers" for" more" qualified" jobs," the" mayors" and" their" village" share" some" similarities." One" of" the" striking" similarities" was" the" rhetorical" denial" of" ethnicisation"of"the"issue"of"activation,"which"was"almost"instantly"accompanied" by"the"differentiating"criteria"a"willingness"to"work."This"was"despite"the"fact"that" the"majority"of"activation"workers"in"both"localities"were"Roma."For"example,"the" mayor" in" Rijava" summed" this" up" as:" ‘I" don’t" have" any" Gypsies" here…" if" people" want"to"work,"I"give"them"work.’"" " This" line" of" reasoning" was" also" resonating" with" the" perspective" of" Tarkovce’s" mayor" who," in" response" to" my" explanations" regarding" my" research" context," asserted:" ‘We’ve" got" no" problem" here." We" don’t" make" any" differences" [i.e." between" Roma" and" nonCRoma]" here." I" only" have" good" and" bad" people.’" As" I" nodded,"she"continued:"" You" know" how" hard" working" our" Roma" are" and" we" have" no" problems" here…" I" don’t" have" here" these" backward" and" inadaptable" Gypsies" [as" other" municipalities" do]." We" only" have" few" families" that" are" problematic." " But" our" Roma"have"always"worked…"whether"they"were"going"to"Czech"Republic,"doing" fušky17!at"home"or"now"going"to"England."They"always"wanted"to"work."

" She"reiterated"the"same"positive"words"for"how"they"manage"activation"schemes" in"Tarkovce.""She"then"continued"by"confining"in"me"with"almost"whispering"‘just" between" me" and" you," I" wouldn’t" need" that" many" positions" for" that" amount" of" work"that"is"here"(i.e."in"Tarkovce),"but"I"pity"them.’"She"referred"to"employing"a" greater"amount"of"workers"in"the"‘activation"schemes’"than"it"would"be"necessary" for"the"tasks"and"amount"of"work"they"were"doing"but"felt"pity"considering"the" poverty" conditions" and" joblessness" of" the" poorest" families.18"" And" yet," only" few" minutes"later,"she"commented"to"me"in"a"more"critical"and"worried"tone:" "

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

17"Fušky"refer"to"oneCoff"informal"types"of"jobs"(generic"term"including"all"kinds"of"jobs"located"

outside"of"the"official"labour"market)."

18"The"amount"of"workers"differed"significantly"from"locality"to"locality"and"depended"on"the"local" politics"of"the"municipality."Some"mayors"in"Spiš"region,"for"example,"were"accused"of"employing" too"many"Roma"without"a"real"need"and"without"them"actually"attending"the"Activation"Works" regularly."Such"‘abuses"of"Activation"Works’"were"often"reported"to"the"higher"institutions"and" resulted"in"fueling"political"debates"and"strengthening"of"surveillance"modes"from"the"side"of" monitoring"institutions."

19" "

But" you" know" how" they" are." A" person" would" have" to" ‘stand" above" them’" [invigilating]"them"all"the"time."They"work"one"hour"and"already"want"to"have"a" break."They"work"a"tiny"bit"and"would"already"want"to"go"home."

" This"encounter"with"the"mayor"is"telling"on"several"counts."It"draws"our"attention" to" ambiguities" surrounding" particular" ways" in" which" Roma" are" constructed" as" economically" ‘inactive’" in" public" discourses." It" also" highlights" a" denial" of" ‘problem’" implying" a" ‘Roma" problem’," or" problems" between" a" Roma" and" nonC Roma" whereby" reCinscribing" the" dichotomous" logic" of" two" collectivities" and" philosophy" of" moral" behaviourism." On" one" hand," the" mayor" recognises" the" hardening"prospects"of"everyday"economic"precariousness"and"uncertainties"and" acknowledges"how"difficult"it"is"to"get"by"for"the"poorest."She"draws"an"attention" to"the"historical"experiences"and"practices"of"work"and"labour"practiced"by"the" local" Tarkovce" Roma," which" points" rather" to" the" constant" ways" of" finding" new" economic" niches" rather" than" passive" ‘inactivity’." She" openly" mentions" the" coC existence"of"various"informal"jobs"(fušky)"as"a"legitimate"economic"strategy."She" is"well"aware"of"how"most"people"in"East"Slovakia,"practiced"by"Roma"and"nonC Roma" alike," frequently" combine" various" forms" of" income" within" the" blurred" boundaries"between"informality"and"formality."She"also"expresses"a"compassion" with"the"poor"Roma"eliciting"empathic"understanding"of"their"situation"and"thus" incorporating"more"persons"in"the"Activation"Works"than"she"‘realistically"needs’" for" that" type" of" jobs." Her" use" of" the" notion" of" pity" and" compassion" also" reveals" some" of" the" criteria" in" selecting" participants" based" on" her" definition" of" ‘neediness’" (as" well" as" deservingness" and" proactive" willingness" to" work)." Her" words"also"highlights"the"way"in"which"she"conceptualises"the"Activation"Works" as" rather" useless" works" that" could" be" done" by" smaller" number" of" person."

Although" pitying" ‘them’," she" also" raised" moralizing" critique" regarding" their" (i.e."

Roma)" work" ethics" and" working" habits." In" doing" so," thus," she" inadvertently" reproduces" and" reCdraws" a" line" between" the" deserving" and" undeserving" poor" occupying" particular" subject" positions" visCàCvis" the" state" structures." She" clearly" ascribes" moral" characteristics" to" the" longCterm" unemployed" Roma" and" evokes" the" necessity" of" constant" surveillance" and" techniques" of" control" if" ‘they’" are" to" work.""

20" "

" 2.)Within)the)state)but)outside)of)the)mayors’)power:)perspectives)of)other) officials)) Despite"the"key"role"of"mayors"in"managing"and"using"the"Activation"Works,"it"is" important"to"introduce"perspectives"of"other"state"actors"who"are"participating" in" this" social" field" and" who" often" provided" bridge" between" the" authority" of" the" mayors"on"the"local"level"and"regional"and"state"levels"(e.g."as"they"were"part"of" the" Fund" of" Social" Development’s" funding" coordinated" on" the" nationCwide" and" regional"levels)."I"will"do"this"by"contrasting"views"of"the"regional"coordinator"of" EU" supported" Fund" for" Social" Development" with" the" views" of" local" community" worker"in"Tarkovce."They"represent"other"perspectives"not"easily"fitting"within" the" narratives" of" the" mayors" and" are" also" not" directly" shaped" by" their" relationship"to"the"mayors." " When"I"discussed"the"role"of"activation"with"the"community"worker"in"Tarkovce," she"was"very"critical"in"her"appraisal:" Look,"all"these"people"who"are"(employed)"on"the"activation"(works),"they"won’t" be"working"anyway."All"these"(talks)"that"they"acquire"working"habits"C"it"is"not" truth."These"people"are"attending"(the"Activation"Works)"because"they"want"to" earn"the"60"or"so"EURO"in"addition"to"their"benefit."But"there"is"nothing"more."

These"are"people"who"wouldn’t"be"able"to"get"employed"elsewhere."You"see,"for" example" often" (these" are)" women" in" their" 50s" or" that" kind" (of" people)." But" globally19"these"activation"(works)"do"not"have"any"meanings."It’s"about"nothing." "

She"pointed"out"to"what"she"saw"as"the"hard"facts"reality,"which"shows"that"there" is" no" correlation" between" one’s" participation" in" Activation" Works" and" the" increasing"possibilities"of"finding"a"job"on"legal"market."Being"a"nonCRoma"Slovak" herself" from" the" area," she" considered" their" chances" minimal" given" the" multiplicity" of" factors" putting" them" into" disadvantaged" position" in" their" search" for"entering"legal"markets."It"was"their"age"and"social"position,"which"she"evoked."

‘Aside" from" that," they" are" Gypsies" so" who" is" going" to" employ" them’," she" acknowledged" the" racialised" stigma" as" yet" another" hurdle" in" finding" a" job." She" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 19"This"is"an"exact"translation"but"its"meaning"in"English"is"closer"to"‘generally’."

21" "

suggested" that" the" situation" in" East" Slovakia" was" so" desperate" that" even" a" qualified" worker" with" years" of" experiences" would" find" it" difficult" to" get" a" job."

What" has" come" to" be" a" more" popular" strategy" was" a" labour" migration" as" an" alternative" to" joblessness" or" underpaid" jobs" (in" a" better" case" scenario). 20" Working" for" several" years" with" Tarkovce" Roma," she" observed" that" ‘those" who" could," they" have" already" departed" (towards" the" UK).’" In" contrast" to" those" who" could"afford,"or"those"who"were"helped"by"others,"to"migrate,"the"participants"in" the"Activation"Works"belonged"to"those"classed"as"the"‘socially"weaker’"Roma"in" the"village"or"elderly"who"would"find"it"difficult"to"migrate."" )) But" the" perspectives" of" one" of" the" local" community" workers" come" to" stark" contrast"with"the"ones"of"her"direct"job"superior,"a"regional"coordinator"of"Social" Development" Fund" (SDF)." In" one" of" our" discussions" regarding" the" effects" of" ‘Activation"Works’,"he"suggested"that:" It" was" a" financial" contribution" for" the" family" budget." I" think" it’s" a" good" tool" of" active"social"politics."Persons"who"were"employed"[in"Activation"Works]"did"not" lose"their"working"habits."This"is"needed"in"case"they"would"find"a"normal"fullC time" employment." To" put" it" simply:" they" didn’t" lose" the" practice" (nevyšli! ze! cviku)."Another"bonus"is"that"a"family"can"benefit"financially"and"if"both"dad"and" mother"are"working,"then"it’s"a"fairly"good"for"family"in"material"need."Another" asset"is"also"the"fact"that"a"person"who"works,"or"just"attends"a"school,"is"simply" moving" around" people," which" is" good" for" his" psyche." It" is" better" than" sitting" at" home"and"having"the"same"cycle."

" Being"a"young"Roma"himself"with"University"degree"who"has"worked"in"various" NGOs," local" municipalities" and" also" had" a" short" stint" of" working" in" the" UK" in" order" to" learn" English" after" which" he" returned" back" to" East" Slovakia" with" his" family," he" differed" in" his" trajectory" from" the" majority" of" unemployed" Roma" in" Slovakia." He" has" never" been" longCterm" unemployed" and," regardless" of" whether" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 20"Her"perspectives"were"related"to"her"own"trajectory."Being"a"mother"of"two"teenage"sons,"she"

and"her"husband"found"it"difficult"to"support"the"household"despite"both"having"jobs."Her" husband"chose"to"exchange"his"underpaid"job"as"a"welder"for"working"in"a"pizzeria"in"the"UK."But" the"temporary"separation"with"his"work"in"England"and"her"staying"with"their"children"in" Slovakia"came"to"its"end"after"one"year"where"they"both"found"it"emotionally"strenuous"and" financially"not"too"beneficial"(contrary"to"their"initial"expectations"and"hopes"associated"with" migration)."

