SLATE 2015 Proceedings The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
August 2-4, 2015 at the Mitsui Garden Hotel Hiroshima, Japan ISSN: 2189-2164
Sponsored by: PRESDA
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education Hiroshima, Japan, 2015 Official Conference Proceedings ISSN: 2189-2164 Managing Editors: Dr. Suman Chakrabarty and Professor John Latzo For the PRESDA Foundation and the SLATE 2015 Advisory Committee Reading and Editorial Committees Alexander Solomonov Babak Mahdavy Caroline Victorine Katemba Crystal Zheng Estrella Fajardo Giulia Dondoli Gulsen Kaya Osmanbasoglu Haeyeon Kim Hieu Ngo Holly Chung Hui Yueh Hsieh James Morris John Latzo
Kanogon Rungrojngarmcharoen Liu Yang Lucas Kohnke Mauro Saccol Michael KS Alvord Michael Ramos Natalia Burnasheva Parnian Farnam Siavosh Naderi Farsani Suman Chakrabarty Susan Miller Tim Desmond Yoshihiko Yamamoto
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Proceedings Index I. Contents (Indexed according to PDF page numbers) II. Managing Editor and Editorial Committee III. Schedule and Agenda: pages 6-71 IV. Conference Abstracts: pages 73-93 V. Full Papers: pages 96-258 Yoshihiko Yamamoto 0206: pages 97-103 Kristy King Takagi 0207: pages 104-108 Gani Pllani 0210: pages 109-115 Yoshihiko Yamamoto 0212: pages 116-121 Kanog-on Rungrojngarmcharoen 0213: pages 123-126 Estrella F.Fajardo 0216: pages 127-135 Maximo Salaberry 0234: pages 136-158 Ying Li 0242: pages 159-163 Marissa Phongsirikul 0245: pages 164-168 Justin Harris 0258: pages 169-173 Natnan Tabpech 0267: pages 174-178 Anna Ho 0270: pages 179-184 Paul Leeming 0272: pages 185-190 Alexander Solomonov 0274: pages 191-197 Ho-Tang Wu 0280: pages 198-208 Harry Carley 0286: pages 209-214 Harry Carley 0287: pages 215-221 Babak Mahdavy 0307: pages 222-227 Raditya Adipramono 0322: pages 228-232 Guido Izuta 0323: pages 233-238 Guido Izuta 0324: pages 239-246 Burnasheva Nataliia 0338: pages 247-248 Ivan Kovlekov 0339: pages 249-253 Kovlekov Kirill 340: pages 254-257
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
The Second Asian Symposium on Human Rights and Education (SHARE) The Asian Symposium on the Humanities and Arts for Peace (SHAPE) The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education (SLATE)
Schedule & Agenda August 2-4, 2015 at the Mitsui Garden Hotel Hiroshima, Japan
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Welcome Letter from the Founder and Chairperson of PRESDA Dear SHARE/SHAPE/SLATE Participants, On behalf of the organizing, review and editorial committee members and everyone else involved with the communication and preparation we are delighted to welcome all of you to share with us in this special event, which also precedes the 70th Hiroshima Peace Memorial Commemoration. We are pleased to announce that we have fifty-six presenters attending in person: SHARE has eleven, SHAPE has thirteen and SLATE has thirty-two. In addition, there are eighteen virtual presentations and ten listeners. This is a small, but diverse event with twenty-five countries represented, including participants from Japan, Korea, Russia, Taiwan, Armenia, Iran, Sweden, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Italy and other countries. Originally, we had planned to only have a symposium on human rights education, which is an important topic, but still a relatively new field, as evidenced in the low number of submissions and registrants. Fortunately, the addition of events on the humanities and peace and second language acquisition and teacher education made this meeting possible. The advantage of a small event is more opportunity for networking, sharing ideas and making friends. The disadvantage is that exhibitors and sponsors don’t attend. So, the budget is dependent on registration fees. This meeting has generated under two and a half million Japanese yen in revenue. Ninety-percent of expenditures are for facility use, equipment, food, materials, marketing and advertising, excursions, staffing, transportation accommodation for staff and invited speakers, scholarships, etc. Also, we have donated seventy-thousand Japanese yen to two charities in support of the 70th Hiroshima Peace Memorial Commemoration. The remainder of the budget will be applied to the proceedings and other charities. Incidentally, we must inform you that unfortunately these events will not be held again. In 2010, we established PRESDA with the intent of a five-year mission to raise awareness of the UN Millennium Development Goals Initiative until its deadline in 2015. We commend the UN and other organizations around the world for their efforts to reduce poverty, disease and improve sanitation and access to education. We are transitioning PRESDA, which focused on the Pacific Rim, to a new organization, INTESDA, with a more international scope. We have incorporated our organization as a limited liability company as a stopgap measure, while we prepare our application for non-profit incorporation. On a personal note, I would like extend my thanks to Alan Brady, Bhimaraya Metri, Gabriel Barhaim, Gary Smith, Gobind T Shahani, Hossein Esmaeili, Isao Arantani, Kristi King Takagi, John Latzo, John Stayton, Michael Sasaoka, Mochtar Marhum, Salvador Peniche Camps, Sayantan Sinha, Suman Chakrabarty, Somnath Basu, Susan Oguro, Tim Desmond, William Kittredge and so many others because it’s not the journey itself that you remember, but the friends you have made along the way. We hope you enjoy your stay in Hiroshima as well as the city’s rich cultural heritage. Thank you all so very much. Sincerely,
Takayuki Yamada
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Welcome Letter from the Event Program Director Dear Distinguished Participants, It is with great pleasure that I welcome each and every one of you to the Mitsui Garden Hotel for this small event which consist of the 2nd Asian Symposium on Human Rights Education and the Asian Symposium on the Humanities and Arts for Peace along with the Asian Conference on Second Language Aqcuisition and Teacher Education. I’m very excited about the quality of the presentations that we have lined up as well as the fact that so many of our participants have traveled quite the distance to be here with us for this important joint event. My hope is that we not only come away with new knowledge and ideas from our time together, but also to create new networks and friendships that will last a lifetime. I would like to give thanks to the PRESDA as well as everyone involved with organizing and review of proposals for SHARE, SHAPE and SLATE. As you certainly will appreciate, this event would not be possible without the efforts of these dedicated and unsung staff. Finally, I would like to thank all of the presenters and audience members for your contributions to these events. As members of the organizing committee, our role was to produce the program, but the truth is, this is your event and without your participation none of this would be possible. I hope you have a wonderful time during your stay in this wonderful city during the 70th Hiroshima Peace Memorial and Remembrance Ceremony! Yours sincerely, Michael Sasaoka Event Program Director SHARE/SHAPE/SLATE 2015 Hiroshima, Japan
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Welcome Letter from the Editorial Committee Dear SHARE/SHAPE/SLATE Participants, On behalf of PRESDA, we welcome you all to SHARE, SHAPE and SLATE 2015. Having first been a participant in the 2nd Biennial Conference on Anthropology and Sustainability in Asia (CASA) in Hiroshima, March, 2014, I am excited to be a part of the present conference and also hope that you will achieve similar experiences and even better than me after attending this event. We have gathered today at the Mitsui Garden Hotel, Hiroshima to discuss and exchange ideas on second language acquisition, human rights and the humanities and peace. Being a teacher and also a researcher in south – Asian countries, I feel this conference is timely framed and hope that your fruitful discourse to the objectives of the conference bring a new dimension of viewing the challenges that face us in the 21st Century. Finally, from the bottom of my heart I would like to thank PRESDA for giving me the opportunity to help as an editor in this event and also for inviting me as an adviser for its greater mission of education for sustainable development. I hope all of you enjoy your stay in Hiroshima and also the event! Sincerely, Suman Chakrabarty, M.Sc., Ph.D. Editor, Editorial Committee SHARE, SHAPE, SLATE 2015 Hiroshima, Japan
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
July, 2015 Dear Participants of SLATE 2015, I am very happy to welcome you to the Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education. I have been coming to Hiroshima for several years now, in fact, since the Inaugural Conference on Human Development in Asia (COHDA) conference, also sponsored by the PRESDA Foundation. I have very good memories of each of those events because of the interesting and friendly people, stimulating topics, and very pleasant atmosphere. I hope that you will enjoy yourself as much as I have in these past years. I am looking forward to meeting you, and wish you all the best in your travels and in your time in Hiroshima. Sincerely, Kristy King Takagi, Featured Speaker
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Welcome Letter
Dear participants of the Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education (SLATE), the Symposium on the Humanities and Arts for Peace (SHAPE) and the Symposium on Human Rights and Education (SHARE), It gives me great pleasure to welcome to you to the SLATE, SHAPE and SHARE conference and symposia! I’m very pleased to be part of the sharing of ideas and look forward to being informed and encouraged in the work we all do in the fields of human rights, peace and languages education. The PRESDA Foundation has worked very hard to assemble the excellent and diverse program of speakers and I would like to thank all the organisers for their efforts. Like many of you, I too am a visitor to Hiroshima. I would like to take this opportunity to pay respect to its citizens whose homes occupy such a unique place in human history. As this motto of this conference states, we gather here to share Hiroshima’s Desire for Peace. I trust that the next few days will inspire us in this endeavour. Sincerely,
Susan
Susan Oguro, featured speaker Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University of Technology Sydney, Australia
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Welcome Letter from Scholarship Recipient My heartfelt thanks to the PRESDA Foundation for offering the partial scholarship award to participate in “The Asian Symposium on Humanities and Arts for Peace” in Hiroshima. The Hiroshima with great pride symbolizes the phoenix the mythological bird who reborn from his own ashes. Hiroshima was totally destroyed 70 years back, rebuilt with great human spirit for peace and became one of the best city in the world. With this spirit we will deliberate in the symposium on how humanities and arts contribute towards peace. It’s right venue and time, i.e. Hiroshima and its 70th Peace Memorial and remembrance ceremony, will be very motivating indeed. I wish the symposium great success.
S.Y. Kulkarni Visiting Professor and former Head, Department of Architecture and Planning, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Roorkee, 247667, Uttarakhand, INDIA
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Conference Schedule Overview
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Day 1: Sunday, August 2, 2015 Opening remarks and featured presentations held in Hakuho West ballroom Poster session and light dinner held in Hakuho East ballroom
13:00 to 13:45
Participant Check-in (Program and Name Badge) Location: Mitsui Garden Hotel 3rd Floor Lobby
13:45 to 14:15
SLATE/SHAPE/SHARE Opens Introduction by the Host Organizer (PRESDA) Held in Hakuho West ballroom on the 3rd floor
14:15 to 15:00
SLATE 2015 Featured Speaker: Dr. Kristy King Takagi Held in Hakuho West ballroom
15:15 to 16:00
SHARE 2015 Featured Speaker: Dr. Susan Oguro Held in Hakuho West ballroom
16:15 to 17:00
Poster Session A Room: Hakuho East Presenters: 0244, 0255, 0285, 0297, 0302, 0321, 0323, 0339, 0340, 0362, 0367, 0418
17:15 to 19:00
Welcome Dinner Reception The izakaya restaurant is a short walk from the Mitsui Garden Hotel. We will depart from the 1st floor lobby at 17:15. Please wear your conference name badge to dinner.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Day 2: Monday, August 3, 2015 All sessions will be held in the Moegi, Asagi and Hakuho West rooms
09:00 to 10:30
Oral Session A1: SHARE: Human Rights Education and Religious Freedom Room: Asagi Presenters: 0402, 0407, 0441
09:00 to 10:30
Oral Session A2: SHAPE: Perspectives on the Humanities and Arts for Peace Room: Moegi Presenters: 0306, 0315, 0365
09:00 to 11:00
Oral Session A3: SLATE: Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education Room: Hakuho West Presenters: 0324, 0234, 0272, 0296
10:45 to 12:15
Oral Session B1: SLATE: Approaches to Teaching in the Classroom Room: Asagi Presenters: 0273, 0206, 0242
10:45 to 12:15
Oral Session B2: SLATE: Digital Technology to Improve Learning Room: Moegi Presenters: 0200, 0235, 0205
11:15 to 13:15
Oral Session B3: SHAPE: Perspectives on Religion, Cooperation and Globalization Room: Hakuho West Presenters: 0305, 0322, 0338, 0355
12:00 to 13:30
Light lunch served in the 3rd floor lobby You are welcome to bring your food into the oral sessions
12:30 to 14:30
Oral Session C1: SLATE: Applied Linguistics and Pedagogy Room: Asagi Presenters: 0216, 0232, 0262, 0315
12:30 to 13:30
Oral Session C2: SLATE: Teacher Training and Sustainability Room: Moegi Presenters: 0258, 0270
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Day 2: Monday, August 3, 2015 (continued) All sessions will be held in the Moegi, Asagi and Hakuho West rooms
13:30 to 15:00
Oral Session C3: SHARE: Perspectives on Human Rights Education Room: Hakuho West Presenters: 0409, 0411, 0413
14:15 to 15:45
Oral Session D2: SLATE: Second Language Writing in the Classroom Room: Moegi Presenters: 0202, 0203, 0266
14:30 to 15:20
Virtual Panel Session A Room: Asagi Presentations: 0287, 0288, 0291, 0307, 0326, 0431
15:15 to 16:15
Oral Session D3: SLATE: Program Administration and Innovation in Education Room: Hakuho West Presenters: 0211, 0261
15:30 to 16:30
Oral Session D1: SHARE: Perspectives on Gender Studies Room: Asagi Presenters: 0403, 0412
16:00 to 17:00
Virtual Panel Session B Room: Moegi Presentations: 0213, 0237, 0274, 0280, 0284, 0286, 0318
16:30 to 17:00
Virtual Panel Session C Room: Asagi Presentations: 0329, 0344, 0345
16:30 to 17:00
Virtual Panel Session D Room: Hakuho West Presentations: 0432, 0433, 0434
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Day 3: Tuesday, August 4, 2015 All sessions will be held in Moegi, Asagi and Hakuho West Rooms
09:00 to 10:00
Oral Session E1: SHAPE: Literary Theory and Criticism Room: Asagi Presenters: 0356, 0370
09:00 to 10:00
Oral Session E2: SLATE: Improving Language Skills in the Classroom Room: Moegi Presenters: 0245, 0267
10:15 to 11:15
SHARE 2015 Featured Speaker and Documentary Film: Dr. Marilyn Metta Held in Hakuho West ballroom
11:30 to 12:15
SLATE 2015 Featured Speaker: Mr. Raditya Adipramono Held in Hakuho West ballroom
12:15 to 13:00
Closing Remarks and light lunch Room: Hakuho West
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Post Conference Tour: Wednesday, August 5, 2015 Please note that the post-conference tour is full. Participants that confirmed in advance will receive a ticket on the tour day. Participants that did not confirm in advance and wish to attend must purchase a tour ticket. 09:30 to 17:00
UNESCO World Heritage tour of the ‘Shrine Island’ (Miyajima)* *Includes round trip transportation, park fee, cake and tea and guidance in English UNESCO World Heritage tour of Peace Park *The Peace Park tour will be on the way back from Miyajima Departing from the Mitsui Garden Lobby at 09:30
About Miyajima Island “The Shrine Island” Miyajima Island is the popular name of Itsuku-shima Island, situated in Hatsukaichi City in southwestern Hiroshima. It is a scenic site in which the mountains, sea, and red shrine buildings blend together in harmony. The entire island is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is said to be one of the three most beautiful sights in Japan, along with Matsushima in Miyagi Prefecture and Ama-no-hashidate in Kyoto. The origin of Miyajima is said to date back to when the Itsuku-shima-jinja Shrine was built in 593 during the reign of Empress Suiko; however, the island of Miyajima itself has had a long history of being an object of worship, especially its Mt. Mi-sen that rises up at the center of the island.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Detailed Schedule Overview
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
FEATURED PRESENTERS
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE DAY 1 Sunday, August 2, 2015 14:15 to 15:00 Held in Hakuho West ballroom Moderator: Michael Sasaoka
Featured Presentation I SLATE Theme: Language Assessment 0207 Some Thorny Issues in English Language Class Placement Testing at Japanese Universities Kristy King Takagi, University of Fukui, Japan１
Dr. Kristy King Takagi Kristy King Takagi, M.S., M.A., M.A., Ph.D. Professor and Deputy Director of the Language Center Fukui University, Japan Kristy King Takagi was born in West Virginia, an American state that is small but rich in beautiful mountains, natural places, and Appalachian arts and music. A lifelong student of language, psychology, and pedagogy, she holds a bachelor’s degree in foreign language, master’s degrees in child development, English, and advanced Japanese studies, and a doctorate in TESOL. She came to Japan in 1990 and has been teaching English in a wide variety of settings in Yamagata, Yokohama, Tokyo, Akita, and most recently, Fukui. Her research interests include the teaching and learning of reading and writing in English, student achievement, testing, and quantitative research methods.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE DAY 1 Sunday, August 2, 2015 15:15 to 16:00 Held in Hakuho West ballroom Moderator: Michael Sasaoka
Featured Presentation II SHARE Theme: Human Rights Education 0426 Exploring Unexpected Opportunities for Human Rights Education across the Curriculum Susan Oguro, University of Technology Sydney, Australia1 Nina Burridge, University of Technology Sydney, Australia2
Dr. Susan Oguro Susan Oguro, DipTEFLA, B.PrimEd Studies (CSU), BA (UNSW), MA (UNSW), PhD (Sydney) Senior Lecturer, International Studies Program Faculty of Arts and Sciences, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Core Member, Centre for Research in Learning and Change Associate Member, Civil Societies Research Centre Member, Australia-Japan Society Dr. Susan Oguro is a senior lecturer in the School of International Studies in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Her first degrees were in European Studies (History and Languages) before she studied Education and Applied Linguistics, completing a PhD in Languages Education at the University of Sydney. Before joining UTS in 2003, Susan had extensive experience teaching and coordinating language programs and teacher development courses in Australia, Japan, Thailand, and the UK. At UTS, she lectures and coordinates courses within the International Studies and Education programs.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE DAY 3 Tuesday, August 4, 2015 10:15 to 11:15 Held in Hakuho West ballroom Moderator: Michael Sasaoka
Featured Presentation III SHARE Theme: Human Rights Education 0404 How I Became A Refugee: Navigating Human Rights of Asylum Seekers and Refugees Marilyn Metta, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia1
Dr. Marilyn Metta Dr Marilyn Metta is a feminist academic with the Department of Social Sciences and International Studies at Curtin University in Western Australia. She has an interdisciplinary teaching and research background in social sciences, women studies, social work, cultural studies, counselling, and human rights. She is a practising psychotherapist and counsellor at the West Leederville Counselling Centre, where she has been working with individuals, families and children for over 11 years. Marilyn is also a documentary-maker and advocate for human rights issues and has recently produced a documentary film, How I Became a Refugee which follows the extraordinary journey of a Burmese Chin refugee family from their homeland where they escaped religious persecution from the military government through to Malaysia before being resettled in Perth, Western Australia. How I Became a Refugee has recently won two prestigious international film awards: an Award of Recognition from The Accolade Global Film Competition (2015) and an Award of Recognition at the Best Shorts International Film Competition (2015). She received the International Congress of Qualitative Inquiry 2011 Outstanding Book Award for her book, Writing Against, Alongside and Beyond Memory: Life writing as Reflexive, Poststructuralist Feminist Research Practice (2010). Marilyn is the founder of Mettamorphosis Inc, a not-for-profit charitable organisation aimed at raising funds and awareness to support the educational needs of displaced children (www.mettamorphosis.org.au).
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE DAY 3 Tuesday, August 4, 2015 11:30 to 12:15 Held in Hakuho West ballroom Moderator: Michael Sasaoka
Featured Presentation IV SLATE Theme: Approaches to Teaching ELT and L2 0322 The Use of Magic Tricks in Teaching English Listening and Speaking Skills Raditya Adipramono, Universitas Islam Indonesia, Indonesia1
Mr. Raditya Adipramono Raditya Adipramono, S.S., M.Pd.BI Lecturer, English Language Education Universitas Islam Indonesia Raditya Adipramono is an English language lecturer at Universitas Islam Indonesia, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. He achieved his Master’s Degree from Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. He has been an English language lecturer for five years and has published a number of articles and journals in the areas of teaching media, literature and language teaching through several conferences. Besides, he is also a professional stage performer as magician, comedian, and ventriloquist.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Oral Presenters Session A Monday, August 3, 2015
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session A1 09:00 to 10:30 SHARE: Human Rights Education and Religious Freedom Room: Asagi Presenters: 0402, 0407, 0441 Session Time Moderators: Tiffany Touma and Parnian Farnam
09:00 to 09:30 Asagi Human Rights Education 0402 Human Rights in the Secondary English Classroom: Embodied Pedagogy, Subjugated Narratives, and the Building of Empathy Tiffany Touma, Colegio Menor San Francisco de Quito, Equador1
09:30 to 10:00 Asagi Religious Freedom 0407 Understanding Mongolia's Religious Freedom Legislation James Harry Morris, University of St Andrews, UK1
10:00 to 10:30 Asagi Human Rights Education and Philosophy of Human Rights 0441 Moral Foundations for Human Rights: A Reform of Liberal Education Parnian Farnam, Columbia University, USA1
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session A2 09:00 to 10:30 SHAPE: Perspectives on the Humanities and Arts for Peace Room: Moegi Presenters: 0306, 0315, 0365 Session Time Moderators: Yi-Shan Chen and Qingie Wang
09:00 to 09:30 Moegi Architecture 0306 Light Pollution Investigation and Prevention Strategies of Nighttime Lighting Lights in the Community Parks in Taichung City Po-Yen Kuo,Chaoyang University of Technology,Taiwan ROC1 Yi-Shan Chen,Chaoyang University of Technology,Taiwan ROC2
09:30 to 10:00 Moegi Cross-Disciplinary Areas 0315 Humanized Holistic Approach Towards Slum Satish Kulkarni, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India1
10:00 to 10:30 Moegi Philosophy and Ethics 0365 Confucius on Learning and a Harmonious Formation of Self Qingjie Wang, Chinese University, Hong Kong1
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session A3 09:00 to 11:00 SLATE: Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education Room: Hakuho West Presenters: 0324, 0234, 0272, 0296 Session Time Moderators: Guido Izuta and Peter Skaer
09:00 to 09:30 Hakuho West Phonetics and Phonology 0324 A Study on How Young Japanese Female College Students Say the English Alphabet: Comparison of the Fundamental Frequencies F0s Across the Sub-Groups and Along Different Percentiles Guido Izuta, Yamagata Prefectural Yonezawa Women's Junior College, Japan1
09:30 to 10:00 Hakuho West CALL / MALL / CALT 0234 Enhancing Authentic Texts in Online Environments: A data-driven Approach to Second Language Learning Maximo Salaberry, Rice University, USA１
10:00 to 10:30 Hakuho West Applied Linguistics 0272 Individual and Perceived Group Motivation: a Complex Dynamic Paul Leeming, Kindai University, Japan１
10:30 to 11:00 Hakuho West Phonetics and Phonology 0296 Does Prosody Enhance Language Retention? Peter Skaer, Hiroshima University, Japan１
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Oral Presenters Session B Monday, August 3, 2015
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session B1 10:45 to 12:15 SLATE: Approaches to Teaching in the Classroom Room: Asagi Presenters: 0273, 0206, 0242 Session Time Moderators: Hae Yeon Kim and Ying Li
10:45 to 11:15 Asagi ESL / EFL 0273 Teaching English through Poetry in an EFL Course Hae Yeon Kim, Chungbuk National University, South Korea1
11:15 to 11:45 Asagi ESL / EFL 0206 Transitions of EFL learners as Novices in Japan: Through the Lends of Communities of Practice Akiko Nagao, Kinki University, Japan１
11:45 to 12:15 Asagi ESL / EFL 0242 Study Abroad and Changes in Degree of Foreign Accent of Adult Thai Speakers’ Pronunciation of L2-English Ying Li, Newcastle University, UK１
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session B2 11:15 to 12:45 SLATE: Digital Technology to Improve Learning Room: Moegi Presenters: 0200, 0235, 0205 Session Time Moderators: Iain Davey and Veronika Moiseenko
11:15 to 11:45 Moegi CALL / MALL / CALT 0200 Using the LMS Haiku Learning to Facilitate Active Learning Iain Davey, Kyoto University of Foreign Studies, Japan１
11:45 to 12:15 Moegi CALL / MALL / CALT 0235 The Effects of E-mail Exchanges in the Teaching of Writing in Senior High School in Taiwan Chih Hao, Chang, Nagoya University of Commerce and Business, Japan１
12:15 to 12:45 Moegi ESL / EFL 0205 Critical Thinking Lite: Using YouTube to Help Omani Students Reflect Veronika Moiseenko, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman１
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session B3 11:15 to 13:15 SHAPE: Perspectives on Religion, Cooperation and Globalization Room: Hakuho West Presenters: 0305, 0322, 0338, 0355 Session Time Moderators: Susan Miller and Natalia Burnasheva
11:15 to 11:45 Hakuho West Globalization 0305 Globalization:Peace and Islam Siavosh Naderi Farsani, IACID, Sweden1
11:45 to 12:15 Hakuho West Performing and Visual Arts 0322 Liturgical Drama as a Tool for Exploring Conflict and Affirming Values Susan Miller, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan1
12:15 to 12:45 Hakuho West History 0338 Study of the History of Co-operational Movement in Conditions of Globalisation Natalia Burnasheva, IHRISN, Russian Federation1
12:45 to 13:15 Hakuho West Disarmament 0355 A Case Study on the Use of Chemical Weapons Sayed Mahdi Faghihi, Shahid Foundation, Iran1
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Oral Presenters Session C Monday, August 3, 2015
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session C1 12:30 to 14:30 SLATE: Applied Linguistics and Pedagogy Room: Asagi Presenters: 0216, 0232, 0262, 0315 Session Time Moderators: Estrella Fajardo and Nobuko Tahara
12:30 to 13:00 Asagi Language Pedagogy 0216 The Patterns of Codeswitching Behavior of Trilinqual Tertiary Students Across Academic Disciplines Estrella Fajardo, Bulacan State University, Philippines1
13:00 to 13:30 Asagi Applied Linguistics 0232 A Comparison of Vocabulary Size and Lexical Diversity in L2 Writing in English and Chinese Medium of Instruction Schools in Hong Kong Shun Ka Ingrid To, Nagoya University of Commerce and Business, Japan１
13:30 to 14:00 Asagi Applied Linguistics 0262 The Usage of ‘Parody’ in Chinese Learning and Teaching Crystal Zheng, Yew Chung Community College, Hong Kong１
14:00 to 14:30 Asagi Applied Linguistics 0315 The Use of Reason as a Metadiscourse Device in NNS English Essays Nobuko Tahara, Okayama University, Japan1
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session C2 12:30 to 13:30 SLATE: Teacher Training and Sustainability Room: Moegi Presenters: 0258, 0270 Session Time Moderators: Justin Harris and Anna Ho
12:30 to 13:00 Moegi Teacher Training 0258 Japanese Elementary Schools Teachers Adapting to Changes and Challenges: The Introduction of English Activities in Japanese Elementary Schools Justin Harris, Kinki University, Japanďź‘
13:00 to 13:30 Moegi Teacher Training 0270 Teacher Training in China: A Sustainable Approach Anna Ho, The Hong Kong Polytechnic Universityďź‘ Andrew Jarvis, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University2
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session C3 13:30 to 15:00 SHARE: Perspectives on Human Rights Education Room: Hakuho West Presenters: 0409, 0411, 0413 Session Time Moderators: Hieu Ngo and Juei Hsin Wang
13:30 to 14:00 Hakuho West Children and Youth 0409 Examining Criminal Involvement of Racial Minority Youth through Human Rights/Social Justice Lens Hieu Ngo, University of Calgary, Canada1
14:00 to 14:30 Hakuho West Human Rights Education 0411 Human Rights Education in Turkey: Pros and Cons Gulsen Kaya Osmanbasoglu, Ankara Social Sciences University, Turkey1
14:30 to 15:00 Hakuho West Indigenous Peoples 0413 Reflecting Indigenous School Life Education from Teacher Professional Learning Community Juei Hsin Wang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan1 Yen Ting Chen, National Taichung University of Education, Taiwan2
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Oral Presenters Session D Monday, August 3, 2015
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Oral Session D1 15:30 to 16:30
SHARE: Perspectives on Gender Studies Room: Asagi Presenters: 0403, 0412 Session Time Moderators: Amna Khaliq and Guilia Dondoli
16:00 to 16:30 Moegi Gender Studies (Women, Men, LGBT) 0403 The Impact of Conventional Education on the Economic Independence of Young Women between the Ages of 18-40 Years in The Gambia, Africa Amna Khaliq, Cape Breton University, Canada1
16:30 to 17:00 Moegi Gender Studies (Women, Men, LGBT) 0412 The Heteronormativity of the Human Rights Law: Causes and Consequences Giulia Dondoli, University of Waikato, New Zealand1
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session D2 14:15 to 15:45 SLATE: Second Language Writing in the Classroom Room: Moegi Presenters: 0202, 0203, 0266 Session Time Moderators: Maria Luisa Saldo and Laura Kobata
14:15 to 14:45 Moegi Second Language Writing 0202 An Investigation on the Usefulness of Written Feedback on the Ateneo Admission Essays of Selected Fourth Year High School Students Maria Luisa Saldo, De La Salle Zobel School, Philippines1
14:45 to 15:15 Moegi Language Assessment 0203 Teachers’ Feedback Practices on Students’Writing in a Subject-specific Context Jim Lo, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China１
15:15 to 15:45 Moegi Second Language Writing 0266 Creativity, Confidence and Critical Thinking in the Second Language Writing Classroom Laura Kobata, Univeristy of Fukui, Japan１
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Oral Session D3 15:15 to 16:15 SLATE: Program Administration and Innovation in Education Room: Hakuho West Presenters: 0211, 0261 Session Time Moderators: Yoshihiko Yamamoto and Holly Chung Ho-ying
15:15 to 15:45 Hakuho West Program Administration 0211 Work-study Conflict of Undergraduate Students in Japan Yoshihiko Yamamoto, Shizuoka University, Japanďź‘ Akiko Nagao, Kinki University, Japan2
15:45 to 16:15 Hakuho West Innovation and Change in Education 0261 Teachers' and Students' Motivation in Online Learning Holly Chung Ho-ying, Northeastern University, USAďź‘
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Oral Presenters Session E Tuesday, August 4, 2015
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 3 Tuesday, August 4, 2015 Oral Session E1 09:00 to 10:00 SHAPE: Literary Theory and Criticism Room: Asagi Presenters: 0356, 0370 Session Time Moderators: Michael M. Ramos and Judith Britt McNeely
09:00 to 09:30 Asagi Literary Theory and Criticism 0356 Interculturatioin: Inculturation Redefined Michael M. Ramos, De La Salle University- Lipa, Philippines1
09:30 to 10:00 Asagi Literary Theory and Criticism 0370 Mending Spaces: Imaginary Sensory Perception and Fictional Resistance to War Judith Britt McNeely, University of Maryland University College Asia, Japan1
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 3 Tuesday, August 4, 2015 Oral Session E2 09:00 to 10:00 SLATE: Improving Language Skills in the Classroom Room: Moegi Presenters: 0245, 0267 Session Time Moderators: Marissa Phongsirikul and Natnan Tabpech
09:00 to 09:30 Moegi Language Assessment 0245 Alternative Assessment in English Grammar Classes Marissa Phongsirikul, Kasetsart University, Thailand１
09:30 to 10:00 Moegi CALL / MALL / CALT 0267 EFL Learners’ Beliefs on the Use of Translator Apps in L2 Writing Classes Natnan Tabpech, Kasetsart University, Thailand１
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Poster Presenters Session A Sunday, August 2, 2015
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTER SCHEDULE Day 1 Sunday, August 2, 2015 Poster Session A 16:00 to 17:00 Room: Hakuho East Presenters: 0244, 0285, 0297, 0302, 0321, 0323, 0339, 0340, 0362, 0367, 0418
Cooperative/Collaborative Learning 0244 Scaffolding in the EFL Classroom: The Effectiveness of Peer-to-peer Mediation Allan Nicholas, Juntendo University, Japan１
Applied Linguistics 0285 How Not To Insert an Epenthetic Vowel Hyung-Ji, Ha, Kyung-Pook National University, South Korea１
Teacher Training 0297 Continuous Professional Development for Beginning Teachers: The Competency Framework Shun-wing NG, Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong１
Cultural Studies 0302 Peace Depicted by Saudi and Middle Eastern Muslim Artists Mohammed H. Aldoyhi, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia1
Religion 0321 St. Alban’s and the Holy Rosary Susan Miller, Nippon Sport Science University, Japan1
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Poster Session A (continued) 16:00 to 17:00 Room: Hakuho East
Presenters: 0244, 0285, 0297, 0321, 0323, 0339, 0340, 0362, 0367, 0418
Phonetics and Phonology 0323 On How Young Japanese Female College Students Say the English Alphabet: A Comparison of the Fundamental Frequencies F0s with Native Speakers of English Language Guido Izuta, Yamagata Prefectural Yonezawa Women's Junior College, Japan1
Ecology 0339 Abandoned Gold Mining Tailing Dumps: Risks and Responsibility Ivan Kovlekov, North-Eastern Federal University, Russian Federation1
Second Language Studies 0340 Tabletop Role-playing as a New Educational Tool Kirill Kovlekov, North-Eastern Federal University, Russian Federation1
Product Design 0362 Solution Strategies and Design Training in Spatial Tests Hanyu Lin, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan1
Graphic Design 0367 The effects of personality on visual emotional perception Hui Yueh Hsieh, Ming Chi University of Technology, Taiwan1
Immigration and Migrant Rights 0418 Migrant Workers Protection with Nawa Cita Program Krismita S.P Adiningsih, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia1 Rachmadivanie Djohor, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia2 Ayu Nur Muthia, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia3
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Virtual Presentations Monday, August 3, 2015
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
DETAILED PRESENTATION SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Virtual Panel Session A 14:30 to 15:20 Room: Asagi Presentations: 0287, 0288, 0291, 0307, 0326, 0431 SLATE: ICT in Education 0287 Are Today's Teachers SMART Enough? Harry Carley, Matsuyama University, Japan１
SLATE: Language and Discourse Analysis 0288 A Study of an EFL Teacher's Intertextual Talk Cho, Fan-Chi, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan１
SLATE: ESL / EFL 0291 Remedial Students’ Identity Construction in an Interactive Reading-Aloud Class Pai-Chi Chu, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan１
SLATE: Teacher Training 0307 Teacher Talk, English Learners’ Motivation and L2 Anxiety Babak Mahdavy, Azad University, Iran1 Maryam Shabanpour2
SHAPE: Conflict Resolution 0326 Framing conflicts: Elite Discourse in the U.S. and Chinese Media toward Terrorism Yang Liu, University of Macau, Macau1
Peace Studies 0431 Human Right to Peace Krishna Gupta,University of Allahabad, India1
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTATION SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Virtual Panel Session B 16:00 to 17:00 Room: Moegi Presentations: 0213, 0237, 0274, 0280, 0284, 0286, 0318 SLATE: Innovation and Change in Education 0213 A Theoretical Integration of Innovation and Educational Leadership for Enriching 21st Century Learning Spaces Kanog-on Rungrojngarmcharoen, Assumption University, Thailand１ SLATE: Professional Development and Teacher Training 0237 Professional Development Dilemma(s) Lucas Kohnke, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong１ SLATE: Language Assessment 0274 Method of Assessing Foreign Language Proficiency Compared with Native Language Alexander Solomonov, Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University, Russia１ Margarita Malysheva, Yaroslavl State University, Russia2
SLATE: Innovation and Change in Education 0280 The Relationships among Parent–Child Interaction, Gratitude and Prosocial Behavior of Fifthand Sixth-grade Students Wu, Ho-Tang, Cheng-Shiu University, Taiwan１ Chen,Chun-Miao2 Wu, Pai-Lu, Cheng-Shiu University, Taiwan3 SLATE: ESP / EAP 0284 Deconstructing Text to Construct Meaning: English Language Learners in an Advanced Reading Course Natalya Watson, Northeastern University, USA1 SLATE: Learning Strategies 0286 A Tale of Two Classes:Contrasts and Comparisions Harry Carley, Matsuyama University, Japan１ SLATE: Technology-Enhanced Teaching and Learning 0318 The Flipped-class Model with MOOCs Resources in Teaching English Public Speaking: An action research proposal at a Chinese University Lisha Liu, South University of Science and Technology of China, China1 Zhuo Li, South University of Science and Technology of China, China2 Yuxiu Hu, South University of Science and Technology of China, China
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTATION SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Virtual Panel Session C 16:30 to 17:00 Room: Asagi Presentations: 0329, 0344, 0345
SHAPE: History 0329 History of Agriculture Economy and Emergence of Cooperative in Thailand Pornprapa Kikuchi, Kasart University, Thailand1
SHAPE: Cultural Studies 0344 Customs & Lifestyles:Exploration Through English Language Learning Harry Carley, Matsuyama University, Japan1
SHAPE: Second Language Studies 0345 Comparison: Language Lab vs. Computer Room- How they can differ in Language Learning Harry Carley, Matsuyama University, Japan1
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
DETAILED PRESENTATION SCHEDULE Day 2 Monday, August 3, 2015 Virtual Panel Session D 16:30 to 17:00 Room: Hakuho West Presentations: 0432, 0433, 0434
SHARE: Human Rights Education 0432 Human Rights:Japanese Students Explore the Life of Nelson Mandela and Human Rights Issues Harry Carley, Matsuyama University, Japan1
SHARE: Arts and Cultural Life 0433 Friends the World Over: Japanese Junior High School English Texts and How Other Countries are Protrayed in them Harry Carley, Matsuyama University, Japan1
SHARE: Philosophy of Human Rights 0434 The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood: a Different Human Rights Theory Mauro Saccol, University of Genoa, Italy1
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Non Presenting Presentations
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Applied Linguistics 0210 The Study of Mechanics Terminology in Albanian Language (in Comprehensive Terminology and in a Special Sub-field) Gani Pllana, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina” Prishtina, Republic of Kosovo１
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Index of Presenting Authors and Co-authors
Adipramono, Raditya, Universitas Islam Indonesia, page 20 Aldoyhi, Mohammed, King Saud University, page 43 Burnasheva, Natalia, Institute for Humanities Research and Indigenous Studies of the North Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, page 29 Carley, Harry, Matsuyama University, pages 46, 47, 48, 49 Chang, Chihhao, Nagoya University of Commerce and Business, page 28 Chen, Yi-Shan, Chaoyang University of Technology, page 24 Cho, Fan-Chi, National Chung Cheng University, page 46 Chu, Pai Chi, National Chung Cheng University, page 46 Chung, Holly, Hang Seng Management College, page 37 Davey, Iain, Kyoto University of Foreign Studies, page 28 Djohor, Rachmadivanie, Universitas Indonesia, page 44 Dondoli, Giulia, Waikato University, page 35 Faghihi, Sayed Mahdi, Bonyade Shahid, page 29 Fajardo, Estrella, Bulacan State University, page 31 Farnam, Parnian, Columbia University, page 23 Farsani, Siavosh Naderi, The International Academic Center for Islamic Discourse, page 29 Gupta, Krishna, University of Allahabad, page 46 Ha, Hyung Ji, Kyung-Pook Natioanl University, page 43 Harris, Justin, Kinki University, page 32 Hsieh, Hui Yueh, Ming Chi University of Technology, page 44 Izuta, Guido, Yamagata Prefectural Yonezawa Women's Junior College, pages 25, 44 Jarvis, Andrew, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, page 32 Kaya Osmanbasoglu, Gulsen, Ankara Social Sciences University, page 33 Khaliq, Amna, Cape Breton University, page 35 Kikuchi, Pornprapa, Kasetsart University, page 48 Kim, Haeyeon, Chungbuk National University, page 27 King Takagi, Kristy, University of Fukui, page 17 Kobata, Laura, University of Fukui, page 36 Kohnke, Lucas, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, page 47 Kovlekov, Kirill, North-Eastern Federal University, page 44 Kovlekov, Ivan, North-Eastern Federal University, page 44 Kulkarni, Satish, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, page 24 Leeming, Paul, Kindai University, page 25 Li, Ying, Newcastle University, page 27 Lin, Hanyu, National Kaohsiung Normal University, page 44 Liu, Lisha, South University of Science and Technology of China, page 47 Lo, Jim, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, page 36 Mahdavy, Babak, Azad University, Qaemshahr branch, page 46 McNeely, Judith, University of Maryland University College-Asia, page 39 Metta, Marilyn, Curtin University, page 19 Miller, Susan, Nippon Sport Science University, page 29 Miller, Susan, Nippon Sport Science University, page 43 Moiseenko, Veronika, Sultan Qaboos University, page 28 Morris, James, University of St Andrews, page 23 Muthia, Ayu Nur, Universitas Indonesia, page 44 Nagao, Akiko, Kinki University, page 27 Ng, Shun Wing, Hong Kong Institute of Education, page 43 Ngo, Hieu, University of Calgary, page 33 Nicholas, Allan, Juntendo University, page 43 Oguro, Susan, University of Technology Sydney, page 18 Pai-Lu, Wu, Cheng-Shiu University, page 47 Phongsirikul, Marissa, Kasetsart University, page 40
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Index of Presenting Authors and Co-authors (continued)
Pllana, Gani, University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina� in Prishtina Republic of Kosovo, page 51 Ramos, Michael, De La Salle University- Lipa, page 39 Rungrojngarmcharoen, Kanogon, Assumption University, page 47 Saccol, Mauro, University of Genoa, page 49 Salaberry, Maximo, Rice University, page 25 Saldo, Maria Luisa, De La Salle Zobel School, page 36 Skaer, Peter, Hiroshima University, page 25 Solomonov, Alexander, Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University, page 47 Tabpech, Natnan, Kasetsart University, page 40 Tahara, Nobuko, Okayama University, page 31 To, Shun Ka Ingrid, Nagoya University of Commerce and Business, page 31 Touma, Tiffany, Colegio Menor San Francisco de Quito, page 23 Wang, Juei Hsin, National Chiayi University, page 33 Watson, Natalya, Northeastern University of Boston, page 47 Yamamoto, Yoshihiko, Shizuoka University, page 37 Yang, Liu, University of Macau, page 46 Zheng, Crystal, Yew Chung Community College, page 31
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education (SLATE) As globalization advances and boundaries between countries fade away, the need to communicate in a second or multiple languages has altered the linguistic landscape. As a result, second language acquisition and foreign language teaching have progressed to the forefront of linguistics, providing a critical framework in understanding how language is acquired or learned and its pedagogical implications. Language today not only links nations but also empowers individuals toward greater upward mobility, all of which makes it an indispensable tool in modern society. Approaches towards SLA and language teaching have evolved over the past decades from their early days of the grammar/translation method and audio-lingual method to Krashen’s monitor theory to the communicative and content-based approaches that dominate today. Plus with the development of modern technology, CALL or computer-assisted language learning has gained wider acceptance in the classroom though research on it still remains relatively limited. Despite these advances, it is still necessary to examine how individual language skills are learned as well as the roles teachers play. Clearly the complex and dynamic nature of language and our understanding of it create an intriguing field of study today that challenges old conventions and poses new ones. Many of the same questions from the past, need to be explored through the latest models and research. How is language acquired? Is there a critical age to learn a language? What is the most effective way to teach L2? What is the role of L1 in learning L2? How effective is corrective feedback in assisting language learners? How can we protect linguistic diversity in sustainable development? The 2015 Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education (SLATE) is a three-day, international, peer-reviewed conference that invites scholarly interactions among academics, researchers, educators, and students. With the theme Language in the 21st Century, the conference is a wonderful opportunity to share research, insights and techniques, and form professional networks in this burgeoning field of linguistics and education. For more information about SLATE 2015 please visit our homepage at: http://esdfocus.org/second-language-acquisition-teacher-education-conference/
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Symposium on the Humanities and Arts for Peace (SHAPE) This year marks the 70th Hiroshima Peace Memorial and yet the world is hardly at peace. There is a growing call to embrace the critical relationship between peace and the humanities. This is evidence as human communities as well as their diverse biological and cultural heritage are increasingly threatened by mounting environmental and societal problems from climate change and exploitation of finite resources to the inequities and human costs of unsustainable practices and technologies. Progress on these issues is often further complicated by the contemporary hegemonic mind-set of the status quo, resulting in complacency, inactivity and the general perception of individual futility. This is particularly pronounced in many developing countries in Asia in which the focus on economic growth at the expense of the environment and the failure to recognize the inextricable link between these sustainable domains are commonplace. That is why humanists play a pivotal role in understanding, challenging and altering such destructive and unsustainable courses. By examining and interpreting humans’ beliefs about their relationship to nature and intertwining this knowledge and policies across the disciplines, humanists can broaden our understanding of sustainability and forge new sustainable paths. Our shared biosphere and rapid globalization ensure no country is immune from another country’s problems and risks, which means a collective and multidisciplinary approach is essential for integrating environmental and cultural sustainability. As the fields of arts, humanities and sustainability cross over into multiple areas and disciplines, authors are welcome to submit from a range of topics, perspectives, and disciplines. The range of research submissions may include conceptual, empirical, experimental, and case studies. The three-day, international, peer-reviewed conference will provide an interdisciplinary platform for academics, researchers, policy makers, activists, students and professionals. With the theme of Progressive Voices the conference will promote a critical understanding of the innovative and organic approaches from the Arts and Humanities toward sustainability. For more information about SHAPE 2015 please visit our homepage at: http://esdfocus.org/humanities-arts-peace-symposium/
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Second Asian Symposium on Human Rights Education (SHARE) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was established by the United Nations in 1948 to forge a new direction for humanity in which the inherent dignity and equal and inalienable rights of all human beings are confirmed and guaranteed. The human rights landscape today, with its ever-changing peaks and valleys, has made some noteworthy advances in promoting greater access to human rights on a global scale; however, they cannot overshadow the existing violations against humanity that are aggravated through the discrimination and marginalization of peoples. Human rights, which are deeply intertwined with a nation’s social, political, and economic rights, are critical to a nation’s wellbeing and global peace. Unfortunately, the problems facing them today are widespread and complex, challenging customs and prejudices that are deeply ingrained in the social fabric of a society. At the forefront in the battle for equality today are women, indigenous people, and minorities, to name a few. In many parts of the world, their rights and path to self-determination are obstructed by systematic discrimination and inequality, resulting in varying degrees of abuse, violence, inadequate wages, forced labor, suppression of speech, and overall disempowerment. Moreover, their situation is exacerbated by a legal system that opposes them or by their governments’ inability to protect and promote their rights. Hiroshima, Japan, the City of Peace, is proud to host the 2015 Asian Symposium on Human Rights Education, which will precede the 70th Hiroshima Peace Memorial and Remembrance Ceremony. The three-day symposium in August will provide an interdisciplinary platform for academics, researchers, policy makers, human rights advocates, students and professionals. With the theme Human Rights: The Road to Reform, the conference will promote a greater understanding and access to human rights and help to equalize the process of globalization. For more information about SHARE 2015 please visit our homepage at: http://www.esdfocus.org/human-rights-education-symposium/
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
SLATE/SHAPE/SHARE 2015 Acknowledgements We extend our deepest appreciation to the following institutions and people: SLATE/SHAPE/SHARE 2015 Sponsors The PRESDA Foundation INTESDA Institutional Affiliates Sonoma State University, Graduate and Professional Programs (USA) Hiroshima City University, Department of Peace Studies (Japan) Program Leadership Professor Michael Sasaoka, Special Programs Director, ESD Focus, The PRESDA Foundation (Japan) Takayuki Yamada, Chairperson, The PRESDA Foundation (Japan) Advisers Harry Carley, School of Humanities, Matsuyama, University (Japan) Mochtar Marhum, Ph.D., Dept. of Languages and Arts Education, Tadulako University (Indonesia) Susan Oguro, Ph.D., Faculty of Arts & Sciences, University of Technology (Australia) Kristy King Takagi, Ph.D., Deputy Director, Language Center, Fukui University (Japan) William Kittredge, Ph.D., Cervelet Management and Strategy Consultants (Thailand) John Stayton, Executive Director, Graduate Programs, Sonoma State University (USA) Gabriel Barhaim, Ph.D. Socio-Behavioral Dept., Netanya College (Israel) Sayantan Sinha, Chairman, Board of Trustees, PRESDA Foundation (Japan) Gobind T Shahani, Secretary General, Rotary Education Foundation (India)
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Reading and Editorial Committees We deeply appreciate the tireless effort and commitment to confidentiality and professionalism of our reading and editorial committee members. Under leadership of Dr. Suman Chakrabarty and Professor John Latzo, we had (26) readers assist with the reviews. The total number of abstracts received for all three mini-events was 213. The distribution was as follows:
SHARE: 40 submissions with 31 accepted (77.5% acceptance rate) SHAPE: 71 submissions with 53 accepted (74.6% acceptance rate) SLATE: 102 submissions with 72 accepted (70.5% acceptance rate)
We employed a double-blind review system; however, to ensure that submissions were read in a timely manner and as a matter of redundancy, submissions were sent to three different readers with instructions and a scoring rubric that assessed areas such as originality, clarity/organization, spelling/grammar and suitability for the event. We wish to thank the following people for their willingness and effort to assist with the reading and editorial committee work: Alexander Solomonov Babak Mahdavy Caroline Victorine Katemba Crystal Zheng Estrella Fajardo Giulia Dondoli Gulsen Kaya Osmanbasoglu Haeyeon Kim Hieu Ngo Holly Chung Hui Yueh Hsieh James Morris John Latzo
Kanogon Rungrojngarmcharoen Liu Lucas Kohnke Mauro Saccol Michael KS Alvord Michael Ramos Natalia Burnasheva Parnian Farnam Siavosh Naderi Farsani Suman Chakrabarty Susan Miller Tim Desmond Yoshihiko Yamamoto
Proceedings At the end of August, we will upload the Proceedings to our ESDFocus Library homepage accessible at: http://esdfocus.org/library. The Proceedings will be published in electronic format only as we strive to be a carbon neutral event.
