The Eloquence of Emptiness: Architecturally Articulating the Trauma of The Atlantic Slave Trade by Etulan Joseph

The Eloquence of Emptiness: Architecturally Articulating the Trauma of The Atlantic Slave Trade by Etulan A. Joseph University of Westminster School of Architecture and the Built Environment MA Architecture Thesis Project

The Eloquence of Emptiness: Architecturally Articulating the Trauma of The Atlantic Slave Trade by Etulan A. Joseph

THE ELOQUENCE OF EMPTINESS: ARCHITECTURALLY ARTICULATING THE TRAUMA OF THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE FINAL DESIGN REPORT SUBMITTED ON SEPTEMBER 2ND, 2019 ETULAN A. JOSEPH[STUDENT I.D 1708803] UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT MA ARCHITECTURE THESIS PROJECT TUTOR: DR. KRYSTALLIA KAMVASINOU

Acknowledgements

I would like to sincerely express my gratitude to Dr.Krystallia Kamvasinou, my thesis tutor,for her

unyieldsing

support

and

constructive

criticism in pursuing and compiling this body of

work.

Deriu

for

also

extend

allowing

beforehand,

thanks to

explore

Dr.Davide this

topic

inspiring the groundwork for this

thesis. Finally, I am forever grateful for the unwavering

encouragement

from

parents,

Dr.Livingstone Joseph and Hilary Joseph. Thank you, all. Etulan A. Joseph

Page I

Contents

01.

02.

Page 1

Page 5

05.

06.

Page 21

Page 41

Abstract

Theoretical Framework

Structure

The Articulation

Page II

Contents

03.

04.

Page 9

Page 15

07.

08.

Page 79

Page 85

Introduction

Conclusion

Methodolgy

Bibliography + List of Images

Page III

Abstract

01. ABSTRA Page 1

Abstract

ACT Page 2

Abstract

When one thinks of collective

trauma, the mind almost immediately thinks of the Holocaust. There have been numerous

articles,

documentaries,

memorials and other architectural expressions

that

highlight

this

historical tragedy. One of the most know

The Atlantic Slave Trade: a historic event with an extensive legacy, one that is usually diminished, neglecting the grim truths of societies and cancerous ideologies.

architectural articulations is The Berlin Jewish Museum Extension by Daniel Libeskind, completed in 1981; logging in 7,000,000 visitors within a decade. However, there are other catastrophes that are worth being architecturally expressed. That is not to say that The Holocaust doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have its place in being addressed spatially, but it does bring into question of other tragedies. It should be said that there is no hierarchy to trauma and pain, however certain catastrophic events are not expressed architecturally. This begins to scratch the surface of implied hierarchy in architectural spaces â&#x20AC;&#x201C; what gets built and by whom? But this thesis doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t aim to address this critical issue. It first sets out to situate itself in order to fill this chasm of architectural, cultural, historical and socio-political knowledge in relation to collective trauma, memory

Page 3

Abstract

and space. Thus, it shifts the lens to look

is explored, allowing these narratives

at another catastrophe deemed worthy

to be expressed through this theoretical

of being architecturally expressed â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The

framework. â&#x20AC;&#x153;How does one design

Atlantic Slave Trade: a historic event with

space that articulates the trauma of

an extensive legacy, one that is usually

the cataclysmic events of the Atlantic

diminished, neglecting the grim truths

Slave Trade into space, however letting

of societies and cancerous ideologies.

emptiness and the experience control

Western slavery has essentially built

the narrative?â&#x20AC;? The thesis sets out to

many modern day Western cities and

answer this question. Like the proposal,

societies through free slave labour and

it serves to unearth a complex legacy of

then implicated a series of complex

bodies, ideologies and erasure. It takes

historical, cultural, political and social

the hidden layers of history, culture and

consequences that affect an entire

legacy and explores them critically. The

diaspora.

research hopes to answer to a question

The city of London is no stranger

not frequently asked yet holds much

to this legacy as the city started to

criticality, not only architecturally, but

reap the benefits of its stealing of West

also socially, culturally and historically.