22" "

he" worked" in" the" human" right" or" social" office" sector," he" has" always" supported" himself"with"side"jobs"of"reCselling"smuggled"brand"design"goods"or"helping"with" admin"paperwork"tasks"for"small"monetary"rewards."But"being"confident"in"his" own" skills" stemming" from" his" upbringing," socioCeconomic" mobility" and" educational"trajectory,"he"transposed"this"underpinning"ideological"stance"to"the" other"Roma/Gypsies"who"lacked"his"accumulated"social"and"cultural"capitals,"of" having" contacts" with" various" institutions" and" being" seen" as" an" educated" and" capable" Roma," of" knowing" how" to" speak" with" the" institutions," and" of" knowing" how"to"behave."" " When" I" asked" him" what" does" he" think" about" the" financial" side" of" Activation" Works,"he"replied:"" As" for" the" (activation)" money" …" it" could" be" more," but" the" working" habits" it’s" really" true." I" don’t" know" if" you’ve" ever" been" in" such" a" state" in" which" you" were" unemployed" and" you" weren’t" even" studying" and" doing" anything." " A" person" (in" such" conditions)" welcomes" even" working" for" free" in" order" to" be" among" people" (collective)" and" to" have" some" kind" of" regime" of" getting" up," going" to" work," packing"a"snack,"etc."" "

The" view" that" people" gain" some" extra" additional" income" to" their" tight" monthly" budget" was" shared" by" all" participants" of" Activation" Works." In" contrast" to" his" vision," however," most" people" employed" in" Activation" Works" did" not" see" their" practices" in" terms" of" being" beneficial" for" maintaining" working" habits."

Additionally," the" effects" of" Activation" Works" on" the" chances" of" longCterm" unemployed"to"gain"a"full"time"employment"are"highly"dubious"as"most"of"them" did"not"find"any"longCterm"jobs"after"the"Activation"Works.""It"is"the"daily"social" organisation" of" the" Activation" Works" and" the" experiences" of" those" who" coordinated" these" works," and" those" who" were" the" ultimate" targets" of" these" policies"and"participated"in"these"that"I"will"turn"now"in"the"next"sections."" " 3.) Everyday) politics) of) Activation) Works:) ‘coordinating’,) in:between(ness)) and)reproduction)of)local)hierarchies)

23" "

When"referring"to"the"constant"necessity"to"‘stand"over’"and"invigilate"how"Roma" perform" at" their" Activation" Works," the" mayor" of" Tarkovce" also" told" me:" ‘Thank" God,"I"have"a"Gejza"who"keeps"an"eye"on"them.’""Gejza,"an"older"Roma"man"in"his" 50s," was" also" formally" registered" as" unemployed" and" was" also" working" on" ‘Activation"Works’"but"unlike"others,"he"was"given"more"supervisory"role"due"to" his"particular"social"relationship"with"the"mayor21,"and"a"historically"developed" status" of" more" ‘adaptable’" Roma" dating" back" to" socialist" times." He" knew" the" mayor"for"a"long"time,"as"well"as"lived"in"a"closed"proximity"to"her.22"Although"he" returned" from" England" only" relatively" recently," he" was" a" part" of" the" local" municipality" committee," supporting" and" even" convincing" Roma" to" vote" for" the" mayor"during"the"last"elections."Prior"to"migrating"to"Britain"in"2006,"he"used"to" work" as" a" foreman" for" a" construction" company" run" by" one" Tarkovce" Roma" businessman." " All" his" children" live" in" Great" Britain." He" considered" his" stay" in" Tarkovce" only" as" a" temporary" one:" ‘only" for" my" wife" to" get" better’" after" her" recent" medical" operation" and" ‘to" arrange" few" things" at" home," install" an" alarm" system"protecting"his"the"house"from"burglaries’"in"his"absence"after"he"will"reC join"his"children"and"their"families"in"Britain."Given"his"trusting"relationship"with" the" mayor," it" was" mainly" Gejza" who" was" instructed" by" the" mayor" and" acted" as" her"extended"hand"in"organizing"the"routine"daily"tasks"and"assigned"particular" works" to" people" on" ‘Activation" Works’." He" not" only" supervised" the" activation" workers"and"oversaw"their"work"performances,"but"also"helped"with"work"when" needed"–"some"times"even"outside"of"working"hours"or"weekends"if"needed,"as"he" was" keen" to" emphasise" as" a" prove" of" his" loyalty," reliability" and" an" indicator" of" being" a" good" worker" (which" can" be" extended" to" the" understanding" of" moral" citizen)." "

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

21"This"arrangement,"however,"has"been"rather"exceptional"in"comparison"with"other"localities"

with"Activation"Works."Most"of"the"supervisors"in"the"Activation"Works"have"been"usually"nonC Roma"Slovaks."For"example,"this"was"the"case"in"Rijava."Even"in"Tarkovce"Gejza"was"paired"in"his" supervisory"role"with"a"nonCRoma"Slovak"woman."

22"His"family"belonged"to"the"segment"of"Tarkovce"Roma"who"took"up"state"loans"during"socialism" allowing"them"to"move"out"from"the"old"‘Gypsy"settlement’."Within"the"socialist"framework,"this" was"seen"as"voluntarily"abandoning"the"‘Gypsy"way"of"life’"characterized"by"‘backwardness’"(cf."

Grill"2014).""""

24" "

A"typical"day"at"the"Activation"Works"in"Tarkovce,"then,"begins"shortly"before"7" am" outside" of" the" local" municipality" building.23"Gejza," assisted" by" another" nonC Roma" lady24"from" the" village," fill" in" the" attendance" register" while" the" waiting" ‘activation" workers’" gather" in" smaller," spontaneously" formed" and" bustling" groupings"animated"by"lively"banter"and"teasing."After"the"tasks"are"distributed" and"allocated"to"smaller"working"groups"(frequently"called"partijas),"workers"are" given"tools."Each"individual"is"hold"responsible"for"the"tools."At"the"end"of"their" working" days," they" must" return" their" tools." This" individualization" of" responsibilities,"I"was"told"by"the"nonCRoma"Slovak"woman"who"was"partnering" Gejza"in"the"supervisory"role,"has"twofold"role"of"making"sure"that"‘nothing"goes" missing"at"the"end"of"the"day’,"and"of"instilling"and"creating"a"sense"of"individual" responsibility" and" care" for" things." " These" two" are" inevitably" intertwined" and" reflect" the" corrective" ideological" underpinning" of" seeing" Roma" subjects" as" less" responsible"(so"that"they"would"leave"or"lost"their"things),"or"as"prone"to"stealing" (circulating" in" the" forms" of" stories" of" individual" thefts" of" tools" or" a" gas)," or" as" having" less" skilful" bodies" (as" lacking" or" losing" working" habits)" that" might" lead" into"a"breaking"the"tools."This"illustrates"an"important"aspect"of"this"supervisory" workfare" guided" by" the" moral" and" practical" efforts" to" ‘correct’" the" conduct" and" behaviour" of" their" targeted" participants" (Wacquant" 2012:208)." Thus," the" supervisory" role" in" Activation" works" operates" simultaneously" as" disciplinary," corrective"and"educational."Additionally,"these"roles"and"power"hierarchies"were" often" exemplified" by" the" unequal" distribution" of," and" invigilation" of" practical" performances" of" actual" work," in" which" the" more" expensive" tools" tended" to" be" preferentially" given" to" nonCRoma" workers." At" the" same" time," they" were" exemptions"to"the"rule"and"several"Roma"workers"earned"a"reputation"of"skilled" workers"who"were"then"trusted"with"working"with"more"expensive"tools." " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 23"The"organisation"of"Activation"Works"in"Tarkovce"and"Rijava"are"largely"similar."The"only"

difference"is"the"smaller"amount"of"Activation"Workers"in"Rijava"due"to"its"smaller"size,"the"nonC Roma"coordinator,"and"also"frequently"more"individually"assigned"working"tasks"in"Rijava."In" Tarkovce,"most"of"the"participants"work"in"smaller"groups"(partija)."

24"Both"Gejza"and"her"were"also"registered"as"‘activation"workers’"but"both"enjoyed"more" privileged"position"with"the"mayor."In"the"case"of"the"Slovak"female"supervisor,"the"mayor" employed"her"temporary"in"this"position"after"she"lost"her"job"in"the"dairy"and"was"struggling" financially"as"a"single"mother"of"four"children."The"mayor"employed"her"in"the"Activation"Works" in"order"to"help."

25" "

The" division" of" activation" workers" into" smaller" groups" and" distribution" of" assigned" tasks" can" reveal" particular" connections" made" alongside" different" vectors" of" difference" and" embedded" within" local" hierarchies" and" forms" of" relationships."Consideration"of"gender"differences"played"the"most"obvious"role" in"the"basic"distribution"of"work."For"example,"while"groups"of"women"were"sent" to" water" the" flowers" in" public" spaces" and" for" sweeping" the" streets," men" were" frequently" assigned" physically" more" demanding" tasks" such" as" digging," construction" works" at" the" local" cemetery" or" cutting" grass" with" a" scythe." But," at" times,"the"division"of"types"of"work"and"its"spatial"distribution"in"the"locality"also" reflected" the" preCexisting" local" hierarchies" and" intersected" with" other" power" asymmetries" and" categories" of" difference." Some" of" the" poorest" and" socioC symbolically" most" marginalised" Roma" participating" in" the" Activation" Works," which" occupied" very" low" status" in" the" village" and" also" suffered" from" weaker" connections" with" mayors" or" coordinators," were" frequently" assigned" tasks" considered"as"the"least"desirable"and"frequently"symbolically"humiliating"by"the" participants." They" were" also" less" trusted" in" assigning" tools." These" were" the" participants"who"were"recruited"out"of"‘compassion’"(because"in"other"everyday" contexts" they" were" often" seen" as" ‘lost" cases’)," to" paraphrase" the" mayor’s" sentiment."Magdalena,"a"woman"in"her"late"30s,"was"a"clear"case"in"point."Having" an"alcoholic"husband"and"involved"in"constant"troubles"with"social"workers"due" to" the" high" absenteeism," accusations" of" lacking" basic" hygienic" standards" and" general" neglect" of" her" children" (one" of" which" was" taken" from" her" by" the" social" services),"she"was"often"seen"as"a"fool"or"as"one"of"the"‘worst"social"cases’"in"the" village."Her"marginal"status"was"also"reflected"in"the"types"of"tasks"she"was"often" repeatedly" given," such" as" picking" up" rubbish" with" her" bare" hands." Magdalena" was" often" treated" as" useless" for" other" kinds" of" works" C" other" than" picking" up" rubbish"–"both"by"other"workers"and"municipality"workers"assigning"the"tasks."

As"another"participants"pointed"out:"‘Look"at"her."She"has"to"pick"up"all"the"worst" rubbish"with"her"(bare)"hands."They"won’t"even"give"her"(protective)"gloves"and" they"are"getting"money"for"that.’"Picking"up"different"kinds"of"rubbish"from"the" streets" only" with" one’s" bare" hands" and" plastic" bag" was" seen" as" dirty" and" humiliating," as" well" as" potentially" dangerous." This" comment" is" telling" as" it" encapsulates" a" critique" of" differential" treatment" and" unequal" distribution" in" 26" "

assigning" tasks" but" also" the" assumed" lack" of" values" ascribed" to" the" lives" of" the" most" impoverished" and" marginalised" reflected" in" the" failure" to" provide" them" with"some"elementary"safety"tools,"such"as"gloves,"for"carrying"out"these"works" (despite"having"the"resources"to"do"so)."" " In"addition"to"the"local"hierarchies"of"worth"corresponding"to"the"types"of"work," its" heaviness" and" relative" easiness," dirtiness" and" cleanliness," the" allocation" of" spatial"location"for"work"(i.e."for"cleaning)"presented"another"contentious"issue."