SLATE SHAPE SHARE
ISSN 2189-2164 ISSN 2188-6622 ISSN 2188-4013
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Conference Information Background and Data Education for Sustainable Development is still a relatively new area of study and research. The topics usually attract a very narrow segment of the non-profit / non-governmental and academic community. The development and planning of these mini-events, which you are attending, began this past spring. The input for content and themes is based on feedback from past participants and the final draft was compiled and edited by Professor John Latzo and other members of our committee. This year, we decided to organize three mini-events together across a wider range of topics based on submission areas of past participants. The number of presenters attending in person is SHARE (11), SHAPE (13) and SLATE (32). In addition, we have (18) non-attending virtual presenters and several attending as audience. Fees All revenue from these events has been used for providing facilities, equipment, meals, materials and staff for the benefit of the participants. In addition, multiple scholarships were awarded to help participants attend and JPY 70,000 was donated to charity in recognition and support of the 70th Hiroshima Peace Memorial Commemoration. As a very small event, we are unable to attract sponsors or exhibitors to offset the high cost of organizing these symposia during the peak travel season and just preceding a major memorial event in Japan. Thus, the budget for this event is entirely dependent on the registration fee for providing use of the facility, equipment for presentations, the welcome dinner, coffee and light lunch, support staff, tours and so forth. We do understand that for many of you, it is a long and expensive journey from your home country or from other parts of Japan. In addition, Hiroshima is not an easy city to reach due to limited air service and expensive rail service from Tokyo and Osaka. So, we try to provide as much benefit as possible for your stay, such as holding the event in the center of Hiroshima, providing meals and free excursions to the two most famous sites in Hiroshima: Peace Park and the floating shrine of Miyajima.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Donation in Support of the 70th Hiroshima Peace Memorial Commemoration In recognition and support of the 70th Hiroshima Peace Memorial Commemoration, we have donated 70,000 JPY to two Japan-based charity organizations. The donation was divided equally between the Ashinaga Foundation and the City Lights Social Welfare Corporation. JPY 35,000 to the Ashinaga Foundation Ashinaga got its start over 40 years ago. Since the "Association for Natural Disaster Orphans" (the predecessor of today's Ashinaga) was established in April 1988, as of December 2012, the organization has provided scholarships 35,023 orphaned students, including children who lost parents in the Great Hanshin Earthquake in January 1995 and the March 11 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011. http://www.ashinaga.org/en/
JPY 35,000 to the City Lights Social Welfare Corporation Establish in 1987, the City Lights Social Welfare Corporation is based in Kobe, Japan supports the disabled and handicapped community in Kobe City by providing work in a organic food store, daycare service, rehabilitation and counseling. City Lights is also endorsed and supported by the Kobe City Government. http://citylights-kobe.sakura.ne.jp/
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
SLATE/SHAPE/SHARE 2015 General Information Designated Hotel – Mitsui Garden Hotel Hiroshima The designated hotel and venue site is the Mitsui Garden Hotel Hiroshima. All sessions and receptions will be held here. The hotel is conveniently in the center of the city near the shopping and restaurant district. The hotel is also within walking distance of Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park and Museum. Also nearby are the A-Bomb Dome and Bell of Peace Access to the Mitsui Garden Hotel The most convenient means to reach the Mitsui Garden Hotel is either to take a taxi from Hiroshima Station or to use the public transportation street car system known as ‘Hiroden’. The approximate travel times are as follows:
15 minutes from JR Hiroshima Station to Fukuromachi stop by streetcar 10 minutes on foot from the Bus Center 55 minutes by shuttle bus from Hiroshima Airport to downtown Hiroshima
Venue As one of the largest cities in western Japan, Hiroshima has been a bustling, affluent and prosperous city with a rich history dating back to 1589, when it was established as the capital city of a powerful samurai warlord. Today, of course, Hiroshima is most well-known as the first city in the world to have suffered an atomic bombing, which occurred towards the end of World War II on August 6, 1945. Around the city of Hiroshima, you will find many well-used green spaces, none of which are more important than the poignant Peace Memorial Park, where various statues and monuments reside, as well as the A-Dome building, which has become a symbol of peace and has been registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Apart from war memorials, Hiroshima boasts some of the best traditional Japanese landscaping, including the beautiful Shukkeien Garden complete with tea houses, ponds and bridges. Finally, there is the iconic Miyajima Shrine Island, which is revered as on of the “three views of Japan” with its towering red torii gate standing in the midst of the inland sea. Built in 593, it was renovated to its current splendor in 1168. The main hall of the shrine is furnished with vermillion-lacquered columns and Japanese cypress bark roofing. The shrine pavilion is a unique example of Heian Period architecture and has been designated as a national treasure of Japan. The Miyajima Shrine is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site and its close proximity to Hiroshima makes for a wonderful afternoon visit.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Dress During SLATE/SHAPE/SHARE 2015 sessions and receptions, the expected dress code is business casual. Climate Hiroshima has a temperate climate, with average lows staying above freezing even during the coldest part of the year. Average temperatures range from 35 degrees Fahrenheit in January to 90 degrees in August, with daily means hovering between 45 and 75 most of the year. Rainfall averages 60 inches annually and is spread throughout the year; June and July are the wettest months, receiving roughly 10 inches. The driest months are December and January, with less than 2 inches of rain each. Light snowfall occurs from December to January, averaging no more than 2 inches a month.
Equipment Presentation rooms are equipped with PC notebook computers, screens, projectors, speakers and laser pointers. Please note that the computers are not connected to the sound system in the room. If you intend to have an audio track during your presentation, please let us know. We also provide onsite technical support, if needed. Session Time Moderators Presentations during regular sessions have been allotted 25 to 30 minutes. We advise that presenters limit their presentation to 25 minutes and then use the remaining 5 minutes for questions and answers. We also ask that you allow time for the next presenter to prepare. As it is difficult for presenters to be mindful of the time, we have selected (1 to 2) people from each panel to alert the presenters when the presentation has reached the 25-minute mark. The primary task of the moderator is simply to remind presenters when the presentation time has expired so as to allow for a smooth transition for the next presenter. The moderators are not required to introduce the speakers because details are included in the schedule program regarding the name and affiliation of the speaker. If a presenter is absent or arrives late, the moderators should start the next presentation and inform the audience accordingly. If a moderator arrives late or is absent the panel should nominate an alternate moderator. Any presenters arriving late must wait until the final presenter has finished, and then may use any remaining time to present. Internet Access WIFI access is available in the Mitsui Garden Hotel lobby area. Please see the front desk for login and password details. If you are staying in the Mitsui Garden Hotel, then you can access the Internet free-of-charge in your room. Having difficulty connecting to the WIFI inside the Mitsui Garden Hotel? Please note that the SLATE/SHAPE/SHARE organizers have no control over the WIFI access, so please inquire at the hotel front desk.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Printing Photocopies can be made at one of the convenience stores located next door and behind the Mitsui Garden Hotel. Alternatively, for larger printing needs, there is a Kinko’s located on Hon-Dori Avenue. See the Mitsui Garden front desk for directions. Stores Near the Mitsui Garden Hotel The Mitsui Garden Hotel is located in the main shopping district. About 500 meters behind the Mitsui Garden Hotel is Hondori, which is an arcade which is filled with many shops.
Banks / ATM / Currency Exchange There is currency exchange available at the Mitsui Garden front desk as well a bank within a 5-minute walk of the Mitsui Garden Hotel. Please ask the hotel front desk for a map and directions. All banks in Hiroshima are open until 3:00 p.m. Monday to Friday and closed on Saturday and Sunday. Please remember to bring your passport when exchanging money. International ATMs with English menus are also available at 7-Eleven convenience stores, which are open 24 hours with locations throughout the city.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Centre for Human Rights Education
How I Became a Refugee How I Became a Refugee is a documentary film that follows the extraordinary journey of a Burmese Chin refugee family from their homeland where they escaped religious persecution from the military government through to Malaysia before being resettled in Perth, Western Australia. “One day, dad never came back home…” This is the story of a family who lost their home, country and innocence. What makes a family leave their home? What happens when you are forced to live as a stateless person? What does it mean to search for home? Produced by Marilyn Metta and Chris Gosfield
How I Became A Refugee is produced in collaboration with Mettamorphosis Inc, a non-profit charitable organisation which supports the educational needs of ‘stateless’ refugee children.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
SLATE 2015 Official Proceedings Section I Catalog of Abstracts
CALL / MALL / CALT 0200
Using the LMS Haiku Learning to Facilitate Active Learning
Iain Davey, Kyoto University of Foreign Studies, Japan1
This presentation will focus on a modern learning management system (LMS) called Haiku Learning by highlighting examples how class management can be enhances with the many user-friendly and intuitive features the system offers. First there will an overview of Haiku Learning to introduce exactly what it is, it’s role in the classroom, and indeed, outside the classroom, the main tools that it provides the user, and any limitations that it may have. The main section will present examples of how Haiku Learning has been used, mainly with regards content courses for advanced English language students at university in Japan. In particular, activities and features of the system which may help facilitate active learning and collaboration amongst the students will be presented. Finally, problems or limitations encountered with this system will also be considered together with any future or planned ideas on how to employ this LMS as part of a course.
Second Language Writing 0202 An Investigation on the Usefulness of Written Feedback on the Ateneo Admission Essays of Selected Fourth Year High School Students Maria Luisa Saldo, De La Salle Zobel School, Philippines1
ABSTRACT The use of written feedback serves to increase critical analysis in the improvement of writing outputs from different educational levels and backgrounds as supported by the statement of Frota and Schmidt (1986) that students, and probably even teachers, who “notice the most, learn most” (in De Larios & Esteban, 2010, p.144). The study focused on the effectiveness of written feedback in improving written outputs. The Ateneo Admission essays of thirty fourth year graduating students from De La Salle Santiago Zobel School were used to investigate any notable increase in the essay grades of students through use of three particular types of written feedback, namely advisory comments, regulatory instructions and rhetorical questions. The writing outputs were graded based on their content, organization, and grammar and mechanics. The respondents underwent two writing stages. An overall increase in grades with grammar and mechanics being the most improved was recorded. The study also found that regulatory instruction was the most effective among the types of written feedback used. It is worth noting, however, that the different written feedback had varying degrees of effectiveness through the investigation and observation of isolated cases. Teachers must, therefore, attend trainings, lecture, seminars, or course on writing feedback as these supplements will allow teachers to better know their own commenting styles, and “by understanding their own commenting styles, instructors become proactive in helping their students become better writers” (Abbot & Ahern, 2007, p.2).
Language Assessment 0203
Teachers’ Feedback Practices on Students’Writing in a Subject-specific Context
Jim Lo, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China1
Research in second language (SL) writing has found that while teachers generally believe in the value of feedback in their writing pedagogy, the effect of feedback on students’ writing development has been questioned. A recurring finding from SL writing research is that in order for feedback to be effective, teachers need to be informed of the type of feedback, and the manner in which it is given, that can maximize the benefits for students. This key finding has been translated into a number of “best practices” regarding feedback provision. However, teachers have been reported to either encounter considerable difficulty in implementing them or ignore such practices due to practical constraints. This study aims to investigate to what extent teachers followed some of the recommended practices in a largescale writing assessment model in a tertiary institute in Hong Kong. Different from previous studies where feedback was generally given to writing tasks of a generic nature, this study examined feedback provision in an assessment model based on the philosophy of “writing across curriculum”. Preliminary findings confirmed the flexibility with which teachers approach feedback provision. For instance, global issues (e.g. content and organization) were given more attention in stronger students whereas local issues (e.g. grammar and punctuation) featured more prominently in feedback for weaker students. The genre of the writing tasks, such as argumentative essays, reports and reflections, also influenced the way feedback was given.
ESL / EFL 0205
Critical Thinking Lite: Using YouTube to Help Omani Students Reflect
Veronika Moiseenko, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman1
Critical thinking skills are currently considered one of the key components of a university student’s “competence pack”. However, not all university students are able to exploit their critical thinking skills to the fullest. One of the reasons is the nature of the educational system to which they were exposed at their schools. In some educational contexts, there is still a heavy emphasis on rote learning, which tends to marginalize the development of learners’ critical reasoning. For instance, most Omani students receive traditional tuition at their schools. Therefore, they often struggle when making a transition to a more rigorous university context requiring them to use critical thinking. To help them develop their critical thinking skills, the presenter carried out a materials development project aimed at producing critical thinking worksheets. Each worksheet is based on a YouTube video, and includes pre, while and post-watching activities clustered around a specific topic such as sedentary lifestyle, recycling, advertising, and so on. Apart from facilitating critical thinking, the worksheets aim at providing students with extra speaking practice. In other words, learners are given a chance to engage in meaningful conversations about a number of interesting topics. This presentation will start with a brief discussion of the speaker’s educational context. Then the presenter will provide a detailed description of the project including the rationale behind it and the challenges faced. At the end, she will demonstrate some of the worksheets she has created.
ESL / EFL 0206 Transitions of EFL Learners as Novices in Japan: Through the Lends of Communities of Practice Akiko Nagao, Kinki University, Japan1
This qualitative study explored the relationship among learners’ transformations from novices to experienced learners in (1) target language proficiency, (2) relationships with other members, and (3) their degree of participation in EFL classrooms as communities of practice (CoP). For a semester at a private university in Japan, 28 learners in the CoP C and 27 in the CoP G assumed a genre approach to language learning lessons. Textual data from learners’ self-reflections, written on their participation in the CoP at different times throughout the semester, were collected; co-occurrence network analysis was applied in conjunction with the KH Coder software to extract and illustrate words that appeared most frequently in order to understand their transformations. Similarities and differences in the features of learners’ transformations in these two classrooms will be explained further. Analysis of self-reflections reveals that language learning in classroom communities differs from learning about language rules and grammatical usage patterns. In classroom communities, learning occurs when students use the target language while participating in ongoing communication tasks. This research implies that the languagelearning model should shift from knowledge transmission to student-centered participation for better assessment evaluation of how learning occurs within classroom CoPs through various social practices.
Language Assessment 0207
Some Thorny Issues in English Language Class Placement Testing at Japanese Universities
Kristy King Takagi, University of Fukui, Japan1
Compared to only 10 or 20 years ago, when college English classes in Japan were more often than not mixed in proficiency levels, more Japanese university English language programs now appear to be administering some kind of placement testing to students in order to place them into classes that match their English proficiency. Although careful use of an appropriate test will result in classes in which students are of approximately the same proficiency level, an outcome helpful to both students and teachers, there are, nevertheless, quite a few thorny issues that can emerge from efforts to administer placement tests, whether standardized tests such as TOEFL or TOEIC, university-developed tests, writing exams, interviews, or other kinds of tests are used. In this presentation, I will explain some of these thorny issues. Although the challenges of placement testing are my focus, I would also like to point out a number of benefits peculiar to the particular tests discussed.
Applied Linguistics 0210 The Study of Mechanics Terminology in Albanian Language (in Comprehensive Terminology and in a Sspecial Sub-field) Gani Pllana, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina� Prishtina, Republic of Kosovo1
Summary The terminology of mechanics in Albanian language has become an overview object mainly on the synchronous level, although here and there attempts have been made to address some practices, especially of word forming in terminology in their historical development. During the study of this terminology on the historic platform, an effort has been made to identify some cases of the evolution of the terms to the present day, where it was observed, on the one hand, the adjustment of the terms with their content, which has brought the modification of the form of the terms, the replacement of existing forms with new forms, etc. In a particular way, this terminology in this work will be viewed from the exposed side in it, of the two interesting phenomena, the synonymy and homonym. Keywords: terminology, theoretical mechanics, synonymy, homonymy.
Program Administration 0211
Work-study Conflict of Undergraduate Students in Japan
Yoshihiko Yamamoto, Shizuoka University, Japan1 Akiko Nagao, Kinki University, Japan2
Although Japanese economy seems recovering in general, people do not seem to find their income increased. For example, to send a child to one of private universities in Japan, parents need to prepare over a million yen every year. However, Japanese average income is said to be around 4 million yen (National Tax Agency, 2011). Thus university students financially need to support their study on their own which causes reducing the amount of study time at their university. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between financial pressures on Japanese university students and the amount of time of their study for their English subjects. Participants of this study are both 1st year and 2nd year students of a private university in Japan (N=140 in total). Questionnaires were used for data collection. The results of questionnaires reveal that participants spent one to five hours on their study outside of their class while they spent six to fifteen hours on their part time job. Nearly the half of participants also answered that they thought to study their major at their university was the most important thing for university students. The results reveal that having part time jobs negatively affects the amount time of students’ study at university although participants knew the importance of their study at university.
Innovation and Change in Education 0213 A Theoretical Integration of Innovation and Educational Leadership for Enriching 21st Century Learning Spaces Kanog-on Rungrojngarmcharoen, Assumption University, Thailand1
In a community of a new era innovation provides comfort, convenience, and efficiency in everyday life. In business sectors, innovation links to positive changes in productivity, quality, competitiveness, market share, and others. Likewise, innovation could also act as a catalyst to the growth for an education system at all levels. Synergizing innovation and education necessitates visionary, dynamic and change leadership. Leaders in educational institutions need changes to pave ways for teachers and learners to enrich their teaching and learning processes through sound and conducive environment. One of the crucial success factors in effective school administration is to construct, out of bricks and mortar, active learning spaces that encompass FLIP features: Flexible learning modes, Learner-centered through differentiating instruction, Innovation and Professionally developed teachers. Therefore, that requires a strong sense of innovative leadership. The purposes of this paper are to determine to what extent innovation could be effectively integrated in the 21st century education and to propose a strategic framework for the sustainable learning success of all learners and to give a fresh impetus for enhancing quality learning spaces in the new era.
Language Pedagogy 0216 The Patterns of Codeswitching Behavior of Trilinqual Tertiary Students Across Academic Disciplines Estrella Fajardo, Bulacan State University, Philippines1
This paper revisits the dynamics of codeswitching (CS) in multilinqual academic communities. An extension of interaction sociolinguistics, the investigation employs the use of ideological analysis in order to identify and describe the patterns of CS in interactions in the academic domain, specifically of trilinqual tertiary students across academic disciplines. Researchers on codeswitching, the use of two or more languages in a single utterance, focus on either the structural factors or the social factors that govern what codeswitches are acceptable or unacceptable in academic discourse. Through the years, language specialists have grouped codeswitching according to two approaches: structural and sociolinguistics. The structural approach seeks to characterize how codeswitching can be represented in the mind, while the sociolinguistics approach views codeswitching as a sociographic phenomenon focusing on the social motivations aqnd functions of codeswitching (Trask, 2004). It is in this flight that this paper proceeds with an examination of apparent ideologies in selected communicative situations in different academic disciplines. Using discourse analyses, this paper investigates three groups of students from Education, Tourism, and Engineering courses. The present study aims to shed new light in understanding codeswitching behaviours to add momentum for language research and pedology. Keywords: codeswitching, trilinqual, behaviour, academic disciplines
Applied Linguistics 0232 A Comparison of Vocabulary Size and Lexical Diversity in L2 Writing in English and Chinese Medium of Instruction Schools in Hong Kong Shun Ka Ingrid To, Nagoya University of Commerce and Business, Japan1
The context of learning, and especially late English immersion programme (LEIP) and regular English-as-aSecond-Language programme (ESLP), is an area which has received considerable attention in the literature, and yet very little is known about the potential effect it might have on high school learners' vocabulary learning. Whilst lexical diversity in speaking or writing is a well-researched area in isolation, there is a gap in the knowledge regarding plausible links between learners' receptive vocabulary size and lexical diversity in writing. Similarly, while researchers and teachers have long been interested in measuring receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge of beginning or adult learners in ESL settings, this study investigates and compares the receptive vocabulary size of intermediate adolescent learners in LEIP and ESLP conducted in Hong Kong.
CALL / MALL / CALT 0234 Enhancing Authentic Texts in Online Environments: A data-driven Approach to Second Language Learning Maximo Salaberry, Rice University, USA1
There is a substantial amount of second language (L2) research that has focused on the pedagogical potential of visually enhanced input (VEI) through the use of typographical techniques: elements of text are bolded, underlined, colored, font size is increased, etc. (e.g., Alanen, 1995, Jourdenais et al, 1995, Leeman et al, 1995, Wong, 2003). VEI may be useful to help learners transform input to intake. Nevertheless, the empirical data in support of the proposed benefits of visual input enhancement are not conclusive given the wide range of outcomes, conditions of study, methodological design, etc. (Lee & Huang, 2008). The main premise of VEI research is now being investigated in a more promising arena: the analysis of visually enhanced authentic texts delivered online along with the use of specific software that can dynamically enhance input (e.g., Meurers et al, 2010). The combination of features of online materials (e.g., fully contextualized with other media, constantly updated) and educational software (e.g., automatic creation of pedagogical activities) brings about the benefits of: (1) increased motivation, (2) immediate feedback, and (3) independent learning. I will assess the potential effect of these new constructs as crucial independent variables that have varying effects on the acquisition and development of the L2. More specifically, we present ongoing research of the effects of a specific software technology (VIEW, Meurers et al, 2010) that is used to allow learners to select online texts and, more importantly, to allow them to automatically self-generate learning activities based on authentic texts.
CALL / MALL / CALT 0235
The Effects of E-mail Exchanges in the Teaching of Writing in Senior High School in Taiwan
Chih Hao, Chang, Nagoya University of Commerce and Business, Japan1
The following study will examine the effectiveness of implementing peer feedback and e-mail exchanges in developing writing skills of Taiwanese students. The subjects of this four-week study are six second graders in senior high school in Taiwan. The study examines the effects of e-mail exchange using the following three criteria: peer comments, quality and quantity of students’ writing, and students’ perceptions of e-mail exchange. The findings of the study revealed that surface-level comments were made more than text-based comments, students’ overall writing ability improved and students had a positive attitude towards e-mail exchanges. Finally, the results of the study suggest that, along with the combination of both electronic and face-to-face peer and teacher feedback, use of e-mail exchanges may lead to a greater success rate in students’ writing performance.
Professional Development and Teacher Training 0237
Professional Development Dilemma(s)
Lucas Kohnke, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong1
Professional development (PD) at the university level can be considered a process of continuing education. Teachers have a large impact on whether or not and how the latest trends, such as Information Communication Technology (ICT), are incorporated in the classroom as well as whether they will be successful or not. At the heart of innovation in education are teachers who implement changes in the classroom, and there must be a match between teachers’ beliefs about language teaching and learning and what they see as the capabilities to support the successful introduction of technology in the classroom. This is often where research and practice meet. This study is focused on the following research questions: Q1. What was the frequency of engagement in various professional development activities by ESL teachers in the 12-24 months before the survey took place? Q2. How useful did the ESL teachers perceive the various modes of professional development to be for enhancing their teaching? 40 ESL teachers at a university in Hong Kong participated in a questionnaire to gauge their experience of, and attitudes towards, PD. Data shows that the teachers are not always finding that the PD dictated by the institution's goals align with their own personal goals. The paper concludes with specific recommendations on how PD can become instrumental in improving teachers’ current practices while providing for their future needs and personal growth, resulting in improved departmental performance.
ESL / EFL 0242 Study Abroad and Changes in Degree of Foreign Accent of Adult Thai Speakers’ Pronunciation of L2-English Ying Li, Newcastle University, UK1
The present study examines the impact of learning context on adult Thai speakers’ degree of foreign accent in L2-English speaking. 30 adult Thai speakers who did a 4-month English study program in UK (SA group), and another 30 adult Thai speakers who studied English in Thailand (AH group) participated in the study. Their English pronunciation was tested at the beginning of the program (test 1), by the end of the program (test 2), and 3 months after they went back to Thailand (test 3). In each test, a semi-structured interview was carried out first with questions about their daily life. After the interview, they were asked to do a story-telling task according to the given pictures from Meyer (1969). The participants were tested individually and were auditorily recorded. They were also asked to fill out a questionnaire about their linguistic background, such as language use in UK and after went back to Thailand. According to the results: (1) learning context played significant effect on the participants’ degree of foreign accent. Specifically, the SA group was found had significantly milder foreign accent than the AH group. (2) The amount of language use, particularly the amount of time used in speaking English, was revealed to be a significant variable for the participants’ degree of foreign accent. (3) There was a long-term rendition effect of study abroad. The SA group maintained their acquired accent 3 months after returned to Thailand. The results provide us with further evidence regarding the significance of study context.
Cooperative/Collaborative Learning 0244
Scaffolding in the EFL Classroom: The Effectiveness of Peer-to-peer Mediation
Allan Nicholas, Juntendo University, Japan1
This paper describes a study in which peer-peer mediation between Japanese EFL learners at a higher education institution was investigated. Using sociocultural theory as a framework for analysis, the study examined six participants engaged in pair work, and assessed both the extent to which they engaged in peer-peer mediation, and also the effectiveness of that mediation. The participants were placed into three pairs, and were given a language task in which they were required to construct a story from a set of pictures, working closely with their interlocutor. The audio-recorded sessions were transcribed and analysed for evidence of developmentally sensitive mediation. Evidence was found of both frequent mediation between learners, and of that mediation leading to instances of development in task performance.
Language Assessment 0245
Alternative Assessment in English Grammar Classes
Marissa Phongsirikul, Kasetsart University, Thailand1
It is widely believed that learning grammar is one of the indispensable aspects of an English learner ’s path toward mastering the language. However, there is a mistaken belief that the more grammatical features students know, the better they can perform language skills. With this misconception, grammatical knowledge has become a focal point in teaching and assessing English ability and has been tested in traditional forms of multiplechoice questions and error identification. An important question has arisen from the perspective on English in the 21st century as to whether the knowledge of discrete grammatical points can really represent students’ grammatical ability. Grammatical ability is not just the extent of students’ grammatical knowledge, but as Purpura (2004) describes, grammatical ability refers to “an individual‘s capacity to utilize mental representation of language knowledge built up through practice or experience in order to convey meaning” (cited in Coombe, Davidson, O’Sullivan, & Stoynoff, 2012). In this study the researcher presents a set of alternative assessment that recognizes the importance of developing students’ grammatical ability rather than just teaching grammatical knowledge. The assessment includes iPortfolio (individual work), weCreate (pair assignment), and iLearn & Teach (group project), all of which focus on encouraging students to change what they know about grammatical structure to what they can do with these grammatical knowledge. The results show that students were astonished and challenged by these new methods of assessment, but recognized their ability to reflect their real grammatical ability.
Teacher Training 0258 Japanese Elementary Schools Teachers Adapting to Changes and Challenges: The Introduction of English Activities in Japanese Elementary Schools Justin, Kinki University, Japan1
This paper presentation will outline a mixed methods study investigating how elementary school teachers in Japan have adapted to recent government education policy changes introducing English language classes to the 5th and 6th grades of elementary schools. After a brief introduction of the history of kokusaika (internationalization) studies in Japanese elementary schools, and an overview of similar policies in other EFL countries, the results of a small–scale mixed methods study with be introduced. Surveys were sent to teachers in schools around the Kansai region of Japan in an attempt to discover how they have implemented the new policy in their classes. Interviews were also held with 4 of these teachers, enquiring into various aspects of their journeys teaching this new subject area - a foreign language and culture - something that many previously had no experience with. As the teachers’ narratives show, this has been a challenge, with many viewing their limited language ability as evidence that they shouldn’t be teaching a language, even though what they are teaching does not necessarily require advanced language skills. Other issues that emerged from the surveys and interviews included a lack of clear guidelines and training, as well as issues related to mixed-level classes and the transition from elementary school to junior high school. Examples of how teachers have overcome these difficulties will be provided, illuminating the resourcefulness and adaptability many have shown despite the challenges. Finally, based on the findings of the interviews and surveys, some suggestions will be made for future research directions.
Innovation and Change in Education 0261
Teachers' and Students' Motivation in Online Learning
Holly Chung Ho-ying, Northeastern University, USA1
This paper examines social media and networks’ contribution to educators and students connecting and communicating. More specifically, it is to look at the relationship between the motivational levels of both teachers and students and the use of social media and social networks such as blogging and online community. While social media and networks are mainly used for social and recreational purposes, their potential in facilitating the modern-day teaching and learning has been well explored. With students being considered, this paper proposes to study how welcome the use of social media and networks are for students to use in the learning domain. What will be further examined especially through the past related study is the efficacy of motivating students, particularly those who might struggle in traditional classrooms, to learn from their teachers, their peers and themselves. Another important medium in the teaching and learning experience, the educators, will also be focused in this paper. It will examine how ready, pedagogically, mentally and technologically, the educators in this day and age are regarding teaching and interacting with students with social media and networks. Whether such digital-age pedagogy would help or hinder educators’ motivational levels will also be illustrated.
Applied Linguistics 0262
The Usage of ‘Parody’ in Chinese Learning and Teaching
Crystal Zheng, Yew Chung Community College, Hong Kong1
Parody is a common rhetoric device through imitating the ready-made language form to create a temporary new language [1]. Parody, however, does not only meaning a simple imitation, but also ‘parodying’ a new express in order to enhance the expressive force of language, persuasion and appeal, through the various old language form of ‘imitation’, to reach novel and chic, concise, humorous and rhetoric effects. As a figure of speech, the copy of Hong Kong’s advertisement has been widely used. Based on the relevance theory, in terms of 102 collected in advertisements (data were recorded from Ming Newspaper, Oriental Daily and Headlines from November 10th to December 9th in 2011), to start the brief analysis of the parody used in the slogan in Hong Kong for enhancing the efficiency of teaching Chinese as a second language.
Second Language Writing 0266
Creativity, Confidence and Critical Thinking in the Second Language Writing Classroom
Laura Kobata, University of Fukui, Japan1
In most writing classes the first rhetorical mode introduced to students will be the narrative, but much of the success of the narrative hinges on the quality of the writer’s descriptive prose. Therefore, developing skill with sensory images in writing is essential to the beginning EFL writer. In this presentation, I explore how writing teachers can foster descriptive writing skills by facilitating the growth and development of students’ creativity, confidence and critical thinking. I will focus on three activities I have used in the writing classroom—starting with low stakes exercises to build student writer creativity and confidence; peer review to build critical thinking; and workshop activities to stimulate transference of students' previous knowledge of visual media to the act of descriptive writing. A cornerstone of each of these activities is finding the right word, one of the greatest challenges for writers in any language. For second language writing students that challenge is compounded by the fact that they are in the midst of not only acquiring and learning new vocabulary but that they are wrestling with the delicate shadings of nuance—meaning, feeling, and tone – of the words they employ. The activities I will discuss are designed to encourage students to become wordsmiths who engage in the craft of writing in a spirit of confident play, creativity, and critical inquiry.
CALL / MALL / CALT 0267
EFL Learners’ Beliefs on the Use of Translator Apps in L2 Writing Classes
Natnan Tabpech, Kasetsart University, Thailand1
The advance of smartphone applications has accelerated invasions of technology in language classrooms. Learners, when faced with language difficulties, tend to consult their smartphones rather than their teachers. Translator applications, such as Google Translate, are now among the most widely used aids for language learners. There has been an ongoing debate on whether such applications should be promoted in English writing classes. A number of studies suggest that translator applications can assist lower proficiency learners with their writing. Writing tasks which incorporate the use of translator applications can promote focus on forms. Opponents, however, argue that learners are exposed to errors due to the inefficiency of the technology. Additionally, some learners become overly dependent on these applications. This study engages the issue from EFL learners’ perspectives. To gain a better understanding of learners’ beliefs, this study investigates their choices on when and why they use these applications. It also takes into account learners’ opinions on whether such applications can assist their English writing, and whether they use the applications in real life for selfdirected learning.
Teacher Training 0270
Teacher Training in China: A Sustainable Approach
Anna Ho, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong1 Andrew Jarvis, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong2
This presentation will introduce a teacher development programme in Chongqing which trains local teachers with the skills to become teacher trainers. The Chongqing Train-the-Trainers Programme is a unique teacher development project with the ultimate aim of enhancing the quality of English language teaching in primary and secondary schools in Chongqing province. Teachers on the programme engage in a range of professional development activities preparing them to take on training roles in their respective regions. These activities include input sessions, planning workshops and a school attachment in Hong Kong. The programme has a number of partners including two universities in Chongqing, two education bureaus and The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, acting in an advisory role. The presenters, who are advisors on the programme, will discuss the training model developed on this project and the benefits and challenges of this model. Those who want to find out more about the Chongqing Train-the-Trainers Programme, and have an interest in teacher training or English language teaching in China, will find this session thought-provoking.
Applied Linguistics 0272
Individual and Perceived Group Motivation: a Complex Dynamic
Paul Leeming, Kindai University, Japan1
Researchers have long been aware of the importance of the group context when considering motivation and although group dynamics is often discussed, there has been relatively little research investigating how the context of small groups influences an individual’s task performance. This presentation describes a longitudinal mixed-methods research project where individual motivation and that same individual’s perceived motivation of their group were measured, and the influence on task-performance was analyzed. Initial English speaking proficiency was measured, and a questionnaire was used before and after tasks to assess individual motivation to speak English. At the same time as rating their own motivation, students were asked to rate their groups’ motivation on the same measure. Questionnaire data was collected over a five-week period to monitor possible changes in motivation. Groups were video recorded completing tasks at the middle and end of the study, and classroom observation and post-study interviews were also used in an attempt to assess the impact of individual and perceived group motivation on task performance. Results showed that students’ own motivation to speak English during tasks differs from their perceived motivation of their group members, and that students’ perception of how much their group want to speak English had a direct impact on their own behavior during tasks. Rather than the proficiency or motivation of individuals, it seems that a how a student perceives the motivation of group members will be key in determining their own level of participation in tasks, and also the amount of L1 used.
ESL / EFL 0273
Teaching English through Poetry in an EFL Course
Hae Yeon Kim, Chungbuk National University, South Korea1
The aim of this study is to suggest poetry as an important source of EFL text for university students and provide three-step process of using poetry in EFL curriculum. In Korea, it has been highly controversial if literary texts can be incorporated into EFL course because literary syntax or vocabulary commonly has been regarded as inappropriate for practical English. In particular, poetry has been completely ‘removed’ from EFL course at the University in Korea. Recent researches, however, show that literary can be important source of language learning. Language is not just as a vehicle for thought but also as an instrument for shaping thought (Kramsch 1993), thus, today establishing creative, imaginative and emotional atmosphere in EFL class is believed as essential for improving language ability. Poetry, more than any other source, can satisfy such requirement. To apply poetry to EFL course at the university, systemic instructing process in using the poetry is highly required. So, this study presents carefully designed three-step process of using poetry for university students. In the first step, watching visual images or video, reciting a poem, listening to lyrical music, reading the author’s biography or historical background of the poem can be performed. In the second step, learning vocabulary, close and critical reading of the poem or discussing the poem in detail can be performed. In the third step, feedback from instructor or class mate, or further reading of the poem can be performed.
Language Assessment 0274
Method of Assessing Foreign Language Proficiency Compared with Native Language
Alexander Solomonov, Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University, Russia1 Margarita Malysheva, Yaroslavl State University, Russia2
The assessment method of foreign language proficiency is being developed for Russian educational institutions. Our hypothesis is that a secondary language personality is formed on the basis of the one formed in native language environment. Better command of foreign language results in reducing time differences between foreign an native verbal behavior. To prove it we tested 62 persons including schoolchildren of 3, 5, 7. 10, 11 grades (group of 4 to 14), 9 students and 9 experienced teachers of English. Written consent to psychological examination was received from pupils legal representatives. The subjects were required to solve 20 arithmetic examples of adding two numbers from 10 to 49 each by two trials. In the first trial they pronounced the results in Russian, in the second in English. The average time of trial 1 (T1) and 2 (T2), delay of activity (DA) were registered and determined by computer. It turned out that with duration of schooling DA decreased from 1,75 ± 0,16 (grade 3) to 1,32 ± 0,08 (grade 11). The students, with no practical training in English increased their DA: 1,55 ± 0,10. The teachers showed the lowest DA: 1,01 ± 0,05. In two weeks the method was tested for reliability, correlation was 0,865. The validity was checked in comparison with average scores of school academic achievements, correlation with T2 = –0,42 for p = 0,03; with DA = – 0,29 for p = 0.12, with T2-T1 = – 0,35 for p = 0.06. Thus, this technique may be of interest for further practical development.
Innovation and Change in Education 0280 The Relationships among Parent–Child Interaction, Gratitude and Prosocial Behavior of Fifthand Sixth-grade Students Wu, Ho-Tang, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan Chen,Chun-Miao, Hanmin Elementary School, Kaohsiung, Taiwan 2 Wu, Pai-Lu, Cheng-Shiu University, Taiwan 3 Wang, Pi-Hsia, Cheng-Shiu University, Taiwan 4
Parent–child interaction, gratitude and prosocial behavior have a crucial impact on psychological development. According to our literature review, these three variables are positively related to one another. Therefore, the authors created a model that treats parent–child interaction as an exogenous variable, gratitude as a mediating variable, and prosocial behaviors as endogenous variables. To test this model, the authors administered the Parent–Child Interaction Scale, the Gratitude Scale, and the Prosocial Behavior Scale, which have good validity and reliability, to a total of 987 fifth- and sixth-grade students in Kaohsiung City. Based on an analysis of data using structural equation modelling (SEM), we reached the following conclusions: 1. Scores for parent–child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior were all above average. 2. There was a significant positive correlation between father–child and mother–child interactions. 3. There was a significant positive correlation between parent–child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior. 4. Gratitude mediated the relationship between parent–child interaction and prosocial behavior. Based on these findings, the authors proposed five recommendations: 1. Fifth- and sixth-grade students should be encouraged to express their true feelings to their parents. 2. Fifth- and sixth-grade students should be encouraged to be more interested in helping others. 3. Fathers should be more involved in interactions with their children to improve their children’s understanding of, and behavior related to, gratitude. 4. Parents should be more demonstrative in their expression of gratitude to promote their children’s prosocial behavior. 5. Future research should examine other exogenous variables.
ESP / EAP 0284 Deconstructing Text to Construct Meaning: English Language Learners in an Advanced Reading Course Natalya Watson, Northeastern University, USA1
Issues in international students’ experiences in American higher education, especially their acquisition of academic English, have gained a prominent place in the literature. But there has been little attention on the challenges posed by reading long and complex texts (Zhang, 2009). This study explores the role of engagement in meaningful interactions in English language learners’ efforts to deconstruct challenging texts for the purpose of constructing meaning. The case study design and analysis of findings are informed by sociocognitive approach to language learning (Atkinson, 2014; Tomasello, 2005) that views learners’ interactions as cognitive and affective alignment driven by shared intentionality, which leads to engagement in deeper cognitive processes. The study was situated in a Global Pathway program of an American university. Speakers of Russian and Chinese, worked on a signature assignment in an Advanced Reading course that incorporated explicit reading strategies and required analysis of research articles from social sciences and a final presentation to peers. Data analyses revealed a complex picture of the highly proficient English language learners constructing meaning of an academic text. The students drew on cognitive, metacognitive, support, and socio-affective strategies in analyzing research articles emphasizing how language constructs content. They also negotiated multiple positionings in their interactions to assert themselves as competent English language users in the context of heightened class participation responsibilities. This practice-oriented research shows how advanced second language learners may benefit from exposure to explicit reading strategies instructions and how they may feel empowered as language learners.
Applied Linguistics 0285
How Not To Insert an Epenthetic Vowel
Hyung-Ji, Ha, Kyung-Pook National University, South Korea1
Each language has its own syllable structure system. Thus, Second language learners often make mistake. In the case of Korean, maximally allowed syllable structure is CVC while that of English is CCCVCCC(C). Hence, when Korean learners face a word containing more complex than CVC, they tend to insert a vowel [ɨ]. This cause Korean English learners pronounce a word ‘Christmas/ˈkrɪs.məs/’ as [kɨ.rɪ.sɨ.mə.sɨ]. This two-syllable word suddenly becomes a five-syllable word and this interrupts a native English speaker’s comprehensibility. According to my previous experiment, about 64% of Korean English speakers tend to insert an epenthetic vowel [ɨ]. This is pretty valuable figure to diminish. For that, orthography was utilized. Korean is written as it is pronounced. Thus, when Korean English learners’ are asked to write this loanword ‘Christmas’, what they write is [kɨ.rɪ.sɨ.mə.sɨ][크.리.스.마.스]. Since they accept this word as a five-syllable word, they cannot resist writing this word as above. To improve Korean English learners’ understanding and pronunciation, the program which wasn’t named yet, was designed. This is how this system works. In the case of the word ‘Christmas’, learners will see the manipulated Korean word /ˈkrɪs.məs/ [ㅋ리ㅅ.마ㅅ]. English words containing complex consonant clusters will be shown to learners continuously, and will see how effectively it works and their recorded speech will be analyzed through ‘Praat’ and ‘Iprime’ will be used for the experiment. The mobile App is under development. This is the same for native Japanese speakers. Japanese English learners tend to write the word ‘Christmas/ˈkrɪs.məs/’ as / ˈku.rɪ.su.mə.su/. Since Japanese maximally allowing ‘CV(C)’ often insert epenthetic vowels [u] and [o].
Learning Strategies 0286
A Tale of Two Classes:Contrasts and Comparisions
Harry Carley, Matsuyama University, Japan1
This virtual presentation and paper will describe two same year Japanese English senior high school classes in their second year of a three year study course with differing interests and motivations toward learning English. Their instructors include a native English teacher along with the Japanese home room teachers of both respective classes. Although separate classes both sets of students will be attending a three week overseas program in Australia within a few months of this presentations conclusion. The ultimate goal for both classes is for them to learn the essentials of the English language (grammar, spelling, writing, and pronunciation) but also to be able to communicate with their host families. While all the students have initially scored high on their entrance exams to commence their studies at this particular senior high school once actual classes have begun differences in motivation and study habits begin to immerge. During their first year the students are placed within the two classes regardless of test score. After the first year the students are then placed with within the two classes based on their overall proven scores. Not surprisingly the students in the first class with the higher scores thoroughly enjoy studying English and will almost gleefully attempt and complete any task assigned. The second class meanwhile will most likely hesitate and struggle with most assignments. This presentation and paper therefore will describe in detail the current situation along with the problems and issues involved with raising the interest and motivation of the second class.
ICT in Education 0287
Are Today's Teachers SMART Enough?
Harry Carley, Matsuyama University, Japan1
This presentation in virtual form along with its accompanying paper will discuss SMART (Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology) and its implementation or lack thereof into current learning environments. As technology changes and advances more contemporary and motivating instructional methods need to be sought out and refined to keep pace with student interest. Most specifically this presentation and paper will center in on the current application of SMART technology at one Japanese university. In preparation for this topic a survey was given to classes of students studying English language over the course of the 2014 academic year. Results of this survey will be discussed along with overall teaching techniques and the attitudes of instructors toward SMART technology. As a result of the survey it was discovered that almost 100% possessed or had ready access to SMART technology in the classroom or at home. This was most often accomplished through student ownership of a SMART phone. SMART phones allow for anywhere Internet access; if at home, school, or travelling somewhere between. Instructors meanwhile aware of their student’s propriety of SMART phones by their students incessant twittering in class and lack of attention toward classroom activities have been unsure of how to equate the two. This presentation therefore will further explore SMART technology and its potential applications in any learning environment. Although primary survey results were garnered from university students in English language classes, the overall theme of this presentation could be of interest to instructors at any level or subject.
Language and Discourse Analysis 0288
A Study of an EFL teacher's Intertextual Talk
Cho, Fan-Chi, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan1
Intertextual talk profits English as foreign language (EFL) learners by developing links from learners’ learning experiences and making connections between learners and the text contents, which empowers learners to have profound perceptions toward the text contents. This study aimed at investigating the types of intertextual links that a Taiwanese middle school teacher utilized during the class and when and how the teacher applied the intertextual talk as a scaffolding technique to understand how a teacher in an EFL class provided comprehensible input and interacted with the learners through intertextual talk. The study was conducted over a three-month period, and a middle school teacher with 32 first graders were enrolled. Three types of data were collected: participant’s discourse, oral interviews, and field notes. The data were identified based on Boyd and Maloof’s (2000) five categories of intertextual links: literature-based, personal, classroom community, language and culture, and universal links. The current findings showed that the EFL teacher’s intertextual talk not only engaged the learners in classroom discussion but also helped the learners generate a better understanding of the texts through the process of discussions. Additionally, the results indicated that the teacher proposed a considerable sum of classroom community intertextual links to prolong the utterances made by the learners. Moreover, different genres also influenced the types of intertextual links applied by the teacher.
ESL / EFL 0291
Remedial Students’ Identity Construction in an Interactive Reading-Aloud Class
Pai-Chi Chu, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan1
There is an increased growth of research interest in ESL students’ identity construction in recent years. Remedial students faced lots of challenge toward English learning, thus the need of identity reconstruction toward learning the language has been highlighted in previous studies. However, studies of students’ identity in EFL remedial context were lack of in the field, this study was conducted with eight eighth grade students in an after-school remedial course from the middle of April to the middle of June, 2015. The teacher was the researcher who taught the students English with Interactive Reading-Aloud method which aimed to facilitate their learning through reading. Multiple sources of data were gathered in different phases, including three different texts which aimd to assess students’ improvement; Classroom observation which aimed to see students’ participation in this course; Oral interview which aimed to assess students’ identity construction toward the Interactive Reading-Aloud method and their English learning. The results of their improvement through the Interactive Reading-Aloud method were positive, and the improvement ratio was highly related to their classroom participation. On the other hand, students all have positive comments toward the method, their English learning attitude also move to a more active stage step by step during the semester. The implication of this study is that remedial students do improve both on their reading ability and identity toward English learning through the Interactive Reading-Aloud method. To make students love to learn is the most touching part of the study.
Phonetics and Phonology 0296
Does Prosody Enhance Language Retention?
Peter Skaer, Hiroshima University, Japan1
Many teachers teach prosody in their second language classrooms, using materials such as Graham’s Jazz Chants to assist in the recognition and acquisition of the prosodic patterns in English. But, does such attention to prosody assist the learner in remembering, thus eventually retaining, target language structures? Many years ago (1956) George Miller, suggested that our short term memory was limited to 7 random items, ± 2. Later investigations have suggested that a threshold closer to 4 is more likely. We wished to test this idea with regard to language retention, both for native speakers and for second language learners, with the latter group our primary target population. This presentation reports on the results of a study involving more than 200 test subjects which investigated 2nd language learners’ ability to remember information when presented in 4 different speaking formats, including grammatical utterances with natural prosodic delivery, grammatical utterances with an unnatural monotonic delivery, ungrammatical utterances with a natural prosodic delivery and ungrammatical utterances with an unnatural monotonic delivery. The utterances ranged from 3 words to 15 for all four categories. The actual test took slightly less than one hour to administer, and was given to several undergraduate classes, all using the same taped recording. The results suggested that indeed 4 words was the threshold for short term retention by 2nd language learners, but which category produced the best results (i.e., did prosody assist in retention)?—please come to the presentation to find out!
Teacher Training 0297
Continuous Professional Development for Beginning Teachers: The Competency Framework
Shun-wing NG, Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong1
Teachers' continuous professional development (CPD) is part of their life long learning when beginning teachers embarks on the roal of their teaching career. Thus, every school has ad CPD plan not only for competent teachers but also for beginning teachers so as to equip them with competency at threshold or survival level inside and outside the classroom with reference to the professional development stages or standards. This papers aims at introducing the teacher competency framework designed for schools to guide teachers' CPD along four stages: namely novice, threshold, competent and accomplished in four areas including personal educational philosophy, school adminstration, teaching and learning, and serving the community. Measures such mentoring, resources provision as well as opportunities for internal and external development are to be ukertaken to ensure and facilitate achieving the target standard in the teaching career development process.
Teacher Training 0307
Teacher Talk, English Learners’ Motivation and L2 Anxiety
Babak Mahdavy, Azad University, Iran11 Maryam Shabanpour2
Previous studies have shown that teacher talk can enhance comprehensibility and learner output (e.g. Walsh, 2002). In order to investigate the issue further, the present study examined the relationship between teacher talk, L2 anxiety and different motivational variables which might change as the rate of learning changes in relation to the characteristics of teacher talk. In order to collect data, a researcher-made teacher talk questionnaire which included nine items was developed after conducting an extensive review of the literature and having 195 English learners respond to the items. Principle axis factoring was performed to establish the construct validity and results of Crobach’s alpha showed that students’ ratings of their teachers’ verbal characteristics was reliable (a=.83). In addition, a reliable Persian questionnaire developed by Taguchi, Magid, & Papi (2009) was used to assess L2 anxiety and each of the motivational variables conceptualized within the theory of L2 motivational self system. Results of correlation analysis indicated that while there was a moderate positive correlation between teacher talk and the amount of learners’ intended efforts towards learning English (r=.43), the correlation between teacher talk and ‘instrumentality-prevention’ was weak (r=.23). The analysis also revealed that L2 anxiety had a negligible correlation with teacher talk (r=.05). Finally, results of regression analysis indicated that teacher talk is the best predictor of intended efforts and integrativeness. Therefore, it was concluded that teacher talk which is a source of comprehensible input can enhance the forms of motivation which are more internally regulated.
Applied Linguistics 0315
The Use of Reason as a Metadiscourse Device in NNS English Essays
Nobuko Tahara, Okayama University, Japan1
Often in argumentative essays, metadiscursive nouns can signal discourse by referring to textual segments or by indicating functional segments of discourse. The present study addresses foreignness of NNS English essays from the use of metadiscursive nouns by comparing the writing by Japanese and American students. The writing samples are drawn from the Japanese subcorpus of ICLE (JP) and the US subcorpus of LOCNESS (US). The study investigates the use of shell nouns (Schmid, 2000) by adopting Schmid's (ibid.) theory that emphasizes lexico-grammatical patterns where the nouns occur. By choosing 33 shell nouns, the study investigates the use of the nouns in Japanese and American students’ writing in terms of 1) noun frequencies, 2) shell noun host syntactic patterns, and 3) lexicalisation of the nouns. The study reveals that one source of foreignness in nonnative speaker writing stems from the use of metadiscursive nouns, more specifically in the lexicalisation of these nouns in longer stretches of discourse. This presentation focuses on the use of one of the 33 shell nouns, reason, which oc-curred significantly more in the Japanese students’ essays than in the Americans’ writ-ing. It explains the syntactic and lexicalisation patterns in which the Japanese writers’ realised a strongly higher frequency of the noun in comparison to their American coun-terparts. In addition, it demonstrates some Japanese specific features of this use, such as the type of noun-modifying adjectives, noun expansion type, and the use of Causal Re-lations. The presentation concludes by considering pedagogical interventions required in the FLW classroom.
Technology-Enhanced Teaching and Learning 0318 The Flipped-class Model with MOOCs Resources in Teaching English Public Speaking: An action research proposal at a Chinese University Lisha Liu, South University of Science and Technology of China, China1 Zhuo Li, South University of Science and Technology of China, China2 Yuxiu Hu, South University of Science and Technology of China, China3
As the flipped-class teaching model and massive opening online courses (MOOCs) widespread in world higher education institutions (HEIs), teacher-centered lecturing, the dominated teaching style at Chinese universities, is facing enormous challenges. Some Chinese lecturers have begun exploring how to integrate both in their courses in order to improve their teaching performance and students’ understanding of the knowledge. However, in terms of teaching English public speaking at tertiary level in China, the previous studies on such a combination seem to be still at the initial stage, which creates space for our further investigation and discussion. Therefore, this paper presents an action research proposal, seeking to explore the flipped-class model with MOOCs resources in teaching English public speaking from undergraduates’ perceptions at South University of Science and technology of China. Students’ learning journals and focus-group interviews will be used to collect the research data, and the data will be analyzed by constant comparative method for theme creation, categorization and conceptualization. The research findings may suggest whether such integration can effectively complement each other in blended teaching and learning, and also show whether it can better develop undergraduates’ learning autonomy and critical thinking in English public speaking training.
Approaches to Teaching ELT and L2 0322
The Use of Magic Tricks in Teaching English Listening and Speaking Skills
Raditya Adipramono, Universitas Islam Indonesia, Indonesia1
The aims of this research paper are to introduce new model of teaching English and to find out whether teaching English listening and speaking skill by using magic tricks as a teaching aid is effective. This research is conducted to improve students’ listening and speaking skills. The researcher uses qualitative method to conduct this research paper, which creates an idea of a model of teaching technique. The suitable learners for this kind of teaching media should be young adult learners of the intermediate level. Magic tricks are used as the teaching media and also to make the class’ atmosphere in active and enjoyable learning situation. The successful indicator of this technique is indicated based on the students’ succession to do and/or develop the tricks. After the data from the students’ performance are collected, the researcher uses questionnaire at the final meeting to see the students’ response to this technique when it is applied in teaching and learning process. The finding of the research will describe the process of the research when teaching English reading and writing skills using magic tricks. At the end of the research, it will show the effectiveness of teaching English reading and writing skills using magic tricks. Keywords: teaching English, listening skill, speaking skill, magic trick.
Phonetics and Phonology 0324 A Study on How Young Japanese Female College Students Say the English Alphabet: Comparison of the Fundamental Frequencies F0s Across the Sub-Groups and Along Different Percentiles Guido Izuta, Yamagata Prefectural Yonezawa Women's Junior College, JP1
This work complements another report by the same authors and submitted to the current conference. They are part of a research project concerned with the analysis of pitch frequencies F0s of voice sounds that were measured out of the reading of the English alphabet. In the previous paper, the pitch frequencies of a group consisting of young Japanese female college students and groups of native speakers of English were statistically compared for each letter of the alphabet in order to figure out the general characteristics of the former relatively to the latter. In this investigation, the group of Japanese female college students was split up into three subgroups in accordance with their majoring courses, which led to groups of first-, and second-year students enrolled in the English language and literature course, and a third group with students from other departments. The pitch values evaluated along the time duration of the utterances were sampled by means of the statistical percentile computation to then carry out the statistical comparison of the percentiles for each value and each letter of the alphabet across the sub-groups of students as well as against the group of natives. The results showed that these groups showed how the sub-group the students perform when compared to each and to the group of native speakers.