African bodies by the 1660s. By the end of the Atlantic Slave Trade, the United Kingdom was the second largest Slave trading nation by volume. The connection is undeniable yet hardly visible spatially around the city; an erasure of sorts. What this thesis does is bring this legacy to the forefront, providing a radical proposal for a contemporary approach to articulating trauma of The Atlantic Slave Trade architecturally. Additionally, the concept of emptiness

Page 4

Structure

02. STRUCTU Page 5

Structure

URE Page 6

Structure

This thesis constitutes five main

theories, objectives and interpretations

chapters – “Introduction”, “Methodology”,

are

“Theoretical

establishing

Framework”,

“The

formulated the

and

concretized,

groundwork

for

Articulation” and “Conclusion”. In the

the response to the questions and

Introduction we begin to broadly explore

objectives in the previous section while

the notion of architecture, catastrophe

simultaneously drawing out the essence

and trauma as to under their relationship

of the thesis and beginning to develop an

and set a basis for the thesis. These

answer for our research question.

terms are examined as generically in our

contemporary world. The Atlantic Slave

Articulation”, puts forward the design

Trade and the concept of emptiness

proposal for this thesis. It presents the

is also briefly introduced as the two

design manifesto, explores the site and

are actively intertwined and serves as

context of the proposal, illustrates the

specific contexts and conditions for

concept by further manifesting drawings

the body of work. Additionally, the main

research question is brought to the

intentions, shifting from questions

forefront.

to answers yet firmly being rooted in

The Methodology explores the

what was discussed in the previous

manner in which the terms and concepts

sections. The proposal is also looked at

in the previous section are considered

retrospectively, anticipating the effect,

and adopted as architectural history

response and future applications.

and theory in order to move forward

with the thesis, whether that’s through

concludes the thesis, looking at the

case studies, literature reviews and the

entire development of this thesis and

like. Further questions and objectives

presenting a final concrete answer

are also ratified, providing a clearer

towards our main research question.

path in the approach to the thesis. This extends into the third section – “Theoretical Framework”, where these

Page 7

The fourth main section, “The

different

The

scales

final

and

main

different

section

Structure

“THE DOOR OF NO RETURN” , WHERE SLAVES LEFT WEST AFRICA ON SLAVE SHIPS Dakar, Senegal//2018

Page 8

Introduction

03. INTRODU Page 9

Introduction

UCTION Page 10

Introduction

Architecture and catastrophe

have an almost parasitical and complex relationship.

Catastrophes,

either

manmade or natural, have destroyed buildings, collapsed infrastructures and have even wiped out entire cities and

“A disaster zone where everything is lost offers the perfect opportunity for us to take a fresh look, from the ground up, at what architecture really is.”

towns, sometimes instantly. The city of London was set ablaze in 1666 for four days, damaging a part of the London Bridge and destroying over 13,000 houses and 84 churches. In 1970, a cyclone in Bhola caused a twenty foot storm surge, causing widespread flooding. The death toll was anywhere between 300,000 and 500,000 people. In 2001, a set of planes crashed into New York City’s World Trade Centre. The disaster claimed the lives of approximately 3,000 people. Though after these catastrophic events there is usually mourning and melancholy, for architects there is also opportunity; the

- Toyo Ito

fortuity to begin on clean slates of spaces that is not only rebuilt but reflect the people and the catastrophe. According to Toyo Ito, “A disaster zone where everything is lost offers the perfect opportunity for us to take a fresh look, from the ground up, at what architecture really is,” (Poon, 2016) However, there

Page 11

Introduction

is a deeper cavity of knowledge and

memory, identity and humanity. What

understanding that needs to be drawn

this thesis seeks to explore is that

out in order for architects to respond

relationship by critically looking at

to these catastrophes in a way that is

architecture’s approach to shaping

effective in not only highlighting these

spaces that house trauma.

events but also their lasting impressions

and effects. Through observations, many

we turn our eyes to one of the most

spaces that memorialize a catastrophe

catastrophic events in modern history

seem to ignore the trauma that comes

– The Atlantic Slave Trade; a historic

with these tragedies. As architects,

event with an extensive legacy, one that

memorials,

is usually diminished, neglecting the

monuments, museum and other spaces

grim truths of societies and cancerous

that house memories from catastrophic

ideologies.