One"of"the"least"desirable"jobs"to"be"given"to"the"Roma"was"the"cleaning"of"Hukot," the"stigmatised"Gypsy"neighbourhood"lying"at"the"margins"of"the"village,"streets" and"surroundings."This"was"especially"the"case"for"those"whose"families"did"not" live"in"the"area"and"who"considered"themselves"as"socially"‘on"a"better"level’"and" civilizationally" ‘more" advanced’." These" participants" often" considered" the" cleaning"‘after"the"Gypsies’"as"rather"humiliating."While"for"the"majority"of"nonC Roma" in" the" village" this" work" was" simply" a" matter" of" ‘sending" the" Gypsies" to" clean" after" themselves’," for" the" Roma" themselves" this" was" one" of" the" most" humiliating"jobs"as"they"had"to"clean"‘after"the"(other)"Gypsies’"(whom"they"often" saw" as" ‘disorderly’)" and" were" also" exposed" to" the" omnipresent" gazes" and" frequent" teasing" and" mocking" comments" of" the" Roma" residing" in" the" area." In" these" categorisations," some" of" the" Roma" clearly" differentiated" themselves" from" the" stigmatised" category" by" transposing" the" stigma" of" Gypsyness" to" other" ‘Gypsies’"and"internalised"the"dominant"representations." " When" Gejza" took" me" around" the" village" in" the" footsteps" of" the" activation" workers," he" often" embraced" a" discourse" resembling" that" of" the" mayor" pointing" out"how"‘you"have"to"constantly"bike"around"to"check"on"them"if"they"are"really" working.’"He"cycles"from"one"partija!of"workers"to"another"in"order"to"monitor" their" work." Sometimes" the" mayor" also" comes" to" check." And" couple" of" times," he" says:"‘we"also"had"sociálka"(labour"office"inspector"from"regional"town)"coming" and"imagine"what"a"problem"would"it"be"if"they"would"find"that"not"all"of"them" are"at"work.’"His"comment"highlighted"the"nested"hierarchies"at"work"in"the"case" of" Activation" Works." He" is" coordinating" and" overseeing" the" actual" performance" and"delivery"of"work."He"is"worried"that"the"mayor"might"come"to"criticise"him," 27" "

or" that" even" someone" from" the" regional" labour" office" might" pay" an" unexpected" visit." This" atmosphere" of" constant" alertness" on" different" levels" of" Activation" Works," from" the" ordinary" activation" clients" to" the" mayors," has" developed" in" recent" years" with" the" state" apparatuses" shifting" towards" more" disciplinary" mechanism" and" surveillance" controls." During" my" first" fieldwork" in" Tarkovce" between" 2006C2008," the" organisation" was" more" flexible" and" the" local" municipalities" often" had" particular" modes" of" arrangements" allowing" the" activation"workers"to"do"other"things."Rather"than"coming"every"day"for"4"hours" of" work," most" of" the" workers" were" allowed" to" come" only" twice" a" week" for" 8" hours" per" day." This" arrangement" allowed" better" organisation" of" time" for" the" activation"workers"and"left"them"with"greater"spaces"of"possibilities"for"working" in"various"informal"jobs."However,"this"flexibility"and"space"of"negotiation"shrank" and"practically"disappeared"by"2013"as"the"Activation"Works"came"under"greater" scrutiny"and"state"surveillance"and"punitive"mechanisms."These"were"frequently" supported" by" various" gossips" and" stories" about" localities" in" which" registered" clients" on" Activation" Works" do" not" actually" come" to" work" and" only" receive" the" activation"allowances"for"their"‘fictional’"work.25" " This" increasing" disciplining" and" controlling" of" the" Activation" Works" permeated" not"only"the"level"of"workers"but"also"of"municipalities"reflected"larger"shifts"in" Slovakia"(as"outlined"elsewhere"in"this"text)."When"one"day,"three"of"the"workers" did" not" show" up," Gejza" told" me:" ‘we" should" tick" them" absence" but" what" should" we"do?’"Gejza"wanted"to"clarify"this"dilemma"with"their"absences"a"bit"more:"‘but" you"don’t"know"what"has"happened"to"them."It"can"be"that"they"have"a"sick"child" and" have" to" go" to" hospital." Or," that" the" man" got" drunk" and" can’t" come." So" I’d" rather" take" my" bike" and" go" to" find" out" why" didn’t" they" come" today.’" If" Gejza’s" approach" allowed" for" considering" particular" circumstances" leading" into" work" absences," the" general" trend" in" Slovakia" was" to" deploy" lower" (or" zero)" level" of" tolerance" for" absences" and" missing" three" times" without" an" authorised" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

25"A"good"case"in"point"illustrating"this"logic"can"be"found"in"political"debates."For"example,"a"

politician"Lucia"Nicholsonova"emphasized"that"the"abuses"of"the"welfare"and"workfare"systems"in" Slovakia"as"a"symptomatic"of"the"constant"failure"of"the"state"policies"of"activation"in"practice."See" e.g."https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iCTR8yixjG4;"or," https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9BRpCVyrX8U""

28" "

permission"can"lead"to"the"removal"from"the"activation"schemes."This"tendency" towards" ‘heavyCfist’" approach" (see" Hurrle" et" al." 2012:" 77C80)" seems" to" be" replicated" on" various" scales" of" functioning" of" Slovak" state" in" relation" to" the" governing" of" minorities." At" times," some" mayors" seem" to" embrace" this" position" and"the"only"way,"which"‘works"with"them’"(ibid.)."" " Gejza’s"daily"works"also"highlighted"his"ambiguous"feelings"about"the"volume"of" assigned" work" in" light" of" the" financial" rewards" linked" to" the" Activation" Works."

While"he"repeatedly"suggested"that"‘one"has"to"constantly"watch"out"(if"they"are" working)’" and" that" ‘some" of" them" don’t" even" want" to" work.’" His" remarks" resonated" with" some" of" the" dominant" tropes" of" moral" behaviourism" present" in" the" public" discourses." And" yet," as" he" puts" it," switching" into" Romani" language" after" talking" to" me" mostly" in" Slovak" previously:" ‘but" what" can" you" ask" from" them?" For" this" amount" of" money," what" would" you" want" them" to" do?" I" only" tell" them"to"work"a"bit"and"then"let"them"take"breaks….it’s"impossible"to"live"out"of" this"miserable"support.’"The"activation"workers"often"take"smaller"breaks"and"eat" their"snacks.""Some"of"them,"if"working"close"to"their"homes,"stop"by"for"a"snack" at" home." His" comments" show" certain" ambiguity" present" in" his" vision" of" the" insufficient"forms"of"state"support"and"moral"failings"of"Roma"on"activations"in" their" work." During" my" research," I" constantly" noticed" his" movement" between" conflicting," switching" and" overlapping," forms" of" categorisations" of" work" and" assessment"of"activation"workers."He"wanted"to"be"seen"as"a"good"coordinator"in" the" eyes" of" the" mayor," often" embodied" in" his" management" skills" but" also" authority."At"the"same"time,"he"encouraged"the"activation"workers"only"to"work" so"they"do"their"bit"and"perform"being"good"workers."" " In" the" microcosm" of" Activation" Works" in" Tarkovce" in" the" summer" 2013," Gejza" acts"as"some"kind"of"coordinating"middleman,"between"different"Roma"working" in"the"Activation"Works"and"the"mayor.26"For"the"mayor,"he"acted"as"an"extended" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

26"It"must"be"noted"that"forms"of"relationship"to,"and"the"position"of"a"figure"coordinating"the"job"

tasks"assigned"to"people"at"Activation"works"was"crucial.""Although"Gejza"occupied"a"particular" position"within"a"village"hierarchy"and"forms"of"connections"to"the"mayor"and"other"nonCRoma" and"Roma,"another"man"replaced"him"after"he"returned"to"work"and"to"rejoin"his"family"living"in" England"later"during"the"year."The"new"‘supervisor’"faced"similar"conditions"of"maneuvering"

29" "

hand" with" the" necessary" authority" in" the" context" of" Activation" Works." For" the" Roma"workers,"it"was"important"that"they"maintained"a"good"relation"to"him"as" he"was"the"one"who"could"report"someone"not"working"well"(which"might"lead"to" a"loss"of"his"position);"or"he"could"help"with"ticking"one’s"presence"when"a"child" is"ill"or"a"person"got"oneCoff"job"elsewhere"–"with"all"these"scenarios"presenting"a" risk"of"having"to"miss"the"‘activation’"works."So"being"on"good"terms"with"Gejza," and"with"others"practically"coordinating"the"works"in"different"localities,"played" a"crucial"role"for"keeping"in"the"‘Activation"Works’.27"" " But" what" Gejza’s" role," experiences" and" views" also" highlight" ambiguities" surrounding" the" ‘Activation" Works’," which" were" played" out" on" different" scales."

This" ambiguities" are" clearly" illustrated" in" the" following" statement," which" I" recorded" in" different" versions" from" several" coordinators" and" also" one" mayor:" ‘but"I’m"not"asking"them"to"do"too"much…"if"only"they"would"want"only"a"bit,"then" everything"would"be"fine."If"they"would"just"do"things"when"they"should,"it’s"not" too"much"of"work"really.’"Similarly,"he"also"remarked"to"me"in"the"tone"carrying" out" certain" complicity:" ‘if" (only)" they" would" listen" to" me" and" work" accordingly," then"there"would"be"no"problem.’"His"perspective"is"telling"on"several"counts."It" suggests" that" Gejza" himself" does" not" think" of" the" Activation" works" as" not" very" motivating"or"effective"tools"to"fulfil"its"proclaimed"goals."He"does"not"consider" his"role"to"be"to"ask"people"to"work"too"hard."For"him,"this"is"almost"selfCevident" as" the" jobs" frequently" performed" by" Activation" works" are" relatively" slow," take" longer" to" complete," or" are" performed" by" larger" number" of" workers" (than" necessary" for" these" tasks)." The" statement" also" highlights" particular" forms" of" complicity" between" the" coordinator’s" expectations" of" performing" tasks" at" a" working" rhythm" punctuated" with" frequent" breaks," with" a" slower" pace" and" a" lower" intensity." This" could" be" summarised" in" the" way" that" some" the" workers" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" within"different"relationships"and"ambiguous"loyalties"to"other"Roma"and"to"the"mayor"and"other" municipality"workers.""

27"Being"on"good"terms"was"actually"often"described"by"a"particular"expression"and"gesture"–"‘on" kake"laha’"or"‘le"bossoha’"–"[gesture"of"tightly"crossing"fingers]"–"he"can"do"him"a"favour,"he"can" twist"the"relations"to"his"advantage,"give"a"leeway"–"this"type"of"relationship"is"important"for" getting"things"done"(so,"for"example,"Gejza"was"said"to"be"kake"close"with"the"mayor)."These" particular"forms"of"relationship"with"work"superior"did"not"apply"only"within"the"realm"of" Activation"works"or"local"municipality’s"politics"but"played"a"crucial"role"in"other"incomeC generating"practices."