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
SLATE 2015 Official Proceedings Section II Catalog of Papers
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Work-study Conflict of Undergraduate Students in Japan Yoshihiko Yamamoto Education Develop Center Shizuoka University
Akiko Nagao Faculty of Biology-Oriented Science and Technology Kinki University
ABSTRACT Although the Japanese economy seems to be recovering in general, people do not seem to find their income increased. For example, to send a child to one of private universities in Japan, parents need to prepare over a million yen every year. However, Japanese average income is said to be around 4 million yen (National Tax Agency, 2011). Thus university students financially need to support their study on their own which causes reducing the amount of study time at their university. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between financial pressures on Japanese university students and the amount of time of their study for their English subjects. Participants in this study are both 1st year and 2nd year students at a private university in Japan (N=140 in total). Questionnaires were used for data collection. The results of questionnaires reveal that participants spent one to five hours on their study outside of their class while they spent six to fifteen hours on their part time job. Nearly the half of the participants also answered that they thought to study their major at their university was the most important thing for university students. The results reveal that having part time jobs negatively affects the amount time of students’ study at the university although participants knew the importance of their study at university. Keywords: part time job, study hours, university students
1 INTRODUCTION Japan has been suffering from an economic depression for a long period. It causes most family households financial problems. Japanese average annual national income was 4.12 million yen (National Tax Agency, Japan, 2011). However, according to Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (2011), average annual fees for a Japanese private university are 1.15 million yen for arts departments, 1.50 million yen for science departments, and 4.98 million yen for medical schools. Thus average household needs to spend nearly one quarter of their annual income to send a child to a private university in Japan. The aim of this study is therefore to investigate the relationship between financial pressures on Japanese university students and the amount of time of their study for their English subjects. Then it tries to find some solutions of what universities and students can do for it. This study adopts mainly a quantitative approach that questionnaires were used to collect the data from the total of 140 students in a private university, Japan. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW University fees are increasing every year in general recently and students need to pay fees somehow in order to get their degrees. For example, Robinson (2010) points out that they need to rely on some financial support to pay their fees such as financial support by their parents or scholarships. However, these financial supports are not enough to cover their fees. University students’ academic performance is often determined by depending on their parents’ financial status (Jariah et al., 2004). Thomas (2002) explains that those who are from a low-income family tend to work more hours in order to pay their university fees than those who are from an upper income family. Curtis and Shani (2002) find that those who work longer hours on their part time jobs tend to skip their classes compared to those who work fewer hours on their part time. Kelly et al. (2001), ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Lockley et al. (2004), and Pilcher and Walters (1997) show the similar results on their studies. They find that those who have longer sleep hours tend to get higher GPA than those who have less sleep hours. These prior studies explained students’ hours were reduced due to students’ financial issues. 3 METHODOLOGY The total of 140 private university students in Japan (1st year students: 70 students and 2nd year students: 70 students) participated in a 12-item quantitative questionnaire (Appendix). 4 RESULTS Table 1 shows that the result of cross-tabulation analysis regarding the participants’ belongingness of university clubs and part time jobs. There are 44 students (1st year: 24 and 2nd year: 20) who belong to university clubs and have part time jobs. However, there are 41 students (1st year: 15 and 2nd year: 26) who do not belong to clubs but have their part time jobs. There are also 27 students (1st year: 6 and 2nd year: 21) who do not belong to the clubs and neither have their part time jobs. Table 1 Part Time Jobs and Club Activities (1st and 2nd year students) Club activities 1st year students
Part time job
2nd year students
No
Yes
Total
No
Yes
Total
Yes
15
24
39
26
20
46
No
6
25
31
21
1
22
Total
21
49
70
47
21
68
The following three charts show that the relationship among participants’ time of study, part time jobs, and their club activities. 60 % (42 students) of 1st year students and 64% (43 students) of 2nd year students spent one to five hours outside of their classes for their study time (Figure 1). Figure 2 shows that participants’ time for their part time jobs. As it shows, both 1st and 2nd year students spent 6 to 15 hours on their part time jobs per week on average. Figure 3 shows that time of participants’ club activities. Most participants spent one to five hours on their club activities per week. In short, most participants spent more time on their part time jobs than their study. In particular, the three charts show that participants spent less time on their study outside of their classes.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Figure 1: Self-study hours per week *Note:
Total number = 137
Figure 2: Part-time jobs hours per week *Note:
Total number = 85
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Figure 3: Club activities-hours per week *Note:
Total number = 91
Table 2 shows either participants in this study commute to their university from their parents’ house or they rent their accommodation with/without financial support by their parents. 56% of the first year students live independently while 61 % of the second year students live alone. Moreover, among those who live independently, 87% of the first year students get financial support by their parents and 89% of the second year students get financial support by their parents. Table 2 Commuting and Financial Support from Parents (1) I live with my family members.
st
1 year students 2nd year students Total
Yes 31 27 58
No 39 42 81
(2) I receive financial support from my parents.*
Total 70 69 139
Yes 33 39 73
No 5 4 9
Total 38 43 81
Note: *Responded only students do not live with their parents.
Table 3 shows the results of either participants get scholarships or not, and of whether scholarships are enough to pay their fees of their course. 40% of the first year students get their scholarships while only 325 of the second year students get their scholarships. 89% of the first year students see their scholarships are enough to pay their fees yet only 38% of the second year students see their scholarships are enough to pay their fees. Table 3 Scholarships (1) Scholarships
1st year students 2nd year students Total
Yes 17 22 39
No 26 46 72
ISSN: 2189-2164
(2)The scholarship is enough to pay tuition fees. Yes No 16 2 8 13 24 15
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Table 4 and Table 5 show the results of whether participants think having a part time work influence on their study or not. 38% of the first year students think having a part time work negatively influence on their study. 62% of the second year students think it negatively influenced on their study. For instance, they point out reducing sleeping time, study time, and being physically tired. The total of 54% of participants in this study point out reducing their study time because of their part time work. Table 4 Part Time Work and Study Having a part time work influence on my study Yes 16 32 48
st
1 year students 2nd year students Total
No 26 20 46
Total 42 52
Table 5 Effects on students’ study Reasons
1st year students
Reducing study time A lack of sleeping time Fatigue Others
16 8 2 4
2nd year students
13 9 1 1
5 DISCUSSIONS Participants of this study in general have less study hours than their part time working hours, although they admitted that the most important thing for university students was to study. The results of this study show that having part time work negatively influences on university students’ study. However, Sekiguchi (2010) for instance, explains a positive aspect of having part time work experience for university students. He points out that university students will learn skills such as good communication skills with others, good leadership and team work, how to manage complaints by the customers, how to serve the customers and so forth. These skills are essential skills for university students’ career development. The authors of this study agree to Sekiguchi’s point in that university students need to prepare for a search for their jobs in the future. However, our research data shows not all students who have their part time work would get these above skills through their part time work experiences. As the results of this study showed, some cannot rely on the financial support of their parents or scholarships and thus they simply need to earn money to pay their university fees with money from their part time work. The authors of this study offer two suggestions to solve the problem of the relationship between students’ study time and their financial issues. Firstly, universities could offer students more part-time courses. In general, most Japanese universities offer students full-time undergraduate courses, which normally take four years to complete. Part time courses in Japanese universities are in fact available for students but many of them are available for postgraduate courses. According to ministry of education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (2011), 329 universities out of 759 universities offered part time courses in Japan. The numbers of part time course students are only 75 undergraduate students while there were 2,495 postgraduate students. Deai (2004) suggests that more part time courses are available for undergraduate programs, these courses will reduce students’ financial pressure and will provide students more opportunities to study longer at their university.
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Secondly, Japanese students could consider an option to work first after finishing their high school education and then come back to study at the university as mature students. In Japan, most of the undergraduate students come to universities straight after they finished their high school. However, the authors of this study see some positive aspects of experiencing working as a full time worker before entering the university. For example, those who are under financial pressure could save fees for their university education by working as a full time worker. Also experiencing a full time work provides future university students more time to think what they really want to study at their universities. 6 CONCLUSION In conclusion, as the data showed, participants in this study had less study hours than their part time hours. Although they understood study was the most important thing for university students, their part time work negatively influenced on their study. In order to support students who faced some financial problems, there were three suggestions in this study. Firstly, universities could offer more part time programs for undergraduate students. The authors believed part time programs would allow students to have a balance between study time and part time work. Secondly students could go to the university as mature students. They could get a job after a high school and try to save money to study at the university. In this way, when students start their university degree, they would not have heavy financial pressure while they are studying at the university. REFERENCES [1] Curtis Susan and Shani Najah (2002) “The effect of taking paid employment during term-time on students’ academic studies”. Journal of Further and Higher Education, vol 26, No 2, 129-138. [2] Deai Yasuhiro (2004) “A Study of Mature Student Entry to Undergraduate Programs : Focusing on the Types of University Applied for” Osaka Kyoiku University Repository, vol 53, No 1, 39-50. [3] Jariah Masud, Husniyah A.R., Laily P., Britt Sonya (2004) “Financial behavior and problems among university students: need for financial education” Journal of Personal Finance vol 3, issue 1, 82-96. [4] Kelly William E., Kelly Kathryn E., and Clanton Robert C (2001) “The relationship between sleep length and grade-point average among college students” College Student Journal, vol 35, No 1, 84-86. [5] Lockley Steven W., Cronin John W., Evans Erin E., Cade Brian E., Clark J. Lee, A.B., Landrigan Christpher P., Rothschild Jeffrey M., Katz Joel T., Lilly Craig M., Stone Peter H., Aeschback Daniel., Czeisler Charles A. (2004) “Effect of reducing interns’ weekly work hours on sleep and attentional failures” The New England journal of Medicine, vol 351, No 18 October 1829-1837. [6] Ministry of education, culture, sports, science and technology, Japan (2011) “daigaku ni okeru kyoiku naiyo nado no kaikaku jyokyo nado ni tsuite” Retrieved on May 7, 2015 from http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/daigaku/04052801/1341433.htm [7] National Tax Agency, Japan (2011) “heisei 25 nenbun minkan kyuyo jixstutai tokei cyosa ketsuka nit suite”, Retrieved on May 6, 2015 from http://www.nta.go.jp/kohyo/press/press/2014/minkan/ [8] Pilcher June J. and Walters Amy S (1997) “How sleep deprivation affects psychological variables related to college students’ cognitive performance” Journal of American College Health, vol 46, issue 3, November, 121126. [9] Robinsons W. M. (2010) “Learning with hard labour university students as workers”. Australian Bulletin of Labour, vol 36, issue 1, 103-120. [10] Sekiguchi Tomoki (2010) “The relationship between part-time work experience and career development of college students” The Japanese Journal of Labour Studies, No. 602, 67-85. [11] Thomas Liz (2002) “Student retention in higher education: the role of institutional habitus” Journal of Education Policy, vol 17, No 4, 423-442.
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APPENDIX 1. 2. 3.
Do you have a casual/part time job? Do you belong to a club? How many hours per week do you work during the semester? (If you work) Please write hours per week below. 4. How many hours do you study for subjects which you are taking now per week? Please write hours per week below. 5. How many hours do you spend time for your club activity? Please write hours per week below. 6. Do you live with your parents? 7. If you live independently, do you get financial support from your parents? 8. If you answered ‘yes’ above, how much roughly financial support do you get by your parents? 9. Do you get any scholarship? 10. If you answered ‘yes’ above, does your scholarship support enough for your university fees? 11. Does casual/part time job affect your study at university? (including both in a positive way and negative way) 12. Why do you think it so? How does it affected? Please describe it/them below. In a positive way or in a negative way
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Some Thorny Issues in English Language Class Placement Testing at Japanese Universities Kristy King Takagi Language Center University of Fukui
Abstract Number: 2015_0207 …….. ABSTRACT Compared to only 10 or 20 years ago, when college English classes in Japan were more often than not mixed in proficiency levels, more Japanese university English language programs now appear to be administering some kind of placement testing to students in order to place them into English classes that match their proficiency level. Although careful use of an appropriate test will result in classes in which students are of approximately the same proficiency level, an outcome generally regarded as helpful to both students and teachers, there are, nevertheless, quite a few thorny issues that can emerge from efforts to administer placement tests, whether standardized tests such as TOEFL or TOEIC, or in-house tests are used. In this paper, I explain some of these thorny issues. Although such challenges of placement testing are the focus, I will also point out a number of ways to counter these issues and thereby improve the placement testing system in Japan. Keywords: English language class placement testing in Japan, English tests in Japanese universities
INTRODUCTION Educational testing has always had consequences for students, and English class placement testing in Japan is no exception. As Brown (1989) noted, students’ first encounter with an EFL program is typically the “cold and detached experience” of having to take a test (p. 65). Wistner and Sakai (2008) agree that testing can be a negative experience for students, noting that placement can “adversely affect” students when they are placed into English classes at the wrong level. If students’ language level is much above or below that of others, they will usually experience some degree of frustration, alienation, and demotivation as a result. Other consequences of language placement testing are loss of student time and money. In English-medium universities in Japan, for example, students who score higher on placement tests can begin EAP (English for Academic Purposes) courses at more advanced levels, or sometimes be exempted from them altogether. These students can begin their major courses sooner, and therefore save time and university tuition in the process. They also have a better chance of graduating in four years, a goal that is important for most Japanese students. In short, English placement tests have consequences for students; therefore, English program administrators and teachers are responsible for creating and administering the best tests possible. This paper will briefly discuss views of English class placement testing in Japan, examples of tests used, and some of the thorny issues connected to placement testing, along with recommendations. VIEWS OF PLACEMENT TESTING IN JAPAN English placement tests are accepted by many teachers as valuable because, as Shimizu (2000) noted, the resulting placement of students can facilitate greater efficiency in teaching and learning. However, she noted in her survey of personnel at 200 universities in Japan, that some teachers did not favor placement testing. Though some argued that students at the basic level of study would suffer psychologically from being placed in that class level, most objections seemed to focus on problems with logistics and with the increased work load that would accompany testing. ISSN: 2189-2164
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Even so, it appears that English class placement testing is being increasingly used in Japan. Shimizu cited results of another researcher’s 1983 survey in which approximately 4% of those who responded said that their universities conducted English class placement testing, while approximately 32% of those who responded to her survey in 2000 did so. Although university entrance examinations in Japan have been the object of study (and much criticism) for many years, placement tests in Japan, and elsewhere around the world, have received little attention. Wall, Clapham, and Alderson (1994) noted that there had been little research on the “nature and validation” of placement tests, and that much more study was needed on appropriate ways to validate these commonly used tests (p. 321). Culligan and Gorsuch (1999) also noted that there was “surprisingly little research” on commercial tests for EFL use in Japan, as well as few accounts of how tests can be developed for in-house use (p. 8). Wistner and Sakai (2008) also found that validity evidence for test use was not being gathered, placement tests had not been examined adequately for reliability, and students were often placed on the basis of one such unexamined test score. As a result, they said that chances can often be high that students are “arbitrarily placed” in English classes in Japanese universities (p. 1054). TESTS USED FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASS PLACEMENT TESTING IN JAPAN Shimizu (2000) said that approximately 50% of the universities she surveyed developed their own in-house tests for English class placement testing, but other universities used a variety of standardized tests, such as TOEFL, TOEIC, STEP or Eiken (the Test in Practical English Proficiency), JACET (Japan Association of College English Teachers) tests, the Michigan English Proficiency Test, subtests of these or other commercial tests, or tests related to university English textbooks. As Culligan and Gorsuch (1999) said, these tests are convenient and economical, and companies that create them provide users with helpful information. However, research on results of how well these tests work for placement is often quite limited. A number will be discussed below. The TOEFL, according to Wistner and Sakai (2008), has been the most used test in applied linguistics research. It is a well-researched and well-known test, but it has disadvantages for placement testing. As Brown and Hudson (1998) noted, its focus is too wide and general; results are generally not precise enough for placing students into classes in a particular program, nor are results directly related to the courses taught there. In addition, TOEFL results do not include individual item information, therefore precluding the item analysis that is necessary to determine whether the test is appropriate in a program or not. Similar concerns apply to the TOEIC, as well. The second most used test in applied linguistics research is the Michigan English Placement Test (Wistner, Sakai, and Abe, 2009). The MEPT covers a wide range of skills in listening, grammar, vocabulary, and reading, and there are three forms available for users. Wistner et al. (2009) assessed test results for a group of students and found: students’ scores were skewed, making later parametric analysis of the test untenable; reliability estimates of the listening and reading subtests were low enough to be “concerning;” and test scores did not effectively sort students into two groups, thereby impugning test validity. Brooke, Aden, Al-Kuwari, Christopher, Ibrahim, Johnson, and Souyah (2012) also found the MEPT inadequate for their purposes; they concluded that the reading section passages of the test were too short to properly evaluate a number of reading skills. The Oxford Placement Test (OPT) includes listening and grammar items. Wistner et al. (2009) found that the overall test reliability was acceptable at .81, error estimates were low, and the results were normally distributed; however, the subtests, especially listening (at .66), had considerably lower reliability. Brooke et al. (2012) found that OPT listening test results did not correlate well with other English test measures they used. As a result, they concluded that the OPT was not valid for their program. Culligan and Gorsuch (1999) examined the Secondary Level English Proficiency Test (SLEP). Created by ETS, the SLEP, which is available in three forms, includes 75 listening items
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and 75 reading items. Culligan and Gorsuch concluded that the SLEP was not valid for their program because: only 66 of the total 150 items could discriminate between high and low scorers; the error of measurement was too high to set cut scores with any confidence; and the test did not assess speaking, an important skill focus in their program. Westrick (2005) examined the Quick Placement Test (QPT), published by Oxford University Press. Available in two versions, the QPT includes reading, grammar, and vocabulary items. Besides difficulties he enountered in administering the test, he found that more than half of the items were too easy or too difficult, and therefore did not discriminate well between high and low scorers. The CEFR, or Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, has been growing in influence and has been used in Japan as well. However, a number of researchers have criticized it. Alderson (2007) said that there is not enough information to use the test well; the scale information is not complete, terms used are not defined, and there is no theory about mental operations that serves as a foundation for the level descriptions. Hulstijn (2009) likewise said that the ground underneath the CEFR was “shaky” because the theory of language proficiency that should have informed the CEFR levels was insufficiently developed and researched. Another well-known speaking assessment is the ACTFL oral interview, which was based on the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages Proficiency Guidelines. Like the CEFR, the ACTFL has been criticized for inadequate underlying theory. Bachman and Savignon (1986) said that the ACTFL needed a clearer and broader definition of communicative language proficiency undergirding it, and that the ACTFL scales needed to be based on this definition. They criticized the test on other fronts as well, and said that ACTFL reliability and validity needed further examination. Commercial, standardized examinations such as those described above have advantages, as already noted, but there is little research about their use in Japan. Wistner and Sakai (2008) concluded that such commercial tests “do not work well” in Japan for placement purposes (p. 1047). Instead, they advised universities to make their own in-house tests, or use the best subtests of commercials tests. Culligan and Gorsuch (1999) generally agreed with this proposal, noting that inhouse tests can be developed and revised freely, as well as linked to the curriculum; however, they cautioned that test developers must have adequate testing knowledge and skills. Devising an inhouse test is far from easy, as Wistner and Sakai demonstrated when they explained the results of their own in-house test: it was too easy for their group of students, had high error estimates, and failed to divide the students into two clear groups. Despite their own extensive knowledge of testing, the test they created was not successful. Unfortunately, failure in creating an in-house test is not surprising; Culligan and Gorsuch explained that the process is “arduous,” involves “group effort,” and will sometimes end in failure (p. 9). Many teachers and administrators in Japan would like to have a standardized and appropriate English class placement test for their programs, but at present one ideal form does not exist. Besides this need for an effective test, there are also a number of thorny issues that sometimes stand in the way of effective placement testing in Japan. PLACEMENT TESTING IN JAPAN—COUNTERING THORNY ISSUES After a university program either chooses a commercial test or creates an in-house placement test, there may still be problems. As Brown (1989) explained, one problem arises when placement test content does not match the program content. However, this mismatch is not uncommon. Brown said that even in a generally well-designed ESL placement test that had been used at UCLA, 50% of the reading test items did not match the skills being taught there. Another problem occurs when the difficulty of the test does not match the proficiency level of students. Wistner and Sakai (2008) explained that this match of test difficulty to student ability is important for optimum measurement.
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To counter these kinds of problems, Brown (1989) recommended that programs create a “hybrid” placement test that would not only spread students out along a continuum, but also connect to program goals (p. 73). As faculty members experiment in creating such tests, they can also consider including other kinds of carefully constructed measures, such as cloze tests, which Fotos (1991) and many others have studied and found to have potential for testing a range of English skills. Self-assessment is another kind of measure that might be useful for placement testing in Japan. Though Wall, Clapham, and Alderson (1994) did not find self-assessment useful for culturally diverse groups, it might have potential in Japan. Developing a customized placement test with these and other ideas would take time and effort, but an appropriate test for the program could be the satisfying result. Lack of teacher consensus can be another potentially thorny issue. Shimizu (2000) explained that teachers varied greatly in their opinions of whether placement testing should be done, and if it is, how to use the results. In noting that teachers have to participate in evaluation “whether we like it or not,” Shimizu also implied that many teachers would prefer to not be involved in the process (p. 231). In Japan, teachers are often expected to do many tasks; therefore, it is understandable that they would be concerned about the additional burden of testing work, and even more so if they have little or no expertise in testing. In order to address these legitimate concerns, it is necessary that a proper testing committee be created in English departments, in order to take charge of testing matters. Then, for the work they do, testing committee members should be given release time from teaching, as Brown (1996b) proposed (pp. 278-290). In addition, it is incumbent on English programs in Japan to educate the entire faculty about testing and the testing process. As Shimizu (2000) noted, teachers have to be involved, whether they like it or not; therefore, they should be involved in an enlightened manner. The thorniest issue of all, then, is the administration of placement testing at Japanese universities. As Murphey (2001) said, universities are “mostly rigid hierarchies of amateur testers, fearful of risk and change, propagating the status quo” (p. 4). With a bit of work, testing reform in English programs in Japan could happen, and this reform could eventually impact the university in general, and university admissions testing in particular. Though many English programs in Japanese universities have no one on staff with training in testing, programs can use an approach similar to that described by Culligan and Gorsuch (1999): perform a needs analysis, create and attend inservice lectures on testing; read testing guidelines; study. There are also models for how to examine and revise tests on an ongoing and regular basis (e.g., Brown, 1989; Brown, 1996a; Wall, Clapham, and Alderson, 1994; and Fulcher, 1997). Of course, there are many excellent testing resources available as well, and faculty members can learn from them together. During this kind of learning process, it will become crystal clear that testing is a complex and professional field, and there is much to know and understand. Though it is beyond the scope of this paper to explain the details of technical terms and ideas, anyone responsible for testing should have knowledge of concepts such as constructs, validity, reliability, error in testing, efficiency, fairness in testing, accountability, as well as statistics for analyzing and evaluating results, such as those derived from classical test theory item analysis, and those derived from Rasch analysis and item response theory. There is much to know. Perhaps in this process of involving the faculty in learning and thinking more about testing, it will also be possible to involve students more as well, to help them understand more about the placement test and their own abilities, and to help motivate them for further English learning. CONCLUSION In conclusion, there is little research about English class placement testing in Japan, but the little there is suggests that there are thorny testing issues to be addressed, including lack of a readily available and ideal test; problems with mismatch of placement tests to program content and ability level of students; lack of teacher consensus about testing; and lack of personnel with expertise in ISSN: 2189-2164
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testing, in university English departments across Japan. However, as already noted, many of these issues can be resolved. Once university administrators and English teachers in Japan come to realize that test development is a valuable but difficult, time-consuming, and ongoing process that requires a great deal of expertise, and all faculty members increase in their knowledge of testing, then surely reasonable accommodations can be made for the extensive work required for the improvement of English class placement testing in Japan. REFERENCES Alderson, J. C. (2007). The CEFR and the need for more research. The Modern Language Journal, 91(4), 659-663. Bachman, L. F., & Savignon, S. (1986). The evaluation of communicative language proficiency: A critique of the ACTFL oral interview. The Modern Language Journal, 70(4), 380-390. Brooke, K., Aden, M., Al-Kuwari, N., Christopher, V., Ibrahim, M., Johnson, B., & Souyah, O. (2012). Placement testing in an EFL context. TESOL Arabia Perspectives, 19(2), 13-20. Brown, J. D. (1989). Improving ESL placement tests using two perspectives. TESOL Quarterly, 23(1), 65-83. Brown, J. D. (1996a). English language entrance examinations in Japan: Problems and solutions. Proceedings of the JALT 1995 conference, Nagoya, Japan, 272-283. Brown, J. D. (1996b). Testing in language programs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Brown, J. D., & Hudson, T. (1998). The alternatives in language assessment. TESOL Quarterly, 32(4), 653-675. Culligan, B., & Gorsuch, G. (1999). Using a commercially produced proficiency test in a one-year EFL curriculum in Japan for placement purposes. JALT Journal, 21(1), 7-28. Fotos, S. (1991). The cloze test as an integrative measure of EFL proficiency: A substitute for essays on college entrance examinations? Language Learning, 41(3), 313-336. Fulcher, G. (1997). An English language placement test: Issues in reliability and validity. Language Testing, 14(2), 113-138. Gorsuch, G.J., & Culligan, B. (2000). Using item response theory to refine placement decisions. JALT Journal, 22(2), 315-325. Green, A. B., & Weir, C. J. (2004). Can placement tests inform instructional decisions? Language Testing, 21(4), 467494. Hulstijn, J. H. (2007). The shaky ground beneath the CEFR: Quantitative and qualitative dimensions of language proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 91(4), 663-667. Murphey, T. (2001). Nonmeritorious features of the entrance exam system in Japan. The Language Teacher, 25(10), 14. Shimizu, Y. (2000). Survey research on the use of placement tests at four-year universities in Japan. Retrieved June 6, 2015, at http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/lcs/kiyou/14-1/RitsIILCS_14.1pp.231-243SHIMIZU.pdf Wall, D., Clapham, C., & Alderson, J. C. (1994). Evaluating a placement test. Language Testing, 11(3), 321-344. Westrick, P. A. (2005). Score reliability and placement testing. JALT Journal, 27(1), 71-93. Wistner, B., & Sakai, H. (2008). Rasch analyses of English language placement tests. In K. Bradford Watts, T. Muller, & M. Swnson (Eds.), JALT2007 conference proceedings (pp.1045-1055). Tokyo: Japan Association for Language Learning. Wistner, B., Sakai, H., & Abe, M. (2009). An analysis of the Oxford Placement Test and the Michigan English Placement Test as L2 proficiency tests. Retrieved June 8, 2015from https://www.hosei.ac.jp/bungaku/museum/html/kiyo/58/articles/Wistner.pdf
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THE STUDY OF MECHANICS TERMINOLOGY IN ALBANIAN LANGUAGE (On the level of general terminology and a comprehensive special subfield) Gani PLLANA Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina” Prishtina, Republic of Kosovo E-mail: ganipllana44@gmail.com
Summary The terminology of mechanics in Albanian language has become the focus mainly on the synchronous level, although here and there attempts have been made to address some phenomena/, especially in the word formation of terms in their historical development. During the study of this terminology in the historical context, the attempt was made to evidence some cases of the evolution of terms until today, where we observed, on the one hand, the adaptation of the terms with their content, resulting in a modification of the form of terms, replacing existing forms with new forms, etc. In a particular way, this terminology in this work will be observed by its manifesting side, of the two interesting phenomena, the synonymy and homonymy. Keywords: terminology, theoretical mechanics, synonym, homonym. Preface Starting from the focus of the historical development of the Albanian terminology, especially in its infancy, we can mention the development that was given to the Albanian terminology by our Renaissance men like Kristoforidhi K., N. Frashëri, S. Frashëri and later A. Xhuvani1 and until today other specialists in various fields of knowledge, who can remain anonymous due to the large number of authors and of the works, where terms created by these will circulate. The work done by the Renaissance men and their followers to this day; although it was done individually, has built the whole terminology structure. Today, it is fully configured on sound foundations with Albanian physiognomy. A whole set of geometrical terms can be brought fourth created by N. Frashëri: brinjë (prong), katror (square), kënd (angle), pikë (point), trekëndësh (triangle), vijë (line); of mathematics: pjesëtim (division), mbledhje (summation), shumëzim (multiply), mbetje (result) etc. This shows that even during the individual processing of the terminologies in various fields of knowledge; the authors of textbooks, scientific works, users of terminologies2, like its organizing and systemization, held their own front towards foreign terms, creating terms with authentic ingredients.etc Work in the field of study of the mechanics terminology in Albanian language
1
A. Xhuvani, “Vepra I” ASH RPSSH, Tiranë, 1980. G. Pllana, “Terminologjia e përdorur në tekstet e shkollave të mesme “Detalet e amkinave” në gjuhën shqipe” Konferenca e parë mbarëkombëtare për përafrimin dhe njësimin e programeve e të teksteve mësimore, IIKSH 17-18 shtator 2011, Tiranë, 2012.
2
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The work in the study field of mechanics terminology in Albanian language has been characterized by several common features, as it has also for the terminology of other fields. First of all, the enterprise of an extensive work on a monographic level can be emphasized as being the main feature, but within the Albanian language, without comparison to any foreign language. Here we can mention again the monographic works which were presented as dissertation topics by V. Dervishi3, S. Pllana4. The creation of new forms, of terms, in many cases has led to the phenomenon of absolute synonymy, which has been studied with priority. Thus, for example, a few significant examples can be brought forth, like concepts “bosht motori” (engl. crankshaft) and “rrotë me dhëmbë” (engl. gear wheel); in the course of the development of the mechanics terminology, are used for the first as synonyms: kolodok (from ital. collo d’oca) – punëtore (worker) ( used before1944 as an albanized term) –bosht me bërryla (shaft with loop), bosht bërrylor (loop shaft) (as tracing from Russian) – bosht motori (motor shaft), whereas, for the second: ingranazh (gear), rrotë me dhëmbë (gear wheel), rrotë e dhëmbëzuar (geared wheel) to dhëmbëzor (geared). Sources of formation (composition of resources) Basic terms of mechanics, identified mainly in the two given sub-areas in TM(Theoretical Mechanics) and in MAM (AM), in their largest part are not formations within the field, but they have origins from different sources. In the process of their functioning in use, as, for example, in the language of a text, they will be introduced in their original form, that they have from their field (system) from where they originate, but are developed further, expanding in form, depending on the new concepts that they express. The element which is added at the back specifies them further, by specializing them in the field which they serve. Thus, the terms rreth, kënd, lartësi (engl. circle, angle, height) originate from the field of geometry and by falling into these fields, they are either used as such or form other terms, that serve as compound word units to mark concepts of the relevant field, such as MAM (AM): rreth i bazës (së dhëmbit), kënd i trysnisë, lartësi e kokës (engl. base circle, pressure angle, addendum height). Similarly, ekuacion (engl. equation) from the field of mathematics is used in MT (TM) as the main constituent part of the term ekuacion i lëvizjes (engl. motion equation). Seen in their entirety, a classification of fields can be made which serve as the basis stem from where the terms of these subfields originate. In their journey of further development, in combination with other non-terminological terms and units, they constitute the terminology of two basic subfields of mechanics. 1. Terms of mathematics: a) With the existing form: ekuacion, barazim, bashkësi, probabilitet (gjasë), bashkësi (engl.: equation, equality, probability, set). b) With the further expansion: lëvizje lëkundëse, lëvizje shkarrëse 3
V. Dervishi, “Terminologjia e mekanikës në gjuhën shqipe", Tiranë, 1989. S. Pllana, “Leksiku terminologjik bazë i mekanikës në gjuhë shqipe në përqasje me gjuhën angleze”, FGJH Tiranë, 2010.
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(engl.: jigging motion, creeping motion). 2. Terms of physics: a) With the existing form: lëvizje, zhvendosje, shpejtësi, shpejtim (engl:. motion, displacement, velocity, acceleration). b) With the further expansion: the rocking motion, motion shkarrëse (engl .: jigging motion, creeping motion). 3. Terms of geometry: a) With the existing form: rreth, pikë, vijë (engl.: circle, point, line). b) With the further expansion: pikë rrotullimi, pikë ndërprerjeje (engl.: rotation point, intersection point) 4. Terms of special subfields of mechanics: Mainly with the existing form: sustë, pulexhë, automobil, timon (aut.), rotor, helikë (term. tec.) (engl.: spring, pulley, automobile, handle, bar, rotor, helix) 5. Terms established on the basis of the meanings of common words which constitute the terminology of subfields mainly in the existing form: sustë, pulexhë, automobil, timon (aut.), rotor, helikë (term. tec.) (engl.: spring, pulley, automobile, handle, bar, rotor, helix). They are used in the existing form, but also in the composition of compound words, which emerge as expressions of concepts like: ijë (engl. flank) dhe ijë dhëmbi (engl. topth flank), kokë (engl. head) dhe kokë buloni (engl. bolt head). As such, we come across them in English as well, like: flank and tooth flank, head and bolt head. When used with existing forms their conceptual content is revealed by the context, as, eg “...ija that appears in the drawing” (=e dhëmbit/of the tooth), koka (the head) which is the main part of the bulonit (bolt).” The same phenomenon is observed also in English: “flank that is shown in the drawing”, “the head which is the main part of the bolt”. The condition and problems of further development The condition and the fundamental problems of the further development of mechanics terminology is mainly conditioned by the use of its basic terms. They have special significance, because, serving as a basis (core), they determine the values of the whole terminology. On the other hand, they have a high degree of frequency, and serve as a multiple formation platform for terminological compound words. It is important to observe the layer of the basic terms in two directions: to observe how the real situation of the terms are from the angle of the degree of systematization, albanisation and standardization, thus, how qualitative they are and how they respond in the realization of establishing communication in language. It is important to underline this, because the quality of this layer depends on the quality of the entire lexical system of the respective field. On the other hand, their real condition must be analyzed in terms of one layer, which is not formed completely within the field. As we highlighted above one part originates from other fields,
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therefore this layer should be observed from the standpoint of the situation, placed in the fields they come from. The causes of this condition/situation has often been mentioned in the linguistic literature, as well as for the terminology in question, in which we can notice deficiencies which are associated especially with the albanisation 5 of this terminology. There are numerous causes for this, subjective and objective. The standardization of terms in the field of theoretical mechanics In the context of work that continues to be done even today, in the standardization of terms in the field of theoretical mechanics, we can affirm that in evading polysemy (homonymy), deficiency is observed in the English terminology as well. In this case there may be parallels with Albanian, as we come across in two contexts: filetë1.2 = thread1.2, makinë1.2 = machine1.2, zinxhir1.2= chain1.2. On the level of absolute synonymy, less synonymous pairs are observed, whereas in Albanian it rises up to the level of binary verses. However in the English language even when binary pairs meet, one element of the pair is still more embedded, while in Albanian the advantage of one element over another is undefined. Thus, for example, in English we havegear before tooth gear, whereas in Albanian they meet in an undefined form: rrotë me dhëmbë – rrotë e dhëmbëzuar – ingranazh – dhëmbëzor. (eng. wheel with teeth - toothed wheel - gear - jagged). This happens in Albanian also because of the trend to albanise foreign terms which we can observe from time to time and as a consequence, we meet increasing binaries in Albanian alongside foreign binaries. This complicates the situation further, which leads to the confusion of scientific and technical communication. The importance of the study of the basic terms Basic terms are units with a relatively broad conceptual content and a part of them have a dual connection with the language vocabulary; due to their specific conceptual content they can also be used in other terminologies, close to the terminology in question or remote, as, for example, the naming of parts of medical devices such as: bulon, vidhë, kapak, kuti, rrotë (engl. bolt, screw, cover, box, wheel), as well as in the general language, in ordinary discourse, when objects are used, elements from the fields of mechanics in daily life like: kushinetë, sustë, valvol (engl. bearing, button, valve) (in an ordinary camera for everyday use, the leaflet of a device, etc.). This means that by the functional value’s side of its use in language they become closer in this function with common words. As nominators of even common objects they enter the activity of ordinary language competence of the Albanian speaker and as such they will find a place even in the explanatory dictionaries of language 6 alongside ordinary words. Their study according to their functional value in language is important to determine the limit up to which their inclusion can go in an explanatory dictionary. In many cases this makes the cooperation between terminologists and 5
A. Papa, ”Shqipërimi dhe përdorimi i disa termave teknikë”, ”Gjuha jonë”, Tiranë, 1984/2. F. Çitaku, ”Vendi i leksikut terminologjik në “Fjalorin e gjuhës së sotme shqipe” në ”Gjendja e terminologjisë në Jugosllavi”, Prishtinë,1988.
6
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lexicographers necessary, even with specialists of the relevant field, to determine the circle of terms used in general language which need to be included in an explanatory dictionary. Here, the limit of their use in a medium type dictionary may create a bigger problem. However it must be said that the larger the vocabulary is, the greater the degree of representation in them must be. In their introduction, especially in medium type dictionaries (eg. Dictionary=Fj.1980 and 2006) the proportion and symmetry in their representation are not always stored in them. In some cases there are terms which are used less and are included in the dictionary and vice versa, terms which are more frequently used that are missing. Similarly, problems arise in their definition, mixing the limitation with common words etc . Thus, for example, as we mentioned earlier in Dict. 1980, the term kushinetë (engl.bearing) is presented deficit in definition, which include features which are not characteristic for it, likerreth, saçme (eng. circle, pellet) etc., whereas the conceptual content for the term zinxhir (eng.chain) is lacking, where it is known that this term has widespread use in ordinary language (so we think of chain (bicycle ), chain (tractor, etc.)). Similarly to what we understand by dado (eng. nut) (as a basic term in mechanics) in the Glossary it is defined in the term kundërvidhë(eng. nut), which as a term, is not recognized at all in the terminology of this field. Remarks can be made for some basic terms of mechanics also, which in the explanatory dictionaries of English (secondary type) are treated in an unspecified manner in their definitions in dictionaries, like: spring, chain, machine, mechanism, bearing, etc.. In some cases it is difficult to link the ordinary meaning of the word with the term. Without being able to separately treat the representation of terms from the fields of mechanics in English explanatory dictionaries in terms of their involvement in the Albanian dictionaries, we can affirm that in this regard stark deficiencies are visible. Without adding more value than is necessary to the terminological vocabulary of mechanics, we think that terms included from this field, as a relatively wide field, should deserve identification through the symbol mek. (Mechanics) and not be replaced by tek. (Technics). This symbol should either be removed because it is too wide (and as such includes many other areas that have their own symbols) or given for broad fields. Here, some terms can be identified as terms of mechanics, when presented as separate units or when they take first place in the semantic structure of the word (the term), like for example,mekanikë (mek.), mekanizëm (mek.), manivelë (mek.), makara (mek.), kushinetë (mek.). Likewise, we would also suggest the same for the appropriate English terms, like mechanics (mech.), mechanism (mech.), crank (mech.), block (mech.) bearing (mech.). In cases when the general meaning mixes with a specific one (mechanical) solutions can be subjective, but depending on the volume of the vocabulary also. Thus we can mark as mechanical terms in alb. bosht and engl. shaft, alb. hallkë and engl. link. Likewise bashkësi (joint), lidhje (linkage), zinxhir (chain) can be identified. Here we consider those units that contain value as terms in their use in the general language as well. In addition, returning once again to the functioning of basic terms, not only as branding unit used in basic fields, but also in special ones, we can affirm that their value is extremely large, since they serve as the base construction material for the creation of compound words in these two levels. Thus, for example, hallkë (eng. cog) can build compound words in two levels: as a lexicon in their basic field, as in MAM (AM): hallkë dhe hallkë e udhëzuar, hallkë udhëzuese, hallkë e lëvizshme, hallkë e
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palëvizshme, hallkë e çernieruar, and as a lexicon in a special field as in the field of auto tractors: hallkë dhe hallkë traktori, hallkë pllakëzore, etc. We notice the same phenomenon in English as well. The basic terms serve as many phrase constructors in these two levels, as pair in (AM): driving pair, driven pair, moving pair, non-moving pair, hinged pair, and in the special field, as in aut.: track chain, plate track etc.. Conclusion As has been accepted to date, Albanian terminology in special fields is more problematic than the terminology of general theoretical sciences, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. However, although the work that has been done with these terminologies is reflected in this terminology also, it is of importance to also see how much these results have been considered in the mechanics terminology also, since a part of terminological terms from the general theoretical fields are borrowed from mechanics like baraspeshë, ndryshore (eng. equilibrium,variable) etc. In some cases, in the standardization of terminology in theoretical mechanics, fluctuations are observed, as, for example, a foreign and English term are used parallel: distancë and largësi, uniform and i njëtrajtshëm, translativ and tejbartës. In other cases we do not notice the attempt to introduce albanised terms, that function as such in the areas they originate from, like: tejçim (for transmetim, eng.: transmission), ndemje (for tension (sforcim/eng.: voltage//output). Here we can mention that in certain cases, a range of albanised terms are not taken into account, which we come across especially in some high school textbooks and which are reflected in dictionaries also, like tejçim (for transmetim, eng transmission), ndemje (for tension (sforcim/eng.: voltage//output). etc. Recently, in Albanian, it has become a norm to reuse the terms which were once taken outside the language, which complicates the situation further. Thus, for example, foreign terms are used with more priority before an Albanian one. This is apparent also in the basic terms of mechanics, like presion before trysni, distancë before largësi, ingranazh before rrotë e dhëmbëzuar.
Bibliography Buckch, H. (1976). “Getriebewörterbuch- Dictionary of mechanisms”, Bauverlag GmbH-Wiesbaden und Berlin, 1976. Duro, A. (2009) Termi dhe fjala në gjuhën shqipe [Term and word in Albanian]. Tirana, 2009. “Fjalor i termave themelorë të mekanikës-Dictionary of basic terms of mechanics”, Tiranë, 2002. Memushaj, R. (2004). “Hyrje në gjuhësi” [“Introduction to Linguistics”], Tirana, 2004. Pllana, S. (2003). “Një analizë e metodave të punës praktike të terminologjisë” [“An analysis of practical methods of terminology”]. TEKNIKA Revistë profesionale dhe shkencore për teori dhe praktikë , [TEKNIKAProfessional and scientific journal for theory and practice], Year I, no. 3, 35-44. Ferizaj: University of Prishtina, Technical High School Ferizaj, 2003. Pllana, G., & Pllana, S. (2012). “A conceptual connections on a word and term level in the terminology of theoretical mechanics (in Albanian and English)”, trans&MOTOAUTO’12 20th International scientific and technical Conference on transport, road-building, agricultural, hoisting & hauling and military techniques and technologies, Varna, Bulgaria, 2012.
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Pllana, S., & Pllana, G. (2012). “Studies undertaken in the field of terms and coverage mechanics as its respective glossary of the Albanian language”, trans&MOTOAUTO’12 20th International scientific and technical Conference on transport, road-building, agricultural, hoisting & hauling and military techniques and technologies, Varna, Bulgaria, 2012. Pllana, G. (2015). “Observations on antonyms in the field of thermo-technics“Accession Number: ICLMC2015C11, Source ICLMC 2015, Conference Article, 9-10 April Kyoto, Japan, IACSIT Press, Vol. 83. ISBN-13: 978-981-09-5266-2., Kyoto, Japan, 2015. Sager, J. (1990). “A practical course in Terminology Processing”. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Samara, M. (1985). “Çështje të antonimisë në gjuhën shqipe” [“Antonymy issues in Albanian”]. Academy of Sciences of Albania, Tirana, 1985. Thomaj, J. (2006). “Leksikologjia e gjuhës shqipe” [“Lexicology of Albanian”]. Tirana, 2006.
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Work-study Conflict of Undergraduate Students in Japan Yoshihiko Yamamoto Education Develop Center Shizuoka University
Akiko Nagao Faculty of Biology-Oriented Science and Technology Kinki University
ABSTRACT Although the Japanese economy seems to be recovering in general, people do not seem to find their income increased. For example, to send a child to one of private universities in Japan, parents need to prepare over a million yen every year. However, Japanese average income is said to be around 4 million yen (National Tax Agency, 2011). Thus university students financially need to support their study on their own which causes reducing the amount of study time at their university. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between financial pressures on Japanese university students and the amount of time of their study for their English subjects. Participants in this study are both 1st year and 2nd year students at a private university in Japan (N=140 in total). Questionnaires were used for data collection. The results of questionnaires reveal that participants spent one to five hours on their study outside of their class while they spent six to fifteen hours on their part time job. Nearly the half of the participants also answered that they thought to study their major at their university was the most important thing for university students. The results reveal that having part time jobs negatively affects the amount time of students’ study at the university although participants knew the importance of their study at university. Keywords: part time job, study hours, university students
1 INTRODUCTION Japan has been suffering from an economic depression for a long period. It causes most family households financial problems. Japanese average annual national income was 4.12 million yen (National Tax Agency, Japan, 2011). However, according to Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (2011), average annual fees for a Japanese private university are 1.15 million yen for arts departments, 1.50 million yen for science departments, and 4.98 million yen for medical schools. Thus average household needs to spend nearly one quarter of their annual income to send a child to a private university in Japan. The aim of this study is therefore to investigate the relationship between financial pressures on Japanese university students and the amount of time of their study for their English subjects. Then it tries to find some solutions of what universities and students can do for it. This study adopts mainly a quantitative approach that questionnaires were used to collect the data from the total of 140 students in a private university, Japan. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW University fees are increasing every year in general recently and students need to pay fees somehow in order to get their degrees. For example, Robinson (2010) points out that they need to rely on some financial support to pay their fees such as financial support by their parents or scholarships. However, these financial supports are not enough to cover their fees. University students’ academic performance is often determined by depending on their parents’ financial status (Jariah et al., 2004). Thomas (2002) explains that those who are from a low-income family tend to work more hours in order to pay their university fees than those who are from an upper income family. Curtis and Shani (2002) find that those who work longer hours on their part time jobs tend to skip their classes compared to those who work fewer hours on their part time. Kelly et al. (2001), ISSN: 2189-2164
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Lockley et al. (2004), and Pilcher and Walters (1997) show the similar results on their studies. They find that those who have longer sleep hours tend to get higher GPA than those who have less sleep hours. These prior studies explained students’ hours were reduced due to students’ financial issues. 3 METHODOLOGY The total of 140 private university students in Japan (1st year students: 70 students and 2nd year students: 70 students) participated in a 12-item quantitative questionnaire (Appendix). 4 RESULTS Table 1 shows that the result of cross-tabulation analysis regarding the participants’ belongingness of university clubs and part time jobs. There are 44 students (1st year: 24 and 2nd year: 20) who belong to university clubs and have part time jobs. However, there are 41 students (1st year: 15 and 2nd year: 26) who do not belong to clubs but have their part time jobs. There are also 27 students (1st year: 6 and 2nd year: 21) who do not belong to the clubs and neither have their part time jobs. Table 1 Part Time Jobs and Club Activities (1st and 2nd year students) Club activities 1st year students
Part time job
2nd year students
No
Yes
Total
No
Yes
Total
Yes
15
24
39
26
20
46
No
6
25
31
21
1
22
Total
21
49
70
47
21
68
The following three charts show that the relationship among participants’ time of study, part time jobs, and their club activities. 60 % (42 students) of 1st year students and 64% (43 students) of 2nd year students spent one to five hours outside of their classes for their study time (Figure 1). Figure 2 shows that participants’ time for their part time jobs. As it shows, both 1st and 2nd year students spent 6 to 15 hours on their part time jobs per week on average. Figure 3 shows that time of participants’ club activities. Most participants spent one to five hours on their club activities per week. In short, most participants spent more time on their part time jobs than their study. In particular, the three charts show that participants spent less time on their study outside of their classes.
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Figure 1: Self-study hours per week *Note:
Total number = 137
Figure 2: Part-time jobs hours per week *Note:
Total number = 85
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Figure 3: Club activities-hours per week *Note:
Total number = 91
Table 2 shows either participants in this study commute to their university from their parents’ house or they rent their accommodation with/without financial support by their parents. 56% of the first year students live independently while 61 % of the second year students live alone. Moreover, among those who live independently, 87% of the first year students get financial support by their parents and 89% of the second year students get financial support by their parents. Table 2 Commuting and Financial Support from Parents (1) I live with my family members.
st
1 year students 2nd year students Total
Yes 31 27 58
No 39 42 81
(2) I receive financial support from my parents.*
Total 70 69 139
Yes 33 39 73
No 5 4 9
Total 38 43 81
Note: *Responded only students do not live with their parents.
Table 3 shows the results of either participants get scholarships or not, and of whether scholarships are enough to pay their fees of their course. 40% of the first year students get their scholarships while only 325 of the second year students get their scholarships. 89% of the first year students see their scholarships are enough to pay their fees yet only 38% of the second year students see their scholarships are enough to pay their fees. Table 3 Scholarships (1) Scholarships
1st year students 2nd year students Total
Yes 17 22 39
No 26 46 72
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(2)The scholarship is enough to pay tuition fees. Yes No 16 2 8 13 24 15
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Table 4 and Table 5 show the results of whether participants think having a part time work influence on their study or not. 38% of the first year students think having a part time work negatively influence on their study. 62% of the second year students think it negatively influenced on their study. For instance, they point out reducing sleeping time, study time, and being physically tired. The total of 54% of participants in this study point out reducing their study time because of their part time work. Table 4 Part Time Work and Study Having a part time work influence on my study Yes 16 32 48
st
1 year students 2nd year students Total
No 26 20 46
Total 42 52
Table 5 Effects on students’ study Reasons
1st year students
Reducing study time A lack of sleeping time Fatigue Others
16 8 2 4
2nd year students
13 9 1 1
5 DISCUSSIONS Participants of this study in general have less study hours than their part time working hours, although they admitted that the most important thing for university students was to study. The results of this study show that having part time work negatively influences on university students’ study. However, Sekiguchi (2010) for instance, explains a positive aspect of having part time work experience for university students. He points out that university students will learn skills such as good communication skills with others, good leadership and team work, how to manage complaints by the customers, how to serve the customers and so forth. These skills are essential skills for university students’ career development. The authors of this study agree to Sekiguchi’s point in that university students need to prepare for a search for their jobs in the future. However, our research data shows not all students who have their part time work would get these above skills through their part time work experiences. As the results of this study showed, some cannot rely on the financial support of their parents or scholarships and thus they simply need to earn money to pay their university fees with money from their part time work. The authors of this study offer two suggestions to solve the problem of the relationship between students’ study time and their financial issues. Firstly, universities could offer students more part-time courses. In general, most Japanese universities offer students full-time undergraduate courses, which normally take four years to complete. Part time courses in Japanese universities are in fact available for students but many of them are available for postgraduate courses. According to ministry of education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (2011), 329 universities out of 759 universities offered part time courses in Japan. The numbers of part time course students are only 75 undergraduate students while there were 2,495 postgraduate students. Deai (2004) suggests that more part time courses are available for undergraduate programs, these courses will reduce students’ financial pressure and will provide students more opportunities to study longer at their university.