moments but do these spaces serve

essentially built many modern day

their purpose? Do we design to tell or to

Western cities and societies through

heal? According to Rowlands, “some of

free slave labour and then implicated a

these spaces designed by architects do

series of complex historical, cultural,

not work at the personal level of healing

political and social consequences that

and reconciliation,” (Rowlands, 1998,

affect an entire diaspora. Architecturally

p.54).

speaking, there are not many spatial

continue

Architectural

build

spaces

To add another layer of criticality,

Western

slavery

has

and

articulations dedicated to the traumatic

interventions of this typology should

event. This neglect diminishes the

not be erased; such would be futile and

memories of the community. It dilutes

shortsighted. There are ominous stories

the gruesome truths of what occurred

and histories that hold memories of

during the Atlantic Slave Trade and the

society as well as reflect the evolution of

entire oppressive and barbaric system

ever-changing values. Simultaneously,

behind it. What this does is leave room

they shape collective identities and

for cataclysmic ideologies to fester and

foster relationships between space,

permeate society which then serves

Page 12

Introduction

A CAGED SLAVE

Page 13

Introduction

as an exordium to such catastrophic events.

Furthermore,

the

emotional

backdrop behind the event ties in with a supplementary layer â&#x20AC;&#x201C; emptiness; a new sort of character to be explored. The Atlantic Slave Trade has essentially left emotional scars and voids on the Black diaspora. It is a narratives that is deep, strange and powerful. Delving into this void and drawing out its potential as an architectural angle serves as a profound approach to these architectural spaces.

Thus, our thesis question is

brought to the forefront; how does one design space that articulates the trauma of the cataclysmic event of the Atlantic Slave Trade into space, however letting emptiness and the experience control the narrative? This thesis seeks to present a design proposal as well as present possible design strategies in order to articulate the emotional trauma of the Atlantic Slave Trade through space;

How does one design space that articulates the trauma of the cataclysmic event of the Atlantic Slave Trade into space, however letting emptiness and the experience control the narrative?

hopefully filling a chasm of a topic that in under-represented, broadening our understanding of space, trauma, history, memories, identity and their seemingly fickle yet complex relationship.

Page 14

Methodology

04. METHOD Page 15

Methodology

DOLOGY Page 16

Methodology

â&#x20AC;&#x153;How does one design space

research methods to meet these

that articulates the trauma of the

objectives as well as possess a deeper

cataclysmic event of the Atlantic Slave

understanding of theoretical ideas

Trade into space, however letting

on memory, trauma and space. These

emptiness and the experience control

objectives are:

the narrative?â&#x20AC;? Our research question is complex and layered and to answer this

research question successfully, several

To understand and establish the

supporting questions should be asked

relationship between architectural

first:

space and trauma. 1.

What design approaches can articulate

To simultaneously look The Atlantic

trauma?

Slave Trade and its events and critically evaluate design approaches of trauma-

reflection spaces within the context of

How can the narratives of The

this human catastrophe.

Atlantic Slave Trade and its trauma be expressed through the built

environment?

To understand the concept of emptiness and how it may serve as a compass for

this thesis.

What is the effect of emptiness expressed as trauma within the urban

fabric?

To address the first objective,

I review several literature on both of the key terms â&#x20AC;&#x201C; space and trauma,