30" "

would" be" asked" to" ‘get" their" job" done’" but" without" getting" ‘overworked’" (i.e." without"toiling"too"hard)."One"can"further"illustrate"this"by"the"fact"that"the"daily" work"was"divided"by"collective"tasks,"such"as"cleaning"up"of"certain"areas,"rather" than"by"working"hours"and"expectance"of"fullCintensity"work"during"these"time" slots." Upon" completing" their" tasks" assigned" for" each" ‘working" group’" in" the" morning," workers" often" rested," had" a" snack" or" just" sat" around" and" engaged" in" mutual"teasing,"banter"and"newsCcumCgossips"filling"the"time."When"seeing"that" the" tasks" for" the" day" were" completed" earlier" during" the" working" day," the" coordinators"would"frequently"tolerate"seeming"inactivity"and"allow"the"workers" to" chat" without" further" work" while" waiting" until" the" end" of" official" working" hours.""But"they"would"be"also"careful"not"to"allow"the"workers"to"be"too"visible" to" public" gaze" in" their" inactivity28"or" to" go" home" earlier" for" a" fear" that" the" superior"(i.e."mayor)"or"other"form"of"control"(from"regional"Labour"office).""As" one"of"the"coordinators"said:"‘Just"wait"a"bit"more"here"and"then"you"can"go"home" already.’""They"were"asked"to"stay"at"workplaces,"to"prolong"or"to"simulate"works" (after"already"finishing"what"they"were"asked"to"do)"or"just"to"wait"until"closer"to" the"end"of"their"working"hours." " Similar"forms"of"complicity"are"echoed"by"statements"such"as:"‘I"know"one"can’t" really"ask"them"for"much’"(as"another"municipality"worker"put"it);"or"‘work"so"it" is"good’."The"latter"expression"refers"to"an"order"of"working"in"a"way"that"is"‘good" enough’"to"everyone’s"satisfaction."This"can"often"mean"working"and"doing"a"lip" service"Cso"it"looks"‘good’."This"then"manifests"itself"not"only"in"the"practices"of" work" but" also" in" the" underlying" assumptions," to" some" varying" degrees" shared" between"Gejza"and"those"working"in"Activation"Works"schemes,"of"these"works" being"special"kind"of"jobs"with"no"particular"motivating"effects"and"largely"failing" to"attain"the"pedagogical"effects"of"‘reClearning"working"habits’"trumpeted"by"the" official"state"ideological"underpinning."" " Although" these" forms" of" emerging" complicity" was" to" some" extent" shared" between"the"mayorsCcoordinatorsCworkers,"there"were"also"limits"and"cracks"in" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 28"For"example,"sitting"alongside"the"main"road"in"the"center"of"the"village"during"the"expected"

‘working"time’"would"not"be"tolerated"for"a"fear"that"someone"could"inform"on"their"lack"of" working"and"inCactivity."

31" "

these"shared"meanings,"which"were"veiled"in"ambiguity"and"contested"depending" on"shifting"power"hierarchies"and"contexts."Some"workers"felt"that"Gejza"(or,"the" mayors" of" Tarkovce" and" Rijava)" was" too" demanding," pedantically" disciplining" and" generally" unnecessarily" bossing" around" due" to" his" power" position." Their" expectations" and" criteria" differed." The" workers" disagreed" with" what" is" the" acceptable" and" reasonable" amount" of" works" and" there" was" no" unified" perspective."At"times,"their"views"differed"greatly"from"those"of"the"coordinators" or"the"mayors."What"might"have"appeared"as"‘not"much"work’"for"some,"others" saw"as"‘too"much"work"for"the"alms"we’re"getting"(paid)"for"it’." " "The" power" asymmetries" framing" the" situation" and" everyday" encounters" led" to" some" workers" performances" of" good" work" in" the" presence" of" the" supervisory" gazes"(by"Gejza"or"mayors)"or"in"anticipation"of"their"arrival"to"the"workplace"in" order"to"control"the"results"of"work.""At"times,"one"could"overhear"the"workers"to" say:" ‘Gejza" will" come" soon" (to" our" work" place)," so" let’s" just" raked" this" bit" (of" park)" and" that’s" it’." These" comments" and" also" observable" differences" in" intensities" of" performed" work" (depending" on" the" presence/absence" of" supervisory" gaze)" seem" to" point" out" to" certain" types" of" occasional" ‘work" simulation’"on"the"side"of"some"workers"employed"in"the"Activation"Works.""" " In"her"work"on"postCSoviet"immigrants’"experiences"with"activation"schemes"in" Germany," Sveta" Roberman" (2014)" characterises" these" acts" of" simulation" as" ‘performances"of"the"seriousness"of"work’"by"those"participating"in"the"activation" projects."Activation"Works"in"Slovakia"did"not"entail"only"simulation"of"work"on" the" side" of" those" who" are" enrolled" in" these" programmes" but" crucially" also" implicated" those" who" were" in" supervisory" and" coordinating" roles" in" the" particular"forms"of"complicity."This"complicity"includes"an"additional"paradox"in" which" both" coordinator" and" the" supposedly" Activating" worker" knowing" that" these" works" will" not" help" them" to" get" jobs" on" formal" labour" market." " When" hearing" frequent" criticism" from" the" participants" of" Activation" works" about" the" pointless" directions" and" uselessness" of" these" activities," the" coordinators" and" mayors" often" retorted" that" they" are" ‘only" doing" what" they" told" us" to" do" in" Bratislava"[i.e."Slovakia’s"capital"city]."We"don’t"have"anything"to"do"with"this"and" 32" "

we’re"only"doing"what"we"were"asked"to"do.’"By"saying"this,"they"decentralised" responsibility" and" refracted" the" criticism" to" other" power" structures" and" highlighted"the"regional"and"ruralCurban"asymmetries"between"the"state’s"center" power"structures"and"its"marginal"borderlands.29"" " Gejza’s" vacillation" between" ascribing" the" moral" characteristics" to" the" longCterm" unemployed"(Roma)"and"the"somehow"pointless"and"hardly"motivating"nature"of" Activation" Works" provides" an" interesting" linkage" to" the" ways" in" which" the" dominant"nonCRoma"Slovak"villagers"(and"to"some"extent"also"the"Roma"who"did" not" participate" in" these" works," or" who" successfully" migrated)" perceived" the" Activation" Works." For" most" of" the" local" Slovaks," the" Activation" Works" were" generally" seen" as" rather" an" ineffective" activity." As" one" villager" put" it:" ‘I’m" not" saying"(anything"bad/no"offense"but)…"they"do"keep"the"village"clean"but"nothing" else" really" (that’s" about" it)’." If" there" were" some" positive" evaluations" of" the" outcomes"of"Activation"Works,"then"it"was"certainly"not"seen"the"potential"these" might" play" for" the" reCacquiring" the" soCcalled" ‘working" habits.’30"In" Rijava," the" effects"of"the"more"qualified"tasks"produced"by"the"Activation"Workers"certainly" contributed"to"the"more"positive"assessment"of"the"work"done"by"the"Roma."In" Tarkovce," however," most" of" the" tasks" and" the" general" rhythm" of" the" work," punctuated"by"the"breaks"and"repetition"of"jobs"seen"as"‘artificially"created’"for" the"sake"of"giving"the"Activation"Workers"some"kind"of"activity,"such"as"sweeping" of"streets"or"watering"flowers,"did"only"little"to"challenge"the"racialised"stigma"of" laziness" and" unskilled" labour" associated" with" the" Gypsies" in" general" public."

Rather," many" of" the" local" villagers" characterised" the" Activation" Works" dismissively" as" not" really" doing" much." In" certain" sense," their" representations" were"not"far"from"those"held"by"the"Roma"participants"of"the"Activation"Works" themselves"to"which"I"will"turn"next." """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

29"This"rhetorical"strategy"of"portraying"oneself"only"as"a"‘cog"in"the"machine’"also"produced"

particular"forms"of"powerlessness"in"articulating"critiques"of"the"activationClike"tools"of"policies," which"only"contributed"to"a"sense"of"‘endurance’"and"‘getting"on’"with"life"despite"the"draconian" reforms"and"forms"of"governance.""This"attitude"further"reinforced"and"legitimized"a" reproduction"of"societal"hierarchies"and"policies"imposed"from"the"Bratislava’s"center.""

30"In"fact,"most"of"them"ascribed"to"the"‘Gypsies’"innate"characteristics,"one"of"which"was"the" crafty"disposition"for"‘speculations’"(špekulanstvo)"displayed"through"the"stereotypical"image"of" ‘benefit"scrounging’,"avoidance"of"‘proper"work’"and"being"workshy"as"group"characteristics"in" general.""But,"on"an"individual"level,"most"have"made"distinctions"between"the"‘decent’"Roma"and" the"‘inadaptable’"Roma."

33" "

" 4.)Butji&pro&výboris:)Contested)meanings)of)labour,)work)and)activation) The"ordinary"Roma"participants"of"the"Activation"Works"did"not"usually"used"the" official" name" Activation" Works" (Aktivačné! práce)" and" rather" referred" to" these" works" as" butji! pro! výboris! (‘work" for" municipality" committee’31"in" Romani)" or" work" ‘at" the" municipality’" (robim! na! výbore/na! obci" in" Slovak)." The" Roma" employed" through" this" scheme" usually" made" distinction" between" what" they" considered"to"be"a"‘normal"work’"(normálno!butji)"and"‘Activation"Works’"(butji! pro! výboris)." When" asked" if" they" are" working" somewhere," most" of" my" interlocutors"replied:"‘No,"(I"am)"only"working"at"the"municipality.’"This"has"to"do" with" the" local" Roma" understanding" of" work32"than" with" the" alleged" distinction" between" informal" and" formal" labour" market." It" was" also" related" to" an" income" generating" activity" and" the" financial" valuation" and" earnings" one" can" secure" through" such" activities." Despite" the" popular" dominant" representations" of" Roma" as" illiterate" and" workshy," the" Roma" were" very" much" aware" of" how" much" one" could" earn" for" another" type" of" formal" or" informal" work" rather" than" ‘toiling" in" activations" for" nothing.’" From" these" perspectives," the" Activation" Works" did" not" appear" as" ‘proper" work’" (poriadna! robota)" and" were" ranked" as" additional" and" somehow"stable"contribution"to"the"family"income." " The"status"of"‘Activation"Works’"as"a"‘job’"was"veiled"with"ambiguities."Contrary" to" Oravec" and" Bošelová’s" argument" that" the" unemployed" Roma" saw" the" Activation"Works"as"an"equivalent"of"‘normal"work’"leading"them"to"not"actively" searching" for" work" on" formal" labour" market" (Oravec" &" Bošelová" 2006)," the" Roma" in" Tarkovce" and" Rijava" differed" in" their" categorisation" and" valuation" of" these" works." While" they" frequently" ended" up" in" a" relatively" longCterm" participation"in"the"Activation"Works,"this"was"not"due"to"seeing"these"works"as" equal"to"jobs"on"the"legal"labour"market."Rather,"given"the"lack"of"available"jobs" for"the"structurally"vulnerable"and"racially"stigmatised"Roma,"the"combination"of" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

31"The"notion"výboris!can"be"literally"translated"as"a"(municipality)"committee"but"its"uses"must"

be"traced"back"to"the"socialist"period"in"which"the"official"classification"referred"to"the"‘local" municipality"committees’"(Mestský!Narodni!Výbor!–!MNV)."