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Secondly, Japanese students could consider an option to work first after finishing their high school education and then come back to study at the university as mature students. In Japan, most of the undergraduate students come to universities straight after they finished their high school. However, the authors of this study see some positive aspects of experiencing working as a full time worker before entering the university. For example, those who are under financial pressure could save fees for their university education by working as a full time worker. Also experiencing a full time work provides future university students more time to think what they really want to study at their universities. 6 CONCLUSION In conclusion, as the data showed, participants in this study had less study hours than their part time hours. Although they understood study was the most important thing for university students, their part time work negatively influenced on their study. In order to support students who faced some financial problems, there were three suggestions in this study. Firstly, universities could offer more part time programs for undergraduate students. The authors believed part time programs would allow students to have a balance between study time and part time work. Secondly students could go to the university as mature students. They could get a job after a high school and try to save money to study at the university. In this way, when students start their university degree, they would not have heavy financial pressure while they are studying at the university. REFERENCES [1] Curtis Susan and Shani Najah (2002) “The effect of taking paid employment during term-time on students’ academic studies”. Journal of Further and Higher Education, vol 26, No 2, 129-138. [2] Deai Yasuhiro (2004) “A Study of Mature Student Entry to Undergraduate Programs : Focusing on the Types of University Applied for” Osaka Kyoiku University Repository, vol 53, No 1, 39-50. [3] Jariah Masud, Husniyah A.R., Laily P., Britt Sonya (2004) “Financial behavior and problems among university students: need for financial education” Journal of Personal Finance vol 3, issue 1, 82-96. [4] Kelly William E., Kelly Kathryn E., and Clanton Robert C (2001) “The relationship between sleep length and grade-point average among college students” College Student Journal, vol 35, No 1, 84-86. [5] Lockley Steven W., Cronin John W., Evans Erin E., Cade Brian E., Clark J. Lee, A.B., Landrigan Christpher P., Rothschild Jeffrey M., Katz Joel T., Lilly Craig M., Stone Peter H., Aeschback Daniel., Czeisler Charles A. (2004) “Effect of reducing interns’ weekly work hours on sleep and attentional failures” The New England journal of Medicine, vol 351, No 18 October 1829-1837. [6] Ministry of education, culture, sports, science and technology, Japan (2011) “daigaku ni okeru kyoiku naiyo nado no kaikaku jyokyo nado ni tsuite” Retrieved on May 7, 2015 from http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/daigaku/04052801/1341433.htm [7] National Tax Agency, Japan (2011) “heisei 25 nenbun minkan kyuyo jixstutai tokei cyosa ketsuka nit suite”, Retrieved on May 6, 2015 from http://www.nta.go.jp/kohyo/press/press/2014/minkan/ [8] Pilcher June J. and Walters Amy S (1997) “How sleep deprivation affects psychological variables related to college students’ cognitive performance” Journal of American College Health, vol 46, issue 3, November, 121126. [9] Robinsons W. M. (2010) “Learning with hard labour university students as workers”. Australian Bulletin of Labour, vol 36, issue 1, 103-120. [10] Sekiguchi Tomoki (2010) “The relationship between part-time work experience and career development of college students” The Japanese Journal of Labour Studies, No. 602, 67-85. [11] Thomas Liz (2002) “Student retention in higher education: the role of institutional habitus” Journal of Education Policy, vol 17, No 4, 423-442.
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APPENDIX 1. 2. 3.
Do you have a casual/part time job? Do you belong to a club? How many hours per week do you work during the semester? (If you work) Please write hours per week below. 4. How many hours do you study for subjects which you are taking now per week? Please write hours per week below. 5. How many hours do you spend time for your club activity? Please write hours per week below. 6. Do you live with your parents? 7. If you live independently, do you get financial support from your parents? 8. If you answered ‘yes’ above, how much roughly financial support do you get by your parents? 9. Do you get any scholarship? 10. If you answered ‘yes’ above, does your scholarship support enough for your university fees? 11. Does casual/part time job affect your study at university? (including both in a positive way and negative way) 12. Why do you think it so? How does it affected? Please describe it/them below. In a positive way or in a negative way
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A Theoretical Integration of Innovation and Educational Leadership for Enriching 21st Century Learning Spaces Kanog-on Rungrojngarmcharoen Graduate School of Education Assumption University
……..
ABSTRACT In a community of a new era innovation provides comfort, convenience, and efficiency in everyday life. In business sectors, innovation links to positive changes in productivity, quality, competitiveness, market share, and others. Likewise, innovation could also act as a catalyst to the growth for an education system at all levels. Synergizing innovation and education necessitates visionary, dynamic and change leadership. Leaders in educational institutions need changes to pave ways for teachers and learners to enrich their teaching and learning processes through sound and conducive environment. One of the crucial success factors in effective school administration is to construct, out of bricks and mortar, active learning spaces that encompass FLIP features: Flexible learning modes, Learnercentered through differentiating instruction, Innovation and Professionally developed teachers. Therefore, that requires a strong sense of innovative leadership. The purposes of this paper are to determine to what extent innovation could be effectively integrated in the 21st century education and to propose a strategic framework for the sustainable learning success of all learners and to give a fresh impetus for enhancing quality learning spaces in the new era. Keywords: Educational Leadership, Innovation, 21st Century Education, Learning Spaces
1. INTRODUCTION “What we learn today may become obsolete tomorrow” has been an alarming notice to us all particularly educational institutions as we need to move out of our “comfort zone” and eliminate a sense of complacency. Innovation despite having been conceived more than a century remains a reach of the imagination and so challenging that any enterprise requires a great deal of effort to integrate and utilize it for the betterment of their enterprises. Likewise, an education system in digital era, innovation becomes an indispensable means to the ends. The process of innovation could bring about changes in effectiveness of education; yet it demands active participation, strong collaboration, and commitment from all stakeholders particularly teachers, administrators, parents and the public as a whole. In order to forge the process innovative leadership is essential. As stakeholders concerned shall be exposed to certain changes and challenges, innovative leaders need to inspire them, build up learning spaces, create knowledge sharing culture, facilitate an innovation system and illustrate to what extent innovation contributes to quality education. 2. INNOVATION FOR 21ST CENTURY LEARNING SPACES Innovation in education. The concept of innovation diffusion was initiated by Gabriel Tarde in 1903 who researched the first S-shaped diffusion curve. The innovation-decision process was defined by Tarde as a series of steps encompassing new knowledge acquisition, attitude formation, adoption or rejection, implementation, and confirmation of the decision. The processes of innovation taken place in various circles such as in business, economics, and organizational context, innovation concepts have been utilized to expand potentialities and explore further opportunities for effectiveness and efficiency in any enterprises. Drucker (1985) as the father of marketing innovation stated that all enterprises should take innovation into consideration as it was considered indispensable to successful entrepreneurship. Either large or small businesses require innovation for they could satisfy their consumer wants and needs or even respond to their future demands as ISSN: 2189-2164
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well. So do educational institutions that they are expected to serve their stakeholders and fulfil their expectations. As it is said that “what we learn today may become obsolete tomorrow”, Harel (1996) emphasized that in order to help our children thrive in this new technologically-driven globe, educational institutions shall provide them with not only adequate and appropriate learning strategies but also innovative tools for they could expand their skills that they may need for their future. Therefore, innovation is a must to assist educational institutions to create “new needs” where they never exit before (Drucker, 1985). New concepts or ideas do not only denote replacements for what already exists, rather concern new opportunities and possibilities (Hamel, 2000). Likewise, innovation should be actively introduced and utilized in the world of education for curriculum planning and instructional strategies could be developed effectively. However, Drucker (1985) described that “the concepts of change and innovation are inextricable linked”; therefore, innovation in education necessitates dynamic change in a whole process and involves an economic dimension, which becomes an inevitable obstacle (Christensen et al., 2004). Whatever obstacles to innovation facing educational institutions, administrators and stakeholders shall join forces to eliminate them and thrive to a better quality of education for their future generation. Moreover, according to Boyatzis et al. (1995) innovation in education is regarded as the heart of the faculty, the process of which requires a strong sense of involvement and responsibility. 21st Century Learning Spaces. Classrooms that are truly conducive to successful learning should encompass such key features as access to technology and media, a learner centric collaboration mode, and display space (Churches, 2013). Providing students with free access to technology and media inside a classroom is believed to be vital in education. Students have positive opportunities to have fun in learning from so many interesting sources that they could choose to embrace at their own pace and could learn more than just in a textbook. Teachers could also benefit from using technology to improve instructions as long as they utilise it for devising effective lessons and differentiating activities for each student’s needs and interests. However, it is noteworthy that technology is only useful when a user knows well how to use it. If teachers are inexperienced with technology, they might be confused when trying to use the technology and might be distracted from focusing on students’ learning, which might have a negative impact on students’ attitudes towards technology as well. For the classroom design, it should be furnished in a learner centric collaboration mode. That is to enable learners to learn how to collaborate, communicate and create. A classroom should respond to different needs of students and be flexible to be rearranged and moved with ease and speed. It should be a space where students could learn individually while collectively with others. Most importantly, students should be able to experience both real and virtual display spaces. Online resources are useful but still not realistic enough for students to gain real life experience. Some common spaces for students to learn are simply an outdoor playground, a park bench or just a seat under a tree. As conclude in the seminar commissioned by Seven Plus (2013) that “a change of physical environment can help to encourage creativity and innovation” and to help schools innovate, strong leadership is a must. 3. EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP FOR 21ST CENTURY Leadership is regarded as a crucial instrument to derive shared visions from communal commitment that strongly mobilize an institution for a better change (Bennis and Nanus, 1985). From the integration of leadership definitions in the last 50 years made by the renowned scholars including those of Wiles and Bondi (1986), leadership is regarded the process of maneuvering manpower, resources, and environment so as to reach individual, collective, and societal accomplishment. To elaborate, leadership is the process of communicating shared visions, values, beliefs and purposeful directions in order to drum up for collective effort and commitment from stakeholders, which will lead to establish sound relationship among members in a community, to facilitate them to achieve their personal and professional development, and to bring about evolutionary change and increments to a society as a whole. As Razik and Swanson (2001) proposed, it is of significance for an institutional leader to create dramatic changes by establishing a world-class education system in response to the future expectations. They also accentuated that ISSN: 2189-2164
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changes should be made to the way future leaders and followers are to be educated. Education should not be merely processed only through formal and traditional academic systems but rather through the wise utilization of better or more effective processes, methods, technologies, or ideas, so as to enhance an education process. In the twenty-first century, institutions are in great demand of innovative leaders as it is essential to have someone create new ideas or methods to work effectively and efficiently (Lyons, 2011). Without creativity innovation would be virtually inconceivable; likewise, without leadership there would be no innovation. Hiam (2011) explained clearly that those people who innovate need to play a role of an influential leader. The rationale why innovation needs leadership is that people initiate good new ideas would be unable to materialize and get them implemented alone by themselves. It requires a process of disseminating, drumming up support and overcoming skepticism. Collective efforts and shared commitment from stakeholders could fuel innovation to live. Integrated with the paths to innovative leadership concept proposed by Lyons (2011), the leaders of educational institutions must examine their unique corporate cultures, determine their shared goals, and “forge individual paths to developing the diverse community of innovative leaders” that today’s society demands. Rosscolra (2010) criticized that what we could observe nowadays is that “some states ask schools to innovate, and schools ask teachers to innovate while teachers then ask students to innovate.” Suggestion she made is effective paths to innovative leadership in the context of education in the twenty-first century. Leaders and administrators in schools or universities should “lead the way by innovating”. Lemke (2008) stated that the notions of developing twenty-first century skills for learners currently seem to have bombarded educators; therefore, it could be of beneficial for exactly every twentyfirst century educator to understand the “ripple effect”, which means that a potential creative idea put forth in an education system could be turned into innovation. By innovation, it could change the entire circle. A vital concern made by Lemke is what she called “adolescent learning 2.0”, which places learners at the center of learning while taking account of all outside factors: peers, community, home life, available resources (internet, social network, etc.). Therefore, a school is not only a major factor that shapes or has an impact on student’s learning. Roscorla (2010) concluded that in order to become an innovative leader, there are seven steps to follow: 1) Welcome changes and challenges; 2) Stimulate collective creativity and create knowledge; 3) Inspire culture of change, critical and creative thinking; 4) Develop and support a professional learning system; 5) Organize and systematize innovation; 6) Provide sufficient digital access and infrastructure; and 7) Expand opportunities for all to demonstrate their innovation. 4. STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK OF INNOVATION AND EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP FOR ENRICHING 21ST CENTURY LEARNING SPACES To build up 21st century learning spaces takes the whole village’s concerted effort and active collaboration among school leaders, teachers, support staff, most importantly, parents and students. The development of an effective learning space for the 21st century should be flipped over from outside-in to inside-out. The quality of learning space should be the core of a circle where all parties hand in hand nurture and foster it for their own lifelong learning development, not just only for the students. The strategic framework that this paper aimed to propose is based on FLIP, which stands for flexible learning modes, learner-centered through differentiating instruction, innovation, and professional teachers. The role of stakeholders should be flipped and changed from top-down to bottom-up (school leaders), passive to active (students), followers to leaders (teachers). First and foremost, the key driver is a school leader who should bring about innovation in a school. Innovation that does not focus on new technology but they should keep explore alternative ways of how to improve current practices to ensure flexible learning activities persist and school development evolves. School leaders should drum up support from parents, private and public sectors as well as the community as a whole to create a quality learning space that does not exist only inside the classroom. At home as a real-life learning space, parents are shepherds who take care of students and have them exposed valuable life experience. Besides, students should be wellISSN: 2189-2164
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informed of their required roles and be educated of how to be active in this circle as they are also key players to create a quality learning space. One of the key and effective strategies is to have differentiating instruction be practiced for students with different needs and interests could learn at their own pace and achieve similar success. Moreover, continuing professional development should be constantly and timely provided to teachers responding to their needs. Teachers are key facilitators for students to gain academic knowledge and trainers for students to develop 21st century skills. Prior to that mission, both community as a whole and school leaders and teachers in a particular should have those skills they wish students to acquire and should gain insights into how these skills are successfully developed. 5. CONCLUSION One of the crucial paths for enriching sustainable education is to effectively integrate innovation with education for the great interests of learners and educators. Innovation in education does not only mean “what” the state-of-the-art devices are used in teaching and learning but what is more important is the process itself of “how to” develop innovative strategies in sharing authentic and practical knowledge and developing context conducive to life-long learning apropos to twentyfirst century communities. REFERENCES 1. Bennis, W. & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge. USA: Harper &Row. 2. Boyatzis, R. E., Cowen, S. S., Kolb, D. A., & Associates. (1995). Innovation in professional education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 3. Christensen, C. M., Anthony, S. D, & Roth, E. A. (2004). Seeing what’s next. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. 4. Churches, A. (2013). 21st Learning Spaces. Retrieved from http://edorigami.wikispaces.com/21st+Century+Learning+Spaces 5. Drucker, P. F. (1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship. New York: Harper Business. 6. Hamel, G. (2000). Leading the revolution. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. 7. Hiam, A. (2011). How to Master Innovative Leadership. Retrieved from http://www.innovationmanagement.se/2011/09/12/how-to-master-innovative-leadership.html 8. Idit Harel (1996). Learning Skills for the new Millennium: The Three X’s. Retrieved from http://journalofmedialiteracy.org/index.php/past-issues/18-pride-a-joy-media-literacy-a-the-early-years/247learning-new-media-literacy-a-new-necessity-for-the-young-clickerati-generation 9. Lemke, C. (2008). Multimodal Learning Through Media: What the Research Says. Retrieved from http://www.cisco.com/web/strategy/docs/education/Multimodal-Learning-Through-Media.pdf 10. Lyons, R. (2011). Paths to Innovative Leadership. Retrieved from http://www.aacsb.edu/publications/Archives/JanFeb11/32-39PathstoInnovation.pdf 11. Razik, T.A. & Swanson, A.D. (2001). Fundamental Concepts of Educational Leadership. (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12. Roscorla, T. (2010). The Seven Steps to Innovative Leadership. Retrieved from http://www.convergemag.com/policy/The-7-Elements-of-Innovative-Leadership.html 13. Seven Plus (2013). A Classroom for the 21st Century: where are the best places for learning? Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/teacher-network/2013/may/14/best-places-for-learning-21st-century-classroom 14. Wiles, J. & Bondi, J. (1986). Supervision: A Guide to Practice. (2nd ed.). USA: Charles E. Merrill.
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The Patterns of Codeswitching Behavior of Trilingual Tertiary Students Across Academic Disciplines
Estrella F.Fajardo English Department , Bulacan State University City of Malolos, Philippines
ABSTRACT An interesting phenomenon in multi-lingual race such as the Philippines is the mixing of languages in almost every text, both oral and written. Through the years, educators and researchers have noted this common socio and academic linguistic practices popularly called codeswitching. In linguistics, codeswitching occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties in the context of a single conversation. Despite the different explanations and interpretations for this language phenomenon, many language teachers view codeswitching as a negative influence for second and foreign language learning, and it suggests linguistic deficiencies and delay in language ability. The concern of the present study is to make its contribution by presenting a more comprehensive typology of codeswitches and by citing the functional motivation for occurrences among trilingual tertiary students. This is anchored to test the validity proposed by Poplack’s constraint regarding the syntactic structure of codeswitching, its functional motivations, and to offer the role of classroom work-simulated codeswicthing in the process of teaching and learning a second language. To carry the objectives of this study, I have used “observations” on different forms of conversation. The data are collected from these students while interacting in different domains such as classrooms and cafeteria in university campus. Keywords: codeswitching, trilingual, multilingual, academic disciplines, functional motivation
Introduction Alternation between languages in the form of codeswitching is a widely observed phenomenon in multilingual academic communities. Bilingual and trilingual students switch their languages with ease at different points in conversation and in writing. The switches influence language use among them who speak the same languages, sometimes for better, sometimes for worse. Although codeswitching can add to a student’s toolbox, it can also be a sign of delay in language ability. It is in this flight that this paper proceeds with an examination of apparent ideologies in selected communicative situations in different academic disciplines. In particular, this paper aims to present the following: 1) describe the syntactic patterns of codeswitching the trilingual tertiary students used; 2) identify which codeswitching patterns is most extensively used by the trilingual tertiary students across disciplines; and 3) analyze codeswitching across disciplines in terms of pragmatic or functional motivations. In terms of functional motivation, I have used a number of reasons in Hoffman (1991) cited in Baker
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(1993). These reasons include (1) insufficient academic vocabulary, (2) easy and efficiency of expression, (3) adding emphasis, (4) repetition to clarify, (5) habitual experience, (5) mood of speaker, (6) expression of group solidarity, and (7) exclude someone. It is hoped that through identifications of the patterns of codeswitching behavior and the functional motivations behind this language phenomenon, this will add momentum for language research and pedagogy.
Codeswitching: Shifting Perspectives in Different Contexts Myers-Scotton and Jake (2000) define codeswitching as the use of two or more linguistic varieties in the same conversation or interaction. Trask (2007) expounds on this definition by citing that sociolinguists use the term code to denote any identifiable speech varities including both a particular variety of a language and a particular variety of a language. Many speakers have contact over at least two varieties of their language (for example, an AfricanAmerican speaker may speak both his/her local variety of English and Standard English), and many more have control over two or more languages (for example, Tagalog/English bilinguals in the Philippines). Such speakers shift back and forth between these varieties, depending on such factors as who they are talking to, where they are, and what they are talking about. By making choice among the available languages within the progress of a conversation, speakers strategically manipulate solidarity and distance to more effectively serve their goals at that point in the interaction (McGregor,2009). This is supported by Gal (1979) who posits that bilingual speakers of Hungarian and German in the AustrianVillage might switch to German in an argument conducted largely in Hungarian to add extra force to a particular point. Scholars such as Blom and Gumperz (1972), Gumperz (1982), MyersScotton 91988) believe that there is a sociolinguistic explanation for codeswitching (Valdez, 2009). Focusing on codeswitching in academic setting, Blom and Gumperz (1972) posited that the importance of different social events may involve the same participant in the same setting when the topic shifts. Teachers in multilingual classrooms report that they treat lectures versus discussions within a class as different events. While lectures are delivered in English language, a shift to the Filipino language is used to encourage open debate. Since codeswitching from English to Tagalog, and Tagalog to other dialect varieties is now a common practice in many academic settings, the conditions that promote switching should receive more attention. Poplack has explained by setting forth in careful and more elaborated detail the four types of codeswicthing: tag-switching, intrasentential switching, and intersentential codeswicthing. Tag-switching is the switching of either a tag word or a phrase, or both, from one language to another. For examples, you know, I think, okay in English and ‘daw’, ‘di ba’, ‘sana’ in Tagalog as in” We will have our midterm examination on Monday, di ba?” ( We will have our midterm examination on Monday, won’t we? ) Intrasentential codeswicthing is switching of different types within a phrase, clause or a sentence. For examples,within a
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phrase “About nokarin?” (About what?) and within a sentence “Kumusta interview and exam sa Line Seiki?” (How’s your interview and exam at Line Seiki?) Intersentential codeswicthing occurs outside a phrase, clause or a sentence. For example, “Hello, Richelle. Are you ready to report today? Alam ko kasi kayo na pagkatapos namin.” (I know you’ll be next after us)) Poplack (1980) further argues that this type of codeswitching “can be thought of as requiring greater fluency in both languages than tag-switching since major portions of the utterance must conform to the rules of both languages” (Romain, 1995) cited in Dayag,2002. Interestingly, some language experts also detected intra- word switching which occurs within a word itself such as in shoppa for English ‘shops’ that inflects for plural number; and mag-enroll (to enroll), pina-submit(submitted) in Tagalog that inflect for verb tenses. In the present study, however, I have gone beyond mere classification of codeswicthing patterns identified by Poplack. This study looked at the two sub-types of intrasentential codeswitching, English-with-Tagalog and Tagalog-with-English from Bautista (1998) to give a clearer picture of syntactic analysis on this language phenomenon in the Philippine academic communities. For the present study, an intrasentential codeswitching is either English-with-Tagalog ( which I coined Engalog),or Tagalog-with-English (coined Taglish). The first, (Engalog) is a pattern with English sentence as a base with one or few Tagalog elements. For example,”You can do it talaga.” (You can do it, of course) while the second pattern (Taglish) is a pattern with Tagalog sentence as a base with one or few English elements. For example, “Sino ba ang nanalo sa cook fest last year?” (Who won in the cook fest last year?) In sum, this study has highlighted some important similarities and differences among trilingual tertiary students when codeswitching by analyzing the different contexts, situations, and functional motivations. Moreover, the answers given by the students will offer interesting insights and techniques which may be useful to teaching and learning English as second language or foreign language.
Method The method applied for data collection is ‘observations’ on different forms of conversations. This method of data gathering where students just talked and chose the topics they desired was no interventions from the researcher who was not part of the conversation. The data were collected from eight tertiary students while interacting in different domains such as classroom and cafeteria at Bulacan State University. The six females and two males are from three academic disciplines (none of them is English major) and they are of different levels of language proficiency. The students learned English as a second language (ESL) in the Philippines academic setting. The data were carefully translated using bold-faced as mechanical device to instances of switches. When Tagalog or Kapampangan words or phrases surfaced, they were translated in English words or phrases. The Tagalog or kapampangan words were marked bold-faced to easily identify the occurrences of switches.
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The reason for arranging the conversation in this manner was to gather the data that clearly represent the students’ natural linguistic behaviour in informal interactions. Table 1.Distribution of Students in Terms of Personal Demographics (n = 8) Course
BS Education (n=3)
BS Tourism (n=3)
BS Engineering (n=2)
Male
1
0
1
Female
2
3
1
Total
3 (37.5%)
3 (37.5%)
2 (25%)
Total 2 (25%) 6 (75%) 8 (100%)
Results and Discussion In this section, I present and analyze the switches based on the data gathered in terms of the frequency of codeswitched according to students’ academic disciplines and gender. Table 2 presents the frequency of codeswitched occurrence in terms of students’ course and sex. The table reveals that there are 95 codeswitched utterances. It is noteworthy that the highest number of switches among students from three academic disciplines has come from between BS Engineering students with 46.27% switches, while BS Education students and BS Tourism students have registered only 24.53% and 29.25% switches respectively.
Table 2. Frequency of Codeswitched Occurrence in Terms of Course and Gender BS Education (n=3)
BS Tourism (n=3)
BS Engineering (n=2)
1
2
0
0
2
0
0
30
Course Male
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Total 2 (1.89%) 30
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(28.30%) Female
Total
1
10
0
0
2
14
0
0
3
0
10
0
4
0
11
0
5
0
10
0
6
0
0
19
26 (24.53%)
31 (29.25%)
49 (46.27%)
10 (9.43%) 14 (13.21%) 10 (9.43%) 11 (10.38%) 10 (9.43%) 19 (17.92%) 106 (100%)
The above-cited phenomena relate to the notion of target audience. I see this as a plausible reason what makes the switches between the two engineering students, one female and one male, is that they have conversed longer and more comfortably with each other. I, as their professor, am informed by them that they are into girlfriend and boyfriend relationship which is termed ‘likability’ by Holland and Skinner (1987). Holland and Skinner (1987) who studied language, intimacy, and prestige from extensive interviews with college students, posited that the lexicon for social intimacy is influenced by a culture’s values regarding prestige, emotional maturity, and likability (cited in Jay,2000). This I noticed when the engineering male student greeted and started the conversation with the engineering female student, “Love! Kumusta?”(Love! How are you?). Love is a common used term of endearment by girlfriend, boyfriend, love, or sweetheart. As compared with the codeswitched frequency of BS education students and BS Tourism students who have registered only 20 and 26 switches respectively. Table 3 shows the syntactic patterns of codeswitched used by the students in terms of their academic disciplines
Table 3. Distribution of Intrasentential, Intersentential, Tag-switches, and Intraword by Students by Course Courses Intrasentential Switches Intersentential TagSwitches Switches Engalog Taglish/ Total Kapampangan BS Education 2 5 7 5 5
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IntraWord
0
Total
17 (27.42%
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BS Tourism
3
6
9
3
6
3
21 (33.87%
BS Engineering
4
7
11
5
7
1
9 (33.33%)
18 (66.66%)
27 (43.55%)
13 (20.97%)
18 (29.03%)
4 (6.45%)
24 (38.71% 62 (100%)
Total
The table discloses that there are four types of syntactic patterns of codeswitches namely: tagswitch, intrasentential, intersentential, and intra-word types as identified by Poplack (1980) cited in Dayag (2002). These have all occurred in the switches of these three groups of students from different academic disciplines. Table 3 further reveals that among the four types of syntactic patterns of codeswitches, the intrasentential codeswitch has appeared most frequently with 43.55% switches, followed by tag- switch with 29.03%, intersentential with 20.97%, and intra-word which has appeared least frequently with 6.45% . This confirms the studies of Seligson (1980) and of Dayag (2002) about the dominance of intrasentential codeswitches in direct, spontaneous conversations. It is also noteworthy to find that between the two sub-types of intrasentential, the Taglish, that is Tagalog base sentence with few English elements has 66.66% switches as compare with Engalog, an English base sentence with only 33.33% switches. Interestingly, compared to previous studies by Dayag (2002), where the intra-word switches had appeared most, the present study has registered 6.45% intra-word switches, “ Ilan kayong nag-field study? (How many of you had gone field study?),”Dapat ma-complete naming yung 34 hours.” (We have to complete the 34-hour requirement.) This type of codeswitch has also been observed in the study of Bautista (1975). A plausible explanation for this phenomenon is the association that this present study and that of Bautista are both direct and spontaneous conversations, while that of Dayag (2002) could be labelled “scripted” to attract attention since the data are from Philippine print Ads which are planned and crafted carefully specifically to seek the attention of prospective patrons. A place to look for this effect is the socioemotional effect of bilingualism and trilingualism. The dual representation also explains why emotions are not experienced the same way in both languages and the native or first language remains the primary outlet for emotional schemes (Jay, 2003). Table 4 presents the data for the final question which analyzes the codeswitching across academic disciplines in terms of pragmatic or functional motivations using Hoffman (1991) Discourse Functions of Codeswitching (as cited in Bakers, 1993).
Table 4. Functional Motivations Played by Codeswitches
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Academic Disciplines BS Education
BS Tourism
BS Engineering
Insufficient academic vocabulary
3
3
2
Ease and efficiency of expression
3
3
2
Adding emphasis
2
3
2
Repetition to clarify
3
2
2
Habitual experience
0
0
1
Mood of speaker
1
0
1
Exclude someone
0
0
0
Expressions of group solidarity
0
0
0
Total
12 (36.36%)
11 (33.33%)
10 (30.30%)
Function
Total 8 (24.24%) 8 (24.24%) 7 (21.21%) 7 (21.21%) 1 (3.03%) 2 (6.06%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 33 (100%)
It could be noted that the total number of functional motivations in Table 4 is 33 which is more than the number of students used as subjects in this study. This is because the students’ reasons for codeswitches vary, that is they codeswitch for more than one functions (Hoffman, 1991). Furthermore, the table discloses that of all the possible functional motivations used consciously or unconsciously by the students, the most widely used function why they codeswitch is ease of expression 24.24% which implies that it is easier to speak in their first language than in English. Moreover, it seems unrealistic, if not impossible for trilingual students to switch off their own language as it is important part of their identity. The same highest function is insufficient academic vocabulary 24.24% when they do not know the English equivalent. As such, they tend to choose lexical items that are readily available in their first language. The next highest is adding emphasis to make their point and repetition to clarify with both 21.21%. Mood of speaker is 6.06, habitual experience is 3.03%, while exclude someone, and expression of solidarity are both 0%. All the data presentations on these tables have posited that trilinguals use the same mechanisms and processes as bilinguals, although the additional language complicates the communication. As Grosjean (1997) asserted “Trilingualism does not differ from bilingualism only in as much as it represents “more of the same”.It is also equally noteworthy to know that the trilinguals do not use the three languages with equal frequency and with the same motivational function in their everyday communication as shown in this fragment sentence said by one of the students “Sure, Jen. About nokarin? (About what?)”.
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Conclusions and Recommendations This study has found no significant difference between and among the students from three academic disciplines with regard to the frequency types of codeswitches. The switches is that it appears that there is a correlation between the level of complexity of the bilingual/ trilingual and the students’ level of proficiency in English language. Their switches are all on the word or phrase level, which are less complex. In addition, the study posits that all the students, regardless of their reasons for switches, used more intrasentential switches and significantly in Tagalog base with few English elements. It postulates that linguistic and communicative competence are related to the speaker’s linguistic repertoire, and that the more proficient trilingual speakers are in their first, second and third language, the wider their linguistic repertoire, and the richer their communicative resources. Admittedly, the sample size in this study is too small to establish anything with certainty, however, focusing on the indication of the results, although codeswitching is a phenomenon that may cause incompetence in language, it is natural and can be tuned to a purposeful and useful activity in language classes. Finally, it is difficult to speculate if these codeswitching patterns occur in the same way, when these students are in the different settings, talking to people with different professions, age, and education.
References
Amorin, R. (2012). Codeswitching in student-student interaction: Functions and reasons. Auer,P. (ed.) 1998. Codeswitching in conversation: Language, Interaction, and Identity. London: Rutledge. Baker, C. (1994). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Multilingual Matters Ltd., S.A. 500, Australia. Bernardino, E. L. (ed). The Maria Lourdes S. Bautista, Reader. 1997. DeLa Salle University Press, Inc. Manila, Philippines. Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
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Dayag, D. (2002) Codeswitching in Philippines Print Ads: A Syntactico-Pragmatic Description. Philippine Journal Of Linguistics. Vol. 33, June 2002. Di Sciullo, A.M. Mussken, P. & Singh, R. (1986). Government and Codesmixing. Journal of Linguistics 22. Finegan, E. (2012). Language: Its Structure and Use. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Gudykunst, W. Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communication, 4th ed. 2004. Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jay, T. B. (2003). The Psychology of Language. Pearson Education New Jersey. Malone, S. and Dennis Malone (2001). Literacy for Development in Multilingual Contexts: Five Characteristics of Sustainable Programs. Philippine Journal of Linguistics Vol.32. McCoy, W. (2006). Helping Students Find A Voiceby Giving Them Words. California English. Muysken, P. (2000). Bilingual Speech: A Typology of Codeswitching. Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in Codeswitching. Oxford: Clarenda Press. Nilep, C. (2006). Codeswitching in Sociocultural Linguistics Colorado Research in Linguistics. Vol. 19 University of Colorado. Poplack, S. and David Sankoff (1984). Barrowing: The Synchrony of Integration. Linguistics 22. Poplack, S. (1978). Syntactic Structure and Social Functionof Codeswitching. Rasul, S. Literacy in Multilingual Community. Philippine Journal of Linguistics Vol.32. Trask, R. L. (2007). Language and Linguistics. Routledge, New York, NY 10016. Valdez, Paolo Nino (2009). Ideological Perspective on the Dynamics of Codeswitching in the Business Domain. Philippine Journal of Linguistics Vol. 40.
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Enhancing authentic texts in online environments: A learning-driven approach to second language learning Maximo Salaberry Center for Languages & Intercultural Communication Rice University
ABSTRACT
There is a substantial amount of second language (L2) research that has focused on the pedagogical potential of visually enhanced input (VEI) through the use of typographical techniques: elements of text are bolded, underlined, colored, font size is increased, etc. (e.g., Alanen, 1995, Jourdenais et al, 1995, Leeman et al, 1995, Wong, 2003). VEI may be useful to help learners transform input to intake. Nevertheless, the empirical data in support of the proposed benefits of visual input enhancement are not conclusive given the wide range of outcomes, conditions of study, methodological design, etc. (Lee & Huang, 2008). The main premise of VEI research is now being investigated in a more promising arena: the analysis of visually enhanced authentic texts delivered online along with the use of specific software that can dynamically enhance input (e.g., Meurers et al, 2010). The combination of features of online materials (e.g., fully contextualized with other media, constantly updated) and educational software (e.g., automatic creation of pedagogical activities) brings about the benefits of: (1) increased motivation, (2) immediate feedback, and (3) independent learning. In this paper, I will describe the way one particular software program freely available to download (VIEW, Meurers et al, 2010) allows learners to select online texts and, more importantly, to allow them to automatically self-generate learning activities based on authentic texts.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Introduction In the first section of this paper, I will review the various types of benefits ascribed to the principled selection of samples of language data collected in the form of a language corpora in general, and the pedagogical language corpus in particular. The two most salient benefits of a language corpus are predicated on the option to learn from the frequency of language features and the level of authenticity provided by natural language data collected as a corpus. The objective of the review is to assess the pedagogical value (and the challenges) provided by both frequency and authenticity. The outcome of the review will show significant gaps between the two end points of research and application along various dimensions such as the principled design and construction of a pedagogical language corpus, the integration of corpus data to course design, the use of language corpora for language assessment, and, more importantly the rational approach to the use of language corpora based on a sound theoretical framework of application. In the second section of this paper, I will assess the implementation and integration of the proposed pedagogical advantages of language corpora to actual pedagogical practice. The main focus of analysis in this section will be the rational use of technological tools to leverage the basic potentially beneficial features of a language corpus. In the third and final section of the paper, I will summarize the main findings coming out of the latest research on so-called visually-enhanced input (VEI) and the potential they bring about to engage students in the process of guided induction.
1. Pedagogical advantages of a language corpus Biber, Conrad and Reppen (1998: 12) define a language corpus as “a large and principled collection of natural texts� (p. 12). To be more specific, it is any type of a representative
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(written or spoken) natural language sample. A language corpus is useful to depict authentic language use, because, by definition it entails that it can show the variability of language choices (e.g., genre, region or discourse mode) made by speakers and writers (Sinclair, 2005; Wray, 2002) across a number of sociolinguistic conditions (learner, native speakers, dinner conversations, etc.). As an example, mode of communication is one important factor that helps us contrast two very distinct types of a language corpus: spoken or written corpora.
Crucially, Biber et al add that the “representativeness of the corpus … determines the kind of research questions that can be addressed and the generalizability of the results of the research” (246). Most importantly, the key criterion of representativeness provides a way to delimit and select the types of data needed to create a language corpus. For instance, if we wanted to assess the type, range and number of interactional features (e.g., backchanneling) in conversations among close friends, we would need to sample enough instances of language use in the specific conversations identified. Our sampling criteria would be even more detailed if we wanted to factor in other potential relevant factors that we know affect language use such as gender, age, etc. The use of a language corpus for the purpose of language teaching leads us to highlight two salient criteria of a pedagogical corpus: Frequency and authenticity. These features of a corpus are relevant to lead learners to develop a sociolinguistically and socioculturally appropriate definition of language.
1.1 Frequency
One of the most touted benefits of a corpus is the option of keeping track of the actual frequency of use of particular language items, especially with regards to the lexicon and grammar. Given that learners may need to rely on a limited set of lexical items to be able to
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function in the L2, it makes sense to learn the most frequently used lexical items. The appearance of concordances in the 1990s (e.g., Flowerdew, 1993, Tribble and Jones, 1997) and the expansion of use of powerful commercial search engines on the Internet in the 2000s (e.g., google, yahoo search) provided the opportunity to tally—directly or indirectly— frequency of use of particular language items from corpora (for concordances) or the vast Internet (search engines) in a relatively short amount of time with very little effort.
Concordances, or the collocation of words which have a statistical tendency to co-occur together, became the prime example of the implementation of the feature of frequency for the purpose of pedagogical guidance towards L2 development (Sinclair, 1991). The following example from Flowerdew (2009) is useful to show the benefits of using concordances to guide the acquisition of lexical information. Flowerdew argues that L2 English speakers are typically puzzled by the appropriate lexical selection posed by the following multiple-choice sentence: Thank you for your kind / sincere / cordial invitation to the alumni dinner. A simple solution to help learners gather the right answer is to provide them with concordances that depict the typical associations with each lexical item as shown in Figure 1 (a composite of Figures 1 and 2 from Flowerdew).
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Figure 1. Examples of concordances for the lexical entries CORDIAL and KIND (from Flowerdew, 2009).
Concordances are used to analyze a linguistic feature in context (or, more precisely, a co-text, following Widdowson, see below for extended discussion). The visual rendering of the data as presented in Figure 1 is helpful to reveal possible tendencies with regards to preferred cooccurrences of lexical choices, lexical phrases, syntactic structures, etc.
The purported benefits of having access to exemplars of the L2 in context, and more importantly having information about the frequency of use of those items in the context of other language items have not gone unchallenged. First, some authors have pointed out that highlighting frequently used tokens of language may be redundant given that learners are most likely to come across such frequent examples of language use in their normal sampling of language on their own. Kaltenböck and Mehlmauer-Larcher (2005: 78), inter alia, downplay the role of frequency in language learning, arguing that “what is frequent in language will be picked up by learners automatically, precisely because it is frequent, and therefore does not have to be consciously learned.”
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
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On the other hand, the benefit of taking into account frequency of use in a language corpus should not be overlooked, especially because of the very factor that Durrant describes as a liability (i.e., the effect of other variables such as L1 biases). More specifically, contrary to the position of KaltenbĂśck and Mehlmauer-Larcher, Enery & Xiao (2011: 374) argue that
[d]eterminers such as a and the are certainly very frequent in English, yet they are difficult for Chinese learners of English because their mother tongue does not have such grammatical morphemes and does not maintain a count-mass noun distinction.
That is to say, the argument advanced by Enery and Xiao reminds us of one of the most enduring constructs of L2 acquisition-development: the input-intake dichotomy first introduced by Corder in the 1960s. Corder (1967:165) proposes the following:
the simple fact of presenting a certain linguistic form to a learner in the classroom does not necessarily qualify it for the status of input, for the reason that input is `what goes in' not what is available for going in, and we may reasonably suppose that it is the learner who controls this input, or more properly his intake. (italics added)
That is, simple exposure to the frequency of use of language forms inherent in language use may not be enough to lead learners to convert that information into useful input that can be integrated to the evolving interlanguage (at least not efficiently). Carefully arranged data sets that highlight frequent language forms may be useful (if not necessary) to lead to learning.
Interestingly, the introductory phrase of Corder’s quote puts into relief the notion that
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syllabus designers and teachers are the ones who manage the data made available for learners to analyze in the process of L2 development: “it would be wise to introduce a qualification here about the control of input (which is of course what we call the syllabus).” Concordance programs and search engines may be useful in that regard.
1.2 Authenticity
Regardless of whether the information about frequency of use of a target language item (and its relative association with other language items), a language corpus becomes a promising pedagogical tool to the extent that it can provide us with large samples of “representative” natural language data. Thus, for McEnery & Xiao (2011: 367), “a simple yet important role of corpora in language education is to provide more realistic examples of language usage that reflect the complexities and nuances of natural language.” For instance, Carter and McCarthy (1995, 2004) explain that a spoken corpus is helpful to expand the definition of language to include a more encompassing perspective given that the face-to-face nature of spoken language (and its corresponding grammar) bring about a different range of textual and interpersonal aspects of messages. In essence, a language corpus can help us identify more precisely the construct of sociolinguistic and sociocultural contextualized language representation across settings of language use (cf. Biber, Conrad & Reppen, 1998).
From a pedagogical perspective, the comparative analysis of the type of L2 data used in several widely used L2 English textbooks in Germany leads Mindt (1996: 232) to conclude that the language used in those textbooks “does not seem to exist outside the foreign language classroom.” Mindt further contends that the net result of this scenario is that L2 English learners “very often find it hard to adapt to the English used by native speakers.” As a
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
consequence, he concludes that “[c]orpus linguistics could thus contribute to making foreign language learning more effective and to giving learners opportunities to communicate more successfully …” (247). Along similar lines, Biber, Conrad and Reppen (1998: 237) claim that “there are strong patterns in the conditions of use for subject position that-complement clauses. A review of several ESL textbooks showed, however, that students often get no explanation of these conditions of use.”
Widdowson (1998, 2003), however, cautions that the concept of authenticity needs to be technically circumscribed to identify the appropriate theoretical construct behind the label. Widdowson makes a distinction between the concepts of ‘genuineness’ and ‘authenticity:’ the former is represented by the features of text and co-texts (immediate linguistic discourse), whereas the latter is part of the linguistic and non-linguistic co-texts (pragmatic meanings derived from many different sources of information, not just the linguistic co-text). By definition, authentic texts tend to be linguistically non-explicit because they do not need to provide explicit information that is already available through paralinguistic and non-linguistic information. To do so would be extremely redundant. For instance, Widdowson explains that if I am at a dinner party, I do not stand up and walk to the door while stating ‘I am walking to the door.” Instead, Widdowson states that we would normally complement the contextual information with some information that is not obvious from the actions such as: “I hear my son crying, I’ll be back in a minute.”
In essence, language corpora are genuine in that they comprise attested language use, but they are not authentic for language teaching because their situational contexts (as opposed to cotexts) are no longer present (because pragmatic meaning is highly context-dependent). Along
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similar lines, Cook (1998: 58) points out that there is much more to the pedagogical use of language corpora other than just language samples:
Corpus statistics says nothing about immeasurable but crucial factors such as students’ and teachers’ attitudes and expectations, the personal relationships between them, their own wishes, or the diversity of traditions from which they come.
In other words, the pedagogical value of a language sample transcends just the meaning of the sample itself, because, by definition, any pedagogical intervention introduces the expectations of learners (and teachers) into a more complex equation. Here, the contrast between input and intake becomes relevant for the assessment of the pedagogical value of authenticity, as it was valuable to assess the relevance of frequency.
2. Pedagogical uses of language corpora 2.1. A data-driven learning approach
Notwithstanding some noted caveats, the potential pedagogical benefits of specific features of language corpora described above (frequency and authenticity) are naturally implemented through an inductive approach (from examples to generalizations), or more technically, a data-driven learning (DDL) approach. Basically, a DDL approach is based on an inductive process of learning, whereby features of the data guide the learning process. Boulton (2009: 82, citing Tim Johns) explains that Data-Driven Learning (DDL) is an “attempt to cut out the middleman [the teacher] as far as possible and to give the learner direct access to the data.”
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Despite the apparent advantages of DDL, however, many studies focused on actual pedagogical applications (empirical data) have described the many difficulties faced by a straight inductive approach. In this regard, there are both logistical and conceptual challenges that condition the pedagogical benefits of inductive approaches. The results of the study carried out by Liu and Jiang (2009: 75), for instance, revealed that some of the most important logistical challenges of corpus-based lexicogrammar learning are, inter alia, the difficulty many students experience in sorting through large amounts of data to identify lexicogrammar rules and usage patterns, and the problem posed by the processing of a large number of unknown words and the complexity of language found in some corpus data. Some technical difficulties, such as the limited functions and capacity of corpus search engines compound the logistical challenge faced by students. As Liu and Jiang explain part of the problem is related to the lack of access to corpora experienced by some learners—not to mention the low level of motivation shown by some learners in engaging in discovery learning (see below for details on this last item).
Among the conceptual challenges, the main problem of primarily inductive approaches is that learners may not be prepared to take on the responsibility of managing the learning process with minimal guidance. As an example, Braun (2007) conducted a pilot experimental study to assess the benefits of integrating corpus-based activities into the regular curriculum of a secondary school in Germany. The assessment of the findings led Braun to conclude that the pedagogical implementation of corpus-based activities requires a level of analytical skill that students have not acquired, leading Braun to question whether corpus-based activities are appropriate for a secondary school context.
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
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Both the logistical and conceptual problems associated with a data-driven approach are the unavoidable consequence of using a technology-driven model to the implementation of pedagogical practices. In this respect, there are two main models that account for the way new technologies are adopted and adapted to L2 pedagogy: technology-driven and pedagogydriven. The first one makes maximal use of the features/affordances of the new technology in order to develop the pedagogical model most appropriate for the integration of the selected technological features. A notable example of a technology-drive model is the introduction of a data-driven approach for the analysis of large language corpora that became feasible once computer technology started to become available for the masses during the 1970s and 1980s. The second model (i.e. pedagogy-driven) gradually integrates the features, or rather affordances of the new technology into the pedagogical framework (Salaberry (2001). The latter model requires a more explicit pedagogical intervention. We now turn to the analysis of the concept of pedagogic mediation.
2.2. Pedagogic mediation
The apparent logistical and conceptual difficulties brought about by primarily inductive learning approaches (as described above) has led several researchers such as Flowerdew (2009) to argue that the pedagogical use of language corpora requires the use of what she calls “Pedagogic mediation.” For instance, teachers may need to make more explicit the connections between language samples (from language corpora) and the specific features or language categories represented in said samples so that students can use such guidance to progress more quickly—or simply to be able to process the data. Seidlhofer (2002: 230) explains what this means by way of describing the use of concordances in the L2 classroom: “this way of working will always include the consultation of L1 corpora and descriptions
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based upon them.”
From a broader perspective, the concept of pedagogical mediation leads us to reconsider the role of teaching materials as pre-digested items of language categorization in the overall learning process. Cook, for one, points out that “the ways in which grammarians and pedagogues have organized their material—in grammars, syllabuses, and dictionaries—are also facts about language” (p. 58). That is, teaching, by definition, entails the selection, categorization and conceptualization of language above the level of language “counting.” For Cook, then,
The issue still remains how to simplify and stage the language presented to learners, and to simplify the rules used to explain it, in a way which will enable them to come gradually closer to native speaker use (if that is their goal). Surely, the point of grammars and textbooks is that they select, idealize, and simplify the language to make it more accessible?
It is important to note that the pre-organized language materials function as “building blocks” that lead to the process of pedagogical scaffolding necessary to guide the basic inductive process of learning. Along this line of thought, Braun (2007: 324), whose study we reviewed above, concluded that it may be time “to move away from, or beyond, ‘classic’ concordancebased activities and think of other tasks to foster exploration, knowledge construction and eventually the development of greater autonomy through the use of corpus materials.” What is more, Braun calls for the development and implementation of “support tools which are tailored to pedagogical needs of corpus creation” (p. 325). Inherent to this idea is the notion of autonomy, one of the biggest benefits of inductive learning. That is, we do not need to
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drop autonomy in a model that rationally integrates both inductive learning (prompted by the features of some technological tools) and informed and explicit guidance (as argued by Cook, Flowerdew and others). In the next section, I turn to the description of mechanisms to enhance the saliency of particular features of the second language in large samples of data.
3. Visually Enhanced Input 3.1. Benefits and constraints of the claim of VEI
There is a substantial amount of second language (L2) research that has focused on the pedagogical potential of visually enhanced input (VEI) through the use of typographical techniques (e.g., elements of text are bolded, underlined, colored, font size is increased, etc.). The theoretical rationale for the positive effect of VEI is primarily cognitive, based on the claim, first proposed for L2 acquisition by Schmidt that “Enhancing input using typographical techniques increases the chance that the visually prominent input will be noticed and will thus establish a trace in long-term memory� (Lee & Huang, 2008: 308). In this regard, VEI has a number of purported features that may be crucial to help learners notice specific features of a particular target in the L2, thus they may be useful to help learners transform input to intake (e.g., Alanen, 1995, Jourdenais et al, 1995, Leeman et al, 1995). Nevertheless, the empirical data in support of the proposed benefits of visual input enhancement are not conclusive given the wide range of outcomes, conditions of study, methodological design, etc. (Lee & Huang, 2008).
The main premise of VEI research is now being investigated in a more promising arena: the analysis of visually enhanced authentic texts delivered online along with the use of specific
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
software that can dynamically and automatically enhance input. One example of such approach is VIEW (e.g., Meurers et al, 2010), a software technology that is used to enable users (in particular, learners) to select online texts and automatically self-generate learning activities based on such data. The potential benefit of analyzing this new environment is given by the combination of unique positive inherent features of online materials (e.g., easily accessible, fully contextualized with other media, constantly updated and relevant for users to read, potentially available as free educational data/resources) and educational software (e.g., applicable to new pages, automatic creation of pedagogical activities). More importantly, from a SLA theoretical perspective, the analysis of the effects of VEI brings into focus the role of theoretical constructs inherently tied to current sociocultural and sociolinguistic perspectives on L2 acquisition: (1) increased motivation, (2) immediate feedback, and (3) independent learning.
3.2. The pedagogical potential of VIEW
VIEW is a software program that is provided free of access to all users (Meurers et al, 2010). Once downloaded it can be integrated to the functionality of any web browser in the form of a very slim and uncluttered toolbar on top of the web browser: see box highlighted in red on top of Figure 2. Once the new toolbar is installed, users can navigate to any web page, and, once on the selected page, they can select specific configurations of the tool (i.e., language, type of analysis, etc.) and launch a quick analysis of the text on that page. The relative simplicity and speed of use of VIEW provides users with one of the most valuable features of any technological tool: its technical features become almost invisible to the user at the same time that its main functionality becomes the only aspect of the software that users can “see� (cf. Salaberry, 2011). I will show the use of VIEW with the analysis of a few paragraphs of a
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recent movie review published by the New York Times (July 31, 2015, authored by Manohla Dargis, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/31/movies/review-mission-impossible-roguenation-with-tom-cruise-and-plenty-of-stunts.html).
Figure 2 below shows the toolbar of VIEW (highlighted in the red box) with the options available to users to self-create the chosen activity (i.e., colorize) to analyze the given text (i.e., a movie review) according to pre-selected categories (i.e., prepositions). The figure only shows the very first piece of the review, although VIEW will always analyze the text on the entire webpage. Once the user has made the appropriate selection of items above, the final step required for VIEW to process the information is to select the choice “Enhance” on the toolbar (the option “Restore” erases any previous highlighting of the data to the original text). It takes only a few seconds for VIEW to process the text and identify the target items that will be visually enhanced in different ways. Figure 2 shows the text with the target items highlighted in color (in this case in purple).
Figure 2. Example of visual highlighting done by VIEW (option: Colorize)
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Figure 3 shows an example of the type of highlighting carried out by the option “Click” after the user has made some decisions about the target item (some selections are correct and some are incorrect). The option “Click” requires the user to scan the text in search for examples of prepositions. Once an example is identified, the user clicks on the selected item. If the selection is right, the chosen item is immediately colored in green to signal that the selection made was on target. If, on the other hand, the selection is incorrect (i.e., not a preposition in this case), the highlighted word will be colored in red. As we can see, the pedagogical option “Click” requires users to make difficult decisions because, at first, they are confronted with the entire text with no reference as to which word (among all the ones in the text) may be an example of the target item.
Figure 3. Example of visual highlighting done by VIEW (option: Click)
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Figures 4 and 5 show examples of the highlighting carried out with the options “Multiple Choice” and “Practice.” These two options are well known among students and teachers alike. They both show how easy it is to create a traditional pedagogical activity (or even a test) with the use of textual data posted on the Internet.
Figure 4. Example of visual highlighting done by VIEW (option: Multiple Choice)
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Figure 5. Example of visual highlighting done by VIEW (option: Practice)
A program like VIEW is not just useful for the analysis of written language, but—within obvious constraints—it can also provide an opportunity to analyze (written) transcripts of conversational interaction data (i.e., corpus analysis of written or spoken language). The latter option opens up opportunities for learners to engage in the analysis of features inherent to a definition of language predicated on the notion of a dynamic co-construction of knowledge through interactive oral practices. Thus, it allows learners the option to engage in a dynamic way of analyzing corpus data and reach a higher level of awareness about the uses of language in, for instance, conversational interaction versus written texts.