32"For"a"historical"development"of"the"Tarkovce"Roma"concepts"of"work"and"labour,"see"Grill" 2014."

34" "

social" benefits" and" activation" allowances," and" in" a" betterCcase" scenario," small" oneCoff"informal"jobs"for"the"more"skilful"and"wellCconnected,"often"meant"more" security" (albeit" a" very" fragile" one)." Unlike" in" Oravec" and" Bošelová’s" case," the" Roma"in"Rijava"and"Tarkovce"did"not"end"up"in"another"‘dependency"trap’"–"this" time" on" the" Activation" Works.33"Thus," the" activation" allowances" one" could" earn" through" the" participation" in" the" activation" schemes" were" seen" as" one" small" yet" invaluably" important" element" in" the" very" fragile" and" low" income" for" the" households"of"the"poorest."" " When"asked"if"they"have"a"job,"some"interlocutors"responded"as"‘yes,"I’m"working" at" the" municipality" [works]’" (i.e." referring" to" the" Activation" Works)." However," most"of"them"would"also"use"the"expression"čak!avka!kerav!…"kerav!pro!výboris" (‘I’m"only"working"‘as"if’"…"am"working"at"the"municipality’),"or"oda!čak!ajsi!butji! (‘it’s"just"that"[not"quite]"kind"of"work’)"implying"that"they"did"not"consider"the" Activation"Works"as"proper"jobs."Some"times"they"would"rhetorically"ask"with"an" ironic" and" dissatisfied" tone:" ‘So" what" kind" of" work" this" is?’" This" was" related" to" the"low"amount"of"financial"gain"but"also"the"type"of"works"that"they"were"given" that" was" often" stigmatising" for" some" of" the" participants." Additionally," the" perceptions" also" depended" on" the" varied" by" prior" job" history," age" and" gender."

For"example,"the"representations"and"meanings"were"often"gendered"and"many" men" did" not" consider" watering" flowers" or" cleaning" streets" as" a" ‘proper" work’."

Men," especially" those" with" previous" experiences" of" financially" rewarding" work" and"strongly"patriarchal"selfCunderstanding"of"being"the"families’"breadwinners" found"it"difficult"to"be"doing"these"types"of"jobs"without"earning"any"substantial" amount"of"money."In"some"contexts,"their"sense"of"masculinity"was"compromised" by" participation" in" Activation" Works," and" by" being" asked" to" perform" certain" tasks" they" did" not" consider" being" ‘real" work’" worthy" of" men," or" well" below" the" skilled"labour"they"used"to"do."For"example,"being"reduced"to"the"role"of"auxiliary" workers"in"construction"works"rather"than"being"‘masters’"(during"the"activation" works)," after" priding" themselves" of" literally" ‘building" Košice’s" metal" works"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 33"This"was"further"excluded"by"the"state’s"changes"in"the"maximum"length"of"participation"in"the" Activation"Works"to"18"months"(see"Kurekova"et"al."2013)."

35" "

complex’34"during" socialism" (as" skilled" bricklayers" operating" as" ‘masters’)," was" often" accepted" with" a" strongly" ambiguous" feelings" and" resentment." " Most" women," in" contrast," did" not" see" their" participation" in" Activation" Work" as" compromising," and" some" even" found" it" relatively" flexible," easy" to" do" and" convenient" in" terms" of" allowing" them" to" bring" some" additional" money" into" household" income" while" managing" other" stereotypical" roles" performed" in" gendered" family" obligations." Thus" the" ‘work" for" municipality’" meant" that" they" did"not"have"to"commute"to"work"(which"the"majority"of"other"jobs"required)"and" managed"to"combine"doing"house"work,"cooking"and"being"able"to"be"at"home"at" times"their"children"finished"school."""" " When" discussing" the" practical" value" of" Activation" Works," most" of" the" people" referred" to" them" as" ‘meaningless’" but" were" quick" to" assert" that" these" were" ‘better" than" nothing’," highlighting" their" significance" for" the" household" financial" budget"despite"what"they"considered"as"very"low"financial"valuation."They"would" often" say" that" these" are" simultaneously" o! ničom" (‘about" nothing’" or" ‘good" for" nothing’)"and"yet"still"‘better"than"nothing.’""Many"of"the"Roma"would"only"work" in" these" out" of" the" ultimate" necessity" of" feder! sar! nič" [better" than" nothing]" responding" to" the" 63.07" EUR" they" can" earn" on" top" of" their" benefits." Some," and" those"with"experience"of"working"abroad"in"particular,"would"call"this"zobračina" (‘alms’/literally" money" gained" from" ‘begging’)" referring" to" its" small" amount."

Their" critique" articulated" alongside" ‘good" for" nothing’" lines" reflected" what" they" perceived"seeming"practical"meaningfulness"of"these"types"of"jobs"and"ritualised" forms"of"work"performance.35" " From" the" point" of" view" of" the" participants," the" Activation" Works" did" not" help" with" maintaining" any" practical" function" akin" to" the" official" discourses" of" ‘reC learning"of"working"habits.’"For"example,"in"Tarkovce"Roma"often"contrasted"the" work" in" Activation" Works" with" their" working" experiences" in" the" UK." As" one" of" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

34"VSZ"Kosice"metal"works"were"one"of"the"biggest"industrial"complexes"in"the"former"socialist"

Czechoslovakia."

35"In"this"sense,"their"claim"resonates"with"what"J."E."Larsen"described"as"‘empty"ritual"acts’"in"his" study"of"labour"activation"projects"among"marginalized"residents"of"one"of"the"most"deprived" neighborhoods"of"Copenhagen"(Larsen"2001)."

36" "

the"participants"put"it:"‘Here"(i.e."in"Slovakia)"you"can’t"get"a"job"if"you’re"a"Gypsy."

Look"there"we"can"get"a"job"and"no"one"looks"who"you"are."And"it"is"not"like"here" (in" SK)" –" where" you" are" suffering" for" this" abject" support.’" When" I" asked" one" of" the"women"working"in"the"activation"schemes"in"Rijava"whether"she"has"learned" some" new" skills" and" maintain" working" habits" that" could" be" useful" for" her" searching"for"a"job"on"legal"labour"market,"she"replied:"" No"way!"It’s"this"kind"of"work"about"nothing"[dismissively]!"At"least"if"it"would"be" some"kind"of"reasonable"work."But"this"kind"of"work?"C""raking,"cutting"grass,"and" other" kinds" of" toiling" and" suffering?…." The" only" thing" I" obtain" (during" this" process)"are"calluses"on"hands!"

" For"most"Roma"working"at"Activation"Works,"it"was"more"a"matter"of"getting"the" extra" money" than" anything" else" and" tried" to" get" some" oneCoff" fušky" in" order" to" bring"them"more"significant,"albeit"more"unstable"and"insecure,"income."Some"of" them"commented"that"it"feels"like"graje!lake!keren"–"‘we’re"being"horses"for"her’" (for"the"mayor)"than"anything"else."They"deployed"this"idiomatic"expression"for" asymmetrical" and" exploitative" relationships." To" illustrate" this," in" their" view," rather"pointless"direction"of"their"Activation"Works"in"Tarkovce,"one"women"told" me,"‘well,"nothing."We"are"here"only"to"water"her"[i.e."mayor’s]"plants.’"She"made" the"statement"in"reference"to"mayor’s"efforts"at"aesthetically"improve"the"image" of"the"village,"particularly"with"a"prospect"of"Tarkovce’s"candidacy"for"the"‘village" of"the"year’"award."As"a"part"of"these"efforts,"the"mayor"decided"to"plant"various" flowers"at"various"locations"in"the"village"and"urged"to"maintain"a"high"level"of" cleanliness"and"order"in"the"public"spaces"and"parks." " " DISCUSSION) ) Situated)evaluation)of)Activation)Works) Despite" the" widespread" agreement" regarding" the" meaningless" and" possibly" exploitative" set" up" of" the" Activation" Works," the" concrete" evaluations" differed" depending"on"individual’s"trajectories"and"location"within"the"social"field."" " 37" "

Rather" than" analysing" the" effects" in" terms" of" generalising" models" resting" on" reified"understanding"of"group"formations"and"quest"for"the"clearCcut"moralising" evaluations" focusing" on" the" 'successful" vs." failing’" impacts" of" the" Activation" Works," we" must" locate" these" by" means" of" relational" analytical" tools." This" also" means"not"reducing"the"complexity"of"the"Activation"Works"and"rather"situating" particular"perspectives"in"relation"to"the"interlocutor’s"location"in"social"field"and" in"their"struggles"in"imposing"certain"visions"and"divisions"of"social"space."In"the" context" of" the" most" materially" impoverished" and" spatially" segregated" Roma," often"located"in"the"abject"poverty"conditions"and"disconnected"from"social"and" cultural" capitals," participation" in" Activation" Works" might" have" appeared" as" somehow" more" positive." Considering" the" stiff" competition" for" being" enrolled" in" Activation" Works" in" many" localities" and" the" social" conditions" of" disconnectedness," the" Activation" Works" have" become" one" of" the" only" avenues" available" for" securing" certain" stable" (albeit" minimal)" income" in" addition" to" otherwise" radically" downsized" state" benefits." Thus," for" a" young" generation" of" unskilled" Roma" who" have" never" worked" in" the" formal" labour" market" and" have" been"cut"off"other"avenues"of"betterment"and"possibilities,"the"Activation"Works" might"appear"as"one"of"the"relatively"normal(ised)"survival"strategy."However,"in" localities"with"other"possible"avenues"for"socioCeconomic"mobility"–"in"Tarkovce" case,"the"labour"migration"to"Britain"–"Activation"Works"appeared"less"attractive" and" were" seen" as" a" patchyClike" strategy" of" those" who" were" disconnected" and" otherwise" marginalised." That" is" why" for" so" many" people" with" migration" experiences" the" Activation" Works" appeared" as" ‘good" for" nothing’" (with" no" meaningful" purpose" or" effects)" where" one" works" ‘for" nothing’" (i.e." very" ‘miserable’" financial" reward)." Simply" put," these" were" seen" as" symptomatic" of" stasis"and"of"being"stuck,"rather"than"augmenting"stimulus"for"movement." " In"addition"to"the"alleged"reClearning"to"work,"the"proponents"of"the"Activation" Works" emphasised" the" benefit" of" ‘Activation" Works’" becoming" a" site" of" socialisation"for"the"longCterm"unemployed"(cf."Makovicky"2013:85;"Hajdúchová" 2004)." The" idea" of" the" socialisation" rests" on" the" assumption" that" the" longCterm" unemployed" poor" are" stripped" not" only" of" the" source" of" income" but" that" the" whole" mode" of" being" is" reCconfigured" and" results" in" some" kind" of" isolation" in" 38" "

inhabiting"a"social"space"that"are"not"conductive"of"social"habits"and"moral"values" crucial"for"the"reCentering"of"labour"market."This"idea"reflects"similar"philosophy" of"moral"behaviourism"that"is"ascribed"not"only"to"the"poor"and"Roma"but"also" reCinscribed" spatially" onto" the" landscape" of" marginalised" settlements" or" impoverished"neighbourhood"inhabited"mainly"by"Roma"families."" " In" the" case" of" Tarkovce" and" Rijava" Activation" Works," some" interlocutors" identified" some" positive" aspects" of" Activation" Works" as" being" sites" of" socialisation." For" those" who" enjoyed" the" company" of" other" activation" workers" and" formed" a" good" partija! at" workplace," the" space" of" activation" provided" not" only" a" working" space" but" also" a" social" milieu" consisting" of" banter," mutual" teasings," shared" stories" and" exchanged" gossips." The" Activation" Works" also" structured" the" spatioCtemporal" organisation" of" the" poor" by" requiring" regular" attendance." However," these" practical" outcomes" of" ‘socialisation’" did" not" lead" to" the"results"anticipated"by"the"policy"makers."The"daily"socialisation"and"regular" rhythm" of" activation" works" did" not" lead" to" reCgaining" a" sense" of" usefulness," recognition" and" motivation.36"The" idea" that" participants" would" reCacquire" their" working"habits,"learn"new"skills,"reinvigorate"work"ethics,"get"new"incentives"for" reCentering" the" labour" market" simply" by" learning" the" skills" assumes" a" very" reductionists" understanding" of" mechanisms" of" getting" an" employment." What" it" does,"however,"is"that"it"successfully"shifts"the"blame"for"one’s"unemployment"to" one’s" individual" lack" of" certain" skills," motivation," habits," or" education," without" understanding" larger" structural" inequalities" and" key" role" of" the" social," cultural" and"symbolic"capital"for"finding"a"job."While"the"Activation"Works"did"provide"a" space" for" socialisation," this" did" not" augment" social" and" symbolic" capital" for" the" participants" who" interacted" only" among" themselves." Moreover," I" would" argue" that" by" participating" in" the" Activation" Works" they" were" all" symbolically" circumscribe"into"a"collective"category"that"did"not"serve"as"an"extra"bonus"in"the" struggles" for" searching" for" work." They" did" not" contribute" much" practically" in" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 36"Participants"sense"of"usefulness"or"recognition"derived"from"working"in"activation"like"works"

or"volunteering"sector"might"differ"significantly"in"relation"to"particular"historically"formed" morality,"social"and"work"trajectory,"types"of"activities"and"works"performed,"and"many"others."

For"example,"in"her"insightful"study"A."Muehlbach"(2011)"shows"how"volunteering"activities" among"certain"segment"of"longCterm"unemployed"in"Italy"manage"to"reCestablish"a"sense"of" belonging"and"partial"recognition"linked"to"moral"usefulness"for/in"society."""

39" "

terms"of"the"acquiring"new"skills"and"habits,"but"perhaps"more"crucially"did"not" endow" its" participants" with" social" and" symbolic" capitals" in" the" form" of" social" connections"and"recognition"of"being"a"good"worker"for"the"potential"employees."

Working"at"Activation"Works"indexed"one’s"passivity"and"inability"to"find"other" forms"of"work"in"the"eyes"of"potential"employers."So,"rather"than"increasing"one’s" chances" on" the" labour" market" it" further" contributed" to" the" reproduction" of" the" stigmatised" position" of" Roma" seen" as" yet" again" dependent" (this" time)" on" the" ‘useless’"Activation"Works."" " Writing"about"effects"of"activation"policies"in"Denmark,"Larsen"(2001)"discusses" these" policies" as" simultaneously" potentially" enabling" but" also" coercive" and" disciplinary."In"theory,"the"enabling"potential"of"the"activities"would"envisage"the" activation"work"as"a"springboard"for"reClaunching"one’s"trajectory"on"the"labour" market." However," the" case" of" Slovakia" shows" how" in" their" practical" implementation" the" activation" policies" fail" to" deliver" its" proclaimed" ‘enabling’" objectives." And" it" is" its" disciplinary" pole" of" the" continuum," which" seems" to" be" predominant"in"the"cases"under"consideration.""" " Spaces) of) activation) as) a) social) field:) composition,) social) fabrics) and) disconnections) The"space"of"‘activation’"can"be"seen"as"situated"within"social"fields"–""systems"of" social" positions" structured" alongside" power" relationships" and" struggles" for" augmenting"social"being"through"combined"accumulation"of"capitals"(Bourdieu"&" Wacquant" 1992;" Bourdieu" 2000)." It" shows" how" most" people" working" in" these" ‘Activation"Works’"are"in"most"cases"those"who"are"somehow"cut"off"from"other" channels" of" possible" socioCeconomic" mobility" –" whether" these" are" migration" to" the"UK37,"labour"migration"to"Czech"Republic,"or"only"other"formal"and"informal" works"that"would"bring"them"more"money."Perhaps"‘cut"off’"is"not"the"right"word" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 37"Most"of"the"Roma"in"Tarkovce"(and"to"some"extent"also"in"Rijava)"had"some"kind"of"experience"

of"migration,"whether"through"their"relatives"who"were"in"the"UK,"or"through"their"own"personal" experience." Some" of" them" returned" home" more" impoverished" and" with" their" previous" social" networks" significantly" reduced" and" altered." Yet" others," who" were" hoping" to" migrate," were" searching"for"someone"to"help"them."Or,"as"they"literally"said,"‘to"take"them’"(niko!les!nalen)"and" ‘there"is"no"one"who"would"help’"(nane!man!niko!ko!te!pomožinen)."""

40" "

here."They"are"all"embedded"within"these"networks"and"channels."Most"of"them" have"been"‘helped’"in"one"way"or"another"by"a"friend"or"a"relative"who"succeeded" in"the"migration.") " With"an"exception"of"few,"most"people"employed"in"these"Activation"Works"were" poorer" Roma" who" were" somehow" less" connected" or" ‘disconnected’" (i.e." they" were"in"the"UK"but"came"back"seen"as"‘failures’)"to"the"migration"networks."Or," they" were" connected" but" for" various" reasons" were" not" helped" by" their" friends" and"relatives"in"the"UK."In"contrast"to"the"idealized"figure"of"successful"migrant," those"who"stayed"behind"are"often"seen"as"stuck,"struggling"financially"in"efforts" of" combining" various" formal" and" informal" economic" practices." " While" the" successful"migrants"would"only"rarely"enter"the"Activation"Works,"the"poor"who" are" left" behind" and/or" those" who" are" returning" as" unsuccessful" migrants" form" the" majority" of" those" who" participate" in" the" Activation" Works" in" Tarkovce" and" Rijava."Most"significantly,"those"who"would"enter"the"space"of"Activation"Works" would" be" those" who" are" disconnected" from" other" forms" of" social" and" cultural" capitals" (Bourdieu" 1986)" linking" them" to" other" socioCeconomic" possibilities."

Alternatively," in" the" case" of" Tarkovce," some" of" the" Roma" participating" in" the" Activation" Works" would" be" returning" migrants" who" saw" the" Activation" Works" and" unemployment" benefits" as" a" temporary" measurement" before" returning" to" their" migration" pathways" or" waiting" for" their" retirement" (these" participants" would"be"in"their"50s)."" " At"the"same"time,"the"participants"in"the"Activation"Works"would"have"some"kind" of"social"capital"as"it"was"often"through"specific"connections"that"influenced"the" selection" into" the" Activation" Works" by" the" mayor.38"Though" the" selection" of" participants" is" done" either" through" the" municipality" or" through" the" regional" labour"office,"the"role"of"the"mayor"in"choosing"the"candidates"and"managing"the" Activation" Works" is" crucial." Due" to" the" growing" poverty" and" lack" of" formal" and" informal" opportunities" following" the" economic" crisis" and" downsizing" of" state’s" support,"the"structural"vulnerability"of"Roma"intensified"in"the"last"few"years"and" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 38"This"was"relatively"less"important"when"the"selection"of"candidates"was"recommended"by"the" regional"Labour"Office.""

41" "

in"many"localities"the"demand"for"Activation"Works"exceeds"the"actual"amount"of" available"posts"(see"also"Kureková"2013)."The"increasing"competition"makes"the" selection" process" a" site" of" struggle," which" is" always" filled" with" struggles" for" proving" and" performing" one’s" worthiness" to" be" considered" for" the" Activation" Works."These"often"leads"to"the"performances"of"certain"subjectivity"in"order"to" elicit"a"pity"in"the"eyes"of"the"state"representatives"as"someone"who"has"material" hardships" and" has" many" children" in" need," or" someone" who" deserves" to" be" chosen" according" to" his/her" willingness" or" someone" who" has" proved" to" be" a" ‘good" worker’." The" power" for" assessing" the" extent" to" which" Roma" fulfil" these" criteria" lie" exclusively" in" the" hands" of" the" state" representatives" at" the" municipality"level"(or"that"of"the"local"labour"officers)."" " The)political)costs)of)Activation)Works" The" Activation" Works" has" become" an" important" part" of" the" survival" strategies" leading"to"some"additional"(though"minimal)"source"of"income"for"the"poor,"but" they"are"not"without"costs."One"of"the"possible"costs"for"the"poor"is"that"there"has" been"a"growing"stigma"against"the"Activation"Works"in"general,"and"workers"in" particular."Similarly"to"the"case"of"claimants"of"disability"social"security"in"the"US" described"by"Hansen"et"al."(2014),"this"type"of"backlash"stigma"can"be"seen"in"the" political"discussions"and"in"widespread"media"representing"the"Activation"Works" as" constantly" failing" for" delivering" the" original" goals" –" i.e." activating" people" for" reCentering"the"labour"market"–"simultaneously"due"to"the"corruption"and"lack"of" enforcement" means" on" the" side" of" authorities" in" charge" with" the" reported" complicity"of"the"‘cheaters’."Thus,"the"stigma"of"the"‘benefit"scroungers’"has"only" be"reCinscribed"through"various"media"stories"and"public"gossips"concerning"the" ‘Activation" Workers’" who" not" only" do" not" do" nothing," do" not" even" come" to" (activation)" work," but" often" continue" to" receive" the" welfare" and" workfare" benefits"while"being"abroad"(the"last"version"receiving"the"biggest"public"outcry" in" media" and" politics)." " This" backlash" not" only" accentuates" the" stigma," but" also" presents"a"clear"continuation"and"acceleration"of"the"previous"waves"of"‘blaming’" and" singling" out" the" ‘Gypsies’" as" the" truly" ‘undeserving" poor’" (cf." Hansen" 2014:" 82;"Howe"1998;"Bourgois"2001)."""