5. Future research and applications
The potential pedagogical advantage of this new type of software paves the way for the type of VEI that is more likely to bring about the effect of constructs (motivation, feedback and
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
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independent learning) that are crucial independent variables with beneficial effects on the acquisition and development of the L2. Furthermore, as shown above, the technological features of VIEW become pedagogical affordances for the creation of environments that can engage students according to various levels of support: either an unconstrained or guided process of language induction. An unconstrained process gives learners free rein to select the data sets (e.g., selection of online newspaper articles, conversation sets) that will be analyzed with any one of the tools provided by VIEW. Alternatively, a constrained process entails that learners are provided with target data sets for them to analyze with the search tools provided by VIEW. The latter option is more like a traditional option, even though the choice of activity type still gives learners a certain degree of freedom to choose their preferred learning path. Furthermore, the options provided by these two dimensions of data selection can be further complexified with, for instance, the type of visual enhancement that may be required. Future research should investigate the actual outcomes of various possible pedagogical implementations.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
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(Ed), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning, pp. 217–258. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center. Liu, D. and Jiang, P. (2009). Using a corpus-based lexicogrammatical approach to grammar instruction in EFL and ESL contexts. The Modern Language Journal, 93(1), 61-78. McCarthy, M. and Carter, R. (1994). Language as discourse: Perspectives for language teaching. London: Longman. McEnery, T. and Xiao, R. (2011). What corpora can offer in language teaching and learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning, Vol. II (pp. 364–380). New York: Routledge. Meunier, F. (2002) ‘The pedagogical value of native and learner corpora in EFL grammar teaching’ in S. Granger, J. Hung and S. Petch-Tyson (eds.) Computer Learner Corpora, Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language Teaching, pp. 119–142. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Meurers, D., Ziai, R., Amaral, L., Boyd, A., Dimitrov, A., Metcalf, V., & Ott, N. (2010, June). Enhancing authentic web pages for language learners. In Proceedings of the NAACL HLT 2010 Fifth Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications (pp. 10-18). Association for Computational Linguistics. Mindt, D. (1996). English corpus linguistics and the foreign language teaching syllabus. In J. Thomas & M. Short (Eds.), Using Corpora for language research (pp. 232–247). Harlow: Longman. Mukherjee, J. and Rohrbach, J. (2006) ‘Rethinking applied corpus linguistics from a language-pedagogical perspective: New departures in learner corpus research’ in B. Kettemann and G. Marko (eds.) Planning, Gluing and Painting Corpora: Inside the Applied Corpus Linguist’s Workshop, (pp. 205-232). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Nesselhauf, N. (2003). The use of collocations by advanced learners of English and some
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implications for teaching. Applied Linguistics, 24(2), 223–242. Nesselhauf, N. (2005). Collocations in a learner corpus. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. O’Keeffe, A., M. McCarthy, and R. Carter. 2007. From Corpus to Classroom: Language Use and Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Osborne, J. (2002). Top-down and bottom-up approaches to corpora in language teaching. In U. Connor and T. Upton (Eds.), Applied corpus linguistics: A multidimensional perspective (pp. 251–265). Amsterdam: Rodopi. Salaberry, M. R. (2001). The use of technology for second language learning and teaching: A retrspective. Modern Language Journal, 85(1), 39–56. Seidlhofer, B. (2002). Pedagogy and local learner corpora: Working with learning driven data. In S. Granger, J. Hung & S. Petch-Tyson (Eds.), Computer learner corpora, second language acquisition and foreign language teaching (pp. 213–234). Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Sinclair, J. M. 1991. Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tribble, C., & Jones, G. (1997). Concordances in the Classroom: A resource book for teachers. Houston, TX: Athelstan. Widdowson, H. G. 1998. “Context, community and authentic language.” TESOL Quarterly, 32 (4), 705–716. Widdowson, H. (2003) Defining Issues in English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wong, W. (2003). Textual enhancement and simplified input: Effects on L2 comprehension and acquisition of non-meaningful grammatical form. Applied Language Learning, 13, 17–45. Wray, A. 2002. Formulaic language and the Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Study Abroad and Changes in Degree of Foreign Accent of Adult Thai Speakers’ Pronunciation of L2-English Ying Li School of English Literature, Language & Linguistics Newcastle University
ABSTRACT The present study examines the impact of learning context on adult Thai speakers’ degree of foreign accent in L2English speaking. 30 adult Thai speakers who did a 4-month English study program in UK (SA group), and another 30 adult Thai speakers who studied English in Thailand (AH group) participated in the study. Their English pronunciation was tested at the beginning of the program (test 1), by the end of the program (test 2), and 3 months after they went back to Thailand (test 3). In each test, a semi-structured interview was carried out first with questions about their daily life. After the interview, they were asked to do a story-telling task according to the given pictures from Mayer (1969). The participants were tested individually and were auditorily recorded. They were also asked to fill out a questionnaire about their linguistic background, such as language use in UK and after went back to Thailand. According to the results: (1) learning context played significant effect on the participants’ degree of foreign accent. Specifically, the SA group was found had significantly milder foreign accent than the AH group. (2) The amount of language use, particularly the amount of time used in speaking English, was revealed to be a significant variable for the participants’ degree of foreign accent. (3) There was a long-term rendition effect of study abroad. The SA group maintained their acquired accent 3 months after returned to Thailand. The results provide us with further evidence regarding the significance of study context. Key words: foreign accent; L2 pronunciation; study abroad
1. INTRODUCTION Foreign accent refers to listeners’ judgements of how closely the pronunciation of utterance approaches that of a native speaker of a language ([4], [8]). It is typically viewed as the influence of a speaker’s first language (L1) on their pronunciation of a non-native language. This study investigates the impact of learning context, specifically, study abroad in the target language speaking country, on L2 learners’ degree of foreign accent. Findings from some previous studies did not provide us with a consensus on this issue. Some studies provide supporting evidence of the positive effect of study abroad on language learners’ accent ([3], [6], [7]), while others received less successful findings ([1], [2]). The present study, therefore, examined whether studying in UK helps reduce L1-Thai speakers’ foreign accent in English pronunciation. 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1 Participants The participants included 2 groups of adult L1-Thai speakers who had been studying English as their L2: SA group vs. AH group (study L2-English in Thailand). All of their English level was lower intermediate1. None of them were English majors. They all began L2-English learning at1214 years old, and had been learning English for 8-10 years. None of them had ever traveled to or lived abroad. All the participants were paid to join the study. The SA group were 30 university students from Bangkok (M=21.67, SD=0.38, 16 female and 14 male). They went to London for a 4-month ESL study program. While studying in London, they lived with different local families (native English speakers). They also received 4 hours’ English classes per day taught by native English teachers in weekdays. They were divided into different classes and studied together with students of similar ages but from different countries. In weekends, they joined social activities organized by the ESL program leader. Many native English speakers participated in these activities. 1
An Oxford Quick Placement Test was carried out among 62 participants who were going to study in London and 70 participants who were going to study English in Thailand. Those whose English proficiency level was lower intermediate were selected to join in the study. ISSN: 2189-2164
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The AH group were 30 university students who were randomly selected from Bangkok (M= 22.03, SD=0.46, 15 female and 15 male). During the 4 months, they received English classes 4 hours per week, which were introduced in English by native Thai speakers. Apart from this, they were not exposed to any formal English instruction. Another 10 native English speakers were recruited from London (M=23.45, SD=1.32, 5 female and 5 male). They were either university students or young professionals who just graduated from colleges. 2.2 PROCEDURE The participants were individually tested 3 times. Test 1:4 days before SA group’s departure to London; Test 2: 1 week after the SA group returned to Thailand. Test 3: 3 months after Test 2. Parallel tests were administered to the AH group with the same intervals among the three tests. The testing procedures were auditorily recorded in a quite room. In each test, a semi-structured interview was carried out with questions about their daily life, such as their hobbies, families, friends, etc. After the interview, they were asked to do a story-telling task according to the given pictures from Mayer (1969). The participants were given about 2 minutes for preparation. At the end of Test 2 and Test 3, both the SA and AH groups were asked to fill out a questionnaire2 to gather information about the amount and type of L2 use during the periods of time between Test 1 and Test2, as well as between Test 2 and Test 3. Native English speakers were asked to do the same interview and story-telling task. Regarding the choice of the subjects’ recording samples, the method adopted in Muñoz & Llanes (2014) was employed. That is, only the first 20 seconds of each subject’s recording of each task was taken to present to the raters for rating. Sample-initial false starts and hesitations were eliminated. Pauses longer than 4 seconds were shortened by half [1]. The excerpts were then sent to 10 raters to do the assessment (native English speakers, 3 female and 3 male) individually. The raters were asked to rate the participants’ accent with a 7point Likert scale (0=no foreign accent, 7=very strong foreign accent) by focusing on the foreign accent and ignore any other types of mistakes (i. e., grammar, vocabulary). The reliability and coherence of the raters’ assessments was tested by Cronbach’s Alpha, which turned out to be highly reliable and coherent in all the tasks of each test (α ≥ 0.900). Moreover, all the native English speakers’ pronunciation received the score of 0 (0=no perceived foreign accent), which further illustrated the reliability of the assessed results. 3. RESULTS Figure 3.1 below displays the SA and AH group’s degree of foreign accent in the 3 tests. The SA group gained some accent improvement in L2-Englis speaking in test 2 and test 3, whereas AH group’s degree of foreign accent did not change much in the 3 tests.
2
The questionnaire was adopted from Muñoz & Llanes (2014). ISSN: 2189-2164
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Figure 3.1 The SA and AH group’s degree of foreign accent in the 3 tests.
4.5 4
3.5 3
SA group
2.5
AH group
2
1.5 1
0.5 0
test 1
test 2
test 3
ANOVA was performed to detect whether the SA group differed from the AH group regarding their perceived accent in Test 1. The mean scores of each group in Test 1 were employed as the dependent variable, and learning context (SA vs. AH) as the fixed factor. As a result, the two groups’ foreign accent was not significantly different from each other (F (1, 30)=0.928; p=0.427). Meanwhile, ANOVA was performed with the AH group’s mean scores in Test 1, Test 2 and Test 3. It turned out that there was not a significant difference of their foreign accent in the three tests (p>0.05). In order to examine whether the SA group’s degree of perceived foreign accent changed over a period of 4 months study in London as a function of study context, ANOVA was performed again with the foreign accent gains as the dependent variable, gender and learning context as fixed factors. According to the results, learning context displayed significant effect on the participants’ foreign accent gains (F (1, 59)=7.341, p=0.036). However, neither gender difference (F (2, 29)=0.981, p=0.429) nor its interaction with learning context (F(1, 59)=1.081, p=0.221) was statistically significant for the participants’ gains of accents from Test 1 to Test 2. The estimated marginal means indicated that participants of the SA group experienced greater gains (M=0.336) compared to those of the AH group (M=-0.204). To further explore whether there was a long-term rendition effect of the SA group’s gained accent as a function of study abroad, the SA group’s mean scores in Test 2 and Test 3 were employed for another AVOVA test. The mean scores were adopted as the dependent variable, gender and learning context were encoded as fixed variables. It turned out that learning context (F (1, 30)=2.322; p=0.630), gender difference (F (1, 29)=0.782, p=0.664), and the interaction between gender and learning context (F(1, 30)=2.003, p=0.462) all did not display significant effect on the SA group’s degree of foreign accent. The estimated marginal means showed that the SA group’s foreign accent was slightly higher in Test 3 (M=3.26) than that in Test 2 (M=3.14). However, the difference was statistically insignificant (p>0.05). Considering that the amount of L2 use/contact was revealed to be significant for an L2 speakers’ degree of foreign accent [1], it would be necessary to investigate the participants’ L2English use during the period of time from Test 1 to Test 3 (the statistics were measured from the data collected from the questionnaire). Table 3.1 shows the participants’ total L2 contact during the period of time from Test 1 to Test 2. Table 3.2 describes the participants’ total L2 contact during the period of time from Test 2 to Test 3. The types of L2 contact were the same as that used in Muñoz & Llanes (2014). It can be observed that in the first 4 months of the study, during the time of which the SA group was studying in London, the SA group had much more L2 contact than the ISSN: 2189-2164
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
AH group. Comparatively, in the last 3 months of the study, during the time of which the SA group returned to Thailand, the participants of the 2 groups had very similar amount of L2 contact. Further correlational analyses were computed to investigate the relationship between the participants’ perceived foreign accent and type of L2 contact. The participants’ accent gained from Test 1 to Test 2 was analyzed first. According to the results, the variables speaking in general, speaking with native English speakers, listening, and hours of class all correlate significantly and positively with the participants’ accent gains (p<0.05). The rest of the variables (speaking with nonnative English speakers, reading, writing), however, did not show significant correlation with the participants’ accent gains (p>0.05). From Test 2 to Test 3, however, none of the variables were found to be significantly correlated with the participants’ accent gains (p>0.05). Table 3.1 Descriptive Statistics for Total L2 Contact in the First 4 Months of the Study (In Hours). AH group SA group Mean Mean SD SD Speaking (in general) 42.61 9.70 286.74 14.20 Speaking with native English 0.93 3.54 166.03 13.77 speakers Speaking with non-native English speakers 37.54 7.89 223.84 9.51 Listening Reading Writing Hours Class
54.77 41.81 40.37 64
6.68 7.36 5.33 0
374.83 294.67 176.21 320
9.05 10.82 4.70 0
Table 3.2 Descriptive Statistics for Total L2 Contact in the Last 3 Months of the Study (In Hours). AH group SA group Me Me SD SD an an Speaking (in general) 16. 5.80 17. 6.3 72 31 3 Speaking with 0.2 4.22 0.2 4.0 native English speakers 3 8 1 Speaking with non-native 9.79 12. 8.7 English speakers 12.77 36 9 Listening 20. 5.03 22. 6.0 21 12 2 Reading 17. 3.90 16. 5.2 83 28 2 CONSLUSION This study examined changes in the perceived foreign accent of adult L1-Thai of L2-English speakers after a 7-month period in two different studying settings: SA vs. AH. The findings suggest that studying abroad with intensive input from the native speakers of an L2 benefits the L2 learners’ accent gains. More importantly, instead of being a short-term effect, the accent gains could last for a long-term even without staying in the target L2 community. Furthermore, it was found that not all the types of L2 use in the L2 community could contribute to the L2 learners’ accent gains. Specifically, speaking in general, speaking with native English speakers, listening and hours of class were revealed to be statistically beneficial for the participants’ accent gains, whereas speaking ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
with non-native English speakers, reading and writing did not contribute significantly to their accent gains. The present study suffers from some limitations. First of all, only 10 raters were recruited to do the accent assessment, which was less than some other studies (i e. [5]). The reliability of the results might be further enhanced if assessed by more raters. Secondly, data on the types of L2 use (i e., reading, listening and writing) were generally collected. For instance, it was not sure in which ways the participants listened to L2-English (i e., listened to English radio or non-native English speakers). Thirdly, after the 3rd test, no further test was carried out. It was not sure whether the SA group’s accent gains could last even longer. Future study may focus on these aspects.
Reference [1]
Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., & Thomson, R. (2007). A longitudinal study of ESL learners’ fluency and comprehensibility development. Applied Linguistics, 29, 359–380.
[2]
Derwing, T. M., Thomson, R., & Munro, M. J. (2006). English pronunciation and fluency development in Mandarin and Slavic speakers. System, 34, 183– 193.
[3]
Mayer, M. (1969). Frog, where are you?. New York: Dial Press. Ochs, El, Smith, R., & Taylor, C. (1989). Dinner narratives as detective stories. Cultural Dynamics, 2, 238–257.
[4]
Munro, M. J. Foreign accent and speech intelligibility. Phonology and second language acquisition (2008): 193218. Muñoz, C., & Llanes, À. (2014). Study Abroad and Changes in Degree of Foreign Accent in Children and Adults. The Modern Language Journal, 98(1), 432-449. Spadaro, K. (1996). Maturational constraints on lexical acquisition in a second language. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Perth, WA: Graduate School of Education, University of WesternAustralia. Trenchs–Parera, M. (2009). Effects of formal instruction and a stay abroad on the acquisition of native-like oral fluency. Canadian Modern Language Review, 65(3), 365–393.
[5] [6] [7]
[8]
Trofimovich, P., & Isaacs, T. (2012). Disentangling accent from comprehensibility. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15, 905–916.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Alternative Assessment in English Grammar Classes Marissa Phongsirikul Department of Foreign Languages Kasetsart University
ABSTRACT It is widely believed that learning grammar is an indispensible aspect of an English learner’s path toward mastering the language. However, there is a mistaken belief that the more grammatical features students know, the better they can perform language skills. With this misconception, grammatical knowledge has become a focal point in teaching and assessing English ability and has been tested using traditional forms of multiple-choice questions and error identification. An important question has arisen from the perspective on English in the 21st century as to whether the knowledge of discrete grammatical points can really represent students’ grammatical ability. Grammatical ability is not just the extent of students’ grammatical knowledge, but as Purpura (2004) describes, grammatical ability refers to “an individual’s capacity to utilize mental representation of language knowledge built up through practice or experience in order to convey meaning” (as cited in Coombe et al., 2012). In this study the researcher presents a set of alternative assessment methods that recognize the importance of developing students’ grammatical ability rather than just teaching grammatical knowledge. These methods includes iPortfolio (individual work), weCreate (pair assignment), and iLearn & Teach (group project), all of which focus on encouraging students to change what they know about grammatical structure to what they can do with this grammatical knowledge. The results show that students were astonished and challenged by these new methods of assessment, but recognized their ability to reflect their real grammatical ability. Key words: Alternative assessment tools, ELT, Performance-based assessment
1. INTRODUCTION
Most Thai students at the university level do not like studying grammar and usually find it boring and difficult. At my university, for example, a grammar course called Basic Grammatical Structure is offered as an elective English course for students of all faculties. However, it is hardly considered a favorable choice; it is enrolled by only few percentages of all students compared to other English skill courses and it has the highest percentage of student withdrawals. Likewise, for English-major students who have to take a required grammar course called Introduction to English Grammar and Structure, grammar is also a challenging subject for them. All of them have to complete this course and in general do not much succeed and get lower grades compared to other English courses they take during the same semester. Students do not like studying grammar for many reasons. First, students have studied English since grade 1 and have primarily focused on grammar since grade 5 so they do not want to repeat grammatical features they have already studied for many years. Secondly, they are bored with memorizing grammatical rules that are not very related to what they need to meet their real communication needs. Thirdly, in case teachers have a view of teaching grammar for the sake of grammar, they tend to handle grammar lessons too traditionally. This approach can lead to a passive learning in which students are drilled in a bulk of language forms and functions but rarely use the language in the authentic situation. Finally, the way in which grammatical knowledge is tested does not promote an ongoing process of learning. Summative assessment is a typical type of assessment for grammar teaching. Students might get one or two quizzes during the semester, the midterm examination, and the final examination. These tests are in form of pencil-and-paper and focus on how many grammatical rules they can remember and how well they can identify grammatical parts in sentences. Therefore, students hardly get feedback of their progress during the learning process. As a grammar teacher, I agree with what Rothstein states, “the job of language teachers is to think of how we can make grammar fun to learn and memorable and meaningful” (as cited in Tutunis, 2012). Therefore, I have implemented three alternative types of assessment in a grammar
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
classroom, which I hope they will yield positive washback to promote an effective learning process and create an interactive atmosphere in the classroom. The objective of the study is to survey students’ opinions towards these three types of assessment: iPortfolio, WeCreate, and iLearn&Teach.
2. ALTERNVATIVE TYPES OF ASSESSMENT IN THE STUDY The three types of assessments: iPortfolio (15%), WeCreate (10%), and iLearn&Teach (20%). The other 55% still includes two written exams worth 50% of the final assessment and class attendance of 5%. 2. 1 iPortfolio iPortfolio, an individual project, aims at promoting a self-directed process and relating grammar lessons to reading and writing skills. Each student has to collect at least ten portions of assignments through the whole semester. This project might be considered as a combination of portfolio and journal. Students complete three tasks. First, they write a summary and a reflection of what they have learned in class on a weekly basis. Second, they collect assignments they have done which are related to using grammatical knowledge to analyze authentic materials, such as an analysis of grammatical features and language use in a newspaper or magazine articles, product labels, or notice or warning signs. Finally, they write sentences or short texts to demonstrate their understanding of grammatical structure learnt from class. The criteria are based on the completion, quality, and creativity of the assignments. 2.2 WeCreate WeCreate, a pair-work project, aims at putting knowledge into practice and making grammar lessons useful and fun. It encourages students to apply grammatical rules to produce useful materials for learning and teaching English. Students can do any kind of projects such as an analysis of interesting topics, a short film, a drama play, a video presentation, a poster, etc. Then they present their project in the classroom to demonstrate how their work is useful for English teaching and learning. Their piece of work will be placed in the Self-Access Center of Human Faculty and ready for other students to use. The criteria are based on their creativity as well as accuracy of the work piece. 2.3 iLearn & Teach iLearn & Teach, a group-work project, is based on the notion of a Roman philosopher Seneca, “While we teach, we learn” (as cited in Paul 2011). In this project, students collaborate with one another to demonstrate how much they understand about assigned topics by teaching their classmates. In their teaching session, students present an overview of the topic, create class activities, produce task sheets or exercises, and use PowerPoint in their class instruction. They are to be certain that their classmates understand the topics taught. Each group has about 60-90 minutes depending on their lesson plan. Their performance is graded based on the degree of their understanding of the topics, the grammatical ability demonstrated to convey meanings, the organization of their lesson planning and team working skills. Each group of students had to present twice in this course. 3. PARTICIPANTS AND INSTRUMENT
Participants are fifty-six English-major students studying Introduction to English Grammar and Structure in their first year. A 6 point Likert-scale questionnaire of 20 items is used to survey students’ opinion towards the three types of assessment implemented. The questions are about the usefulness, challenges and level of difficulty of each type of assessment.
ISSN: 2189-2164
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
4. RESULTS
From the 44 questionnaires which were returned, 47.7% of the students stated that they like iPortfolio the most, 29.5% like iLearn &Teach, and 22.7% like WeCreate. For Questions #1-18, students are to identify how much they agree or disagree with the given statements by choosing from 1(I strongly disagree) to 6 (I strongly agree). From Table 1, students agree that iPortfolio promotes a learning process (4.55), demonstrates self-reflection (4.55). Students do not think that this project is difficult or timeconsuming (2.7), and they think iPortfolio should be included in this course (4.59). Students expressed their preference for iPortfolio, as cited in Table 2. Table 1 Students’ opinion towards iPortfolio iPortfolio… 1. promotes a self-studying learning process. 2. demonstrates students' self-reflection. 3. includes meaningful information for students and teachers. 4. is too difficult and time-consuming project. 5. offers a challenge to students that is appropriate for their proficiency level. 6. is useful and should be included in this grammar course.
MEAN 4.55 4.55 4.43 2.7 4.5 4.59
STD 0.90 0.87 1.01 1.32 1.04 0.89
Table 2 Reasons for Preference of iPortfolio I like iPortfolio because…
I could practice my grammar skill by myself and have more responsibility it helps students to improve their grammar skill it helps students learn by doing learning by myself is better this is a great way to review my grammar study and useful for preparing myself before exams
From Table 3 below, students think WeCreate stimulates thinking skills, with the highest score of 4.61. They do not think it is difficult or overwhelming for them (2.7). They believe WeCreate should be included in the course (4.5). Students expressed their preference for WeCreate as cited in Table 4. Table 3 Students’ opinion towards WeCreate WeCreate… 7. promotes productive skills (writing and speaking). 8. stimulates thinking skills. 9. gives students opportunities to use grammar in real life. 10. is too difficult and is overwhelming to students 11. offers a challenge to students that is appropriate for their proficiency. 12. is useful and should be included in this grammar course.
MEAN 4.32 4.61 4.30 2.61 4.43 4.39
STD 1.09 1.03 1.09 1.22 0.99 1.12
Table 4 Reasons for Preference of WeCreate I like WeCreate because…
it is really creative, and I think it helps us to learn better. If we don't have this project, we never have a chance to try new thing like this. I can create new things which help me and others understand grammar easily. it's useful because it makes students work as a team and we have to make a new idea that creative to present our project to others. I can use my skills and idea freely, and also make me co-operate with friends. I can create something that is new and useful for everyday life.
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
From Table 5 below, students agree that iLearn&Teach helps them learn by doing, with the highest score of 4.66. They do not think it is difficult or demanding (2.57). They believe iLearn&Teach should be included in the course (4.39). Students expressed their preference for iLearn&Teach as cited in Table 6. Table 5 Students’ opinion towards iLearn & Teach iLearn & Teach… 13. promotes cooperative skills. 14. demonstrates students' grammatical ability. 15. helps students learn by doing. 16. is too difficult and demanding assignment. 17. offers a challenge to students that is appropriate for their proficiency. 18. is useful and should be included in this grammar course.
MEAN 4.52 4.42 4.66 2.57 4.45 4.48
STD 0.90 0.87 1.01 1.32 1.04 0.89
Table 6 Reasons for Preference of iLearn & Teach I like iLearn &Teach because…
I gained a lot of knowledge when preparing presentations and I think that for those who want to be a teacher, this activity is really useful because they can practice teaching. It can improve my grammatical ability. I think it gave me an opportunity to review the lesson you have to teach other student. I think it makes me understand English better. it was fun to play games after learning each unit..
5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION In this study, the researcher seek to learn more about students’ opinions towards the three alternative types of assessment implemented in the course. The results show that most students found iPortfolio the most useful tool among the three types. The other two types, however, are also well-accepted and most importantly, most students agree that all the three types of assessment should be included in the course. iPortfolio offers students opportunities to observe their learning process. They also realize the relevance between grammatical knowledge they gain and real language use in their real life because in this project they deal with authentic texts. Aurbach (2005) mentioned that a portfolio is as much a process as a product. It is an ongoing process which leads to a life-long learning process. She also states: …it always involves performance (trying, doing), reflection (What worked well? What flopped? How will I improve next time?) and adjustment (making changes and trying again). The adjustment will range from a few tweaks, to serious revision, to starting over, all with the goal of moving closer to getting it right. (page number) Therefore, I believe that a portfolio which is a typical tool in writing courses can also be considered as a performance-based assessment tool in grammar courses. WeCreate project offered students a sense of true understanding. Students have chances to demonstrate what can actually do with their grammar knowledge and this is the essence of learning grammar. Some teachers and students might think that learning grammar is for the sake of grammatical knowledge or is for a preparation of a higher level of grammar courses. Freeman sees it differently and believes that we need to think of grammar as a skill or dynamic process rather than a static area of knowledge (as cited in Tutunis, 2012). Students should be able to put their knowledge into practice of producing some language tasks concerning reading, writing, or even analyzing. WeCreate, therefore, provides them an opportunity to exercise their knowledge and power as an active and creative learner.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
iLearn & Teach might be perceived by some teachers as a waste of class time as they still understand that the best input should be from teachers. In addition, they would never believe that students can teach as well as they do. However, with Vygotsky’s notion that “the one who does the talking does the learning” (as cited in Tyrer, 2013), I strongly believe that students learn a great deal during preparation and from their own teaching. Even classmates gain grammatical knowledge from participating in learning and doing activities with peers. In this project, teacher roles as authoritative figure are changed while passive audience become and efficiently active learners. In conclusion, the practices and results of this study might offer ideas for grammar teachers who face the same situations to revise their teaching and assessment. However, further research should involve more information about effectiveness of these types of assessment. Most importantly, what Coombe et al. (2012) state should be taken in to consideration: …Alternative assessment should not be used as an alternative to traditional language assessment, but it should be used in conjunction with it. It should also be held to the same standards in terms of validity and reliability as traditional types of testing. (p.153)
REFERENCES
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
Aurbach, E., (2005), “About Portfolios”, Retrieved July 1, 2015, from http://www.aurbach.com/files/About_Portfolios.pdf Coombe, C. et al., (2012), The Cambridge guide to second language assessment. [153, 248],Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Paul, A.M., (2011), “The Protégé Effect: Why teaching someone else is the best way to learn”, Retrieved June 8, 2015, from http://ideas.time.com/2011/11/30/the-protégé-effect/ Tutunis, B. (2012). “Grammar in EFL pedagogy: to be or not to be: Explicit or implicit grammar instruction in EFL”. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2 (5), 120-122. Tyrer, G. (2013). “One who does the talking does the learning”, Retrieved July 5, 2015, from http://grahamtyrer.com/2013/03/29/the-one-who-does-the-talking-does-thelearning/
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Japanese Elementary Schools Teachers Adapting to Changes and Challenges: The Introduction of English Activities in Japanese Elementary Schools Justin Harris Faculty of Economics Kinki University
……..
ABSTRACT This paper discusses the results of a case study investigating how one Japanese elementary school homeroom teacher (HRT) has implemented English classes since the introduction of “English Activities” in elementary schools in Japan. A one-hour interview was held with this teacher in order to discover the issues that such HRTs may have in carrying out “English Activity” classes and how they have overcome these difficulties. Previous research into English classes in elementary schools in Japan has tended to focus on situations where the HRT teaches along with “language teaching specialists”. Such research often investigates the relationship between these teachers when in team-teaching situations or the differences in pedagogical approaches and roles that these teachers take in such classes. Much less has been written about the HRT in contexts where they teach alone. The results suggest that as well as language ability issues, the main issues for HRTs are a lack of pedagogical skills for language teaching and concerns related to the transition from elementary school English classes to those at junior high school. Keywords: Teacher training, elementary school language classes, language policy
1 INTRODUCTION English was introduced as a subject in Japanese junior high schools in 1947 when Foreign Languages were included in the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (MEXT) Course of Study. It wasn’t until 2002, however, that it became a possible subject for elementary schools. That year saw the introduction of kokusaika (Internationalization) studies as an option for the sougoutekina gakushuu no jikan (Period of Integrated Studies), three classes a week set aside for teaching extra-curricular subjects such as Information Technology and Moral Studies. At this stage, English was not the explicit focus of kokusaika, but in reality the language became the vehicle for most of these classes. In one study at the time, 90% of teachers reported teaching English for 90% of kokusaika class time [7]. Over the next few years there was growing pressure to add English as an actual subject at elementary schools, and in 2008 gaikokugo katsudo (Foreign Language Activities) were established in public elementary schools throughout the country as a non-academic subject. Again, and as the name suggests, English was not the only subject that could be taught, but “Foreign” became synonymous with “English”, especially given that the MEXT recommended class books, Eigo Note 1 & 2, were the commonly used instructional material. Finally, English was introduced as a subject in the 5th and 6th grades in 2011, along with an adapted version of Eigo Note 1 & 2 called Hi Friends 1 & 2 as the main instructional materials. English was to be taught for 35 hours a year, but still remained a non-assessed subject. Throughout this time, elementary school homeroom teachers (HRTs) were increasingly called on to teach English in their classrooms. Most schools have access to “native” or “near-native” speaker Assistant Language Teachers (ALT), or Japanese Teachers of English (JTEs - often English teachers from local or connected junior high schools) for at least some English classes, and these teachers usually either; a) teach classes with the homeroom teacher in a team-teaching situation; or b) teach alone while the homeroom teacher is in the room (by Japanese law, a holder of a Japanese elementary teacher license must remain in the classroom during classes). However, as the class ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
hours for the study of English in elementary schools increased, the possibility of always having such an “English specialist” in the classroom decreased. As such, HRTs were placed in a situation where they had to teach English classes alone, and for many, without adequate English language skills or a background in language education, this was indeed a concern. Around the time that gaikokugo katsudo was established, training programs for these HRTs were introduced in various institutions throughout Japan, such as the one outlined in Moser, Harris, & Carle [8]. As a teacher trainer on such a program, I heard first-hand the very real concerns that these teachers had regarding the difficulties of teaching a language with no previous experience doing so. Common issues included a lack of knowledge about the general principles of language education, a (perceived at least) lack of ability in English, a need for ideas about how to carry out classes effectively, and even a lack of understanding of fundamental points such as what exactly they should teach. This paper outlines the first part of a larger study investigating the problems that Japanese elementary school HRTs have encountered since implementing English in their classrooms and how they have resolved these issues. The results of a single case study are presented, which hint at some answers to these questions, and which provided a basis for creating a survey instrument to be sent to HRTs around Japan. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW There is very little research on how Japanese elementary school HRTs teach English [5]. Of the research that does exist, much of it focuses on team-teaching situations between HRTs and ALTs or between HRTs and JTEs. For example, in Hosoda and Aline’s [1] classroom observation study, two out of the three teachers observed were team teaching with native speaking ALTs. Similarly, Fukatsu [4] employed classroom observation to investigate L1 use by HRTs in team teaching situations. Perhaps not surprisingly, these teachers utilized the L1 for a range of purposes but left most of the L2 talk to the ALT. Nakao [9] in a large-scale study of teachers in 16 different elementary schools across Japan found four different teaching styles among the HRTs and yet all cases included either a JTE or ALT in each class (and in one case, both teaching at the same time with the HRT). The findings of the limited research that there is on HRTs teaching alone suggest that more than issues of language ability, many of these teachers lack confidence and training in language teaching methods. In a survey of 256 teachers across 34 elementary schools in Japan, Kusumoto [6] found that most lacked the confidence and skills to teach English and suggests that these teachers need the support of training courses to build both their language teaching abilities and confidence. Part of this lack of confidence may come from the over-reliance within elementary school teaching materials (and indeed in many other teaching contexts) of the “native” speaker as a model. Kusumoto suggests introducing teachers to the concept of World Englishes and how English is used by people from varying cultural backgrounds, in order for them to gain more confidence in their own Englishes. While it is indeed not yet clear exactly what level of English is necessary for teaching elementary school students in Japan [3], it has been argued that “native” or “native-like” ability is not necessarily the most important factor [10] and that pedagogical skills and knowledge of language teaching methodologies are probably more important [2]. 3 RESEARCH QUESTION This paper outlines the results of one preliminary part of a larger study investigating teacher beliefs and teacher agency among Japanese elementary school HRTs. The larger study consists of interviews and surveys with a number of Japanese elementary school HRTs, but this paper deals with the results of a single case study; an interview with a practicing HRT focussing on the challenges she has faced in her efforts to develop English classes. This case study aims to address the following research questions. ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
1. What issues have Japanese elementary school teachers encountered while implementing English language classes? 2. How have Japanese elementary school teachers addressed these issues? 4 METHODOLOGY A 60-minute interview was held with one HRT teacher utilising both pre-prepared questions and some on-the-spot follow-up questions. The questions were written in English by the author and then translated into Japanese by the author and an English-Japanese translator. The questions were asked in both English and Japanese in interviews. The interview was then transcribed and analysed in order to identify areas warranting further investigation, and from this a survey instrument was created, which was subsequently sent to Japanese elementary school HRTs around the country. The interviewee, Ms. Nagai (for the purposes of this paper, her name has been changed) has been an elementary school teacher in the kansai region for ten years and has taught English classes for four years (at the time of interview she was taking a break from teaching having been seconded to a temporary educational advisory position). She estimates that during her four years of teaching English, she spent about two-thirds of that time teaching alone, and for the remaining time she team-taught with a JTE. 5 DISCUSSION Interview questions focussed on two areas; a) teacher reaction to the introduction of English activities and how the teacher went about practically implementing English in elementary schools; b) challenges that the teacher faced in implementing English classes and how the teacher overcame those challenges. The following discussion addresses each point in turn. 5.1 Teacher reaction and initial implementation of English classes Ms. Nagai, most likely in a similar way to many elementary teachers around Japan at the time, was shocked by the news that she would have to teach English to her students, having no previous experience in language teaching, nor a strong English speaking background. When asked about her first reaction, she stated it was a case of thinking â&#x20AC;&#x153;nani wo itteiru no?â&#x20AC;? (What are you talking about?). However, with seemingly little choice in the matter, from that point Ms. Nagai has actively sought out training opportunities and communities of practice to improve her language teaching abilities, language level and to gain ideas for activities in classes. She has been free to adapt classes to suit her particular context. With the exception of being told to follow the topic order in Hi Friends, Ms. Nagai was basically left to create classes on her own. There were no guidelines given as to how to teach, and with the exception of the main vocabulary and grammar points in Hi Friends, what to teach. Therefore she required resourcefulness and creativity in developing her classes.
5.2 Challenges in implementation of English classes and overcoming these challenges Perhaps unsurprisingly, with no previous experience in teaching a foreign language, Ms. Nagai experienced a number of obstacles when first trying to teach English in her classes. She explained that her biggest challenges so far have been related to English ability. She made an important point that most teachers presently teaching in elementary schools experienced a reading/writing based English language education in their own school days, and since communicative approaches have only been a feature of secondary school English classes in recent years, only very young teachers have had the opportunity of a more communicative focus during ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
their own English education. However, the goal of elementary school English classes is to develop communicative ability, so there is a gap between what current teachers learnt when they were at school and what they are now supposed to teach. She also explained that while English ability is important, she thinks that the content of classes is most important, and this is an area she has worked hard to develop. Nagai-sensei has spent a lot of time attending teacher training courses and research groups and explained that one of the most important things she gained from these is knowledge of how to teach a foreign language. This experience has also helped her to be able to develop classes utilising materials and activities from multiple sources. She uses the Hi Friends book as a general guide of what grammar and vocabulary points to teach, but she adapts lessons by augmenting the book with materials from other books that she thinks suit her students better (especially those with low levels of interest) or materials introduced at training sessions. Another important issue that Ms. Nagai mentioned was that of trying to aid the transition for students moving from elementary school to junior high schools. Due to the relatively recent introduction of English at elementary schools and the fact that it is taught as a “non-academic subject” with a focus on “communicative activities” (officially, the written language is shunned officially in favour of an oral English only policy), English is still taught at junior high schools from the basics of ABCs and the copula “be”. Students entering junior high school used to the more communicative focus at elementary schools may find this transition difficult, so Ms. Nagai has worked with junior high school teachers in a research group aimed at finding ways to smooth this transition. 6 CONCLUSION This paper reports on the results of a case study investigating the issues that a Japanese elementary school HRT has experienced while implementing English classes. The first and most obvious issue with the results in this study regards generalizability. While the greater study that this paper is a part of includes a larger number of teachers, this paper reports on the results of a single case study. As such it is impossible to generalise the results to other HRTs in other contexts in Japan. Given the dearth of research on the subject, further investigation into Japanese elementary school HRTs teaching alone is warranted. The present study aims to address this, and shows that indeed, HRTs are having to teach alone, facing issues of language ability and a lack of knowledge of how to teach foreign languages but are showing creativity and resourcefulness in addressing these issues on their own. REFERENCES [1] Aline, D., & Hosoda, Y. (2005). Observing Japanese public elementary school English activities, JALT2004 Conference Proceedings, K. Bradford-Watts, C. Ikeguchi, & M. Swanson (Eds.), (5-22). Tokyo: JALT. [2] Astor, A. (2000). A qualified nonnative English-speaking teacher is second to none in the field. TESOL Matters, 10(2), 18-19. [3] Butler, Y. G. (2007). Factors associated with the notion that native speakers are the ideal language teachers: An examination of elementary school teachers in Japan. JALT Journal, 29(1), 7-40. [4] Fukatsu, A, (2012). English education in Japanese elementary schools: An analysis of interactions. Waseda University Essays on English Language and Literature 41, 23-32. [5] Horii, S. (2012). “Foreign language activities” in Japanese elementary schools: Negotiating teacher roles and identities within a new language education policy. Ph.D Dissertation. Retrieved from http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/144134/Horii_umn_0130E_13328.pdf [6] Kusumoto, Y. (2008). Needs analysis: Developing a teacher training program for elementary school homeroom teachers in Japan. Second Language Studies 26(2), 1-44.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
[7] Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). (2006). Shougakkou no eigo kyoiku ni kansuru ishiki chousa: Kekka no gaiyou. Retrieved from http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo3/015/gijiroku/05032201/004/001.htm [8] Moser, J., Harris, J., & Carle. J. (2012). Improving teacher talk through a task-based approach. ELT Journal, 66(1), 81-88. [9] Nakao, K. (2009). Shogakko English learning environments: The ALT role, JALT2008 Conference Proceedings, A. M. Stoke (Ed.), pp. 137-147. Tokyo JALT. [10] Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global language on educational policies and practices in the AsiaPacific region. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 589-613.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
EFL Learners’ Beliefs on the Use of Translator Apps in L2 Writing Classes Natnan Tabpech Department of Foreign Languages Kasetsart University
……..
ABSTRACT The advance of smartphone applications has accelerated invasions of technology in language classrooms. Learners, when faced with language difficulties, tend to consult their smartphones rather than their teachers. Translator applications, such as Google Translate, are now among the most widely used aids for language learners. There has been an ongoing debate on whether such applications should be promoted in English writing classes. A number of studies suggest that translator applications can assist lower proficiency learners with their writing. Writing tasks which incorporate the use of translator applications can promote focus on forms. Opponents, however, argue that learners are exposed to errors due to the inefficiency of the technology. Additionally, some learners become overly dependent on these applications. This study engages the issue from EFL learners’ perspectives. To gain a better understanding of learners’ beliefs, this study investigates their choices on when and why they use these applications. It also takes into account learners’ opinions on whether such applications can assist their English writing, and whether they use the applications in real life for self-directed learning. Keywords: L2 Writing, Translator Apps
1 INTRODUCTION Smartphones come with variety of applications or apps. There are dictionary apps, translator apps, and foreign language learning apps. These apps could potentially assist language learners since learners can access these apps whenever they want, as long as there is a smartphone. Research on translator apps are scarcely since the technology is recently introduced to the world, and it has been improved at a great speed. However, translator app development could be traced back to the development of machine translators. In fact, a translator app is considered a machine translator. Machine translators have been introduced to English classes since the very early stage of their invention. Machine translated outputs were used as sources of errors [1, 5]. Learners noticed and repaired the errors. This raised learners’ awareness on language use and focus on forms. Kliffer [4] indicated that machine translator might specifically be beneficial to learners with lower proficiency since using a machine translator as an aid was less stressful than producing the L2 by themselves. Garcia and Pena [2] did a study on English learners of Spanish. They reported that learners communicated more, writing more words, when using a machine translator. However, they admitted that learning might not occur while using a machine translator, and learners used too little effort. Harris [3] also argued that learners could use a machine translator just to avoid using the language. This might obstruct their learning opportunities. This study investigated learners’ use of translator apps in daily life and in a writing class and learner’s beliefs on the effects of translator apps on their learning. 2 METHOD 2.1 Subjects The subjects in this study were 27 university students, who are in their third or fourth year of study. They were all non-English major, and their first language was Thai. They were enrolling in
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
an English writing course. Through the course, students practiced writing descriptive paragraphs. The teacher was Thai and mainly used Thai as the language of instructions. 2.2 Data Collection Two questionnaire were employed once at the beginning and then at the end of the course. The first employment aimed to gather participants’ behaviours and opinions before taking the course. The second aimed to retrospectively gather participants’ behaviours during the course and possible changes in opinions after taking the course. The subjects received a copy of the questionnaires and completed it during regular class hours. The questionnaire consisted of three parts: (a) learners’ use of translator apps in general; (b) learners’ use of translator apps in a writing course; and (c) learners’ beliefs and opinions on the effects of translator apps on their English learning. 3 FINDINGS 3.1 Use of translator apps in general As shown in Table 1, almost all participants used translator apps. The first survey revealed that 25 participants (92.59%) used translator apps in their daily life. There were two participants who had never used any translator apps. In the second survey, the number of translator app users increased to 26 participants (96.27%). Table 1 Numbers and percentages of participants using translator from the first and second surveys Use of translator apps
Everyday use
Numbers of participants First Second
25
26
Percentages of participants First Second
92.59%
96.27%
Google Translate was the only translator app the participants used. In addition, participants used Google Translate together with other dictionary apps. The dictionary apps are listed here in the order of popularity, from most popular to least popular: (1) Thai Fast Dict; (2) Thai Dict; (3) Dictionary.com; (4) Longdo Dict; and (5) Line Dictionary. Dictionary.com was the only monolingual dictionary while others were bilingual. 3.2 Use of translator apps in a writing course As shown in Table 2 and 3, most participants supported the use of translator apps in English classes. The numbers of supporters from the first and second surveys were 19 (70.37%) and 24 (88.89%), respectively. In both surveys, two participants (7.41%) disagreed on the use of translator apps in classes. A number of participants were uncertain about the use of translator apps in classes. There were six (22.22%) in the first survey. The number reduced to one (3.70%) in the second survey. In other words, compared to the beginning of the study, there were five more participants who supported using translator apps in classes. Regarding homework, most participants agreed on the use of translator apps. The numbers of supporters from the first and second surveys were 20 (74.07%) and 25 (92.59%), respectively. Only one participant (3.70%) disagreed in both first and second surveys whereas some participants were uncertain. There were six participants (22.22%) in the first survey. The number decreased to one (3.70%) in the second survey. At the end of the study, there were five more supporter. Most participants disagreed on the use of translator apps during a test. There were 12 (44.44%) and 22 (81.48%) participants in the first and second surveys, respectively. In contrast, eight participants (29.63%) encouraged the use of translator apps in the first survey, and seven participants (25.93%) were uncertain. In the second survey, two participants (7.41%) allowed ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
translator apps during a test whereas three participants (11.11%) hesitated. At the end of the study, there was an increase in number of participants who disapproved the use of translator apps during tests. Table 2 Numbers of participants who agreed and disagreed on the use of translator apps from the first and second surveys Use of translator apps
Use in English classes Use while doing homework Use while taking a test
Numbers of participants who agreed First Second
19 20 8
24 25 2
Numbers of participants who disagreed First Second
2 1 12
2 1 22
Numbers of participants who were uncertain First Second
6 6 7
1 1 3
Table 3 Percentages of participants who agreed and disagreed on the use of translator apps from the first and second surveys Use of translator apps
Use in English classes Use while doing homework Use while taking a test
Numbers of participants who agreed First Second
70.37 74.07 29.63
88.89 92.59 7.41
Numbers of participants who disagreed First Second
7.41 3.70 44.44
7.41 3.70 81.48
Numbers of participants who were uncertain First Second
22.22 22.22 25.93
3.70 3.70 11.11
In the second survey which was employed at the end of the writing course, a number of participants reported that Google Translate, the only translator app they used, was mainly used to translate Thai words into English and vice versa. They rarely used the app to translate language in larger forms. In addition, there was a noteworthy comment in the first survey. A participant reckoned that the use of translator apps could prevent teachers from seeing learners’ true language ability thus the participant was against the use of translator apps in all contexts. In the second survey, however, the participant’s view was adjusted. Although translator apps should be prohibited in every test because a test was aimed to assess learners’ language skills rather than learners’ ability to use technology. The participant admitted that the use of translator apps was “unavoidable” while doing class activities and homework. 3.3 Beliefs and Opinions on the effects of translator apps on L2 learning According to the first survey, which was employed at the beginning of the study, there were 25 participants who used translator apps before participating in the study. Among these app users, there were 17 participants (68%) believing that the apps assisted them in English learning, 15 (60%) believing that the apps assisted them in English writing, and 21 participants (84%) seeing themselves continue using the apps in the future. However, there were three participants (12%) rejecting the idea that translator apps could assist them in English learning, and there were five participants (20%) who were uncertain. Two participants (8%) did not believe that the apps could help them while writing, and the other four participants (15.38%) could not decide. One participant (4%) thought the apps were useless, and three participants (12%) were reluctant to use the apps in the future. In the second survey, there were 26 participants who used translator apps during the course of the study. Among these users, there were 15 participants (57.69%) believing that the apps assisted them in English learning, 18 (69.23%) believing that the apps assisted them in English writing, and 23 participants (88.46%) seeing themselves continue using the apps in the future. In contrast, there were four participants (15.38%) did not believe that the apps could assist them in English learning, and there were seven participants (26.92%) who were uncertain. Four participants (15.38%) did not believe that the apps could help them while writing, and the other four participants (15.38%) could not decide. Two participants (7.69%) would not continue using the apps in the future, and one participant (3.85%) was reluctant. The numbers are also shown in Table 4 and 5.
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Table 4 Numbers of participants who agreed and disagreed on the effectiveness of translator apps from the first and second surveys Effectiveness of translator apps
Translator apps assist English learning. Translator apps assist English writing. Translator apps are useful.
Numbers of participants who agreed First Second
17 15 21
15 18 23
Numbers of participants who disagreed First Second
3 2 1
4 4 2
Numbers of participants who were uncertain First Second
5 8 3
7 4 1
Table 5 Percentages of participants who agreed and disagreed on the effectiveness of translator apps from the first and second surveys Effectiveness of translator apps
Translator apps assist English learning. Translator apps assist English writing. Translator apps are useful.
Numbers of participants who agreed First Second
68.00 60.00 84.00
57.69 69.23 88.46
Numbers of participants who disagreed First Second
12.00 8.00 4.00
15.38 15.38 7.69
Numbers of participants who were uncertain First Second
20.00 32.00 12.00
26.92 15.38 3.85
Over the course of this study, the percentage of participants who believed that translator apps could assist them in learning English decreased from 68 per cent to 57.69 per cent. A participant expressed that using dictionary apps was better than translator apps because learners could see sample sentences and learn from them. The participants also added that learners could become overly dependent on translator apps. While less participants thought the apps could help them learn English, more participants believed that the apps helped them in writing in English. The percentage increased from 60 to 69.23 per cent. Surprisingly, the percentage of participants who thought the app did not help also increased from 8 to 15.38 per cent. Lastly, most participants reckoned that the apps were useful. At the end of the study, the percentage of participants who would use the apps in the future grew from 84 to 88.46 per cent. 4 CONCLUSION Nearly all participants used a translator app. However, Google Translate was the only translator app used. The translator app was used together with various dictionary apps. Participants mainly relied on Google Translateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s translation at word level. In other words, Google Translate was used in the same way as other dictionary apps. Participants supported the use of translator apps both in classes and when doing homework. Over the period of this study, more participants supported the use of translator apps. On the contrary, they disapproved the use of translator apps during tests. At the end of the study, more participants rejected the use of translator apps in tests. The majority of the participants believed that translator apps could help them in learning English. Nonetheless, at the end of the study, less participants believed so. The majority also believed that translator apps help them in English Writing. Over the period of the study, more participants reckoned that the apps were useful, however, the group who thought the app did not help become bigger as well. This could be due to the fact that writing tasks in this particular writing course were rather controlled. Studies on the use of translator apps in freer writing tasks are needed. Regarding the participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; opinion on usefulness of translator apps, the majority would continue to use the apps in the future. In this study, a participant who had never used any translator apps became an app user.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
REFERENCES [1] Ball, R.V., (1989), “Computer-assisted translation and the modern languages curriculum”, The CTISS File 8, 5255 [2] Garcia, I. & Pena, M.I., (2011), “Machine translation-assisted language learning: writing for beginners”, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24:5, 471-487 [3] Harris, H., (2010), “Machine translations revisited: issues and treatment protocol”, The Language Teacher, 34:3, 25-29 [4] Kliffer, M.D., (2005), “An experiment in MT post-editing by a class of intermediate/advanced French majors”, Proceedings EAMT 10th Annual Conference, Budapest, 160-165 [5] Somer, H.L. (2003), “MT in the classroom”, Computers and Translation: A translator’s Guide, Somers, H. (ed.), Amsterdam, 319-340
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Teacher Training in China: A Sustainable Approach
Anna Ho, English Language Centre, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (anna.ho@polyu.edu.hk) Andrew Jarvis, English Language Centre, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (andy.jarvis@polyu.edu.hk)
Key words: teacher training / training approaches / China
Abstract This article focuses on the approach taken to an in-service teacher training programme in Chongqing, China. The Chongqing Train-the-Trainers Programme aims to enhance teacher training capacity in primary and secondary schools by providing a range of professional development opportunities for programme participants. These participants are front-line teachers and other ELT professionals who will take on training roles in the counties of Chongqing as part of the programme. This article describes the main features of the programme and the approach taken, it also assesses the key benefits of the approach and the challenges encountered so far on the programme. Advantages include the combined opportunities for expansive and reflective learning, the focus on teacher training skills, the experiential and applicationoriented approach, and the development of long-term partnerships. The approach is seen to be very different from previous training programmes and taking on new roles, developing collaborative teams and building the credibility of peer to peer training have been challenges. Early feedback suggests that the programme has been well received and has potential to become a sustainable training model in China.