42" "

The" failings" of" Activation" Works" have" been" explained" by" blaming" individual" failures," or" by" referencing" some" kind" of" innate" cultural" dispositions" and" habits," rather" than" structural" inequalities," growing" ethnoCracial" closure" and" deepening" of" economic" crisis." As" a" response" to" this" alleged" ineffectiveness" and" abuses," political" critiques" and" journalists" called" for" strengthening" the" disciplinary" mechanisms" and" punitive" techniques." Out" of" many" symptoms" of" these" shifts" towards" more" stringent" social" policies" and" practices," one" could" name" just" the" examples"of"the"random"monitoring"controls,"which"have"become"more"frequent" in" recent" times." One" could" also" illustrate" it" with" a" lowering" tolerance" for" recognising" acceptable" reasons" for" absences" from" Activation" Works." Moreover," the" intensified" stigma" leads" to" the" increased" suspicion" of" ‘benefit" cheating’," which" transpires" in" materially" very" tangible" ways" as" many" social" benefits" are" suspended," personal" and" family" circumstances" scrutinised" and" claims" reC investigates" by" the" state" officers." Of" course," this" scrutinisation" is" closely" intertwined"with"the"political"economy"of"stigma"ascribed"to"the"Gypsies"and"to" particular"social,"cultural"and"spatial"spaces"seen"as"nourishing"moral"decay"and" potential"abuses"(e.g."notorious"‘Gypsy"settlements’)."However,"to"suspend"one’s" social" benefits" in" order" to" verify" their" righteousness" (on" mutually" intertwined" moral" and" legal" grounds)" represents" a" radical" rupture" to" the" already" delicate" economic"balance"stretched"to"its"material"extremes."Even"a"relatively"short"time" suspension" strips" an" individual" and" household" off" its" fragile" socioCeconomic" security"and"increases"the"structural"vulnerability."This"situation"means"that"the" poor"slip"easily"into"crisis"and"enter"the"vicious"cycles"of"shark"loans"provided"by" formal"and"informal"usurers39"whose"exorbitant"interest"rates"locks"one"into"the" endless" chain" of" chronic" indebtness" accruing" sums" of" astronomic" heights" and" living" under" permanent" state" of" threats" of" physical" violence" (from" the" informal" usurers)" or" of" further" dispossession" and" danger" legal" enforcement" by" legal" claims"(from"the"executors)."" " Throughout" the" 2013," the" idea" of" activation" gained" wider" significance" in" the" context"of"proposed"new"laws"suggesting"to"make"all"the"unemployed"work"for" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 39"The"usurer"subjects"can"take"form"of"informal"usurer,"or"formal"and"legalised"forms"of"usury" provided"by"various"bank"and"companies"offering"personal"credit"at"exorbitant"interest"rates."

43" "

32" hours/month" in" order" to" ‘deserve’" their" social" benefits." Despite" the" political" debate" and" opposition" of" NGO" sector" warning" of" the" potential" negative" effects," the"new"law"was"introduced"in"January"2014."This"proposition"was"made"in"light" of"the"criticism"of"the"previous"implementation"of"‘Activation"Works’."Its"critics" among" the" policy" makers" pointed" out" at" their" ‘abuses’" and" ‘ineffectiveness’" in" practices." These" failures" were" ascribed" to" the" ineffective" functioning" of" welfare" and"workfare"system,"often"related"to"the"problems"of"practical"implementations" and"enforcement"of"order.40"" " The"idea"of"‘activation’"continues"to"spread"across"the"policy"making"and"there"is" certain" assumption" ingrained" in" most" of" these" state" and" NGO" projects" about" individual"self."Self"is"conceived"as"autonomous"moral"subject"whose"actions"are" judged" against" some" kind" of" effort," selfCresponsible" and" also" crucially" selfC entrepreneurial" (cf." Bourdieu" 1998;" Roberman" 2014)." But" this" selfC entrepreneurial" subject" is" assumed" to" act" entrepreneurially" only" within" the" domains" delineated" by" the" state" and" its" vision" of" what" is" seen" as" ‘legal’" vs." ‘illegal’." Emphasising" a" combination" of" individual" skills," education," practical" experiences" of" works" and" entrepreneurial" spirit" as" a" key" for" actively" searching" and" for" successful" finding" of" work" in" Slovakia," however," crucially" omits" the" mechanisms" through" one" actually" gets" employed" formally" and" informally."

Drawing" on" Bourdieu’s" analytical" tools" (Bourdieu" &" Wacquant" 1992;" Bourdieu" 2000)," these" mechanisms" consist" of" a" successful" mastery" and" combination" of" social"capital"(social"connections"that"can"be"activated),"cultural"capital"(not"only" practical" skills," educational" achievements" but" crucially" knowledge" of" how" to" present"these"so"it"resonates"with"the"potential"employer’s")"and,"perhaps"most" importantly," of" symbolic" capital" (having" achieved" a" public" recognition" of" ‘good" worker’" and" thus" escaping" the" stigma" of" Gypsyness" in" the" eye)." However," the" social"capital"must"be"going"outside"and"beyond"the"scope"of"the"restricted"and" limiting" social" spaces" consisting" of" other" unemployed," or" state" programmes" targeting" the" unemployed." In" other" words," the" accumulated" volume" of" social" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 40"Critics"from"the"opposite"pole"of"the"political"continuum,"mainly"from"the"ranks"of"leftCleaning"

NGO"workers,"criticised"the"Activation"Works"as"ineffective"and"as"bordering"with"the"new"forms" of"slavery,"reproducing"marginality"rather"than"helping"to"alleviate"poverty"(Oravec&Bošelová" 2006;"Lajcakova"2013;"Kriglerova"2013)."

44" "

capital" must" contain" the" actual" potentiality" of" getting" a" job" through" that" connection" to" someone" who" can" either" mediate" or" directly" provide" work." The" successful" combination" of" social" capital" and" symbolic" capital" consisting" of" the" public"recognition"of"being"good"worker"is"an"almost"Sisyphus"task."It"entails"an" effort" to" reverse" the" historically" entrenched" racialised" ‘curse" of" negative" symbolic" capital’" (Bourdieu" 2000:241)" of" ‘being" Gypsy’" in" Slovakia" not" only" through" one’s" individual" skilfulness" at" work" but" crucially" through" achieving" its" public" recognition" by" those" who" are" in" powerful" positions" (e.g." of" potential" providers" of" work)." In" practice," this" frequently" means" to" go" beyond" the" local" social" fields," which" are" subordinated" to" the" wider" configuration" of" asymmetric" symbolic" power" enmeshed" with" class" relations.41"If" successfully" achieving" this" task," the" individual" Roma" also" acquires" the" status" of" moral" worthiness" in" the" eyes"of"the"dominant"others." " Additionally," the" state" officials" seem" to" increasing" phrasing" the" question" of" benefits"as"a"matter"of"some"kind"of"moral"debt"to"the"state,"which"would"often" be"related"to"the"idea"of"gratitude"to"the"state"for"providing"the"benefits."It"is"a" relationship" in" which" an" unemployed" citizens" need" to" show" an" active" attitude" and"in"which"the"category"of"Gypsies"appear"to"be"reCdescribed"as"undeserving" poor," as" scroungers" who" are" lacking" efforts." Roma" who" can" match" such" expectations" via" various" forms" of" connections," recognition" are" often" given" as" examples"of"‘you"see"it’s"possible"if"you"really"want’;"they"are"those"who"‘took"up" the"opportunity"given"to"them’.""These"Roma,"however,"are"frequently"the"ones" who" are" in" local" hierarchies" somehow" escaping" the" derogatory" ethnicised" category"of"‘Gypsyness’"in"public"discourses."A"clear"case"in"point"would"be"Gejza" (introduced"earlier"in"this"text)"who"on"one"level"in"the"local"context"occupies"the"

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 41"This"point"can"be"well"illustrated"by"one"of"the"most"common"economic"strategy"among"the"

poorest"Roma"men"who"were"often"employed"‘without"papers’"(i.e."legal"documents,"social"and" health"insurance,"etc.)"to"work"as"cheap"labour"force"for"the"local"Roma"businessmen"whose" companies"were"subcontracted"by"big"construction"work"companies"for"building,"maintenance" and"reconstructions"of"the"Czech"roads"and"railways."In"contrast"to"this"way"of"finding"job" through"the"relationships"composing"the"local"social"field"familiar"to"the"workers,"most"of"who" come"from"the"same"or"neighbouring"villages,"the"individual"attempts"of"Roma"to"find"work"in" Slovakia"or"Czech"Republic"as"individual"entrepreneurs"or"cheap"labour"force"hired"directly"by" companies"or"via"job"agencies,"were"minimal"and"only"rarely"successful."

45" "

figure"of"‘good"worker’"in"the"mayor’s"discursive"denial"of"racial"differentiation" and"redrawing"alongside"the"axis"of"(moral)"worthiness."" " The"Activation"Works"represents"yet"another"example"of"projecting"a"particular" kind" of" moral" subject" onto" unemployed" people." By" assuming" the" close" relationship"between"their"‘economic’"inCactivity"having"an"impact"on"particular" set"of"morality"and"habits"(resignation,"lack"of"interest,"immorality,"apathy)."The" increasing"policing"of"the"poor,"illustrated"for"example"by"the"case"of"Activation" Works,"shows"a"recent"convergence"of"socioCeconomic"crisis,"state"reforms"and" shifts"towards"disciplinary"workfare"and"punitive"penalisation"rendering"illegal" various"informal"economic"strategies"of"the"poor"and"enforcing"participation"in" the"‘activation’"in"order"to"‘deserve’"state"welfare."These"shifts,"in"turn,"increased" everyday" uncertainties" and" left" many" Roma" with" a" sense" of" growing" disconnection"and"strengthening"their"hopes"attached"to"the"potential"migration."

Though"many"of"the"social"policies"are"aimed"–"at"least"in"theory"C"at"increasing" participation" on" legal" labour" market," greater" transparency" and" antiCcorruption" measures"C"what"their"implementation"meant"in"practice"only"highlights"the"ever" increasing" dependence" (at" least" in" the" context" of" Eastern" Slovakia)" on" social" connections,"networks"and"symbolic"capitals,"which"are"very"often"embedded"in" the" historically" crystallised" ‘economy" of" favours’" through" which" one" tend" to" access"the"formal"labour"market."" " "

46" "

" ) BIBLIOGRAPHY) Anderson,"B."2013."Us!and!Them?!The!Dangerous!Politics!of!Immigration!Control.!

Oxford:"Oxford"University"Press."

Bourdieu,"P."1986."The"forms"of"capital."In"Handbook!of!Theory!and!Research!for! the!Sociology!of"Education!(ed.)"J."Richardson,"46C58."New"York:"Greenwood."

Bourdieu,"P."1998."Acts!of!resistance:!against!the!tyranny!of!the!market."New"York:" The"New"Press."

Bourdieu,"P."2000."Pascalian!Meditations."Stanford"University"Press."

Bourdieu,"P."and"Wacquant,"L."1992."An!Invitation!to!Reflexive!Sociology.!London:" University"of"Chicago"Press."

Bourgois,"P."2001."Culture"of"Poverty."In"International!Encyclopedia!of!the!Social! &!Behavioral!Sciences."Smelser,"N.J."and"P."B."Baltes"(eds)."Oxford:"Pergamon."Pp." 11904C11907.""

Buzalka," J." &" Ferencova," M." 2012." National" Trajectories" –" Slovakia." Comenius" University."

MEDEA"

project."

Accessed"

10"

December"

2013"

from:"

http://www.medeasteelproject.org/sites/medea.localhost/files/National%20tra jectories%20C%20SK.pdf"" COLSAF." 2012." Realizácia" nástrojov" aktívnej" politiky" trhu" práce" za" rok" 2011."

Bratislava:"Central"Office"of"Labour,"Social"Affairs"and"Family." " Donert," C." 2008." “Citizens! of! Gypsy! Origins”:! The! Roma! in! the! Reconstruction! of!

Czechoslovakia,! 1948`1989." Unpublished" PhD" thesis," European" University" Institute." " Dráľ," P." 2006." Ethnicised! laziness:! Roma! in! the! Slovak! social! policy! discourse."