Approaches to in-service teacher training in China Various approaches have been taken to in-service teacher training in China with different providers involved in the delivery of training programmes. Traditionally, in-service teacher training programmes were organised and delivered by universities and tended to be theory-based. These programmes offered insight into the curriculum and school textbooks (Li & Baldauf, 2011) taking a top-down approach to knowledge dissemination â&#x20AC;&#x201C; skills and knowledge are seen as objective entities passed down from experts to trainees (Zhong & Wu, 2004). Observations of model classes were sometimes incorporated into these programmes and they occasionally had a cascading element whereby teachers passed on lessons learnt to peers in their own schools. In recent years there has been a trend towards school-based training which is influenced by a reflective practice approach and grounded in day to day teaching experience. Professional development programmes of this type are usually organised by schools and activities used within this approach include lesson observations, collective lesson planning and self-reflection (Wong & Tsui, 2007). This approach is seen to be practical and focuses on teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; immediate classroom needs. Finally, some programmes are held overseas or provide overseas training experiences for in-service teachers. Li and Edwards (2013) report on a professional development programme for English teachers from China which is UKbased and includes components such as a home stay, a cultural programme and school visits. One of the benefits of overseas training is that the participants can observe similarities and differences in perspectives of English language teaching between their teaching context and the overseas context.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Chongqing Train-the-Trainers (CQTTT) Programme The CQTTT Programme is an in-service professional development programme which aims to build English language training capacity in Chongqing. Participants on the programme participate in a range of professional development activities in order to deepen their perspectives on English language teaching and develop training skills to enable them to take on training roles in the counties. These participants are front-line primary and secondary school teachers, school administrators and university lecturers who went through an application process to be admitted onto the programme. The project is funded by a Hong Kong charitable organisation, the Ting Ka Ping Foundation, and has a number of partners including three universities and two education bureaus in Chongqing and Hong Kong. This is a three-year programme which is now entering the second year. Year one (2014-2015) Year one was a preparatory year and began with participants taking a two-week training programme and school-attachment in Hong Kong as well as training and follow-up meetings delivered by universities in Chongqing. The Hong Kong programme aims to orientate the teachers to the project and their new training roles, review approaches and theories to language learning and develop training skills. This was done through talks, workshops and sharing sessions which took place at the English Language Centre (ELC) of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The Hong Kong programme also included a school-attachment to provide opportunities for the participants to witness approaches taken to English language teaching in Hong Kong. The participants observed lessons in local primary and secondary schools, held post-observation conferences with the Hong Kong teachers and took part in plenary discussions to contextualise their observations. In addition to this two-week orientation programme, the participants engaged in four rounds of training in Chongqing with teams receiving support in developing their own training programmes to be delivered to the county teachers in year two. Year two(2015-2016) The CQTTT programme is now entering the second year and the new trainers have delivered one round of training in the counties. By the end of year two, the primary school team will have held two five-day training programmes with the secondary school team opting for three shorter training programmes. The training teams receive further support from the universitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; advisors who observe the delivery of the training and give feedback and suggestions to develop the training materials further. The teams also hold reflection meetings to support and guide each other and their training programme. Year three (2016-2017) In year three, the teams will deliver intensive school-based support for county schools identified as needing additional support. The trainers will develop their roles to become more advisory and will offer support on specific needs, conduct co-lesson planning and advise on building extra-curricular activities into English language provision.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Benefits of this approach to in-service teacher training Expansive One of the benefits of the CQTTT Programme is that it incorporates expansive learning to enable participants to gain an alternative perspective on teaching practice. Expansive learning allows trainees to gain a broader appreciation of their role in the wider community of practice (Philpott, 2014) or see how teaching challenges are addressed in a different community of practice. One example of expansive learning on the CQTTT Programme is through the Hong Kong programme and school-attachment which allow participants to see how a similar curriculum is realised in the day to day practice of Hong Kong teachers. Incorporating an expansive approach to training enables participants to “see beyond the world view and practices of any single school or department at any moment in time” (Philpott, 2014:11) and in our case it offers the Chinese practitioners an eye to a different EFL world. Reflective The participants on this programme have the opportunity to reflect upon their own teaching practice, discuss approaches to language learning and devise context-specific strategies for incorporating new ideas into their classrooms. Participants are also encouraged to assess ELT issues from the perspective of their new role as trainer and this is done through workshops, end-of-day meetings and reflective journals. These activities aim to encourage the development of skills in reflective practice (Jones & White, 2014). Through this reflective approach, participants can begin to address challenges within their teaching context, adopt a critical perspective on approaches to English language teaching, and design action plans for change. Skills-focused A review of articles concerning in-service training for English language teachers in China shows little focus on the development of training skills. Some programmes have a cascading element to training but priority is often placed on content rather than the skills needed for training such as how to conduct a needs analysis, run workshops, organise observations and give feedback. One of the central aims of the CQTTT Programme is to equip participants with the training skills required to take on the challenging role of developing and running in-service teacher development activities which focus on facilitating the exchange of ideas rather than taking a top-down approach. This includes skills such as leading interactive workshops, eliciting responses, probing, and summarising progress made in a session. Experiential and application-oriented In addition to developing teacher training skills, participants are provided with a platform for the delivery of their own training programmes in county schools. This enables them to experience the various decision making processes of being a trainer and try out their own training materials. For example, if the teams are going to deliver a session on reading skills, they need to develop their awareness of reading, think about how to pitch their ideas to teachers and what problems they might face. Yan and He (2011:563) suggest that teacher training programmes need a “framework for action” which links the “seminar island” to the “school island” and this idea is very much adopted in the
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
CQTTT Programme through the participants' delivery of their own training materials in county schools. Collaborative with a developing long term supportive community of practice The CQTTT Programme has helped to facilitate new partnerships and has initiated a developing community of practice focused on the Chongqing context, thus taking a long-term view to teacher development. The training teams are made up of front-line teachers, administrators and EFL lecturers who can share their expertise and perspectives when collaborating on the development and delivery of training materials. These teams are supported by coordinators, academics and advisors from three universities in Chongqing and Hong Kong. With the shifting trend away from university-led inservice training to school-based training in China, the role of universities in this type of training has become unclear. Some training initiatives invite academics to give lectures in schools; another approach taken is for academics to act as mentors for teachers conducting action research projects (Xu, 2009). The CQTTT Programme takes the approach that universities can play a range of important roles in in-service teacher development projects in China, not only acting in a coordinating and advising role but also as front-line members in the planning and delivery stages of training. Overall, the project encourages the development of an inquiry-led and collaborative schooluniversity partnership which benefits all parties. The project cannot be sustainable without a longterm approach to developing a community of practice geared to the common goal of improving English language teaching in Chongqing.
Challenges encountered with the CQTTT Programme approach A new approach The training approach developed on this programme is new to all of the organisations and participants involved and this has required programme members to take a flexible view of their roles in the project. At the outset of the programme, the different roles played by each organisation were established but these roles have evolved as the project has progressed. For example, the task of the ELC, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, was to coordinate the Hong Kong programme in year one; however, members of the ELC have continued to be involved in the programme by delivering further training, supporting participants and observing the delivery of training kits. Team working There have also been challenges in terms of the working roles within the primary and secondary teams. It takes time to build teams of professionals from different contexts who can work collaboratively and equally. This is especially true for these participants who may have experienced a top-down approach in previous training. One observation of the teams in action is that the more experienced members are doing the lionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s share of the training leaving the less experienced members to act as a support, assistant or giver of feedback during training sessions. We can conclude that it takes time for established working roles to give way to new forms of team working and collaboration. Credibility of new trainers
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Despite the competitive recruitment process to be admitted onto the programme and the inclusion of administrators and university lecturers onto the teams, the credibility of peer to peer training has been questioned in one school district. This could be due the culture of authorised accounts of knowledge being more readily accepted than teachers' voice (Zhong & Wu, 2004). Hong & Pawan (2014:77) also report on similar “conflicts” in the experiences of teacher trainers who have received training overseas and tried to adopt a new, or communicative, approach to teaching.
Is this approach to teacher training in China effective and sustainable? This programme aims to develop teacher training capacity in Chongqing by providing a range of professional development opportunities enabling participants to take on training roles. The approach taken is to incorporate expansive learning, take a reflective approach, equip participants with training skills, be experiential in nature, provide a platform for training, and develop a long term community of practice for continued collaboration. Questionnaire feedback from year one suggests that the programme has been well-received by participants with the school-attachment in Hong Kong especially receiving positive feedback. Reflection meetings held during and after the schoolattachment suggest there has been some cognitive shift in the beliefs and approaches of the teachers. For example, when asked to propose a possible workshop for future training, one group suggested a session on ‘learner-centered education’ inspired by their time in Hong Kong. The training programmes drawn up by the teams suggest that there is some incorporation of ideas gained from their experience on this project adapted to the local context. There is also evidence from observations that the participants have incorporated many of the training skills developed on the programme and adopted a workshop delivery style promoting the exchange of ideas. However, research needs to be conducted on county teachers' (service recipients) perceptions of the training and impact on classroom practice to show positive effects beyond the programme participants. This will be the role of a third university in Chongqing tasked to evaluate the programme. In terms of sustainability, it remains to be seen whether the participants and organisations involved will continue to deliver training beyond the three-year programme. Continued coordination, support from the Chongqing Education Commission and an endorsed role for trainers would help to build on what has been achieved so far. There is also potential for this training model to be adopted or adapted for other regions in China and interest has already been shown from one other provincial education commission. There are clear indications that the CQTTT Programme has had a positive impact on the skills, knowledge and approaches of participants and these new trainers are beginning to demonstrate that they can offer a valuable professional development experience in their school districts. The project has also helped to facilitate a network of language teaching professionals with common goals. The programme has provided an alternative training experience for county teachers and so far the signs suggest that this approach to in-service training in China has considerable potential.
References
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Hong, P, & Pawan, F. (2014). The Pedagogy of Western-Trained Chinese English Language Teachers: Foreign Education, Chinese Meanings. Routledge, New York and London. Jones, K, & White, E. (2014). Developing Outstanding Practice in School-Based Teacher Education. Critical Publishing, Northwich. Li, D, & Edwards, V. (2013). ‘The impact of overseas training on curriculum innovation and change in English language education in Western China’. Language Teaching Research, 17(4), 390-408. Li, M, & Baldauf, R. (2011). ‘Beyond the curriculum: A Chinese example of issues constraining effective English language teaching’. TESOL Quarterly, 45(4), 793-803. Philpott, C. (2014). Theories of Professional Learning: A critical guide for teacher educators. Critical Publishing, Northwich. Wong, J.L.N, & Tsui, A.B.M (2007). How do teachers view the effects of school-based in-service learning activities? A case study in China. Journal of Education and Teaching: International research and pedagogy, 33(4), 457-470. Xu, Y. (2009). School-based teacher development through a school-university collaborative project: A case study of a recent initiative in China. Curriculum Studies, 41(1), 49-60. Yan, C, & He, C. (2011). Enhancing part-time teacher training programmes to facilitate rural teacher development in China. Prospects: Quarterly Review of Comparative Education, 41(4), 553-566. Zhong, C, & Wu, Z. (2004). Understanding teachers’ development in China: An illustrative ‘snap-shot’ of three teachers’ professional lives. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 3, 37-47.
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Individual and perceived group motivation: a complex dynamic Paul Leeming School of Economics Kindai University
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ABSTRACT Researchers have long been aware of the importance of group context when considering motivation, and although group dynamics is often discussed, there has been relatively little research investigating how the context of small groups influences an individual’s performance. This presentation describes a longitudinal mixed-methods research project where individual motivation, and that same individual’s perceived motivation of their group were measured, and changes in motivation were tracked over a five-week period. Initial English speaking proficiency was measured, and a questionnaire was used at the start and end of each class to assess individual motivation to speak English. At the same time as rating their own motivation, students were asked to rate their groups’ motivation on the same measure. Classroom observation and post-study interviews were also used in an attempt to assess the impact of individual and perceived group motivation on task performance. Results were mixed but did show that students’ own motivation to speak English does change over time, and can differ from their perceived motivation of their group members. Observation and interview data suggest that students’ perception of how much their group want to speak English impacts on their own behaviour during tasks. The study also raised important issues to be considered with regards to measurement of motivation in this context. Keywords: group dynamics, motivation, time
1 INTRODUCTION This paper focusses on motivation and group work in the language classroom. After initially outlining the importance of group work, I discuss the need to consider both context, and time when conducting studies into the individual motivation of students to learn English. I then describe the study conducted to ascertain the differences between self- and perceived-group motivation, and also to track changes in motivation over a five-week period. 2 MOTIVATION AND GROUPS The next section considers the central role of groups in language learning, and the potential relevance this has for motivation. The importance of considering motivational change, and the context in which students study is discussed. 2.1 Context and language learning The importance of interaction in the language classroom has been established through empirical research [4], and most approaches to teaching incorporate pair or group work. The prevalence of this approach is clear when one examines any of the major textbooks currently used for teaching English, with pair or group-work at almost every stage of the lesson. Despite the centrality of groups to language learning, we have only a limited understanding of the interactions that occur when students work together in natural classroom settings, and the potential impact of the context. Philp, Adams, and Iwashita [6] considered various aspect of peer interaction in the language classroom. They examined how individual difference variables could potentially influence the learning process, citing research showing that age and language proficiency can have an impact on
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
opportunities for language learning. They also discussed how the social dimension of peer interaction could be important, but acknowledge that there is little empirical research in our field considering this. Kozaki and Ross [2] investigated the influence of context, using Hierarchical Linear Modeling to show that more than proficiency, perceptions of the motivation of peers can influence the proficiency gains made by students. They measured the gains in proficiency of 1,682 learners over a two-year period, and also the individual motivation of students, and their perceptions of the motivation of other members of their classes. They concluded that students are influenced by the attitudes of their peers, and that this can be both positive and negative depending on the class. Aside from this study, there has been little research within SLA considering the influence of groups, and how studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions of peer motivation may impact on individual performance.
2.2 Motivational Change Over time The study by Kozaki and Ross [2] measured proficiency over time, but motivation was measured on a single occasion. Researchers increasingly consider motivation to be a more temporal construct, subject to change over time. Studies have considered motivational changes over an entire academic year [1], and over the course of a single class, or series of classes [5,7]. Gardner et al. [1] conducted a longitudinal study over the duration of one academic year, in which they used questionnaires to measure several individual difference variables on six different occasions, with 178 students. State motivation and state anxiety were repeatedly measured to assess how these two variables change over time. Results showed that there was little change in motivation over the duration of the academic year, but that anxiety did experience significant change. Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; anxiety decreased immediately following their winter break, but then anxiety peaked shortly before the final exam period for the course. Pawlak [5] considered motivational change over individual lessons, and over a series of lessons. Polish high school students (n= 28) took four lessons in a course of English, and completed a battery of measures including a general motivation questionnaire which was administered once, and a motivational grid, which required students to assess their own motivation at five-minute intervals during each of the four classes. Interviews were conducted with students. Results showed that although motivational intensity did fluctuate within a single class, the changes were minor, and not as large as the author anticipated. In a similar study Waninge et al. [7] traced the motivational change of four students over four foreign language classes. Using the motometer (see Appendix), they measured motivation at fiveminute intervals, and used observation and interview to attempt to explain the changes in motivational intensity. Unlike the Pawlak [5] study, there were large changes in motivational intensity even within a single class, and that the changes in individual levels of motivation did not always follow the general changes for the group. Waninge et al. [7] did not consider differences in perceptions of peer motivation and individual motivation. 3 MY STUDY In the following section I will describe the participants in the current study and also the method of data collection. 3.1 Participants and Procedure The participants in the current study (n = 18) were first year students of economics at a private university in Japan. The students were enrolled in compulsory English classes and the course for this study was oral communication. Although experience speaking English prior to the class was generally quite limited, the students had been streamed according to ability, and this was ISSN: 2189-2164
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the top level class, so motivation was high and most students had TOEIC scores over 500. Classes were 90-minutes in length, and the study was conducted over five weeks at the end of the second semester. I was the teacher of the class for the full academic year. For the five-weeks in which the study was conducted the students were placed into random small groups of three or four people, and tables and chairs were moved so that each group occupied its own space. Students did not generally mix with other groups during this period, and many of the activities in class focussed on communicating as a group based on a TBL approach [8]. In the final week of the study students were required to complete a ten-minute group conversation test, speaking entirely in English on a topic selected from the textbook. This test accounted for 10% of the final grade for the students in this course. 3.2 Measures Various measures were used in the current study. A motometer, similar to that used in the studies described above, was used for repeated measures of motivation (see Appendix). This was given to students at the start and end of each of the five classes, and students were asked to mark their current feelings of motivation, and the perceived current feelings of their group. My interest was to determine if there were temporal changes in motivation, and also any differences between individual motivation and the perceived motivation of peers within the same group. Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; speaking proficiency was measured at the start of the study using PhonePass by Versant. Video data was collected of students during one of the classes, and interviews were conducted with seven of the students (two groups) following on from the study in an attempt to gain deeper insights into motivational change, and the influence of peers. 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the following section I outline the results of the study, first describing motivational change over time, and then discussing individual versus perceived group motivation, and the potential impact on student behaviour. I also use the interviews to shed light on some of the questionnaire data. 4.1 Motivational Change Over Time Students completed the motometer on 10 separate occasions. Of the 18 students who participated in the study, seven marked their motivation as 100% on all occasions, for themselves and their group. This created a ceiling effect, and although it reflected the positive attitude that many of the students had regarding English, it meant the measure did not show motivational fluctuations for these students, limiting the data available for analysis. During post-study interviews I asked the students who had marked motivation at 100% throughout the study if that was a true representation of their feelings. One student admitted that his actual feelings of motivation had changed during the course of the study, and even within individual lessons, but stated that during the study he had marked the motometer at 100% out of feelings of reluctance to admit this to the teacher. A different student said that the questionnaires were a nuisance and therefore she simply selected maximum scores for all. Students also admitted to wanting to give their other group members the benefit of the doubt, and therefore marking their group at 100% in an attempt to be positive. Table 1. Average Scores for Motometer Individual Group
1 91.06 91.60
2 96.76 97.47
3 94.63 95.81
4 95.62 97.31
5 95.06 96
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6 96.59 97.12
7 93.63 93.31
8 95.06 95.19
9 95 94.82
10 96.35 96.88
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The majority of the students in the study did register some minor fluctuation in motivation over time, as shown in the Table 1 which has the overall averages for the 10 administrations of the motometer, and also from the data for Hiro in Figure 1 (all names are pseudonyms). Although no significant patterns emerged, generally it seemed that studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; motivation increased during the course of the class, and was lower at the start of class than the end. In interview students claimed that as the class progressed they became more engaged leading to increasing motivation. At the start of the class they were more apathetic to study, possibly as a result of the lack of exposure to English outside of the classroom in this EFL context. Generally in this class the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions of group motivation were also slightly higher than their own individual motivation. The class atmosphere was very positive and generally all the students showed an interest in studying and speaking English. Motivational change was very slight overall, particularly considering the scale that was used in the study.
Figure 1: Hiro 4.2 Individual and Group Motivation Students were required to assess their own motivation, and the perceived motivation of the other members of their group. Figure 1 represents the data for Hiro, and shows that there were some differences between individual motivation and the perceived motivation of peers. Initially Hiro considered his group to be a little more motivated than him, although this difference quickly disappeared when they began actually working together. Indeed by the end of the study Hiro came to see himself as more motivated than the other members of his group, as shown at the start of week 5 (time 9 on the graph). This may be because although the class in general were highly motivated, one member of Hiroâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s group was absent during the study, and also arrived late on a couple of occasions. This may have influenced Hiro into believing that he was actually more motivated than his group. It should be noted again that generally there was very little variation between self- and group- motivation. In interview several students stated that they were influenced by the perceived motivation of their peers, and that this did influence in class performance. One group interviewed claimed that the persistent use of Japanese by one member had a large influence on the language used by the group, supporting the findings of Leeming [3] that student language choices are influenced by group context. General observation seemed to support the idea that students were influenced by their ISSN: 2189-2164
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group, although again motivational levels being generally high there was less variance than would be observed in more mixed classes. Perhaps due to the fact that the classes had been streamed for ability, scores for proficiency based on the PhonePass showed limited variation, and therefore speaking proficiency was not considered when observing groups. 5 CONCLUSION This study set out to track motivational change over time, and also to determine if there were differences between individual and perceived group motivation. Results indicate that motivation does change over time, and that there may be some differences between motivation of self and perceived motivation of the group, although issues with measurement mean that these results must be treated with a high degree of caution. The results do imply that students’ language learning is influenced by group context and this needs to be considered when assigning students to group. Future research should attempt to develop measures that are more sensitive to fluctuations in motivation, and to continue to consider the potential impact of the group on the individual behaviour and motivation of students. REFERENCES [1] Gardner, R. C., Masgoret, A. M., Tennant, J., & Mihic, L. (2004). "Integrative Motivation: Changes During a Year-Long Intermediate-Level Language Course." Language Learning, 54(1), 1–34. [2] Kozaki, Y., & Ross, S. J. (2011). "Contextual Dynamics in Foreign Language Learning Motivation." Language Learning, 61(4), 1328-1354. [3] Leeming, P. (2011). "Japanese high school students’ use of L1 during pairwork." International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 21(3), 360–382. [4] Long, M. H., & Porter, P. A. (1985). "Group Work, Interlanguage Talk, and Second Language Acquisition." TESOL Quarterly, 19(2), 207–228. [5] Pawlak, M. (. (2012). "The dynamic nature of motivation in language learning : A classroom perspective." Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 2(2), 249–278. [6] Philp, J., Adams, R., & Iwashita, N. (2013). Peer Interaction and Second Language Learning. London: Routledge. [7] Waninge, F., Dörnyei, Z., & De Bot, K. (2014). "Motivational Dynamics in Language Learning: Change, Stability, and Context." The Modern Language Journal, 98(3), 704–723. [8] Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2007). Doing task-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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APPENDIX
MOTOMETER How strongly do you want to try to study in this class? How strongly do you want to speak English in this class? You
Your group
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0274: Method of Assessing Foreign Language Proficiency Compared with Native Language. Alexander Solomonov Chair of Physiology Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University, Russia
Margarita Malisheva Chair of Foreign languages Yaroslavl State University, Russia
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ABSTRACT The assessment method of foreign language proficiency is being developed for Russian educational institutions. Our hypothesis is that a secondary language personality is formed on the basis of the one formed in native language environment. Better command of foreign language results in reducing time differences between foreign an native verbal behavior. To prove it we tested 62 persons including schoolchildren of 3, 5, 7. 10, 11 grades (group of 4 to 14), 9 students and 9 experienced teachers of English. Written consent to psychological examination was received from pupils legal representatives. The subjects were required to solve 20 arithmetic examples of adding two numbers from 10 to 49 each by two trials. In the first trial they pronounced the results in Russian, in the second in English. The average time of trial 1 (T1) and 2 (T2), delay of activity (DA) were registered and determined by computer. It turned out that with duration of schooling DA decreased from 1,75 ± 0,16 (grade 3) to 1,32 ± 0,08 (grade 11). The students, with no practical training in English increased their DA: 1,55 ± 0,10. The teachers showed the lowest DA: 1,01 ± 0,05. In two weeks the method was tested for reliability, correlation was 0,865. The validity was checked in comparison with average scores of school academic achievements, correlation with T2 = –0,42 for p = 0,03; with DA = – 0,29 for p = 0.12, with T2-T1 = – 0,35 for p = 0.06. Thus, this technique may be of interest for further practical development. Keywords: verbal behavior, time assessment
1 INTRODUCTION According to educational standards of Russia a foreign language as well as Russian and mathematics are compulsory subjects at school [1]. Learning a second language in Russian speaking environment is much less motivated than in the environment where mastering a new language opens up new prospects for personal communication. It is only systematic training in practising language that is resulting in individual progress of mastering a second language acquisition. Therefore assessment of the effectiveness of foreign language learning is significant both for students and their teachers. In various countries, including Japan, it is the task of classroom tracking to assess how language skills have been acquired [2]. Our work is aimed at developing methods of assessing one’s level of mastering a foreign language in comparison with that in his own native (Russian). 2 BASES OF RESEARCH The first ground of our work is the idea of Vygotsky on the formation of language abilities as a result of socialization [3]. Learning another language is most effective when the student is
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
striving to master it. As a result he has a command of the language. He can understand, speak, read and write in a foreign language, manifesting himself as a personality, Karaulov [4],. Therefore the second basis for the development of the method is not only the concept of language personality defined by Karaulov, but also a concept of a secondary language personality whose behavior is close to the verbal behavior in native language. The category “secondary language personality” is now regarded as one of the central categories of Russian psycholinguistics [5]. But in any case the potentialities of a secondary language personality cannot exceed those realized by a native speaker. The natural science methodology of the proposed method is a behavioral approach to linguistic communication as a physical process of signalling information that develops in space and time. Pavlov’s works on speech as a secondary signalling system contributing to the outer world adaptation through conditioning[6]. formulated Skinner’s concept on language as “a system based on the notions stimulus, response, and reinforcement”[7]. Speed is admitted by Skinner as one of the key parameters of verbal behavior. Despite the harsh criticism of Skinner’s concept of verbal behavior Chomsky admits that in certain cases, for example, in verbal responses associated with processing of numbers “simple conditioning may be sufficient to account for the response four to two plus two”[8]. So far the work of Skinner is the basis for a great number of areas of linguistic research. Possible directions of experimental research allied to Skinner’s concept were presented by Sundberg [9]. According to the classification in the work our investigation is consistent with the direction of Research on Verbal Assessments and some divisions of this direction: - Verbal behavior assessment scales (norms/criterion referenced data) - Computer assessment package - Validation of the assessment programs - Assessment procedure for sign language users, and second language learners 3. HYPOTHESIS, PURPOSE, OBJECTS OF RESEARCH 3.1. Hypothesis of research A secondary language personality is formed on the basis of personality already formed in his native language environment. Therefore while studying a foreign language time differences in verbal behavior of the student are reduced in comparison with native (Russian) and foreign (English) languages. The parameters of verbal behavior in both the languages can be practically used as a criterion of mastering a foreign language, where numbers are taken as incentives of verbal behavior. 3.2. Purpose of research To assess the possibility of practical application of functional-active approach in the characterization of foreign language aсquisition of those engaged in learning a foreign language. 3.3. Objects of research 1. To work out the technique of quantitative determination of the level of development of a secondary language personality. 2. Check the output from research hypotheses consequence by testing teachers of English: while mastering a foreign language functional verbal abilities of a secondary language person get closer to the abilities of the individual in his native language environment. 4. THE MAIN PART. THE CONTENT OF THE STUDY
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4.1. Methodology of research To manifest verbal behavior we have chosen pronunciation of numbers in Russian and English. The numbers are object naming characteristics reflected in the only possible verbal expression and therefore they have only one possible audio content. In addition knowledge of numerals is formed at early stages of language learning when ideas about the numerals in the native language are also formed. Registered time T1 and T2 of actively related speech samples in Russian and English show the different aspects of verbal behavior. Based on T1 and T2 results the following proportions were formed: Delay of activity (DA) = T2/T1 Success rate in the foreign language (SR) = T1/T2 Time increase of verbal behavior = T2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; T1
(1) (2) (3)
These relationships define the degree of approximation of speaking of foreign language verbal behavior (L2) to the primary language (L1). The ability to study fundamental quantity of time characteristics of all forms of behavior is the main aspect in the methodological approach. It is always associated with processing information encoded by the native or secondary language. If we create language test task of different cognitive complexity it will be possible to get a profile of secondary language personality in analogy with the one widely accepted in personology. Our work deals with three examples of activity-related language tests which, however indicate the possibility of their practical application in assessment of language acquisition. 4.2. Speech activity rate estimation We used the easiest way to estimate the rate of speech in Russian and English by counting at a maximum rate. Then the acquired time results were compared. With the help of the stopwatch numbers from 11 to 30 were named. The total number of syllables in Russian and English lists varied by 27%. But due to the approximately same number of stressed syllables determining rhythmical pattern and rate of speech the difference achieved 3%. The role of the experimenter was to take the subjectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; verbal performance for the right response. Only three subjects were tested several times. For short intervals non computer registration can be considered preliminary. 4.3. Assessment of verbal identification numbers The following algorithm was used to estimate the time of recognition of the numbers in Russian and in English, the Russian psychophysiological computer complex BioMouse being used. On the screen the was displayed a matrix of 3 x 3 cells. Nine digit numbers in the range from 10 to 99 appeared simultaneously on the matrix cells. The values of the numbers were given by a random number generator. Repeated numbers were not included in the cells. The subjects was to call in Russian the number in the central cell as quickly as possible. The experimenter confirmed the Enter key response. On the screen there appeared a new matrix with some numbers. The test included twenty matrix presentations. The response time and deviation were recorded. Further on the test was reproduced by naming the numbers in English. The technique was also applied three times on the same three subjects. 4.4. Assessment of changes in time during the test on mathematical thinking The main method of research was a comparative assessment of the results in determining the rate of mathematical thinking in Russian and English. We also used BioMouse, estimating time for
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doing sums. Simultaneously there appeared two numbers from 10 to 49. Both the numbers were given by a random number generator. The subject was to do mental arithmetic adding numbers as quickly as possible and pronounce the results. The experimenter immediately entered the final sum on the computer keyboard. One and the same person acted as a experimenter, that is why the experimental error of the delay of introducing the results is the same and seem to be not great, since the average time for doing the sum by experimenter is 3,75 seconds, by the pupils 4,80 seconds, by the teachers 4,45 seconds. Thus, by the time of the test response the experimenter already knew the results and was ready to enter it into computer. 62 subjects were examined on mathematical thinking producing results in Russian and English in autumn and winter of 2014-2015. It is shown in table 1. Table 1. Number and Name of a Group of Subjects. Group, all Teachers people English 62
of Grade 3
9
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 9
5
9
4
14
Grade 10 7
Grade 11
Students
5
9
Most of the subjects were pupils of secondary №80. There are 44 of them, including 7 teachers of English. At this school English is taught from the second to the eleventh forms. Written permissions to be tested were received from the legal representatives of the pupils. In addition 2 teachers of English working at the University, 9 part-time students of economic profile, who had studied English before but had nothing to do with it up to the test were involved in the process. It took about 10 minutes to test one person. The pupils results in time performance on mathematical thinking were compared with their academic achievements in mathematics and English. It was calculated as a mean score for a semester. 5. RESULTS 5.1. Assessment of rate of speech. The results are presented in table 2. Table 2. Test Time of Speech Rate. Subjects
Adult, not a teacher Adult, teacher of English, 1 Adult, teacher of English, 2
Average DA
Confidence interval average DA
1,17
Average test of repetitions at speech, sec Russian 0,06 11,72
time of 3 the rate of
1,12
0,13
11,56
12,88
1,09
0,05
9,32
10,16
English 13,75
The maximum rate of speech of “not a teacher” in naming numbers in English is changing to a greater degree than that of “teachers”. However, this deviation is not reliable. It is necessary both to widen the scope of choice and use more precise technology. 5.2. Assessment of verbal identification the numbers. The results are presented in table 3.
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Table 3. Test Time of Identification the Numbers. Subjects
Average DA
1,68
Average test time of 3 of repetitions at the rate of speech, seconds Russian English 0,23 0,83 1,40
of
1,06
0,11
1,33
1,41
of
1,10
0,01
0,95
1,05
Adult, “not a teacher” Adult, teacher English, 1 Adult, teacher English, 2
Confidence interval average DA
It takes longer for “not a teacher” to recall and reproduce the numbers in English than in Russian in comparison with “teachers”. However these differences are considered reliable for the subjects. Though we also find it necessary not only to widen the scope of choice, but to use more precise technology. 5.3. Assessment of changes in time during the time of mathematical thinking. The results are shown in figures 1 and 2. Delay of activity for solving mathematical examples (english - russian)
The average time for solving mathematical examples 2,5
18 16 Ряд1 russian
seconds
12 Ряд2 english
10 8 6
2 Delay of activity
14
4
1,5
1
0,5
2
gl
is
h
ts En
ac h
er s
of
11
ud en st
gr
ad e
10
7
ad e gr
ad e
6 gr
ad e gr
te
te
ac h
er s
of
gr
En
gl
ad e
is
3
h
ts ud en
11
st
ad e gr
ad e
10
7 gr
ad e gr
ad e gr
ad e gr
6
0 3
0
ex amined groups
ex amined groups
Figures 1 and 2. Absolute and Relative Performance Time Dynamics in Examined Groups. Reliability as a test method on thinking was evaluated by correlation with the data of a second attempt taking place in 4 weeks after the first. Variations in second trial were less than 20%, correlation is equal to 0,865. The minimal possible level of correlation coefficient for considering the test reliability is taken as a value of 0,76. It means that methodology can be taken as a fairly reliable test. ISSN: 2189-2164
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Assessment of the construct validity of the test on mathematical thinking was compared with academic performance in English and Mathematics. The results are shown in table 4. Table 4. Correlation Relations Between Performance Test on Mathematical Thinking and the Data of Academic Achievements in English and Mathematics.
T1
T2
DA=T2/T1
T2-T1
T1 1 0,70 -0,08 0,21 T2 1 0,65 0,84 DA (deceleration of 1 0,95 activity) =T2/T1 T2-T1 (increased time) SR (success rate in English) = T1/T2 APE (academic performance in English) APM (academic performance in Mathematics)
SR=T1/T2
1
APE
APM
0,06 -0,65 -0,97
-0,30 -0,42 -0,29
-0,21 -0,31 -0,20
-0,93 1
-0,35 0,26
-0,26 0,24 0,62
1
1
The data are presented for 29 pupils of 6-11 grades. The market correlation are significant at p<0,05 The confirmation of construct validity of the test is the availability of reliable correlation (r= -0,42; p=0,03) between the speed of thought in English and academic achievement score in English. There is a correlation trend (r= -0,29; p=0,12) between academic performance in English and delay of activity Changing the amount of test time to assess the mastery of a foreign language on mathematical thinking reveals quantitative dynamics in different age groups both in mathematical thinking and development of language skills. Third-grade pupils (elementary school) are sure to have significantly slower rate of mathematical thinking and lower level of manifesting a secondary language manner of thinking, than mid-level pupils and graduates. Part time students of economic profile have absolutely quick mathematical thinking (probably due to their professional training). But since they do not make use of English the level of development of their secondary language behavior is comparable to the level of third grade pupils. The teachers of English showed mental arithmetic counting rate corresponding to that of the mid-level schoolchildren, less than graduates and students of economics. But their second language behavior is as close as possible to their potential being realized in their native language (Russian). Conclusions. 1. The proposed functional activity approach associated first of all with measuring time parameters of verbal behavior possesses a measuring potential for assessing the level of development language abilities and formulating characteristics of a secondary language personality. 2. Quantitative methods of functional assessment of revealed verbal behavior have been developed: rate of speech; verbal identification the numbers; speed of mathematical thinking. They can be practically applied in language education as informative, cost-effective and quick. It seems promising to work out and introduce other functional activity tests for a more complete characterization of a secondary language personality. 3. Teachers of foreign language (English) create the secondary language environment for themselves and their pupils. They are most close to the abilities of the individuals, who realize themselves in their native language environment. The teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s opportunities are significantly different from those of the students, immersed in a secondary language environment to a lesser degree.
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The hypothesis of a study on the value of the language environment in the formation of a secondary language person can be considered confirmed. REFERENCES [1] Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation "On approval of the federal state educational standards of secondary (full) general education", №413, May 17, 2012, Moscow - "Rossiyskaya Gazeta", June 21, 2012, №5812. [2] ISHIHARA N. 2009. «Teacher-Based Assessment for Foreign Language Pragmatics» - TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 43, No. 3, TEACHER BASED ASSESSMENT: AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON THEORY AND PRACTICE, pp. 445-470. [3] Vygotsky L.S. (1934), Thought and Language, Chapter 4. – Poligrafkniga, Moscow. [4] Karaulov J.N. (2010) The Russian language and linguistic identity. – publishing LCI, Moscow. [5] Khaleeva I.I. (1989), Fundamentals of the theory of learning foreign speech perception (training of interpreters). – Graduate School publishing, Moscow. [6] Pavlov I.P. (1973) Twenty Years of Objective Study of Higher activity (behavior) Animal Science, Moscow [7] Skinner B. F. (1948) Verbal behavior, lectures. – Harvard University, Harvard [8] Chomsky N. (1967) Review of Skinner’s verbal behavior , Chapter 8 – The Psychology of language, thought, and instruction, editor De Cecco J.P. – Holt. Rinehart and Winston, Inc, New-York-London, pp.325-339 [9] Sundberg M.L.(1991) “301 Research Topics From Skinner's Book Verbal Behavior”, The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, v.9,pp.81-96
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The Relationships among Parent–Child Interaction, gratitude and Prosocial Behavior of Fifth- and Sixth-grade Students Ho-Tang Wu Associate Professor, Department of Education National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan
Chun-Miao Chen Teacher, Preschool Hanmin Elementary School, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Pai-Lu Wu＊ Professor, Center for Teacher Education Cheng-Shiu University, Taiwan
Pi-Hsia Wang Associate Professor, Department of Early Childhood Care and Education Cheng-Shiu University, Taiwan ＊
Corresponding Author: Pai-Lu Wu, e-mail: pailu@gcloud.csu.edu.tw
ABSTRACT Parent–child interaction, gratitude and prosocial behavior have a crucial impact on psychological development. According to our literature review, these three variables are positively related to one another. Therefore, the authors created a model that treats parent–child interaction as an exogenous variable, gratitude as a mediating variable, and prosocial behaviors as endogenous variables. To test this model, the authors administered the Parent–Child Interaction Scale, the Gratitude Scale, and the Prosocial Behavior Scale, which have good validity and reliability, to a total of 987 fifth- and sixth-grade students in Kaohsiung City. Based on an analysis of data using structural equation modelling (SEM), we reached the following conclusions: 1. Scores for parent–child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior were all above average. 2. There was a significant positive correlation between father–child and mother–child interactions. 3. There was a significant positive correlation between parent–child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior. 4. Gratitude mediated the relationship between parent–child interaction and prosocial behavior. Based on these findings, the authors proposed five recommendations: 1. Fifth- and sixth-grade students should be encouraged to express their true feelings to their parents. 2. Fifth- and sixth-grade students should be encouraged to be more interested in helping others. 3. Fathers should be more involved in interactions with their children to improve their children’s understanding of, and behavior related to, gratitude. 4. Parents should be more demonstrative in their expression of gratitude to promote their children’s prosocial behavior. 5. Future research should examine other exogenous variables. Keywords: gratitude, parent–child interaction, prosocial behavior
1 INTRODUCTION Parent–child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior have a crucial impact on the psychological development of higher-level elementary school students. Specifically, parent–child interaction refers to the physical and psychological interaction between parents and their children (Gongla & Thompson, 1987), which deeply affects children's physical and psychological development (Jeon, Peterson, & DeCoster, 2013), including their intellectual functioning, creativity, psychological adjustment, well-being (Suldo & Fefer, 2013), and body weight. In addition to their independent effects on physical and mental development, parent–child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior are also correlated with one another. In terms of the relationship between parent–child interaction and gratitude, Seligman (2012) proposed that
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gratitude starts at home. Gordon (2013) also believed that parents can serve as role models for gratitude through their interactions with their children. Moreover, the empirical research conducted by Herschell, Calzada, Eyberg, and McNeil (2003) found that parentâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;child interactions affect the prosocial behavior of children. In terms of the relationship between gratitude and prosocial behavior, Froh and Bono (2008) reported that the gratitude and prosocial behavior of teenagers are significantly positively correlated. Additionally, Emmons and McCullough (2003) also found that individuals who feel more gratitude are also more likely to engage in prosocial behavior. 2 RESEARCH DESIGN 2.1 Research Subjects This study examined fifth- and sixth-grade students at 241 public elementary schools in Kaohsiung City during the 2012 school year. This study drew samples from 36 classes in 14 schools and distributed 1041 questionnaires. A total of 1026 questionnaires were returned, yielding a recovery rate of 98.6%. After disregarding invalid and incomplete questionnaires, we analyzed data from a total of 987 valid questionnaires, which corresponded to a valid recovery rate of 96.2%. The descriptive statistics for the respondents are presented in Table 1: Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the sample Variable Gender
Grade level
Number of children in the family
Birth order
Type of family
Paternal educational attainment
Item
Total
Percentage (%)
Male
521
52.8
Female
466
47.2
Grade 5
482
48.8
Grade 6
505
51.2
One Two Three Four and more Eldest Youngest Middle child Only child Big family Small family Stem family Single-parent family Junior high school degree and below Senior (vocational) high school degree College or junior college degree
128 584 209 66 383 392 96 116 173 479 175 160
12.9 59.2 21.2 6.7 38.8 39.7 9.7 11.8 17.5 48.6 17.7 16.2
134
13.6
424
43.0
334
33.8
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Masters degree and above
Maternal educational attainment
Junior high school degree and below Senior (vocational) high school degree College or junior college degree Masters degree and above
95
9.6
128
13.0
455
46.1
332
33.6
72
7.3
2.2 Research Tools This study created the Parent–Child Interaction, Gratitude, and Prosocial Behavior scales for students in the higher grades of elementary school. These instruments were based on the relevant literature and subsequent refinements made by the authors following the procedures described below. 2.2.1 Preparation 1.Parent–Child Interaction Scale We created scales based on Gongla and Thompson’s (1987) conceptualization. After the pilot test, frequency of interaction (which refers to the frequency of interactions between parents and children), content of interactions (which refers to physical contact and communication), and feelings of connection (which refers to psychological feelings) were used as dimensions to assess parent–child interaction. Higher scores on these three dimensions reflect better parent–child interaction. 2.Gratitude Scale This study included positive cognitions related to gratitude (cognitions arising from positive experiences), negative cognitions related to gratitude (cognitions related to negative experiences), and behaviors related to gratitude (language or actions used to express gratitude to another person) as the three dimensions of gratitude and developed the questionnaire according to this definition. Higher total scores on these three dimensions reflect higher levels of gratitude. 3.Prosocial Behavior Scale Wentzel (2005) noted that prosocial behavior in the form of sharing, helping, and cooperating is a hallmark of social competence during adolescence. Furthermore, this viewpoint also treats the age and ability of higher-level elementary school students to share, help others, and cooperate as dimensions of prosocial behavior. Higher total scores on these three dimensions are indicative of higher levels of prosocial behavior. 2.2.2 Results of the pilot test The three self-developed scales were subjected to the following three procedures: 1.item analysis, whereby items with critical values greater than 3 were identified; and 2.factor analysis, which first involved calculation of the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling adequacy (standard value ＞.80) and the performance of Bartlett's Spherical Test (standard value p＜.05) and
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then involved adding rotation to the items with the greatest variance, selecting those with an initial eigenvalue greater than 1 as factors, and selecting factors with factor loadings greater than .30; 3.reliability analysis, which the factors chosen had a reliability greater than .60 and an overall value greater than .80. The results are shown in Table 2. Table 2 Descriptive statistics for the sample Validity Explanat Total
ory Question
Factor
no.
Critical value
value
Reliabili
KMO &
Factor
Initial
after
ty
Bartlett
loading
eigen
transfor
value
mation
explanato
Total
ry value
reliability
(%)
（%） Parent–child Interaction Scale (interaction with mother) Frequency of interaction Content of interaction Feeling of connection
.88 .66–.75
4
8.09–10.12
5
10.12–14.19
.65–.86
5
5.36–6.73
.72–.87
p＝.000
.53
.73
.02
18.57
.77
22.86
.86
24.88
.87
17.53
.75
22.96
.88
25.17
.88
28.51
.89
23.18
.83
18.59
.80
29.53
.93
20.87
.80
20.28
.83
66.30
.88
65.68
.89
70.28
.92
70.68
.92
Parent–child Interaction Scale (interaction with father) Frequency of interaction Content of interaction Feeling of connection
.87 .66–.79
4
90.7–10.55
5
11.60–14.54
.65–.86
5
5.21–7.57
.75–.87
p＝.000
.12
.01
.07
Gratitude Scale Positive cognitions regarding
.91 5
8.07–10.14
4
11.00–12.96
.61–.83
4
8.00–15.69
.53–.82
p＝.000
.61–.85
.91
gratitude Negative cognitions regarding
.15
gratitude Behavior of regarding gratitude
.08
Prosocial Behavior Scale .90 Sharing
5
10.41–13.15
Helping others
4
11.15–13.90
.66–.81
Cooperation
4
8.79–12.49
.64–.81
p＝.000
.76–.85
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2.3 Data processing and analysis 1.Model fit This study used Analysis of Moment Structures, edition 7.0 (Amos 7.0) to determine correlations among the three potential variables: parent–child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior. There are many methods for testing the model fit index. In this case, the overall model fit was divided into three parts: 1. The absolute fit index, for which this study adopted the minimum fit function chi-square (χ2), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), goodness-of-fit index (GFl), and adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFl); 2.The adjusted fit index, for which this study adopted the normed fit index (NFI), non-normed fit index (NNFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and incremental fit index (IFI). The standard values for these should all be greater than .90. 2.Model estimation This study used a product–moment correlation matrix to perform estimations and adopted a normal distribution to estimate the maximum likelihood method. 3.Missing values SEM cannot involve missing values, but 160 respondents, accounting for 16.20% of the entire sample, were members of single-parent families, and this study explored father–child and mother– child interactions separately. Therefore, the average values were used to replace the missing values. 2.4 Model and hypotheses 1.Model Based on the aforementioned theoretical considerations, the following hypothetical model was examined by this study:
Figure 1: Hypothetical Model 2.Hypotheses H1: Father–child and mother–child interactions will be significantly correlated.
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H2: Gratitude will have a mediating effect on the relationship between father–child interaction and prosocial behavior. H3: Gratitude will have a mediating effect on the relationship between mother–child interaction and prosocial behavior. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Current Analysis Overall, the average score of each item related to parent–child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior was between 3.46 and 4.50 (Table 3). The product–moment correlation coefficient of the three potential variables were.17–.67. Table 1 Descriptive statistics and product–moment correlations of parent–child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior. Father–child
Mother–child
interaction
interaction
eeling
Gratitude
ositive
egative
cogniti
cogniti
ehavior
ons
ons
related
regardi
regardi
to
ng
ng
gratitud
gratitu
gratitu
e
de
de
requen
ontent
eeling
requen
cy of
of
of
cy of
ontent of
of
interact
interact
connec
interact
interacti
connec
ion of
ion of
tion of
ion of
on of the
tion of
the
the
the
the
mother
the
father
father
father
mother
60
.00
40
52
.00
62
39
24
.00
38
67
35
60
.00
17
28
64
36
48
.00
20
28
28
29
42
40
.00
19
33
33
25
39
37
67
.00
19
26
24
29
38
34
66
64
mother
Prosocial behavior
haring
elping
ooperat
others
ion
Frequency of interaction of the father Content of interaction of the father
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Feeling of connection of the father Frequency of interaction of the mother Content of interaction of the mother feeling of connection of the mother Positive cognitions related to gratitude Negative cognitions related to gratitude Behavior related to gratitude Sharing
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Helping others
Cooperation
M
SD
22
28
25
29
33
28
55
48
52
.00
24
31
23
30
34
23
54
54
62
62
.00
19
24
23
33
32
31
49
46
55
61
61
.00
5.03
7.30
1.63
5.82
8.75
2.18
2.50
6.49
6.37
0.76
4.82
6.38
.79
.24
.19
.43
.00
.74
.26
.35
.13
.06
.77
.12
.76
.46
.33
.95
.75
.44
.50
.12
.09
.15
.70
.09
"
Number of questions Average of each question
Note: 1. N=985 2. The significance level of the correlation between two variables reached .001. 3.2 Analysis of the Mediating Variable 1.Analysis of the overall goodness of fit of the hypothetical model The results related the overall goodness of fit of the hypothetical model are shown in Figure 2:
Figure 2 Path of the Hypothetical Model (standard solution) According to the results of the overall goodness-of-fit analysis, the value of Ď&#x2021;2 reached the level of significance. This might be because the research path was incomplete, the model needs revision, or the sample was too large. Second, a RMSEA value less than .05 means that the hypothetical model is good. A higher GFI reflects a better fit; the standard GFI value is .90, and it reached .97 in this study. The NFI assumes that the difference between the chi-square values of the hypothetical model and those of the null hypothesis represents the extent to which the hypothetical model constitutes an improvement over the worst model. The standard value for NFI is .90, and it reached a value of .98 in this study, indicating that our hypothetical model can be assumed to have a better fit than an independent model. The effect of the complexity of the NNFI on the model was considered, but it was not affected by the size of the sample. The standard value for the NNFI is .90, and it reached a value of .98 in this study, indicating that the fit of our model is good and does not need to be reset. The CFI of this study was .98, showing that the degree to which our model is
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superior to a stand-alone model with no covariation relationship is within an acceptable range. In addition, IFI values closer to 1 indicate that the model is more relevant. The IFI of this study was .98. In conclusion, the results of the overall fit index analysis showed that the data in this study were appropriate. 2.Analysis of Hypothetical Model (1)Parent–child interaction of fathers and mothers Consistent with our model, father–child and mother–child interactions were significantly correlated with one another, with coefficients ranging between .63 and .66 (Figure 2 and Table 1), and the variances between the two paths reached the significance level. Thus, the first hypothesis, “that father–child and mother–child interactions are significantly correlated,” was supported, indicating that the interactions of fathers and mothers with children are positively correlated with each other. That is, the frequency and content of interactions and the feelings of connection with mothers and fathers are consistent. (2)Direct and indirect effects The hypothetical model treated gratitude as the mediating variable, and these results are presented in Figure 2. The direct and indirect effects were analyzed in terms of two paths: A. The mediating effect of gratitude on the relationship between father–child interaction and prosocial behavior. The path coefficient of the effect of father– child interaction on gratitude was .17. The path coefficient of the effect of gratitude on prosocial behavior was .84. The variances of the two paths reached significance. The value obtained by multiplying the coefficients of the two paths was .14, which reflects a mediating effect. The correlation coefficient for the direct effect of gratitude on the relationship between father– child interaction and prosocial behavior was .03. The mediating value was higher than the direct-effect value, indicating the presence of a mediating effect. Moreover, the variance of the direct effect did not reach significance, indicating a full mediating effect. The mediating-effect coefficient refers to the original significant correlation between the direct relationships of the exogenous variable, the endogenous variables, and the mediating variable. However, after adding the mediating variable to the equation, the effect of the exogenous variable on the endogenous variable was reduced and became insignificant (Baron & Kenny, 1986). The Pearson’ product-moment correlation coefficient in Table 3 shows that the relationship between these variables was significant, and the subsequent SEM analysis (Figure 3) treating father– child interaction and prosocial behavior as latent variables showed a correlation of .45. Thus, the original significant effect of father–child interaction on prosocial behavior was reduced when gratitude was added to the analysis.
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Figure 3 Path of father–child interaction and prosocial behavior B. The mediating effect of gratitude on the relationship between mother–child interaction and prosocial behavior. The path coefficient of the effect of mother– child interaction on gratitude was .49. The path coefficient of the effect of gratitude on prosocial behavior was .84. The variances of the two paths reached significance. The value obtained by multiplying the coefficients of the two paths was .41, which reflects a mediating effect. The direct-effect value was .01, and the variance of the two paths did not reach significance, indicating a full mediating effect. The SEM analysis (Figure 4) treating mother– child interaction and prosocial behavior as latent variables showed a correlation of .54 between these variables. Thus, the inclusion of gratitude reduced the effect of mother–child interaction on prosocial behavior. Thus, hypothesis 3, that “gratitude has a mediating effect on the relationship between mother–child interaction and prosocial behavior,” was supported.
Figure 4 Path of mother–child interaction and prosocial behavior These results support hypotheses 2 and 3, indicating that gratitude had a full mediating effect, as represented by the “father–child interaction—gratitude—prosocial behavior” and “mother–child interaction—gratitude—prosocial behavior” paths. 4 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 4.1 Conclusions 1.The scores for parent–child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior of the elementary school students were above average.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
According to the descriptive statistics, the average value of each question addressing parent– child interaction, gratitude, and prosocial behavior was at least 3 (on a five-point Likert scale), indicating that these students (fifth- and six-graders) reported positive experiences in these domains. 2.The hypothetical model is relevant We subjected our hypothetical model to SEM analysis. According to the overall goodness-offit analysis, all indices other than the chi-square value (i.e., the RMSEA, AGFI, GFl, NFI, NNFI, CFI, and IFI values) conformed to the standard values, indicating the appropriateness of the data obtained from our sample. 4.2 Suggestions 1.Higher-level elementary school students (fifth- and six-graders) should be encouraged to share their feelings with their parents. 2.Higher-level elementary school students (fifth- and six-graders) should be more caring and helpful. 3.Fathers should increase their interaction levels with their children to enhance the latter’s gratitude-related cognitions and behaviors. 4.Parents should demonstrate gratitude-related behavior more frequently to enhance the prosocial behavior of their children. 5.Future studies should examine other exogenous variables
REFERENCES [1] Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1182. Retrieved from http://www.public.asu.edu/~davidpm/classes/psy536/Baron.pdf [2] Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 377-389. [3] Froh, J. J., & Bono, G. (2008). The gratitude of youth. In S. J. Lopez(Ed.), Positive psychology: Exploring the best in people(Vol.2, p.55-78).Westport, CT: Greenwood. [4] Gongla, P. A., & Thompson, E. H. Jr. (1987). Single-parent families. In M. B. Sussman & S. K. Steinmetz(Eds.), Handbook of marriage and the family(pp. 397-418). New York, NY: Plenum Press. [5] Gordon, P. (2013). KIPS cradle: A blog about parenting assessment—Assessing parenting to develop: Social intelligence & gratitude. Retrieved from http://comfortconsults.com/blog/bid/298971/Assessing-Parenting-toDevelop-Social-Intelligence-Gratitude [6] Herschell, A. D., Calzada, E. J., Eyberg, S. M., & McNeil, C. B. (2003). Clinical issues in parent-child interaction therapy. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9(1), 16-27. [7] Jeon, H. J., Peterson, C. A., & DeCoster, J. (2013). Parent–child interaction, task-oriented regulation, and cognitive development in toddlers facing developmental risks. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 34(6), 257-267. [8] Seligman, M. E. P. (2012). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. [9] Suldo, S. M., & Fefer, S. A. (2013). Parent-child relationships and well-being. In Research, Applications, and Interventions for Children and Adolescents (pp. 131-147). Doetinchem, Netherlands: Springer.
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
[10] Wentzel, K. R. (2005). Peer relationships, motivation, and academic performance at school. In A, Elliot, & C, Dweck(Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation(pp. 279â&#x20AC;&#x201C;296 ). New York, NY: Guilford.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
A Tale of Two Japanese English Classes: Contrasts and Comparisons Harry Carley Matsuyama University
ABSTRACT This virtual presentation and paper will describe two same year Japanese English senior high school classes in their second year of a three year study course with differing interests and motivations toward learning English. Their instructors include a native English teacher along with the Japanese home room teachers of both respective classes. Although separate classes both sets of students will be attending a three week overseas program in Australia within a few months of this presentations conclusion. The ultimate goal for both classes is for them to learn the essentials of the English language (grammar, spelling, writing, and pronunciation) but also to be able to communicate with their host families. While all the students have initially scored high on their entrance exams to commence their studies at this particular senior high school once actual classes have begun differences in motivation and study habits begin to immerge. During their first year the students are placed within the two classes regardless of test score. After the first year the students are then placed with within the two classes based on their overall proven scores. Not surprisingly the students in the first class with the higher scores thoroughly enjoy studying English and will almost gleefully attempt and complete any task assigned. The second class meanwhile will most likely hesitate and struggle with most assignments. This presentation and paper therefore will describe in detail the current situation along with the problems and issues involved with raising the interest and motivation of the second class. Keywords: EFL, ESL, Motivation, Teaching
1
INTRODUCTION
Engaging learners in absorbing lessons that provide invaluable knowledge can be tricky in the best environments. For those in second language or L2 environments the task can seem even more challenging. Most EFL teachers will agree that students do not have opportunities to practice the skills and language components they just learned in different and varied contexts due to the limited time they have in the classroom (Pardede, 2012). Motivating language learners with the traditional learning by rote of phrases, grammar drills and vocabulary recognition may have succeeded in past generations but todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s students who are digital natives expect more in study situations. While elevated test score have shown to enhance the overall learning process not all students are able to achieve high marks. For those students alternative ways of instruction are needed. This is because the same teaching methods may be more effective for some learners that others (Hyland, 1994). While students may not be tuned in to lessons, there may be many reasons why they are inattentive. Boredom from classes being too easy, to subject material that is too difficult or seemingly irrelevant is common. Another key factor, especially in language learning is that of prior knowledge. Launching the learning in your classroom from the prior knowledge of your students is a tenet of good teaching (Alber, 2011). In the situation described in this paper there are two classes made up of students who are attending a private senior high. They are all second year students of a typical three year high school curriculum. The deciding factor of which class they are in their second year has to do with their test scores. Studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s prior usage of language skills has been clouded over by
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
grammar rules which were dictated through a test on paper. A typical textbook curriculum is not satisfactory for a large majority of language learners. Teachers of older secondary level and adult ESL students often find themselves in mixed ability classrooms where scaffolding and differentiation of instruction are necessary. This requires a great deal of planning and often the ability of the teacher to provide a variety of materials at different levels to address the needs of the learners in the classroom (DelliCarpini, 2006). These variations in tasks are not difficult to initiate especially with various assigned work that allows students to progress at their own pace. Graded readers are an excellent way to let students progress on their own. Extensive reading (ER) has been seen as an indispensable means of developing learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; reading ability and enriching their knowledge of the language and the world (Sheu, 2004). The potential of ER is based on the concept that by exposing students to an input-rich and enjoyable environment, their knowledge of language will increase and their eagerness to learn will develop naturally (Hedge, 1985). 2 eLEARNING Students of today are not satisfied with studying that utilizes yesterdayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s instructional methods. Tape recorders and videos are two products of technology that language teachers have included to optimize their face to face teaching for decades. The emergence of ICT has provided teachers with immense opportunities for including new educational resources and tools (Pardede, 2012). Just 15 years ago, eLearning was an experimental way of teaching very technical subjects (Gutierrez, 2014). Yet it is still common practice for instructors to teach in this manner since it was most likely how they were taught whilst earning their teaching licenses or certificates. Unfortunately, that gap in years has seen uncountable changes in classroom instruction and management skills and techniques. An effective educational scheme must prepare the student to think by himself, to be creative and original, to solve problems and to interact with his surroundings in a collaborative way (Rashty, 1999). E-learning has now eclipsed all other modes of educational tutelage. Unfortunately, learning professionals who are new to eLearning are often resistant to create online courses, usually due to a lack of knowledge, and many of those who do dabble in eLearning tend to use the same pedagogical methods for their online training as their traditional instruction, even though replicating online the interactions, activities, and events that happen in the classroom is unreasonable and impractical. (Gutierrez, 2014). There is a considerable body of evidence to suggest that different teaching delivery styles can have different degrees of success; as measured in terms of academic results (Emerson & Taylor, 2004). In the example of the two Japanese senior high school classes cited in this paper this would hold to be true.
3 BLENDED LEARNING
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The advent of blended learning in pedagogy has literally added a mix of traditional teaching methods along with more modern approaches. This has not been as easy though as mixing a few ideas together and asking students to ‘learn’. Current trends of acquiring English as a foreign language (EFL) through blended learning (BL) have led to the fundamental questions of why blend, what to blend, and how to blend (Liang & Bonk, 2009). The challenges for blended EFL instruction remain daunting for teachers because accomplishment at learning requires their students to become at least somewhat proactive and autonomous (Astin, 1999; Kuh, 2009). As of present, there are no clear ideas and methods to develop that perfect mix. This does not mean that instructors should not be trying. Blended learning provides EFL students with recording devices, video players, newspapers, and language laboratories. A variety of activity types with group work and pair work, collaborative learning and independent learning could be employed to engage the learners in communicative language practice. In addition, the inclusion of the online element in blended learning also enables the use of the foreign language in real communicative acts (through forums, chats, emails, etc.) and provides students with authentic learning material. What’s more, it allows for the diversity of EFL students’ learning styles to be catered for, perhaps more easily than in face-to-face settings (Pardede, 2012). In the world of eLearning, blended learning refers to the complementary use of eLearning in the standard education model, due to the benefits it offers on a broad scale, to name a few, self-paced learning, testing and quizzing, monitoring and feedback (Kaplanis, 2013). This merger of matriculation offers a chance for a group of learners to learn while attempting a variety of study scenarios. Blended learning models that work are designed and implemented according to our current best understand of what it takes to make them successful; and schools that use blended learning are still discovering new ways to configure their models in order to produce stronger results (Arnett, 2014). It is not just students who are being exposed to a new form of learning but also the leaders and lecturers involved in the educational process. Some instructors, especially those who have been in the field for 20-30 years are still having difficulty of adapting computer learning to their own personal styles and methods. Knowing more about what teachers do in their teaching practice when they are required to introduce online components may go some way to explaining the failure of blended learning to reach its predicted potential (Jeffery, Milne, Suddaby, & Higgins, 2014). While there is substantial blended learning literature on the student experience, course design, and even the professional development of teachers, a neglected area is teaching practice: how and why teachers balance the blend of online and classroom components (Torrisi-Steel & Drew, 2013). If institutions are serious about enhancing student education, then they need to ensure that academics are given the time and space to learn how to use new technologies and to experiment with blended learning (Higgins & Gomez, 2014). In essence though education of educators is sorely lacking; each institution of learning may typically have one or two teachers amongst the staff that are ‘techies’ and regularly utilize blended learning in their classes. Typically without any organized instructional activities centered on ‘teaching teachers’ a rift is developing amongst educators. There are the instructors who are capable of adapting and redefine their teaching practices to better serve their learners and there are those who are not. Early on it was understood by a majority of instructors that Internet access offered a wide variety of opportunities with regards to lecturing and learning. The capabilities
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
of the Web world, which make it possible to present texts, pictures, graphics and sounds, make it a suitable tool for project based learning (Rashty, 1999). 4 CONCLUSION This paper began with the introduction of two classes of same year students at a Japanese senior high school. The higher level of the two groups did not experience any reluctance or hesitance toward traditional instructional methods. Largely due to their high motivational desires to learn English they most often accepted any form of instruction without question or hesitance. The initial problem with the second of these example classes had to do with learning styles and traditional instructional methods. While the higher level class has always been openly enthusiastic about most anything to do with learning English the second has been resentfully hostile. Although basically the class that has been divided in two by test scores; they are not the same with regards to ambitions and objectives toward learning languages. Given the same text book form which to study from has not produced similar learning outcomes. Although the same textbook was originally assigned it became quite evident after only a few lessons that it was too formidable for the lower levels students. A combination of blended learning and more task based lessons help to alleviate some of the distress on the part of students and instructors. A disregard of students learning styles is a discredit to the ideals of teaching. An instructor that forces the learners to conform to his or her teaching methods is ignoring the individuality of pupils. Discontent, lack of motivation and enthusiasm are but a few of the effects of ignoring the wishes of students. Groups of similar students in the same grade may not have corresponding wants and desires within the educational process. In many cases what is being taught has a less impact on learners’ achievement than the way materials are presented. In other words, learning styles make an important component in the learning environment (Abidin, et al, 2011). An ultimate fail in the teaching procedure is when an instructor tries to make a group of students into something they are not. Those of us who have been teaching for numerous years, we have all probably heard the same comments about certain groups of students “oh, that’s a quiet class” or “they’re a bunch of noisy students” are two comments on a wide spectrum of responses. Instead of forcing students to conform to a certain learning ideal teachers should attempt to adapt to the desire of the students. It is not without anxiety and stress on the part of the instructor, but those outstanding teachers are the ones who can adapt to different groups of students with relative ease. Part of this comes with years of teaching experience but to a lesser degree it has to do with the rigidness of the instructor’s personality. Reiff, (1992) states that all learners have individual attributes relating to their learning processes. Sitt-Gohdes (2001) also holds that most teachers teach the way they have already learned. These might have caused the frustration of a good number of learners as they witness that their learning preferences are not accounted for by many teachers (Abidin, et al, 2011). There are many affordable opportunities for educators to expand their range and mode of lessons. It has been researched and proven that not everyone learns in the same manner. Alternate teaching styles and approaches need to be exposed to students to give them an opportunity to excel in a learning process that they feel best. REFERENCES
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
[1] Abidin, M.J.Z, Rezaee, A.A., Abdullah, N. H., & Singh, K.K.B. (2011). Learning Styles and Overall Academic Achievement in a Specific Educational System. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol. 1 No. 10; August 2011. Retrieved from: http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_1_No_10_August_2011/19.pdf#search='Relating+Preferred+Learnin g+Style+to+Student+Achievement [2] Alber, R. (2011). Are You Tapping into Prior Knowledge Often Enough in Your Classroom? Euutopia. George Lucas Educational Foundation Retrieved from: http://www.edutopia.org/blog/prior-knowledgetapping-into-often-classroom-rebecca-alber [3] Arnett, T. (2014). Does blended learning work? Clayton Christensen Institute for Disruptive Innovation. Retrieved from: http://www.christenseninstitute.org/does-blended-learning-work [4] Astin, A. (1999). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Development, 40(5), 518-529. [5] DelliCarpini, M. (2006). Scaffolding and Differentiating Instruction in Mixed Ability ESL Classes Using a Round Robin Activity. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XII, No. 3, March 2006. Retrieved from: http://iteslj.org/Techniques/DelliCarpini-RoundRobin.html [6] Emerson, T.L.N., & Taylor, B.A. (2004). Comparing Student Achievement across Experimental and Lecture-Orientated Sections of Principles of Microeconomics Course. Southern Economics Journal, 70, 672-693. [8] Gutierrez, K, (2014). eLearning vs. Classroom Training â&#x20AC;&#x201C; How Different Are They? SHIFTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S eLearning Blog. Sept. 11th, 2014. Retrieved from: http://info.shiftelearning.com/blog/bid/354977/eLearning-vsClassroom-Training-How-Different-Are-They [9] Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [10] Higgins, D. & Gomez, A. (2014). Teaching English studies through blended learning. The Higher Education Academy. Retrieved from: https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/sites/default/files/resources/Teaching_English_studies_through_blended_lea rning.pdf [11] Hyland, K. (1994). The Learning Styles of Japanese Students. JALT Journal, Vol. 16, No. 1, June, 1994. Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/LuckyDog/Downloads/jj-16.1-art4.pdf. [12] Jeffrey, L. M., Milne, J., Suddaby. G., & Higgins, A. (2014). Blended learning: How teachers balance the blend of online and classroom components. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 13, 121-140. Retrieved from http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol13/JITEv13ResearchP121-140Jeffrey0460.pdf [13] Kaplanis, D. (2013). 5 reasons why blended learning works. Talent blog. Retrieved from: http://www.talentlms.com/blog/5-reasons-why-blended-learning-works [14] Kuh, G. D. (2009). The national survey of student engagement: Conceptual and empirical foundations. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2009(141), 5-20. [15] Liang, M. & Bonk, C.J. (2009). Interaction in Blended EFL Learning: Principles and Practice. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, Vol. 6, No. 1. January 2009. Pp 2-16. Retrieved from: http://www.itdl.org/journal/jan_09/Jan_09.pdf#page=7 [16] Pardede, P. (2012). Blended Learning for ELT. Journal of English Teaching. Volume 2, Number 3, October 2012. Retrieved from: http://jet.uki.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/231PP.pdf
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
[17] Rashty, D. (1999). eLearning and Traditional Learning Methods. Retrieved from: http://www.rashty.com/articles/Learning_Outcomes.pdf [18] Reiff, J. C. (1992). Learning styles. Monograph. Washington D.C.: National Education Association of the U.S. [19] Sheu, S., P-H., (2004). The Effects of Extensive Reading on Learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; reading Ability Development. Journal of National Taipei Teachers College, Vol.17, No.2 (Sep. 2004)213~228. Retrieved from: http://academic.ntue.edu.tw/ezfiles/7/1007/img/41/17-2-9.pdf [20] Sitt-Gohdes, W. L. (2001). Business education students' preferred learning styles and their teachers' preferred instructional styles: Do they match? Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 43(3), 137-151. [21] Torrisi-Steele, G., & Drew, S. (2013). The literature landscape of blended learning in higher education: The need for better understanding of academic blended practice. International Journal for Academic Development, 18(4), 371-383.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Are Today’s Teachers SMART Enough? Harry Carley Matsuyama University
ABSTRACT This presentation in virtual form along with its accompanying paper will discuss SMART (SelfMonitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology) and its implementation or lack thereof into current learning environments. As technology changes and advances more contemporary and motivating instructional methods need to be sought out and refined to keep pace with student interest. Most specifically this presentation and paper will center in on the current application of SMART technology at one Japanese university. In preparation for this topic a survey was given to classes of students studying English language over the course of the 2014 academic year. Results of this survey will be discussed along with overall teaching techniques and the attitudes of instructors toward SMART technology. As a result of the survey it was discovered that almost 100% possessed or had ready access to SMART technology in the classroom or at home. This was most often accomplished through student ownership of a SMART phone. SMART phones allow for anywhere Internet access; if at home, school, or travelling somewhere between. Instructors meanwhile aware of their student’s propriety of SMART phones by their students incessant twittering in class and lack of attention toward classroom activities have been unsure of how to equate the two. This presentation therefore will further explore SMART technology and its potential applications in any learning environment. Although primary survey results were garnered from university students in English language classes, the overall theme of this presentation could be of interest to instructors at any level or subject. Keywords: classroom, EFL, ESL, SMART, technology,
1 INTRODUCTION The words ‘technology’ and ‘teaching’ seem like two words that should complement each other inside the confines of today’s instructional settings. For many instructors they are. Unfortunately for a vast number of teachers these two words do not commend each other but in their opinions contend and contest with current educational norms. While many of today’s faculty members are teaching like its 1999, students are coming to class technologically enhanced for the future. In essence learners of today are in some ways smarter and more in tune with today’s society than the lecturers that educate (?) them. It is certainly true that Educational Technology has greatly changed education. It has morphed how teachers teach and how learners learn. Classroom has been equipped with tools and devices to enhance the teaching and learning environment. There is another kind of classroom, which its walls have disappeared. These changes do not change the fundamental learning approaches, but they have changed the way people do things and how they see them. The traditional view of the learning process has been shifted to a new view, which incorporates hi-tech as a tool for teaching and learning processes (Al-Faki & Khamis, 2014) SMART (Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology) devices refer to those systems that encompass artificial intelligence. SMART systems fundamentally began with the introductions of SMART boards. These are basically electronic black boards that are now
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
due to their colour referred to as white boards. Due to their electronic capabilities they are also termed as interactive white boards since the instructor or students can change the screen or activate certain items on the board with a simple touch. They are most often connected to the Internet and not only allow the teacher to enhance their lessons with interactive study programs but allow the students to become part of their own learning. This interactive technology has now expanded into other devices These days though SMART technology has expanded to involve modern sophisticated SMART devices, SMART systems, and SMART technologies create unique and unprecedented opportunities for academic and training organizations in terms of new approaches to education, learning and teaching strategies, services to on-campus and remote/online students, set-ups of modern classrooms and labs (Uskov, Howlett & Jain, 2015). The days of students sitting and staring are gone while today’s classrooms can be as mutual influencing as the advisor deems necessary. Access and analysis are descriptive words for the virtual classrooms of today. Overall, students want more engaging ways to learn and are open to technology in their classrooms as it seems like a natural progression. It is necessary to support the technology with appropriate learning styles and pedagogies and then assess the appropriateness of the technical solution (Tanwar & Gupta, 2014). As part of preliminary research, this author distributed surveys to first year university students during the fall semester of 2014 and again to new first year students in the spring semester of 2015. The results although not overly surprising does support the conclusion that university students are in most instances SMART(er) than their instructors. 2 SCHOLARLY SUBMISSIONS The lag in actual learning how to teach and existing sound pedagogy may naturally differ from teacher to teacher and school to school. It is important to note though that “Students want to learn in the classroom the same way that they interact outside of it” “SMART’s technology makes exploring lessons and collaborating on solutions a simple easy experience that students immediately recognize and adopt,” (smarttech.com, 2015). A large focus in the education community has been about the importance of creating a digital learning environment (Roberts 2008; Skipton 2006). SMART classrooms recognize there is still untapped potential that can be realized through the collaboration and sharing of best practice with the learning community (qld.gov.au. 2014). These new avenues of expanding knowledge allows for endless routes of educational attainment. Today’s classroom is no longer confined to a physical room with a desk and chairs. Distance and open access learning mutually embody SMART technology. Early on the benefit to the educational process was recognized. As portable computing devices proliferate, teachers will more likely take portable computers or PDAs into the Smart Classroom (Shi, Xie, Xu, Shi, Chen, Mao, & Liu, 2003). Currently, studies are ongoing as to the actual effectiveness of applying this new technology. Findings suggest that: Overall, all the teachers agreed that the use of technology devices while teaching is very beneficial, helpful and enjoyable when teaching their students (Balamurugan & Pazhanivelu, 2014).
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
3 SURVEY RESULTS A rudimentary survey of an exploratory nature was given to judge the overall percentage of 1st – 2nd year university students who had computing or SMART devices available at school or home. These students were all members of ESL (English as a Second Language) courses. They were queried as to their ownership of any SMART technology. There were a total of 130 students who responded. Additionally they were asked if currently any of their other instructors were utilizing any type of SMART devices. Respondents were mostly evenly divided amongst the male (58%) and female students (42%). Broken down by course of study, students were concentrated amongst business administration (28%), economics (29%), humanities (4%), law (37%) and pharmaceutical (2%). · ·
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When asked about SMART phone ownership, all 130 students albeit 1 pupil, responded that “yes, they owned a SMART phone.” Regarding the usage of computers in current usage outside of our own class; “how often have you utilized computers?” (computers were defined as laptop or desktop style) Students replied ‘daily’ (9%), ‘once or twice a week’ (28%), ‘three or four times a week’ (8%), and ‘never’ (20%). Relatively few, if any students use laptops or desktop computers outside of the classroom. Concerning the types of computing devices in classes students were again asked outside of our own course “what type of devices are being utilized in their course work?” For this response more than one answer was acceptable so total responses equalled more than 130. Students replied, ‘desktop’ (90 students)., ‘Ipad’ (16 students), ‘tablet’ (14 students), ‘projection device’ (28 students), ‘smartboard’ (10 students), ‘document camera’ (1 student), and one student selected ‘other’ without specifying the device used. When asked about technological devices that students have access to in their home or apartment, students selected; again allowing for multiple answers; ‘desktop’ (36 students)., ‘Ipad’ (4 students), ‘tablet’ (46 students), ‘iPod’ (20 students), and ‘SMART phone’ (99 students). Outside of the physical classroom most students had multiple accesses to Internet connected computing devices. Internet connection at any time was not an issue. Overall, the conclusion of the survey showed that almost 100% of students had in their possession a SMART phone or other similar computing device. The final question regarded “do you believe the use of technology (Internet) increases your motivation to learn? Not surprising 98% of the students said “yes”, while only 2% said “no”.
Regardless of subject or course matter there will always be some students who for whatever reason are reluctant to participate. Motivation is a fundamental concern among teachers (Linnenbrink and Pintrich, 2003). This is important not only for the learners but also the lecturers. Technology and teacher motivation have positive effects on student motivation (Atkinson, 2000). Motivation is the key to academic success as well as promoting lifelong
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
learning (Sanacore, 2008). The reluctance to learn must be turned into the want to learn. (Granito & Chernobilsky, 2012). 4 TPACK Admittedly it is not easy being an instructor these days. Now only is technology a key ingredient in sound teaching methods but that same technology is always changing. To keep up with these changes lecturers need to be in an ever moving learning mode. Put technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge together and you get TPACK: an understanding of how technology can enhance pedagogy, appropriate to the subject matter and the environmental context (such as age and pre-existing knowledge of the students) (Kehl, 2013). Individual teachers, grade-level, school-specific factors, demographics, culture, and other factors ensure that every situation is unique, and no single combination of content, technology, and pedagogy will apply for every teacher, every course, or every view of teaching (Koehler, n.d.). Any definition of technology knowledge is in danger of becoming outdated by the time this text has been published. That said, certain ways of thinking about and working with technology can apply to all technology tools and resources (Koehler & Mishra, 2009). It is important to consider how and what technology is utilized in the teaching environment. The understanding of TPACK or TPK (Technological Pedagogical Knowledge) with relationships toward learners is consequential. Current usage of SMART devices and their programs or applications were not primarily designed for educational purposes. TPK becomes particularly important because most popular software programs are not designed for educational purposes. Software programs such as the Microsoft Office Suite (Word, PowerPoint, Excel, Entourage, and MSN Messenger) are usually designed for business environments. Web-based technologies such as blogs or podcasts are designed for purposes of entertainment, communication, and social networking (Koehler & Mishra, 2009). This can arise to a feeling of fruitlessness and resentment toward technology. While technology has been shown to improve student achievement and is readily accessible to the classroom teacher, some teachers are hesitant to use the technology (Russell, O’Dwyer, Bebell & Tao, 2007). The introduction of the Internet, for example – particularly the rise of online learning – is an example of the arrival of a technology that forced educators to think about core pedagogical issues, such as how to represent content on the Web and how to connect students with subject matter and with one another (Peruski & Mishra, 2004). Cloud technology is the most recent operation of technology that still leaves individuals and institutions leery of its security and reliability. It is yet to be seen how Cloud computing may overcast or clear up the usage of SMART educational practices. Issues of security and reliability that information will not disappear into thin air have held back many institutions.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
5 Conclusion SMART access and application in the classroom is a teaching tool for today and tomorrow. The past ways of instruction have been replaced with ever expanding options on how to ingress information from the open Internet highway; similar to a highway though the rate of speed is important when applying technology. Too slow and the impact and relevance may be negligible, too fast while randomly throwing out the latest technological implements and the only accomplishment may the simple gratification of students acquiring something new to play with in the classroom. Educators must seek a better understanding of how technology can enhance rather than distract from the processes of learning and social maturation. Educational institutions must do all they can to ensure that the institutions themselves are not the cause of slower learning and social development. Institutions can cause this through a failure to examine the actual efficacy of educational technology as well as an unwillingness to invest in the human capital needed to use appropriate technology in a manner that enhances the teaching and the learning environment (Handler, 2010). This paper and earlier student survey shows the ready availability of SMART learning equipment amongst learners. Their dexterity to implement SMART devices has already been proven though young people’s embracement of social networking. The educational connection between lecturer and learner is not so evident. The descriptive acronym ‘SMART’ may or may not lead to overall more intelligent students but their enthusiasm to explore new avenues of engagement cannot be overlooked by educators. Establishing innovative approaches, which are conflicting with the current traditional views and principles of formal education and learning, requires not only the implementation of new technological instrumentation but also rather different mindsets, values, and beliefs. The development of a new learning culture poses formidable challenges to existing learning myths, which need to be explored, elaborated, de-constructed and re-built (Ruohinen, Turunen, Mahajan, Linna, Kumar, & Das, 2013) In many instances it comes down to the fundamental point of whether teachers are teaching to teach or teaching so students can learn. In the first situation teachers may only regard their occupation as a way toward retirement. These instructors are typically the same ones that shun invocation and change. In the second condition there are teachers that not only educate but inspire. Technology has changed the teaching profession in ways that we have not yet realized and understand. That does not mean that we should ignore current technological advancements, our students most certainly haven’t. Students raised in the digital era do not want to have school lessons conducted with teaching tools and techniques that were invented before they were born. Today’s learners want to study inside the classroom like they live outside the classroom.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
REFERENCES [1] Al-Faki, M., I., & Khamis, A.,H., A., (2014). Difficulties Facing Teachers in Using Interactive Whiteboards in Their Classes. American International Journal of Social Science. Vol. 3 No.2; March 2014. Retrieved form: http://www.aijssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_2_March_2014/16.pdf [2] Atkinson, E.S. (2000). An investigation into the relationship between teacher motivation and pupil motivation. Educational Psychology, 20(1). 45-57. [3] Balamurugan, R. & Pazaanivelu, G, (2014), Benefits of SMART Classroom Technology in Middle School Level. International Journal of Development Research Vol. 4, Issue, 9, pp. 1813-1816, September, 2014. Retrieved from: http://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/1904.pdf [4] Betcher, C., & Lee, M. (2009). The interactive whiteboard revolution – Teaching with IWBs. Victoria, Australia: ACER Press [5] Educationsmarttech.com (2015). Naturally SMART. Retrieved from: http://education.smarttech.com/. [6] Granito, M. & Chernobilsky, E. (2012). The Effecto Technology on a Student’s Motivation and Knowledge Retention.Northeastern Educational Research Association (NERA) Conference Proceedings. Retrieved from: http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=nera_2012 [7] Handler, S. P. (2010). Technology and the Classroom: Benefit or Hindrance to Social Maturation? Retrieved from: http://www.usma.edu/cfe/Literature/Handler_12.pdf [8] Kehl, W. (2013). Teaching with Technology in the Classroom. Getting SMART. Retrieved from: http://gettingsmart.com/2013/04/teaching-with-technology-in-the-classroom [9] Koehler, M. J. (n.d.). TPACK Explained. Retrieved from: http://www.matt-koehler.com/tpack/tpackexplained [10] Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 60-70. [11] Linnebrink, E.A., and Pintrich, P.R. (2003). The role of self-efficacy beliefs in student engagement and learning in the classroom. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19. [12] Qld.gov.aus (2014). SMART Classrooms- A strategy for 2011-2014. Toward Tomorrow’s Queensland, Queensland Government. Department of Education and Training. Retrieved from: http://www.education.qld.gov.au/smartclassrooms/documents/strategy/pdf/smart-classrooms-strategy.pdf [13] Roberts, Cynthia. (2008). “Implementing Educational Technology in Higher Education: A Strategic Approach.” The Journal of Educators Online, 5 (1). Retrieved from: http://www.thejeo.com/Archives/Volume5Number1/RobertsPaper.pdf. [14] Ruohuonen, M., Turunen, M., Mahajan, G., Linna, J., Kumar, V. Das, H. (2013). Mobile Phines and Vocie-Based Educational Services in Rural India: Project RuralVoice. Open and Social Technologies for Networked Learning, IFIP Advances in Information and Commuinication Technology, Volume 395, 2013, pp3-11. [15] Russell, M., O’Dwyer, L., Bebell, D., & Tao, W. (2007). How teachers’ uses of technology vary by tenure and longevity. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 37(4), 393-417. [16] Sanacore, J. (2008, September 1). Turning Reluctant Learners into Inspired Learners. Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 82(1), 40-44.
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[17] Shi, Y. Xie, W., Xu, G., Shi, R., Chen, E., Mao, Y., & Liu, Fang. (2003). The Smart Classroom: Merging Technologies for Seamless Tele-Education. PERVASIVE computing, April-June 2003. Pp 47-55. Retrieved from: http://media.cs.tsinghua.edu.cn/~pervasive/paper/2003/2003IEEEPervasiveComputingSHI%20Yuanchun.pdf [18] Skipton, Charles, Erika Matulich, Raymond Papp, and John Stepro. (2006). “Moving from “Dumb” to “Smart” Classrooms: Technology Options and Implementation Issues.” Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 3 (6), pp 19-27. [19] Tanwar, K., & Gupta, S. (2014). Smart Class Using Li-Fi Technology. The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES). Volume 3, Issue 7, pp 16-18. 2014. Retrieved from: http://www.theijes.com/papers/v3-i7/Version-1/D0371016018.pdf [20] Uskov, V. L., Howlett, R. J., & Jain, L. C. (2015). Smart Education and Smart E-Learning, Springer, June 11th, 2015. [21] Way. J., Lifley, E., Ruster, C., Johnco, S., Mauric, L., & Ochs, L. (2009). Symposium: Interactive whiteboards and pedagogy in primary classrooms. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of Australian Association for Research in Education, Canberra, Australia.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Teacher Talk, English Learners’ Motivation and L2 Anxiety Babak Mahdavy Department of English Qaemshahr Branch, Islamic Azad University
Maryam Shabanpour Department of English Sari Branch, Islamic Azad University
1 ABSTRACT Previous studies have shown that teacher talk can affect input comprehensibility and learner output (e.g. Walsh, 2002). In order to investigate the issue further, the present study examined the relationship between teacher talk, L2 anxiety and different motivational variables which might change as the rate of learning changes in relation to the characteristics of teacher talk. In order to collect data, a teacher talk questionnaire which included nine items was developed after conducting an extensive review of the literature and having 195 English learners respond to the items. Principle axis factoring was performed to establish the construct validity and results of Crobach’s alpha showed that students’ ratings of their teachers’ verbal characteristics was reliable (a = 0.83). In addition, the items of a questionnaire used by Taguchi, Magid, & Papi (2009) were administered to assess L2 anxiety and each of the motivational variables conceptualized within the theory of L2 motivational self system. Results of correlation analysis indicated that while there was a moderate positive correlation between teacher talk and the amount of learners’ intended efforts towards learning English (r = 0.43), the correlation between teacher talk and ‘ought-to L2 self’ was weak (r = 0.21). The analysis also revealed that L2 anxiety had a negligible correlation with teacher talk (r = 0.05). Therefore, it was concluded that teacher talk which is a source of comprehensible input can enhance the motivational forms which are more internally regulated.
Keywords: teacher talk, L2 motivational self system, L2 anxiety
2 INTRODUCTION Previous research studies in general education have shown that contextual factors affect learners’ motivation (e.g. McRobbie & Tobin, 1995; Schmuck & Schmuck, 2001; Tobin & Mcrobbie, 1996). In language education it has also been suggested that language, learner and learning situation can have positive or negative effects on learners’ motivation (Dörnyei, 1994). In addition, with the changes in the attitudes towards teachers in the post method era (e.g. Kumaravadivelu, 1994; Widdowson, 1990) it is now believed that teachers play a more important role in the educational process as they are directly involved in the implementation of goals and objectives within an educational system. Therefore, as part of efforts to study teacher characteristics, many research studies have been conducted on teacher talk. One aspect of teacher talk which has been studied is speaking rate (SR). Goldman-Eisler (1972) showed that slower SR positively contributes to the comprehension test scores of intermediate learners. Dahle (1981) concluded that teachers decrease their rate of speech when talking to learners and Kelch (1985) suggested that slower SR has a positive effect on L2 learner comprehensibility. In addition, Griffiths (1990) explored the effects of three types of SR and showed that a rate of 200 wpm caused a reduction in the comprehension of lower-intermediate learners. Results of this study also supported the claim that slower rate of speech produced by teachers positively affects learners’ comprehension by giving them more time to process information. Teacher talk has also been studied in terms of the number of pauses. According to Downes (1981), the length of pauses increases when teachers talk to learners. Similar findings were also reported by Weche and Ready (1985) who compared lectures presented to native speakers with those given to language learners in different English and French psychology classes. The results of
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
this study showed that both the length and number of pauses in teacher talk depends on the native/non-native criterion. Another aspect of teacher talk which reflects some sort of variation relates to linguistic features. Hakansson (1986) found that teacher talk contains unfinished sentences and phrases which could be possibly completed by the learners. In addition, Henzl (1979) suggested that teachers use simplified speech while talking to learners as there are fewer idioms and indefinite pronouns but more proper and concrete nouns in their language. However, Weche and Ready (1985) reported that there were no significant vocabulary modifications in the lectures presented to the language learners. It seems that studies which pertain to different aspects of teacher talk are also related to theories which underscore the importance of ‘comprehensibility’ in classroom communication. According to Krashen (1985), comprehensible input is provided when the input presented to the learners is a little more difficult than their level of proficiency. Cornard (1989) and Griffith (1990) postulated that modified speech rate facilities non-native speakers’ comprehension by giving them more time to process the incoming input. Furthermore, highlighting the importance of negotiation for meaning in the process of second language acquisition, Walsh (2002) concluded that teachers’ ability to exert control over the language they use in class can be as important as their ability to select appropriate teaching methodologies. And finally in a more recent study Forman (2012) introduced a bilingual framework consisting of Animating, Translating, Explaining, Creating, Promoting and Dialoguing to show that judicious use of L1 and L2 in an Asian EFL context can create opportunities for language learning. The review shows that the majority of studies in the area of teacher talk are concerned with the effect of this variable on students’ comprehension and learning and there are few studies which have examined the relationship between teacher talk and other characteristics of the learners. In other words, changes in the quality of teacher talk may not only relate to the level of comprehension and learning but also to other learner variables which might themselves contribute to language learning. One of the learner variables whose effects on language learning have been extensively investigated is learner motivation (e.g. Gardner & Lambert, 1972). The familiar names in the area of motivational research are Gardner and Lambert who made a distinction between integrative and instrumental motivation and inspired many research studies for more than three decades. However, since 1990 alternative models of motivation have been introduced to complement the integrative/instrumental dichotomy. One of the most influential models is the theory of L2 Motivational Self System proposed by Dörnyei (2005). The model which is based on the theory of ‘possible selves’ (e.g. Higgins, 1987; Markus & Nurius, 1986) suggests that self-concept and motivation are interrelated concepts. In order to show the validity of the model, Taguchi, Magid, & Papi (2009) reported the results of a comparative study in three different EFL contexts. The factors included in the study were ‘criterion measures’, ‘ideal L2 self’, ‘ought-to L2 self’, ‘family influence’, ‘instrumentality-promotion’, ‘instrumentality-prevention’, ‘attitudes to learning English’, ‘attitudes to L2 community’, ‘cultural interest’ and ‘integrativeness’. From among these components, the following motivational variables have been used in this study: 1. Criterion measures: it shows the amount of efforts learners would like to put into English learning. 2. Ideal L2 self: it is a learner’s L2-specific aspect of an imagined future self. 3. Ought-to L2 self: it relates to the characteristics a learner has to have in order to avoid the negative consequences. 4. Instrumentality-promotion: it is concerned with the extent to which the learner regulates the personal goals in order to get a job, make money or get a scholarship. 5. Instrumentality-prevention: it entails regulating one’s duties in order to avoid experiencing negative outcomes such as getting bad marks or failing the English course. 6. Integrativeness: it refers to the degree to which a learner holds positive attitudes towards the target language, its culture and the native speakers.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
And finally another factor which was investigated in the study was L2 anxiety. The variable was defined as the tension a leaner may experience while using the target language (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994). Papi (2010) examined the effects of different motivational components and L2 anxiety and concluded while ideal L2 self and L2 learning experience have negative effects on L2 anxiety, ought-to L2 self increases it. So far various strategies have been proposed for motivating language learners (Dörnyei, 2001; Dörnyei & Csizér, 1998; Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008). These motivational strategies are mostly intended to enhance learners’ motivation by regulating the learning process through the manipulation of classroom level and curricular variables related to the teachers, learners, classroom activities, materials and evaluation system. Although the role of teacher talk in the learning process has been emphasized to the extent that it has been regarded as important as other educational components (e.g. Walsh, 2002), there is little empirical evidence showing the strength and direction of relationships between teacher talk and each type of motivation and L2 anxiety. Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to explore a) the relationship between ‘teach talk’ and L2 motivational self system which includes ‘intended efforts’, ‘ideal L2 self’, ‘ought-to L2 self’, ‘instrumentality-promotion’, ‘instrumentality-prevention’ and integrativeness and b) the relationship between ‘teach talk’ and ‘L2 anxiety’. 3 METHODOLOGY The study was conducted at five English institutes in Mazandaran, Iran. These institutes help learners have mastery over English language skills and communicate in the target language accurately and fluently. The textbooks the institutes use include Interchange, Passages, and America English File. 3.1 Participants One hundred and ninety-five intermediate and lower intermediate EFL learners participated in the present study. The participants included 78 male and 117 female language learners. All the learners were Persian native speakers willing to learn English as a foreign language. The participants’ ages ranged from 13 to 40 and convenience sampling was used to select them. 3.2 Instruments The first instrument which was utilized to obtain data on teacher talk was developed before conducting the study. The instrument was prepared after an extensive review of the related literature and using a summary of the main features of teacher talk presented by Chaudron (1988). Construct validity of the original 12-item instrument was checked through principle axis factoring and 9 of the items which loaded under one factor were retained. The factor explained 40.99% of the total variance. For assessing ‘criterion measures’, ‘ideal L2 self’, ‘ought-to L2 self’, ‘instrumentalitypromotion’, ‘instrumentality-prevention’, ‘integrativeness’ and ‘L2 anxiety’ items of a Persian questionnaire used by Taguchi, Magid, & Papi (2009) and Papi (2010) were included. A selfassessment instrument which was used by Taguchi, Magid, & Papi (2009) was also administered to assess the participants’ proficiency level. Information regarding reliability of the scales and the number of items can be found in Table 1:
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Table 1 Reliability Statistics of the Motivational Variables and L2 Anxiety Criterion measures Ideal L2 self Ought-to L2 self Instrumentality- promotion Instrumentality-prevention Integrativeness L2 anxiety
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.81 0.78 0.82 0.80 0.83 0.62 0.83
Number of Items 6 6 5 6 8 3 6
3.3 Procedures In the first stage of data collection permission for data collection was granted from the institutes. Data collection was conducted during the class time inside the classroom. Before the delivery of the questionnaires, the researcher explained the basic concepts involved in this research to the participants. The intention and purpose of this study were also clarified. The researcher also informed the participants that their responses would be kept anonymous and confidential. 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS The study was intended to investigate the relationships between teacher talk, different L2 motivational self system variables and L2 anxiety. The analysis was performed by calculating the magnitude of correlations between teacher talk and each motivational component. Since results of normality tests indicated that the distributions were not normal, Spearman rho correlation was used to examine the relationships. Table 2 shows the magnitude of correlations between the study variables. Table 2 Correlations between the variables Criterion Measures
Ideal L2 Self
Ought-to L2 Self
Teacher Talk 0.43** 0.24** 0.21** ** Correlation is significant at the 0 .01 level (2-tailed).
Instrumentality - promotion
Instrumentality -prevention
Integrativeness
L2 Anxiety
0.34**
0.23**
0.39**
0.04
As it is shown in Table 2, all the correlations between teacher talk and motivational variables are positive and statistically significant. The table also shows that teacher talk does not correlate with L2 anxiety significantly. In addition, teacher talk and criterion measures have the strongest correlation (r = 0.43) and the second strongest relationship can be found between teacher talk and integrativeness (r = 0.39). Teacher talk and ought-to L2 self have the lowest correlation. 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between teacher talk, different motivational variables and L2 anxiety. The results showed that only motivational variables such as intended effort or integrativeness which are internally regulated have the strongest relationship with teacher talk. Although the results do not show the causal relationships, it seems that teacher talk plays an important role not only in creating opportunities for better comprehension and learning (Krashen 1985; Walsh, 2002) but also in enhancing learners’ motivation. In other words, the quality of teacher talk can be considered as a factor which similar to other educational variables in a language curriculum is positively related to learners’ motivation. The insignificant correlation between teacher talk and L2 anxiety might reveal the fact that this variable is not related to factors whose positive effects in the process of language learning have been proven (e.g. Aida, 1994). ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
6 REFERENCES Aida, Y. (1994). Examination of Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope's construct of foreign language anxiety: The case of students of Japanese. The Modern Language Journal, 78(2), 155-168. Chaudron, C. (1988). Second language classrooms: Research on teaching and learning. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. Conrad, L. (1989). Semantic versus syntactic cues in listening comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 7(1), 59-72. Dahl, D. A. (1981). The role of experience in speech modifications for second language learners. Minnesota Papers in Linguistics and Philosophy of Language, 7, 78- 93. Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in foreign language classroom. Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 273284. Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Dörnyei, Z., & Csizér, K. (2002). Some dynamics of language attitudes and motivation: Results of a longitudinal nationwide survey. Applied Linguistics, 23(4), 421-462. Downes, N. (1981). Foreigner talk inside and outside the classroom. Department of Linguistics, University of Pittsburgh. Forman, R. (2012). Six functions of bilingual EFL teacher talk: Animating, translating, explaining, creating, prompting and dialoguing. RELC, 43(2), 239-253. Gardner, R.C. & Lambert, W.E. (1972). Motivational variables in second language acquisition. In R.C. Gardner & W. Lambert (eds.) Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. (pp. 119-216). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Goldman–Eisler, F. (1972). Pauses, clauses, sentences. Language and Speech, 15, 103-113. Griffiths, R. (1990). Facilitating listening comprehension through rate-control. RELC Journal, 21(1), 55-65. Guilloteau, M. & Dornyei, Z. (2008). Motivating language learners: A classroom-oriented investigation of the effects of motivational strategies on student motivation. TESOL Quarterly, 42, 55-77. Hakansson, G. (1986). Quantitative aspects of teacher talk. In G. Kasper (Ed.), Learning, teaching and communication in the foreign language classroom (pp. 83-98). Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press. Henzl, V. (1979). Foreigner talk in the classroom. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 17(2), 159-167. Higgins, E.T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect, Psychological Review, 94(3), 319-40. Kelch, K. (1985). Modified input as an aid to comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 7(1), 81-90. Krashen, S., (1985).The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications, London, Longman. Kumaravadivelu, B. (1994). The postmethod condition: (E)merging strategies for second/foreign language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 28(1), 27–48. MacIntyre, P.D. & Gardner, R.C. (1994). The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in the second language. Language Learning, 44(2), 283-305. Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954-969.
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Mcrobbie, C., & Tobin, K. (1995). Restraints to reform: The congruence of teacher and student actions in a chemistry classroom. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32 (4), 373-385. Papi, M. (2010). The L2 motivational self system, L2 anxiety, and motivated behavior: A structural equation modeling approach. System, 38(3), 467â&#x20AC;&#x201C;479. Schmuck, R., & Schmuck, P. (2001). Group processes in the classroom. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Taguchi, T., Magid, M., & Papi, M. (2009). The L2 motivational self system amongst Chinese, Japanese, and Iranian learners of English: a comparative study. In Z. DĂśrnyei, E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 66-97). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Tobin, K., & Mcrobbie, C. (1996). Cultural myths as constraints to the enacted science curriculum. Science Education, 80(2), 223-241. Wesche, M.B., & Ready, D. (1985). Foreigner talk in the university classroom. In S.M. Gass & C.G. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 89- 114). Rowley, MA.: Newbury House. Widdowson, H. G. (1990). Aspects of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Use of Magic Tricks in Teaching English Listening and Speaking Skills Raditya Adipramono Department of English Language Education Yogyakarta: Universitas Islam Indonesia raditya.adipramono@gmail.com
ABSTRACT The aims of this research paper are to introduce new model of teaching English and to find out whether teaching English listening and speaking skill by using magic tricks as a teaching aid is effective. This research is conducted to improve students’ listening and speaking skills. The researcher uses qualitative method to conduct this research paper, which creates an idea of a model of teaching technique. The suitable learners for this kind of teaching media should be young adult learners of the intermediate level. Magic tricks are used as the teaching media and also to make the class’ atmosphere in active and enjoyable learning situation. The successful indicator of this technique is indicated based on the students’ succession to do and/or develop the tricks. After the data from the students’ performance are collected, the researcher uses questionnaire at the final meeting to see the students’ response to this technique when it is applied in teaching and learning process. The finding of the research will describe the process of the research when teaching English reading and writing skills using magic tricks. At the end of the research, it will show the effectiveness of teaching English reading and writing skills using magic tricks. Keywords: teaching English, listening skill, speaking skill, magic trick.
1. INTRODUCTION Why magic? Magic is known as an artwork, and some people think that magic is not a science. In fact, magic has relation to other science fields as stated by Tarbell (1999) stated that those who learned magic know that magic was really the fount of almost all knowledge. It must be realized that although magic is known as an entertaining art, it was the root form which sprang some of our great sciences. The great sciences for which magic was the foundation are now the foundation for magic. Therefore, as an English teacher and also magician, the writer is motivated to write this paper. The writer tries to bring and relate the magic trick as a medium of English language teaching. Language is a communication tool. People can communicate with one another by using the language. It also conveys meanings to express many things such as ideas, needs, opinions, thoughts, feelings, and it continues throughout life. Tchudi (1989: 47) says that language learning is a process of wondering and exploring, of discovering the agreements of language in society so that people can use language fully for their own purposes. People learn language by studying it in a particular society by practice. Language is learnt naturally when people are using language for specific purposes. Doing what people see as important with it. In many countries, English is considered as the first foreign language. Although it is learned in any levels of education, needs the skills of teachers to teach. Teachers should be able to create an interesting method and technique to get good results and avoid students’ boredom. Therefore, teaching skills mastery are a basic needs for a teacher. As a profession, teachers must have teaching skills that can make them become a professional in their field. Larsen-Freeman (2010) argues that methods serve as a good contrast for reflection that can aid teachers in bringing to conscious awareness the thinking that underlines their actions. Teachers are freely to choose any kind of teaching method that used in the classroom. Therefore an English ISSN: 2189-2164
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Language teacher needs some kind of awareness that led them to a successful language learning process. In any language, including English, there are four skills that can be learnt: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In this paper, the writer only focus on listening and speaking skills. Why listening and speaking? Wilson (2008) states that humans learnt to listen and listen to learn. Humans have reason to listen, it is because sounds can stimulate the imagination and enrich humansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; lives. So that, listening is a basic fundamental aspect that needs to be learnt when learning a language. Meanwhile, Thornbury (2011) states that the study of written grammar may not be the most efficient preparation for speaking. Speaking is a skill and needs to be developed and practiced independently of the grammar curriculum. Listening and speaking can be related into a sort link of teaching-learning activities. The writer considers that the basic need in language learning is listening and speaking skill. Therefore, the writer focuses in those two skills to be analyzed in this paper. Wilson (2008) mentions that, there are general statements which makes listening is considered a difficult skill, they are related to characteristics of the message, the delivery, the listener, and the environment. Meanwhile, Thornbury (2011) states that there are common dilemmas expression of the teachers when teach English speaking. In short, it is related to the speech production, conceptualization and formulation, articulation, self-monitoring and repair, automaticity, fluency, and managing talk. 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODS According to Harmer (2007), listening skills described as the ability of the students to listen to a variety of things in a number of different ways, as follows: a. Recognizing paralinguistic clues such as intonation in order to understand mood and meaning; b. Listening for specific information such as times, numbers, etc.; c. Listening for more general understanding when they are listening to a story or interacting in a social conversation. The writer tries to relate the listening principles that are mentioned by Harmer (2007) with the magic routine which is performed in the classroom: Principle 1: Encourage students to listen as often and as much as possible. Magic trick triggers studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; curiosity about how did the magician do the trick. Therefore, at the end of performance, the writer give students the revelation of the trick. It could encourage the students will focus to get information in details to solve the trick based on the explanation of the trick which is revealed Principle 2: Helps students prepare to listen. Again, the revelation of the trick is the key. When the teacher wants to reveal the trick, it is a signal to make the students ready to listen. Principle 3: Once may not be enough. Magic trick is a skill that needs practice to be mastered. And to make it smoothly and perfectly done, it will need practices more and more. It will encourage students to listen the revelation of the trick repeatedly, not only once. Principle 4: Encourage students to respond to the content of a listening, not just to the language. The content of the listening material is the revelation of the trick. The indicator of the students respond can be seen with the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; reaction after listening to the revelation. Some of the ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
students try to play the trick. The minimal reaction of the students is they understand of how the magician do the trick. Principle 5: Different listening stages demand different tasks. The teacher tends to manage what kind of tricks will be played. At basic stages, the teacher shows simple magic trick, and so, the revelation is also in simple explanation. Upper stage will present a trick which carries detail information, such as mental game which uses certain numbers game. It will make the students need to be focused on what they are listening to. Principle 6: Good Teachers exploit listening text to the full. By using magic trick and its revelation as the listening material, it becomes an important additional teaching-learning sequence as their knowledge which can encourage students to exercise their listening skills. To encourage studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; speaking skill, the writer put the students into a small buzz groups to explore the discussion topic. Harmer (2007:123) states that there are three reasons for getting students to speak in the classroom as follows provide rehearsal opportunities, experiencing the speaking tasks, and to activate the various elements of the language. After the teacher give the revelation of the magic trick, the teacher will provide time for the students in their group to discuss each other related to the trick. The teacher give an opportunity to the students to explore the trick, whether they want to develop the trick, or at least duplicating what the magician do with his routine. The design of this paper is descriptive analysis in form of qualitative research. According to Moleong (2010), the characteristics of qualitative method are natural setting in an entity context; the instrument is human; analysis of the data using inductive analysis; the research has descriptive character; theory developing is grounded theory (bottom-up); process is more important than result; the design is temporary; and result of the research is discussed and agreed together. To collect the data, the researcher uses observation method. According to Mahsun (2005), observation method is a method which is used to find the data by observing the use of the language. This method has a basic technique in the form of tapping technique i.e. the writer taps the use of the informant language. Meanwhile, the follow-up of this method is the writer as a participant in the conversation, and observes the conversation. In this case, the researcher is involved directly in the conversation. In this paper, the writer uses descriptive analysis to analyze and describe the data. Because the data are gathered trough teaching-learning activities, so that, the writer contributes as participant and observer to explore uniqueness that happens. Furthermore, the type of the data is in the form of sentence and narration from the students as participants which are collected during teachinglearning process. In addition, the writer interviews some students who are involved in the classroom.