Unpublished"MA"thesis,"Budapest:"Central"European"University." " 47" "

Dráľ," P." 2008." Symbolic" Processes" of" Social" Exclusion" of" Roma" in" Slovak" Public" Policy"Discourse."Ethnicity!Studies!1C2:"85C116."

Filadelfiová,"J.,"Gerbery,"D."and"Škobla,"D."2007."Report!on!the!Living!Conditions!of!

Roma!in!Slovakia.!Bratislava:"UNDP." Foucault," M." 1991." Governmentality." In" The! Foucault! Effect:! Studies! in!

Governmentality" (eds)" G." Burchell," C." Gordon," and" P." Miller," 87C104." Hemel" Hempstead"and"Chicago:"Wheatsheaf"and"University"of"Chicago"Press."

Gerbery," D.," Lesay," D." &" Škobla," D." (eds)" 2007." Kniha! o! chudobe.! Společenské! súvislosti!a!verejné!politiky.!Priatelia"ZemeCCEPA." Grill," J." 2014." Hstorické" premeny" v" štruktúre" medzikultúrnych" vzťahov." Formy" spolužitia" v"prípade" Tarkoviec" na" východnom" Slovensku." In:" T." Podolinska" &" T." Hrustic."(eds)."Rómovia!v!majoritnej!spoločnosti."Bratislava:"VEDA."(forthcoming)" Grill,"J."2015."‘Endured"Labour’"and"‘Fixing"Up’"Money:"The"Economic"Strategies" of"Roma"Migrants"in"Slovakia"and"the"UK."In"Brazzabeni,"M.,"Cunha,"M."I."and"M." Fotta"(eds)"Gypsy!Economy.!Oxford:"Berghahn"Books."(forthcoming)"" Grill," J." 2012." ‘Going" up" to" England’:" Exploring" mobilities" among" Roma" from" Eastern"Slovakia."Journal!of!Ethnic!and!Migration!Studies!38(8):"1269C1287.""

Grill," J." 2009." “Mange! mište! pro! Čechy”:" slovenští" Romové" na" Českých" stavbách" [I’m" happy" in" the" Czech" lands:" Slovakian" Roma" on" Czech" construction" sites]" C" reportage" and" comics" for" the" project" ‘Czech" made,’" for" the" Multicultural" Centre" Prague" and" European" Commission;" published" in" journal" A2," 40." An" extended" version"available"on:"www.migrationonline.cz" Hansen,"H.,"Bourgois,"P."&"Drucker,"E."2014."Pathologizing"poverty:"New"forms"of" diagnosis,"disability,"and"structural"stigma"under"welfare"reform."Social!Science!&!

Medicine!103:"76C83." "

48" "

Horváth," K." &" Kovai," C." 2012." Changes" in" the" Way" the" Gypsies" in" a" Northern" Hungarian" Village" are" Distinguished" in" Social" Life." In" M." Stewart" (ed.)" Gypsy!

‘Menace’.!Populism!and!the!New!Anti`Gypsy!Politics.!London:"Hurst"&"company." " Howe," L." 1998." ‘Scrounger," worker," beggarman," cheat:" the" dynamics" of" unemployment" and" the" politics" of" deservingness." Journal! of! the! Royal!

Anthropological!Institute"4:"531C"550." " Hurrle,"J."&"Grill,"J."2006."Activating,"Training"and"Employing"Social"Enterprises" as" a" Tool" of" Social" Policy" Towards" Roma" and" other" Marginalized" Groups" –" Lessons" Learnt" from" “Feder" Dživipen”" and" other" EQUAL" Projects." Unpublished" document."Bratislava:"UNDP."" " Hurrle,"J.,"Škobla,"D.,"Ivanov,"A.,"Kling,"J."&"Grill,"J.""2012."Uncertain"Impact:"Have" the"Roma"in"Slovakia"benefitted"from"the"European"Social"Fund."Roma"Inclusion" Working" papers." UNDP" Europe" and" CIS:" Bratislava" Regional" Centre." (Available:" http://issuu.com/undp_in_europe_cis/docs/esf)"" " Jurajda," S." &" Mathernova," K." 2005."How!to!Overhaul!the!Labour!Market:!Political!

Economy!of!Recent!Czech!and!Slovak!Reforms.!Background"paper"prepared"for"the" World" Development" Report" 2005." Accessed" 20" November" 2013" from:" http://wwwC wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/31/00009 0341_20050131092037/Rendered/PDF/314330Jurajda110WDR050bkgd01pub lic1.pdf"" " Kureková," L." &" Konsteková," J." 2013." Examining! specific! labour! market! policies! aiming! to! foster! labour! market! integration! of! Roma! and! vulnerable! groups! in!

Slovakia." Research" Report" prepared" for" NEUJOBS" WP19," Task" 2." Bratislava:" Slovak"Governance"Institute." " Kureková"Mýtna,"L."Andrej"Salner,"A."and"M."Farenzenová."2013."Implementation! of! Activation! Works! in! Slovakia! Evaluation! and! Recommendations! for! Policy!

49" "

Change."Bratislava:"Slovak"Governance"Institute"and"Open"Society"Institute." " Larsen,"J."E."2001."The"active"society"and"activation"policy."Paper"presented"at"the" Cost" A13" Conference:" Social" Policy," Marginalization," and" Citizenship," 2–4" November" 2001," Aalborg" University," Aalborg," Denmark." Accessed" on" 15" Oct" 2014"(http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.198.2636)" " Marušák,"M."&"Singer,"L."2009."Social"Unrest"in"Slovakia"2004:"Romani"Reaction" to" Neoliberal" ‘Reforms’." In" Romani! Politics! in! Contemporary! Europe:! Poverty,! ethnic! mobilization! and! the! neoliberal! order.! ! N." " Sigona" and" N." Trehan" (eds.)"!

Basingstoke:"Palgrave"Macmillan." " Matejskova," T." 2013." “But" One" Needs" to" Work!”" Neoliberal" Citizenship," WorkC Based"Immigrant"Integration,"and"PostCSocialist"Subjectivities"in"BerlinCMarzahn."

Antipode!45(4):"985C1004."" " Muehlebach," A." 2011." On" affective" labor" in" postCFordist" Italy." Cultural!

Anthropology"26:"59–82." " Newman,"J."2007.""The"'Double"Dynamics'"of"Activation:"Institutions,"Citizens"and" the"Remaking"of"Welfare"Governance.""International!Journal!of!Sociology!and!

Social!Policy!27"(9/10):"364C75." " Oravec," L." and" Bošelová," Z." 2006." Activation" policy" in" Slovakia:" another" failing" experiment?"Roma!Rights!Quarterly"1,"European"Roma"Rights"Centre"(ERRC)." " Roberman,"S."2014."Labour"activation"policies"and"the"seriousness"of"simulated" work."Social!Anthropology!22(3):"326C339."" " Serrano" Pascual," A." and" L." Magnusson" (eds.)" 2007." Work!and!society:!reshaping! welfare!states!and!activation!regimes!in!Europe.!Brussels:"Peter"Lang."

50" "

"" Sigona," N." &" Trinhan," N." " (eds)." 2009." Romani! Politics! in! Contemporary! Europe:!

Poverty,! ethnic! mobilization! and! the! neoliberal! order.! ! Basingstoke:" Palgrave" Macmillan." Škobla," D." 2011." Rómske" verejné" politiky." In:! Potrebujeme! sociálny! štát?! Úvahy! (nielen)!o!verejnej!politike."Gerbery,"D."(ed.)."Bratislava:"Friedrich"Ebert"Stiftung."

Sokolová,"V."2008."Cultural!Politics!of!Ethnicity:!Discourses!on!Roma!in!Communist!

Czechoslovakia.!Stuttgart:"Ibidem"Verlag."

Thelen,"T.,"Dorondel,"S.,"Szoke,"A."&"Vetters,"L."2011."‘The"sleep"has"been"rubbed" from" their" eyes’:" social" citizenship" and" the" reproduction" of" local" hierarchies" in" rural"Hungary"and"Romania."Citizenship!Studies!15(3C4):"513C527."

UNDP" 2002." Avoiding" the" Dependency" Trap." The" Roma" in" Central" and" Eastern" Europe."Bratislava."

United"

Nations"

Development"

Programme."

UNDP."

2004."

Unleashing"

Entrepreneurship:"Making"Business"Work"for"the"Poor."New"York:"United" Nations"Development"Programme."UNDP"(2007)"Report"on"the"Living"Conditions" of"Roma"in"Slovakia."Bratislava:"United"Nations"Development"Programme. " Newman,"J."2007."The"“double"dynamics”"of"activation."Institutions,"citizens"and" the"remaking"of"welfare"governance."International!Journal!of!Sociology!and!Social!

Policy!27(9C10):"364C375."

Quesada," J.," Hart" L.K." &" Bourgois," P." 2011." Structural" Vulnerability" and" Health:" Latino"Migrant"Laborers"in"the"United"States."Medical!Anthropology!30(4):"339C 362."

Van"Baar,"H."2011."The"European"Roma:"Minority"Representation,"Memory,"and" the" Limits" of" Transnational" Governmentality." Amsterdam:" University" of" Amsterdam"(PhD"thesis)."

Van"Baar,"H."2012."SocioCEconomic"Mobility"and"NeoCLiberal"Governmentality"in" 51" "

PostCSocialist"Europe:"Activation"and"the"Dehumanisation"of"the"Roma."Journal!of!

Ethnic!and!Migration!Studies!38(8):"!1289C1304."

Van" Berkel," R." &" Borghi," V." 2008." Introduction:" The" Governance" of" Activation."

Social!Policy!&!Society!7(3):"331C340.""

Wacquant," L." 2010." Crafting" the" Neoliberal" State:" Workfare," Prisonfare," and" Social"Insecurity."Sociological!Forum!25(2):"197C219."

Wacquant,"L."2012."The"Wedding"of"Workfare"and"Prisonfare"in"the"21st"Century."

The!Journal!of!Urban!Poverty"16(2):"236C249."

World" Bank." 2012." “Implementing" the" Benefit" in" Material" Need" in" the" Slovak" Republic”."Social"Safety"Net"and"Poverty"Mapping."World"Bank." http://www.employment.gov.sk/implementingCtheCbenefitCinCmaterialCneedCinC theCslovakCrepublic.pdf" " " ) Newspapers)and)public)documents) Hajdúchová,"Andrea."2004."Ministerstvo:"Reforma"má"pozitivny"efekt"aj"na" Rómov."SME,!26"November." " Kriglerova,"G."E.""Klin"Klinom?"Sme!2.12.2013" http://komentare.sme.sk/c/7026241/klinCklinom.html" " Lajcakova," J." Zákon" o" pomoci" v" hmotnej" núdzi" pomôže" len" splnomocnencovi." Je! To!Tak.!30.10.2013" http://www.jetotak.sk/editorial/zakonCoCpomociCvChmotnejCnudziCzrejmeC pomozeClenCsplnomocnencovymCpreferenciam"" " Predpis"č."417/2013"Z."z."Zákon"o"pomoci"v"hmotnej"núdzi"a"o"zmene"a"doplnení" niektorých"zákonov"(http://www.zakonypreludi.sk/zz/2013C417/suvislosti)" 52" "