3. DISCUSSION The researcher chooses this technique as a media of teaching is based on the following considerations: a. The writer has a background as a professional magician, and has an obsession to bring the magic trick to be integrated as a media of teaching. b. Most of the students in Indonesia have never learned English by using magic tricks as medium, so it is a challenge for the teacher and also the students.
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
c. The students need a new way in learning English in order to obtain a good result and avoid boredom. In this paper, the writer will describe one of the example of the activities that is conducted by the writer in the classroom. The activity is conducted through four steps. The first step is preparation, the second step is demonstration, the third step is group discussion of the trick, and the last step is the revelation. 3.1. Preparation Before entering the classroom, the writer (also as a teacher) needs to do “backstage preparation”. The writer choose what trick which is going to be performed in the class. After choosing a trick, the writer prepare some properties which are used. For example, the writer wants to perform “sleight of hands with coins”, the writer will bring the real coins and some gimmick coins. Then preparing and practicing the three important fundamentals of magic: Angles of Visibility, naturalness, and misdirection. After it is all clear, the writer will prepare the learning skills which will be learnt. 3.2. Demonstration The writer do the trick in the classroom. Start from the basic coin trick like palming, the writer do vanishing-appearing coins, and it is ended with “complete vanish”. The writer performs the trick twice, the first one fast movement, and the second one slower. This activities is done to enhance the students’ listening skill. 3.3. Group discussion After performing the trick, the writer –in this case the teacher- divide the class into five to six groups. Each group will discuss the trick only in English. This activity is done to enhance the students’ speaking skill in the duration of 15-20 minutes. The writer supervise and help the students only to give “linguistics aspects” such as grammatical, pronunciation, vocabulary, etc. the writer does not give any clues of the trick. After group discussion, each group present orally about the trick in front of the class. They will describe the trick with their view of the trick. It is not important whether they solve the trick or not, the most important is their courage to speak. And still, the teacher does not give the clue about the trick. 3.4. Revelation At last, the teacher will perform again once, and then the teacher will reveal the trick using the explanation in video format. To get the feedback from the students, the writer needs a reflection about their feelings after the activity in the class. To make it objectively, at the end of the meeting in the class, the writer asks the students to write a reflection towards the activity in the class. Those would be the additional supporting data for the writer in order to analyze their attitude and also their feelings toward the activity. 4. CONCLUSION Based on the explanation and the researcher’s experience, it can be concluded that: ISSN: 2189-2164
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a. The students were very interested in the magic trick which is given by the teacher. b. The treatment using magic trick has some advantages. It can help the students in mastering listening and speaking skills, and it can be used to increase their motivation. c. The vocabularies in the topic offered in this action are needed in their daily lives. And the treatment using magic tricks can enrich the students’ vocabulary. REFERENCES Harmer, Jeremy. 2007. ‘The Practice of English Language Teaching’ Fourth Ed. Longman, Pearson: Cambridge, UK. Larssen-Freeman, Diane. 2010. ‘Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching’. Oxford: New York. Mahsun, M.S. 2005. ‘Metode Penelitian Bahasa’. Rajagrafindo Persada: Jakarta, Indonesia. Moleong, Lexy. J. 2010. ‘Metode Penelitian Kualitatif’. Remaja Rosdakarya: Bandung, Indonesia. Tarbell, Harlan. 1999. ‘Tarbell Course in Magic’ Vol 1. E-Z Magic, Robbins: Canada. Tchudi,Stephen and Diana Mitchell. 1989. ‘Explorations in the Teaching of English’ Third Ed. Harper & Row: New York. Thornbury, Scott. 2011. ‘How to Teach Speaking’ Ninth Impression. Longman, Pearson: Essex, UK Wilson, JJ. 2008. ‘How to Teach Listening’. Longman, Pearson: Essex, UK.
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
On How Young Japanese Female College Students Say the English Alphabet: A Comparison of the Fundamental Frequencies F0s with Native Speakers of English Language Guido Izuta Department of Social Information Yamagata Prefectural Yonezawa Women’s Junior College
…….. ABSTRACT This work was concerned with the pitch frequency analysis of the voice sounds measured out of a group of young Japanese female students as they recited the English alphabet. The mean pitch frequency (F0) values of the sounds generated by the group of students were compared with those of the groups of native speakers of English, namely a group consisting of young female individuals from the U.S. and another from UK, in which the former was carefully selected to consist of only speakers of the Standard North American English whereas the latter to RP (Received Pronunciation) utterers. Statistical testing procedures across the groups for every single letter of the alphabet were carried out pair-wisely in order to verify the existence of a predominant English sound group over the students. In addition, statistical comparisons of the pitch frequency bandwidths, in which each bandwidth was taken to be the difference between the maximum and minimum values of F0s, were performed to check whether the sample set of the utterances spanned over an equivalent range of voice sounds for all groups. It turned out that the group of students was statistically similar to RP for all letters of the alphabet and about half of them were undistinguishable from the Standard American English. Keywords: Phonetics, pitch frequency analysis, fundamental frequency F0, English
1 INTRODUCTION Qualitatively speaking, pitch is one of the auditory sensations that in tone languages helps define prosody and other characteristics of the speech. From the mechanical standpoint, it is a physical attribute of the sound expressing mainly the frequencies of the sound stimulus and waveforms of the sound. The latter concept is based on the ‘place theory’ suggested by Ohm [1] and Helmholtz [2], in which pitch is defined as the frequencies of the sounds that stimulate the basilar membrane leading to the perception of these sounds by humans [3]. In the scope of pitch frequency analysis framework, Fujisaki and Kawashima [4] pointed out that not only formants but also pitch frequencies play an important role in the perception process of vowels. This finding and surrounding related issues have been object of investigations in a larger context as in comparative studies aimed to characterize English and Japanese speakers. For example, Loveday [5] investigated pitch differences in expressions of politeness and suggested that Japanese females had higher pitch frequency values than their male counterparts while English female speakers showed no significant statistical difference when compared to their masculine peers. This result was ascribed to a socio-semiotic function which supposedly triggered the Japanese feminine attribute of social reservation. On the other hand, Yamazawa and Hollien [6] compared the speaking fundamental frequencies between Japanese females and Caucasian speakers of American English as they read selected passages. It was found in those experiments that the Japanese females presented higher fundamental frequencies regardless of the experimental conditions. In addition, it was suggested that this outcome was primarily due to the inherent structural differences in the languages. Yet, Grahan [7], carrying out experiments with Japanese-(American) English bilinguals, reached to statistically significant cross language differences between Japanese and English as an output of the investigations on the variation of fundamental frequency range in the narrative languages. Moreover, it is worth noting that there has also been comparisons between Japanese speech and other languages different from English. For example, van Bezooijen [8], assuming the suggestive conclusion of Loveday [5] as the initial working hypothesis for the experimental
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
research, compared the pitch frequencies of the speeches made by Japanese and Dutch women, and came out with higher values for Japanese women. As a matter of fact, most of the experiments in this ambit have so far been mainly concerned with prosody, so that the subjects performing the speaking task read out loud some kind of passages, in which the smallest utterance unit was word. Taking into account these findings but unlike the prosody paradigm, this work focused on somewhat more basic utterances, namely the sounds (not phonics) of the alphabet, in order to characterize from the pitch standpoint what kind of English sounds the Japanese female college students are more likely generating, i.e. whether close to Standard American English or RP. Since, the time durations of the sounds vary from 500 to 1000 milliseconds, which are relatively small compared to those of the words or sentences, this experimental setting allowed us to concentrate specifically on the analysis of the pitch frequencies ruling out the hypothesis claiming the influence of social background of Japanese women on pitch modulations. To achieve this purpose, the pitch frequencies of 26 Japanese female college students were statistically compared with those values of 20 Standard American English as well as 10 British English (RP, Received Pronunciation) female speakers for each letter of the alphabet. Briefly, it turned out that the group of Japanese students was statistically more related to the group UK. Finally, the remainder of the paper is organized as follows: the experimental protocol is given in section 2; the results in section 3; and the discussions in section 4. 2 EXPERIMENT This section describes the experimental setup used to carry out the investigations. It was essentially composed by a personal computer with attached devices to perform the recordings and some pieces of software to proceed the statistical testing. 2.1 Subjects The experiment took place at a Japanese junior college, where the Japanese subjects were recruited. The 26 participants were all either first- or second-year young Japanese female students aged 18 to 20, all from the northern region of Japan (Tohoku region). They neither had any physical/health impairments nor had they learned English language elsewhere abroad other than on the ordinary school curricula established by the Japanese government. Before the recordings, the students practiced the sounds many times until they felt ready or satisfied with their voices as they compared them with the sounds of electronic dictionaries or gadgets they used to check the English sounds. Hereafter this group will be referenced as JP group. Furthermore, the data set of the 20 female speakers of the Standard American English in their twenties and thirties was collected by means of direct measurements and from the Internet. The former was carried mainly out on the basis of the street interviewing. In fact, these counted 14 individuals who were at the time teaching English in Japan. The other 6 recordings consisted of data acquired from English lesson videos posted on the web site ‘YouTube’ by female native speakers. In the sequel this group will be labelled ‘US’. The data set of RP sounds, later on tagged ‘UK’, was gathered similarly to that of the American English, in which 6 out 10 voice sounds were obtained from direct recordings, and 4 others from the Internet. Note that the sounds from the Internet were checked and scrutinized by native speakers. 2.2 Data Acquisition The sounds of the native speakers were recorded ‘on site’ with a digital voice recorder whereas the Japanese students spoke directly to the microphone connected to a personal computer equipped with the freeware SoundEngine to proceed the digital recordings. The video content from
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
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the website ‘YouTube’ was processed such that only the sounds were saved in digital files for later processing. 2.3 Data Processing The freely available software program Praat was used to reduce the interfering noise captured during the digital sound recordings as well as to obtain ascii-text format files of the pitch frequencies. The text files were imported to the commercially available computer program Microsoft Excel Professional 2013 and sorted out to allow statistical testing, which was carried out with tools available as add-ons of the software. These software tools were running on a personal computer equipped with the operating system Windows 8. 3 RESULTS In what follows, the letters of the alphabet are gathered and illustrated in categories, which is usually formed based on their predominant sounds. Usually, seven categories are used; however for the sake of convenience, they are here grouped into five types of graphs. Figure 1 <left> shows that the JP group had relatively higher fundamental frequencies than the group US for all letters in the category [i:/i] whereas JP and UK had letters with frequency values close to each other. Despite these differences, Figure 1 <right> says that the letters ‘B’, ‘E’, ‘G’, ‘P’ were not significantly different for JP and US. On the other hand, none of the letters came out different for JP and UK.
Figure 1: Category [i:/i]. <Left>: F0 graph (JP: group of young Japanese female students within the range 213 to 237 Hz; US: group of speakers of Standard American English within 185 to 221 Hz; UK: group of speakers of RP from 197 to 233 Hz.) <Right>: Statistical testing (p < 0.05.)
Figure 2: Category [e]. <Left>: F0 graph (JP: within the interval from 218 to 254 Hz; US from 194 to 226 Hz; UK from 198 to 230 Hz.) <Right>: Statistical testing (p < 0.05.)
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Though not so clear for UK, Figure 2 <left> indicates that JP had higher frequencies than US and UK for all letters. Yet, unlike JP and US that were undistinguishable for the letters ‘S’ and ‘X’, the pair JP-UK was similar for all of them as given in Figure 2 <right>. For category [ei] as depicted in Figure 3, JP and US were significantly different for the letters ‘J’ and ‘K’ whereas JP and UK were undistinguishable for all letters. For category [ju:], JP and UK, which were statistically similar, had the same mean values for the letters ‘Q’ and ‘U’. As for the comparison between JP and US, these groups differed from each other for the letter ‘U’. Furthermore, for the letters in categories [ai], [o], and [r], contrary to the results of the pair JP-UK, they were all different for the pair JP-US as seen Figure 4.
Figure 3: Category [ei]. <Left>: F0 graph (JP: within the interval from 218 to 242 Hz; US from 190 to 214 Hz; UK from 214 to 226 Hz.) <Right>: Statistical testing (p < 0.05.)
Figure 4: Category [ju:]. <Left>: F0 graph (JP: within the interval from 212 to 228 Hz; US from 196 to 220 Hz; UK from 200 to 228 Hz.) <Right>: Statistical testing (p < 0.05.)
Figure 5: Categories [ai], [o], and [r]. <Left>: F0 graph (JP: within the interval from 216 to 224 Hz; US from 184 to 196 Hz; UK from 192 to 208 Hz.) <Right>: Statistical testing (p < 0.05.)
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
4 DISCUSSION In this experiment, as shown in Table 1, the bandwidths of the fundamental frequencies F0s, with each bandwidth being defined as the difference between the highest and lowest pitch frequencies of the sounds, were statistically similar for almost all letters of the alphabet, so that it is reasonable to assume that the groups spanned over an equivalent range of frequencies F0s, covering equally even utterances not measured. Table 1 Bandwidths of F0s and their statistical testing (*: p<0.05; N.S.: not significant)
Category
[i:/i]
[e]
[ei]
[u:]
[ai], [o] [r]
Letter
B C D E G P T V Z F L M N S X A H J K Q U W I Y O R
bandwidth F0 (mean / standard deviation) JP [Hz] US [Hz] UK [Hz]
69 / 36 126 / 89 94 / 74 104 / 72 87 / 68 110 / 63 137 / 98 94 / 70 58 / 61 130 / 118 84 / 90 115 / 103 106 / 97 107 / 113 110 / 113 94 / 70 133 / 118 90 / 72 97 / 64 105 / 61 94 / 70 105 / 83 65 / 45 98 / 66 89 / 73 78 / 66
127 / 88 113 / 72 121 / 74 95 / 53 93 / 50 161 / 96 124 / 76 114 / 57 117 / 91 97 / 94 97 / 48 87 / 49 87 / 43 106 / 103 65 / 62 114 / 57 105 / 83 98 / 58 101 / 56 134 / 86 104 / 50 119 / 52 74 / 34 110 / 57 92 / 52 95 / 35
100 / 52 150 / 102 101 / 66 79 / 44 63 / 33 99 / 98 118 / 81 129 / 84 99 / 101 75 / 98 62 / 22 55 / 47 92 / 50 88 / 104 68 / 94 129 / 84 105 / 83 75 / 52 87 / 99 69 / 36 96 / 34 117 / 51 68 / 30 62 / 33 86 / 58 72 / 39
Statistical testing JP-US
JP-US
JP-US
* N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
* N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
* N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Now, the data showed that in general JP had F0s higher than US in values for all letters and in about half of the cases these groups were in fact distinguishable. Apart from the letters of the categories [ai], [o], and [r] which were all dissimilar, the other categories did not revealed any remarkable predominance of similarity or dissimilarity. Yet, these results suggest that one should be aware of these basic differences in a comparative study to not choose a set of words or sentences that would bias the final output. The outcomes of the comparisons between JP and UK can be summarized as: (1) the groups were statistical undistinguishable for all letters of the alphabet; and (2) Excluding the letters ‘T’, ‘Q’ and ‘U’, JP had higher F0s for all other letters. Finally, as seen in the graphs, nevertheless the pairs US-UK as well as JP-UK were both statistically similar, JP and US were not. It turns out that, in a comparative study as presented in this work, one should focus on a variety of English sounds and compare as much as possible with difference types of English languages, and make it clear the scope of the results and conclusions.
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
5 CONCLUSION This work revealed that nevertheless the group of young Japanese female college students had higher fundamental frequencies than the other groups, it was statistically similar to UK for all letters of the alphabet as the fundamental frequencies F0s were concerned. In a companion paper, the JP group, which was composed by students with different skills and experience in English language, is divided into sub-groups and analysed in detail to obtain a glimpse into the change that occurs along the course of English learning. REFERENCES [1] Ohm, G.S. (1843), “Ueber die Definition des Tones, nebst daran geknüpfter Theorie der Sirene und ähnlicher tonbildender Vorrichtungen,” Ann. Phys. Chem., v. 59, pp.513-565 [2] Von Helmholtz, H. (1877), “On the sensations of tone,” (reprinted 1954), Dover, New York, [3] Brian C. J. Moore (2013), “An introduction to the psychology of hearing,” Leiden, BRILL. [4] Fujisaki, H., and Kawashima, T. (1968) “The roles of pitch and higher formants in the perception of vowels,” IEEE Trans. Audio Electroacoust., AU-16, pp.73–77. [5] Loveday. (1981), “Pitch, politeness and sexual role: An exploratory investigation into the pitch correlates of English and Japanese politeness formulae,” Lang Speech, v. 24, pp.71-89. [6] Yamazawa, H., and Hollien, H. (1992). “Speaking fundamental frequency patterns of Japanese women,” Phonetica 49, 128-140. [7] Graham C. (2014), "Fundamental Frequency Range in Japanese and English: The Case of Simultaneous Bilinguals," Phonetica, v.71, pp.271-295. [8] van Bezooijen R.(1995), "Sociocultural Aspects of Pitch Differences between Japanese and Dutch Women," Language and Speech, v.38, pp.253-265
ISSN: 2189-2164
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
A Study on How Young Japanese Female College Students Say the English Alphabet: Comparison of the Fundamental Frequencies F0s across the Sub-Groups and Along Different Percentiles Guido Izuta Department of Social Information Yamagata Prefectural Yonezawa Women’s Junior College
…….. ABSTRACT This work complements another paper by the same authors and submitted to the current conference. They are part of a research project concerned with the analysis of fundamental frequencies F0s of the voice sounds that were measured out of the recitation of the English alphabet. In the previous paper, the pitch frequencies of a group consisting of young Japanese female college students and groups of native speakers of English were statistically compared for each letter of the alphabet in order to figure out the general characteristics of the former relatively to the latter. In this investigation, the group of Japanese female college students was split up into three sub-groups in accordance with their majoring courses, which led to the formation of groups of first-, and second-year students enrolled in English course, and a third group with students from the other departments. The pitch values evaluated along the time duration of the utterances were sampled by means of the statistical percentile computation to then carry out the statistical comparison of the percentiles for each value and each letter of the alphabet across the sub-groups of students as well as against the group of native speakers. The results showed how the sub-group of students performed when compared to each other and relatively to the group of native speakers. Keywords: Phonetics, pitch frequency analysis, fundamental frequency F0, English
1 INTRODUCTION In the authors’ previous work [1], the fundamental frequencies F0s of the sounds of English alphabet made by 26 young Japanese female students were statistically compared with those of 20 speakers of Standard American English, and 10 of Received Pronunciation. The evaluations revealed that the group of Japanese students differed significantly from the party of Standard American native utterers. To obtain better and deeper insights into the fundamental frequencies F0s produced by the Japanese as they uttered English sounds, this paper focused on the group of Japanese students, which was further divided into three clusters of examinees in conformity with either their English language skills or their majoring fields of study. Apropos, two groups were formed by students of the English language and literature department with one containing only firstyear students (hereafter called group E1) whereas the other one with only senior students (E2); and a third group with students from the other courses (S1). Thus, the main goal of this research was to probe whether young Japanese female students modulate the fundamental frequencies toward the values measured in the native speakers as they gain language experience and maturity. The rationale behind this experimental approach relied on the findings related to the role that the fundamental frequency plays in the Japanese speech in the sphere of word prosody. In fact, Cutler and Otake [2] looked into the relationship between pitch-accent information and recognition of spoken words in Tokyo Japanese. To this end, the volunteers were asked to listen fragmented words and decide on the word being spoken; and as a consequence, the payoff was a positive correlation between the decisions and F0s. Following a closely related reasoning, Masuda-Katsuse Ikuyo [3] confirmed the correlation between pitch-accent information and the recognition of Japanese words relying on an experiment in which F0s of the sounds were modulated. Recently, Sugiyama [4] revisited these issues and reiterated the previous views by putting into practice experiments with a larger data set.
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Taken these into account, there would not be surprising if Japanese students showed some kind of F0 modulation for English sounds as they get more and more acquainted with the English language. However, though in a somewhat different paradigm, Järvinen et al. [5] addressed the question of whether foreign language speaking had any influence on the fundamental frequency F0 of the mother tongue. In this experiment, native Finnish subjects who spoke English showed significant change in F0 whereas native English speakers who spoke Finnish did not present conclusive answer. Thus, the verification of these topics was considered as the paramount aim of this experiment. To accomplish it, the percentiles of the F0 values for each utterance at 0%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 90%, and 100% were statistically computed and statistical testing across the percentiles were evaluated for the groups combined in pairs. Roughly speaking, these groups showed statistical differences mostly in the first half of the utterance duration. Finally, the remainder of the paper is organized as follows: the experimental protocol is given in section 2; the results in section 3; and the discussions in section 4 2 RESULTS In what follows, the experimental set up and the data analysis procedures are described. 2.1 Subjects and protocol In this experiment, 26 Japanese female college students – aged 18 through 20 years old - of a junior college provided voluntarily their voice sounds. Among them, 17 subjects were students of the department of English language and literature. In fact, the eight second-year students were labelled E2 group, whereas the nine first-year individuals E1 group. The other nine students, tagged S1 group, were first-year students majoring in social sciences. None of them had hearing difficulties or speaking impairments, neither had they been studying foreign languages abroad. Yet, the participants were all from the northern region of Japan. The students were asked to practice the reading of the alphabet before a session of three consecutive recordings. During the practicing time, the students were given paper and electronic dictionaries to check out the sounds. In addition, sounds of the native speakers were also measured for comparison purposes. In fact, not only the voices of 14 Standard American English speakers, grouped hereafter as US; and 6 Received Pronunciation utterers (RP, group UK) were collected in street interviewing sessions, but also data acquisition from English lesson videos posted on the web site ‘YouTube’ were carried out with the help of native speakers. In all, 6 Standard American English and 4 RP sounds were downloaded and added to their respective groups for future processing. The voices were all from female individuals.
Figure 1 General idea of the percentile processing. The horizontal axis originally expressed in time unit is transformed into percentage of the utterance duration and the vertical axis, formerly the frequency F0, is expressed by the corresponding percentile.
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2.2 Data processing and analysis The dataset consisting of the digital files for each of the 26 letters of the alphabet acquired from 56 measurements were carefully analysed manually for consistence of the digital signals. The delineation of the ranges of the utterances and the transformation of the digital signals into text format files with numerical values readable by humans were performed with freeware ‘Praat’. The statistical processing and the computation of the percentiles as shown in Figure 1 were executed on a PC powered by operating system Windows 8 and running the software program ‘Microsoft Excel 2013 professional’. For the statistical testing, the confidence interval was set to 95% with two-tails considered; which led to α=0.05. Comparisons between the pairs US-E2, US-E1, US-S1, UK-E2, UK-E1, UKS1, across the groups of students were done for the mean values of the groups as a whole and for each percentile. As shown in Figure 1, percentile representation allows one to normalize the horizontal axis of the graphs related to the total length of the sounds, so that sounds of different lengths can be compared on a scale from 0% to 100%. 3 RESULTS Table 1 shows the results of the comparisons between different groups for the fundamental frequencies F0s of the utterances. It is clear that, in general, E2 was statistically similar to the group US for almost all letters, except the letter ‘Y’ whereas E1 and S1 had respectively 16 (B, C, D, V, L, M, N, S, A, J, K, U, I, Y, O, R) and 14 (B, C, D, T, V, F, M, N, J, K, U, I, Y, O, R) letters differing from that group. On the other hand, on benchmarking against the group UK, E2 was statistically undistinguishable for all letters of the alphabet whereas E1 and S1 had each only one letter differing from UK, which was the letter ‘F’ for both cases. The comparison across the group of Japanese students showed that E2 was different from E1 for 7 letters (B, C, X, H, J, W, and R), and from S1 for 4 letters (X, H, W, and R). As for the comparisons between the pairs E1 and S1, they were statistically similar for all letters. Focusing on the testing of the percentiles of the fundamental frequencies, Figure 2 suggests that, at the very beginning with the percentage set to 0%, the pairs E2 and US differed from each other on ‘P’, ‘V’, ‘K’ and ‘Y’ whereas E1 on 14 letters - namely ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’, ‘P’, ‘V’, ‘L’, ‘N’, ‘S’, ‘A’, ‘H’, ‘J’,’K’, ‘I’, and ‘Y’ – and S1 on 7 letters (‘B’, ’C’, ’D’, ’V’, ’F’, ’L’, and ’S’.). On the contrary, the group of students and UK were thoroughly similar to each other. Still, only a few letters came up distinguishable for each pair of groups of students. Tables 3 through 5 indicate the results of the first half (10 to 50%) of the utterances. There the groups E2 and US came up similar to each other for almost all cases whereas E1 and US had 7 differences at 10%, 21 at 25% and 20 at 50% against 10 at 10%, 20 at 25% and 11 at 50% marked by the pair S1-US. No significant difference came out from the comparisons between the subgroups of students with UK. Moreover, the number of differences increased when comparisons across the sub-groups of students were carried out. In fact, the pairs E2-E1 and E2-S1 had respectively 5 and 4 distinguishable F0s at 10%, which jumped to 11 and 15 at 25% and then to 16 and 18 at 50%. Note that E1 and S1 had only one sound - letter ‘A’ - differing from each other at 10% and none at 25% and 50%. The final half of the utterances are depicted in Tables 6 through 8. At 75%, the pairs US-E1 and US-S1 had ‘Z’, ‘X’, and ‘J’ differing in their percentiles whereas the pair E2-E1 showed significant difference for the letter ‘L’. At 90%, the pairs US-S1 as well as UKS1 disagreed on ‘Z’, ‘X’, and ‘H’ against ‘X’, and ‘H’ for the pair E2-S1. At 100%, the mean values of the percentiles were not similar for the pairs US-S1, which differed for ‘X’, and E2-E1, which disagreed on ‘X’ and ‘R’. Note that the pairs statistically similar to each other were not mentioned heretofore for the sake of simplicity. These outcomes suggest that, when compared to the group US, the groups E1 and S1 modulated the fundamental frequencies during the first half of the utterances. As for the group E2, its members had high similarity with both US and UK. Table 1 Statistical testing of the fundamental frequencies Fs. *: p<0.05; N.S.: not significant. ISSN: 2189-2164
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The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
All Category Letter B C D E [i:/i] G P T V Z F L M [e] N S X A H [ei] J K Q [u:] U W I Y [ai], [o] [r] O R
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S.
US E1 * * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. * * * * N.S. * N.S. * * N.S. * N.S. * * * *
S1 * * * N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * N.S. * * * *
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
UK E1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Across the groups of JP E2xE1 E2xS1 E1xS1 * N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S.
Table 2 Statistical testing of the utterance percentiles at 0%. *: p<0.05; N.S.: not significant. 0% Category Letter B C D E [i:/i] G P T V Z F L M [e] N S X A H [ei] J K Q [u:] U W I Y [ai], [o] [r] O R
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S.
US E1 * * * N.S. N.S. * N.S. * N.S. N.S. * N.S. * * N.S. * * * * N.S. N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 * * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. * * N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
UK E1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Across the groups of JP E2xE1 E2xS1 E1xS1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Table 3 Statistical testing of the utterance percentiles at 10%. *: p<0.05; N.S.: not significant.
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
10% Category Letter B C D E [i:/i] G P T V Z F L M [e] N S X A H [ei] J K Q [u:] U W I Y [ai], [o] [r] O R
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
US E1 * N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * N.S. * N.S. N.S. * N.S. * N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 * * * N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
UK E1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Across the groups of JP E2xE1 E2xS1 E1xS1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Table 4 Statistical testing of the utterance percentiles at 25%. *: p<0.05; N.S.: not significant. 25% Category Letter B C D E [i:/i] G P T V Z F L M [e] N S X A H [ei] J K Q [u:] U W I Y [ai], [o] [r] O R
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. *
US E1 * * * N.S. * N.S. N.S. * N.S. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * N.S. * *
S1 * * * N.S. N.S. * * * N.S. * * * * * * N.S. * * * * * N.S. * N.S. * *
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
UK E1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Across the groups of JP E2xE1 E2xS1 E1xS1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. * * N.S.
Table 5 Statistical testing of the utterance percentiles at 50%. *: p<0.05; N.S.: not significant.
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
50% Category Letter B C D E [i:/i] G P T V Z F L M [e] N S X A H [ei] J K Q [u:] U W I Y [ai], [o] [r] O R
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
US E1 * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. * * N.S. N.S. * N.S. * * * N.S. * N.S. * * * *
S1 N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * N.S. * * * *
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
UK E1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Across the groups of JP E2xE1 E2xS1 E1xS1 * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. N.S. * N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. * N.S. N.S. * * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S. * * N.S.
Table 6 Statistical testing of the utterance percentiles at 75%. *: p<0.05; N.S.: not significant. 75% Category Letter B C D E [i:/i] G P T V Z F L M [e] N S X A H [ei] J K Q [u:] U W I Y [ai], [o] [r] O R
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
US E1 N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
UK E1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Across the groups of JP E2xE1 E2xS1 E1xS1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Table 7 Statistical testing of the utterance percentiles at 90%. *: p<0.05; N.S.: not significant.
ISSN: 2189-2164
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
90% Category Letter B C D E [i:/i] G P T V Z F L M [e] N S X A H [ei] J K Q [u:] U W I Y [ai], [o] [r] O R
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
US E1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
E2 N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
UK E1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Across the groups of JP E2xE1 E2xS1 E1xS1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Table 8 Statistical testing of the utterance percentiles at 100%. *: p<0.05; N.S.: not significant. 100% Category Letter B C D E [i:/i] G P T V Z F L M [e] N S X A H [ei] J K Q [u:] U W I Y [ai], [o] [r] O R
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
US E1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
E2 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
ISSN: 2189-2164
UK E1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
S1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Across the groups of JP E2xE1 E2xS1 E1xS1 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. * N.S.
The Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education
Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The results showed that at the level of the very basic sounds as those pronounced when reading the English alphabet, young Japanese female students likely generated fundamental frequencies F0s around the mean values measured for RP subjects. These observations were also verified by means of statistical comparisons of the data sets corresponding to the percentiles of the fundamental frequencies. As far as the comparisons between the groups of students with US are concerned, students lesser experienced in English, i.e. groups E1 and S1 showed greater statistical differences in the first half of the utterance lengths, with these two groups being statistically similar to each other in most cases during this interval. In contrast, the second half of the utterances showed a great deal of similarity for the comparisons, which suggests that the students of both E1 and S1 were making efforts to modulate the fundamental frequency. Note that due to the fact that the measurements took place during the first academic semester, the experiences with English language that the students in E1 and S1 were closely related to each other, i.e. their English backgrounds were basically what they had learned up to high school education. Finally, considering that E2 was statistically undistinguishable in almost all cases when compared with both US and UK, the results suggest that Japanese female students learned to modulate F0 to values close to the native speakers’ ones through some training, which means that in a comparative investigation as done in this work, one should be aware of these differences. REFERENCES [1] Izuta G. (2015), “On How Young Japanese Female College Students Say the English Alphabet: A Comparison of the Pitch Frequencies F0’s with Native Speakers of English Language,” submitted to proceedings of The 2015 Asian Conference on Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education (SLATE) , Hiroshima. [2] Cutler A. and Otake T. (1999), “Pitch accent in spoken-word recognition in Japanese,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 105 (3), pp.1877-1888. [3] Masuda-Katsuse Ikuyo (2006), "Contribution of pitch-accent information to Japanese spoken-word recognition," Acoustical Science & Technology, 27(2), pp. 97-103 [4] Sugiyama Y. (2012),"The Production and Perception of Japanese Pitch Accent,” Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne. [5] Järvinen K., Laukkanen A.M. and Aaltonen O. (2013), "Speaking a foreign language and its effect on F0," Logoped. Phoniatr. Vocol., 38(2), pp.47-51
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Hiroshima, Japan August 2-4, 2015
Study of the History of Co-operational Movement in Conditions of Globalisation Burnasheva Nataliia Yakut History Department Institute for Humanities Research and Indigenous Studiens of the North
ABSTRACT Co-operational movement is a huge economic power. In a number of countries almost a half of overall population participates in co-operatives. Cooperation of humans in spheres of labour and production makes the cooperatives a universal phenomenon. Co-operation exists on the principles of honesty, fairness of profit allocation, and healthy economical competition. And the example of history of co-operative movement in Yakutia shows that cooperation is an ideal method of solving the economical problems. Cooperation is the way to solve problems on the scale of globalisation. And the study of history can lead us the way to to the succesful collaboration between countries, that suffer from shared problems.
Key words: co-operation, history, co-operative movement, globalisation.
Co-operational movement is a huge economic power. In a number of countries almost a half of overall population participates in co-operatives. Cooperation of humans in spheres of labour and production makes the co-operatives a universal phenomenon. Co-operation exists on the principles of honesty, fairness of profit allocation, and healthy economical competition. [1] In regard to the significant role of co-operation in the development of world economics and human society, on 18th of December 2009 by the resolution â&#x201E;&#x2013;64/136 of United Nations General Assembly, the 2012th year was proclaimed a year of Co-operation, to spread awareness of the meaning of co-operation. Principles of co-operation are wide-spread all over the world, and the methods and forms of co-operation are affected by global processes. Russia has a huge historical experience of managing economic issues by united efforts of different regions, different nationalities and social groups. Republic of Sakha(Yakutia) can serve as an example for that. Nowadays, the republic is the region of Russia with the most territories, making it 18% of the whole country. On the other hand, population density is very low, with 0,3 humans per 1 sq.km, population being 950 000. One of the major characteristics of Yakutia is its remoteness from the centre, and underdevelopment of transport system. As a consequence, Republic of Sakha historically was always economically isolated from the neighbouring regions. The first co-operative of Yakutia was founded in Yakutsk in the 1878. Co-operative movement itself started in 1914, as a consequence of the WWI and followed economical changes, that consolidated the positions of Siberian co-operative movement. In 1915 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the biggest coISSN: 2189-2164
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operative had 1408 members, it was about 20% of the city population. In 1917 it further increased to 4155, total population of Yakutsk being 7000. In 1918 the need for unification of co-operative forces arised, and gathered around one centre – when co-operatives merged into co-operative union “Holbos”, that gathered 70 cooperatives with 8681 members. In 1923 Yakutia joined the New Economic Policy, and in the face of the directive to achieve economical prosperity, with the flavour of local traditions of production. The government raised funds to aid the creation of co-operative unions, such as credit, agricultural and consumer cooperations. ¼ of the population of the Yakutia has been participating in various forms of co-operatives by the 1925. With the end of 1920s the governmental control over economy became absolute and cooperatives were closed down in general. Instead, of the market co-operation, socialistic co-operation came to power. All the country-side population was driven into the socialistic co-operations, that are characterized by planned economy, centrаlization, and losing any form of self-management. Nevertheless, co-operation managed to merge into socialistic economy, as the former market co-operators were involved in the organisation and managaement of socialistic co-operatives. Cooperatives were engaged in agriculture and distribution of consumer goods. Also the co-operation had a great impact on the development of Yakut economy and Yakut nation in general, looking after mainly poor and uneducated population. To sum it up, history of co-operative movement in Yakutia shows that cooperation is an ideal method of solving the economical problems. No single power can solve everything. In union lies power. [2] And in the wake of globalisation, problems need to be solved on a larger scale, so there exists the need to apply the principles of co-operation to solve problems concerning not only of single region or single country, but on a scale of number of countries, taking it to the new ground. Also, to aid the practical use, further scientific researches are in order. Because many solution we can find in our human history.
REFERENCES 1.
Curl J. (2010), The Cooperative Movement in Century 21, A Journal of Radical Theory, Culture, and Action, Vol. 4, N. 1, p. 12-29.
2.
Yamashita T. (1992), History of the Co-operative Movement in Japan, Review of International Co-operation, Vol. 85, N. 1, p. 6-17.
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Abandoned gold mining tailing dumps: risks and responsibility Ivan Kovlekov Mining Institute North-Eastern Federal University
…….. ABSTRACT During the soviet time, large-scale state gold-mining enterprises have operated in the Far North. In 90s of XX century all of them went bankrupt and were liquidated. As a consequence miner villages and urban-type settlements died out. Gold recovery plants were plundered and dismantled. But tailing dumps, filled with poisonous industrial wastes remained, with a high consistency of cancerogenic heavy metals and great presence of mercury, arsenic and cyanides. Industry functioned for decades, and toxic waste volumes are measured in hundreds of million tons. They present an imminent danger not only to the territories it is situated in. Potentially, severe pollution can expand by the means of water access, that is a common occurrence in industrial mining. Arctic territories are under a constant danger of harm to the fragile flora and fauna. And that is the reason for constant control and monitoring, that is not present. As there is no one anymore that owns tailing dumps and will take responsibility in case of a technogenic disaster, probability of which raises every year with spring and flash floods. Overflow of water can result in permanent damages to the water enclosing facilities. In this light, responsibility for security of these high-risk objects should be taken by the government. Additional care can be administered by independent ecological public organizations. Key words: gold mining, tailing dump, toxic wastes, environmental pollution.
Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is one of the most large-scale mining regions of Russia. Since the beginning of the XXth century, the mining of diamonds, oil, gas, gold, coal and other mineral resources has been a primary force of the local industry. Mining is a basis of the economy of the whole Yakut republic, that provides working places and ensures the life stability of population. [1] However, on the other hand, ecological problems ensue, specifically because of the violation of the natural environment as a consequence of mining. [2] Mining companies don't always take full responsibility for the rehabilitation of the nature after depletion of mineral resources. In the soviet period of expansive industrial development of the Far East mining, issues of the environmental protection were not payed close attention to. Non-recultivated abandoned waste dumps can serve as an examples of such negligence. Issues concerning toxic wastes of mining industry remain one of the most grieve contemporary issues of environmental protection. [3, 4] The toxic wastes of mineral processing are stored in the tailing dumps. Industrial ores, bearing such minerals as diamonds, gold, cassiterite, antimonite and others, also contain hazardous chemical substances and toxic heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, zink, cobalt and others. The deadlier chemical substances that are used in the mineral processing technology usually consist of cyanides, mercury and other toxic reagents. Tailing dumps are placed on surface and they require large capacity volumes for storage of tails. Tailing dumps are constructed with the use of a natural landscape. Valleys provide the best conditions for placing tailing dumps, cost-wise. Mineral wastes are transported to tailing dumps by pipelines as a pulp. Spring and autumn floods endanger the tailing dumps annually. Protecting the environment from toxic spillings requires construction of fortifications and constant monitoring. On top of that, the maintenance requires qualified personal, that regularly passes the state examination. Mining companies must sustain the safety of tailing dumps and take responsibility in case of disasters. In case of mining enterprise going bankrupt, it is a commonplace that the moral and financial responsibility passes to the government. As a fact, after the collapse of Soviet Union, most of the gold mining enterprises of Yakutia went bankrupt and were abandoned. During that period the total gold mining production has achieved the point of 30 tons of gold per year. There were such powerful mining companies as “Kularzoloto”, “Indigirzoloto”, “Jugjurzoloto”, “Aldanzoloto”, “Yakutzoloto”. Each company had a ISSN: 2189-2164
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number of big mineral-processing plants that operated with a large scale of toxic chemical reagents. At the time, no one could possibly imagine, that such outstanding, successful socialistic enterprises could abruptly go bankrupt. And that is why, there were no measures planned in case of political and financial breakdown of the country. As a result, we have a large amount of abandoned gold mining tailing dumps containing toxic wastes. The danger level can be assessed on the example of one of the numerous neglected tailing dumps of Yakutia that belonged to a former small-scale gold mine. The company was disbanded in 1993 (Figure 1). Gold processing plant used various technological operations that on different phases of processing used amalgamation, flotation and cyanidation. After the company ceased to operate the tailing dump remained as it was. The tailing dump consists of the tails of mineral processing of quartz-sulfide ores, divided into sections. The ores contained hazardous toxic chemical elements, that pose a danger for humans and animals, as they are left in free access. In the beginning, mineral processing plant applied gravitational-amalgamational process. After that, scheme of mineral processing changed to gravitational-flotational processing, with the daily output of 500 tons of ore. After the followed reconstruction the new method of hydrometallurgical technology, that used cyanide process. Daily output increased to 1200 tons of ore. Total amount of processed ore was 15,6 mln. tons of ore.
Figure 1. Abandoned mineral processing plant Tails include milled particles of limonite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena and others. Chemical consistency of ores on the data of mining company can be found in Table 1. Based on semiquantitative spectral analysis, concentrations of vanadium, chromium, zirconium, beryllium is under 0,001-0,003%, bismuth â&#x20AC;&#x201C; under 0,01%. Table 1. Chemical consistency of tails. Company data. Components
Fe2O3
CaO
ĐĄ
S
K2O
Na2O
Pb
Mass
26,95
11,12
4,15
2,37
1,76
0,26
0,23
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fraction, % Components
SiO2
MgO
Al2O3
Fes
Zn
Sb
Co
Mass fraction, %
23,2
7,97
3,52
1,97
0,07
0,02
0,002
Components
Ssulf.
TiO2
Cu
As
Ni
Mass fraction, %
1,6
0,17
0,16
0,03
0,002
Results of independent testing of the chemical consistency of the tails can be found in Table 2. Table 2. Chemical consistency of tails. Independent data. Chemical element
â&#x201E;&#x2013; Name
Mass fraction, % (n*10-3) Symbol
1
Titanium
Ti
200,0
2
Manganese
Mn
100,0
3
Phosphorus
P
70,0
4
Copper
Cu
50,0
5
Zinc
Zn
50,0
6
Lead
Pb
30,0
7
Vanadium
V
20,0
8
Arsenic
As
10,0
9
Chromium
Cr
7,0
10
Lithium
Li
5,0
11
Nickel
Ni
3,0
12
Yttrium
Y
3,0
13
Tungsten
W
3,0
14
Boron
B
2,0
15
Molybdenum
Mo
2,0
16
Antimony
Sb
2,0
17
Cobalt
Co
1,5
18
Gallium
Ga
1,5
19
Niobium
Nb
1,0
20
Thallium
Tl
0,5
21
Tin
Sn
0,3
22
Bismuth
Bi
0,2
23
Silver
Ag
0,19
24
Germanium
Ge
0,15
Analysis and evaluation of the danger of the hazardous chemical elements was made using the method described in the instruction of sanitary regulations of Russian Federation. [5] It is a method of calculating index of the waste component hazardousness Ki as a quotient of concentration of the waste component Ci (mg/kg) and coefficient of the hazardousness of the component Wi ISSN: 2189-2164
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Ki = Ci / Wi lg Wi = 1,2 (Xi - 1),
(1) (2)
where Xi is an average parameter of the hazardousness of the toxic component. The results of analysis show that hazardousness exceeds the threshold limit value (TLV), especially the hazardousness of the following chemical elements: Cr (11,7 TLV), As(10,0 TLV), Sb (4,4 TLV), Cu (3,8 TLV), Co (3,0), Zn (2,3 TLV) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; these are the most dangerous elements to encounter in the gold mining tailing dump. Taking in account all of various parameters, the most dangerous elements are: Pb, V, Sb, As, Zn, Cr. If we arrange elements in the level of cancerogenous factor it is: As, Cr, Pb, Ni, V, etc. Table 3. Range of the tailing component hazardousness Ki â&#x201E;&#x2013;
Chemical Element
Ki
1
Pb
57,2
2
V
21,9
3
Sb
20,0
4
As
19,1
5
Zn
18,2
6
Cr
13,3
7
Cu
10,4
8
Co
5,0
9
Ni
0,6
In total:
165,7
Thus, the tailings of the presented gold mining mineral processing plant consist of dangerous wastes, that include hazardous and toxic chemical elements (As, Pb, Sb, Cu, V, etc), that belong to the 3rd category of danger. The example clearly presents the level of a danger abandoned gold mining tailing dumps pose. It is due to the fact, that in case of hazardous contamination, it will most likely exceed the local pollution area and disperse across the rivers, as tailing dumps are usually placed in drainage river basins. There exists a need to find the optimal way either for safe conservation or total liquidation of this type of toxic industrial tailings, accompanied by constant maintenance and monitoring. Only government can take the responsibility for such dangerous industrial objects, but additional and alternative control can be done by local and world-wide organizations of ecological monitoring.
References: 1. Kovlekov I.I. (2002). Placer Gold from Tailing, 304 p. Publishing house of Moscow State Mining University, Moscow 2. Marcello M. Veiga, Stephen M. Metcalf Randy F. Baker, Bern Klein et al. (2006). Manual for Training Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners. 144p. GEF/UNDP/UNIDO, Vienna, Austria 3. Davies, M.P. (2002.) Tailings impoundment failures: are geotechnical engineers listening? Geotechnical News, September, pp: 31-36.
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4. Wong, H.K.T; Gauthier, A.; Nriagu, J.O. (1999). "Dispersion and toxicity of metals from abandoned gold mine tailings at Goldenville, Nova Scotia, Canada". Science of The Total Environment 228 (1), pp: 35–47. 5. СП 2.1.7.1386-03 «Определение класса опасности токсичных отходов производства и потребления», Moscow. 2003.
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Tabletop Role-Playing as a New Educational Tool
Kovlekov Kirill Institute of Foreign Philology and Regional Studies North-Eastern Federal University
……..
ABSTRACT In the modern culture exists a phenomenon called “table-top roleplaying games”. It is different from other types of roleplaying, and is played all over the world by people between 14 and 35 years old. Generally – 22 years old, educated, employed, active and creative youth. Game process: by using simple mathematical equations and primitive random number generators, participants simulate the imaginary world, in which their alter-ego are presented different life-situation by the game master, which they need to collectively solve by imagining, talking and acting out. It is a primitive virtual reality. Even if games have no reason besides playing the game itself, participants of the game can have definite goals. Use of the table-top roleplaying may prove useful in the educational sphere. Benefits can spread to teaching languages, particularly second-language studies, by creating unique environment. This activity can also improve ones social and creative skills, because of stimulation of live communication and collective creativeness. Tabletop rolеplaying can become a tool to educate a person and nurture imagination and reason. Significance of using table-top roleplaying in education is aided by low costs, accessibility and minimal qualification requirements.
Keywords: second-language study, tabletop role-playing game, role-playing game, motivation
The pertaining characteristic of Homo Socius is communication, which serves as a basis for realization of the socium functionality. Establishing the common ground between two minds can be also described as the use of a language, given that it serves not only as a tool for relaying, but also as a tool for perceiving and classifying information, that completes a sentient being, just like coder completes a program using script. In this light, the language serves as a bridge between the separated entities of human mind and the nature.
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In the last decades, painted in the colors of globalisation, the reliance upon communication between nations and its citizens have grown exponentially. The dialogue is possible only when the participants are associated with each other: mutual understanding, same wave. Thus, the second language study, however technological progress may supersede the position of the mediator - most likely will never lose its role completely. Nevertheless, there exists no ultimate educational method that would properly answer the needs of the population in general, as the same methods don't apply to everyone. And that is why asessing new ways of second-language acquisition is an important issue. That being said, an educational system itself makes the task of acquiring second-language a requiring feat. Society is ruled by government, and they both are ruled by standards. Traditionally, those standards are: good grades and strict discipline. And that is understandable – as sophisticated modus operandi fail under the influence of statistical regularity, when applied to majority. Focus on good grades and strict discipline alone can forever instill disgust over the secondlanguage into the average learner, as it has been proving so in the experience of Russian educational system. [1] “Good grades” is a simulacrum, that is usually mistaken as a purpose of learning, false motivation leading to the fake achievements. On the other hand, “strict discipline” being the state of consciousness, cannot be given to a person none other than by one's own will. To sum it up, traditional educational values on the contrary demotivate the subject, by relying on passive forms of learning. In the modern culture there exists a phenomenon called “tabletop role-playing game”. It originated in the Western culture in 1970s, and have never been intented solely for the purpose of study. Every educator knows that role-playing is a common occurrence in the modern field of language education, as it comes in various forms. Also, role-playing is widely known among subcultures of computer game enthusiasts. And tabletop role-playing gaming greatly differs from all other kinds of role-playing, previously stated. But it doesn't change the essence of the said activity – the play. Of course, it is traditional to separate concepts of study/work and play. But it may be artificial distinction, as the process of memorization relies heavily on emotional state of a subject. And the emotions are linked to the motivation of a human. ISSN: 2189-2164
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Motivation serves as a basic principle of one's modus vivendi, as the motivation is the humane explanation of the natural urges to satiate one's needs and instincts. But they can't be perceived other than by wanting objects and feeling emotions. And that is what makes emotion and motivation so dependent on each other â&#x20AC;&#x201C; survival instinct. And the games can probably be described as an act of life, in which the subject satiates himself by feeding emotions with the completion of the survival activity, not necessarily having purpose, end or real output. The game itself has no end, because it can be played again in an infinite loop. So, if humanity has a stimulus for perpetuum mobile that can make one psyched up on a relatively cheap investment, it is better to use it while imagination doesn't stagnate. [2] And that is the greatest difference between tabletop roleplaying games and other forms of roleplaying games â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the active involvement in the process. On the language lessons dialogues are considered a kind of a roleplay, and everything else too. But there exists no freedom in a strictly traditionalistic educational roleplay, as there always exists script, and the act is orchestrated beforehand. Thus it is doesn't feel like doing it by your own will, in contrast to the tabletop roleplay. And that is why educational role-playing is a passive activity. Nearly mechanical actions, only made by vocalization of the memorized texts. The tabletop roleplaying games come in a great variety. [4,5] But there is one common feature: the dialogue. The gameplay is centered around the comunication of two types of actors: game master and players. By usage of simple mathematical equations and primitive random number generators, participants simulate the imaginary world, in which their alter-ego are presented different life-situation by the game master, which they need to collectively solve by imagining, talking and acting out. It is a primitive virtual reality, that clashes human opinions, wills and wits. [3] De facto, there exists no common way of winning the game that has the purpose of just being played. But there exists a loophole. The basis of the tabletop role-playing activity is spontanneous dialogue between the player and the master. And unbeknownst to them it becomes a fierce battle of minds. And the only way, minds can fight â&#x20AC;&#x201C; is by words. And the words make up a language, that makes up the mind. So, the pinnacle of the game is a linguistic battle. And the battles, be they real or imagined, trigger the instincts, that produce emotions, that affect the memory and as tabletop role-playing games are linguistic battles, they are the way of active learning.
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Though, it is not perfect. Tabletop role-playing games are lengthy, so they can be only played of one's own accord, in a free time. Also, the weak in mind can be allured by the wonders of the ideal imaginitive world and accidentally decide to stay on the other side reality. And it can't be possibly be enjoyable experience on first 2-3 phases of language acquisition. To sum it up, there exists a great share of activites one can pass his own time with. And tabletop role-playing is a way to pass the time actually using language, while enjoying things that are motivating. The active mind evolves while it is being used. And everything we do with mind, we do by means of our language. And the main point is that our mind can evolve while acquiring second language. And one of the ways to do it is to participate in tabletop role-playing activity.
REFERENCES: 1) Kitaygorodskay G.A., 1986, Методические основы интенсивного обучения иностранным языкам, Moscow, MSU 2) Stuart Brown, 2009, Play: How it Shapes the Brain, Opens the Imagination, and Invigorates the Soul, New-York, Avery 3) Gary Gygax, 1979, Dungeon Masters Guide, Lake Geneva, TSR Games 4) 神谷涼, 2006, ゆうやけこやけ, 大阪, サンセットゲームズ 5) グループ SNE, 2008 , ソード
2.0, 東京, 富士見書房 ・ワールド
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ISSN: 2189-2164
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