From these questions, we can lay out

however doing so separately at first

some objectives that are interconnected

and then establishing the link between

and thus employ several architectural

the two concepts. By evaluating each

Page 17

Methodology

term, their theoretical understanding

brought to the forefront. Texts such as

as it works in this thesis is drawn

Barbarca M’Baye’s “Configurations of

out and contextualized. I rely on

Enslavement” and “The Atlantic Slave

several historical and contemporary

Trade” by Herbert S. Klein. Klein’s work

works such as Theresa Stoppani’s

in particular serves as a synthesis of

“Architecture and Trauma”, Michael

economic, political and social legacy of

Rowlands’

and

The Atlantic Slave Trade. By examining

Memorials”, as well as Mark Crinson’s

the hundreds of years of this calamity,

“Urban Memory: History and Amnesia

understandings of the cultural, social

in the Modern City”. Stoppani’s work

and

theorizes about viewing architecture

experiences are seen. However, to see

as actually being traumatized. It is from

these traumatic effects incorporated

this work the understanding of space

into the built environment, I rely on

as a body is conceptualized. In addition

mainly case studies, primarily analyzing

to this, Crinsons’ work really brings the

built architecture such as The National

two concepts together. It is significant

Museum of African American. However,

for this thesis because it is essentially

due to the lack of buildings that are solely

the first critical work in which the two

dedicated to the Atlantic Slave Trade, we

are interpreted concurrently. It not only

look at other articulations of The Atlantic

evaluates the connection between the

Slave Trade such as John Akomfrah’s

two but puts forward new terms are

installation - “Vertigo Sea”, MASS Design

learnt such as ‘mnemic symbols’ which

Group’s The National Memorial for Peace

are typically monuments, memorials

and Libeskind’s Berlin Jewish Museum. I

and other architectural interventions

evaluate their approach to these public

that act as theatres of memory and

histories, considering the tools used to

trauma.

highlight the narratives of this traumatic

With

“Trauma,

the

Memory

second

economic

implications

and

objective,

event while uplifting a community and

evaluation of several literature on The

honouring their collective memories

Atlantic Slave Trade and its effects is

and collective identity.

Page 18

Methodology

THE NATIONAL MEMORIAL FOR PEACE AND JUSTICE MASS Design Group Montgomery, Alabama, USA//2018

Page 19

Methodology

With regards to the final objective,

I take the two previous objectives and situate them within the framework of emptiness. In line with the findings from the two subsequent objectives, an interplay is established, formulating a relationship with the concept of emptiness and how this directs the thesis. Again, this done through literature such as Henri Lefebvre and “The Empty Space” by Peter Brooks. Understandings of the term and then further drawing from the previous findings become fundamental in answering the research question through the design proposal. Consequently, from the understanding of emptiness, the terminology “void” is drawn out due to possibilities of practical application as well as the emotional attachment and narratives that can be inferred and articulated.

Page 20

Theoretical Framework

05. THEORE FRAMEW Page 21

Theoretical Framework

ETICAL WORK Page 22

Theoretical Framework

As architects, we have a very

distant relationship with trauma; it seems like it is only fictitious. However, when

architecture

and

violence

collides, we see that the idea of the

As architects, we have a very distant relationship with trauma; it seems like it is only fictitious. However, when architecture and violence collides, we see that the idea of the two being disconnected is misleading.

two being disconnected is misleading. Now, we have some faint idea of what ‘architectural articulation’ may encompass. But for this thesis, there are certain frameworks for which articulation

operates,

serving

compasses to answer the research question. Firstly, we look at the term trauma, a key term in our question. TRAUMA

The term ‘trauma’ originates

from outside our field with earliest investigations of trauma being conducted by Jean Martin Charcot, a French physician who worked with traumatized women at Salpetriere Hospital during the late 19th century. Further studies were done by figures such as Sigmund Freud, Josef Bauer, Pierre Janet and Abram Kardiner (Ringell and Brandell, 2012, pp. 1 – 5). By 1942, the contemporary idea of trauma was conceived by

Page 23

Theoretical Framework

a psychiatrist who specialized on

come with political and social agendas

bereavement, theorizing about the

that either create, reinforce, or destroy

normalcy of certain reactions to grief

political and social constructs. In Gillis’

such

lost

book, “Commemorations: The Politics

loved ones, identification with the

of National Identity”, he says that “Both

deceased, expressions of guilt and

identity and memory are political and

hostility, disorganization, and somatic

social constructs, and should be treated

complaints,” (ibid) By 1980, the definition

as such… Identities and memories are not

of trauma that we use today was

things we think about, but things we think

formed – a psychological, emotional

with” (Gillis, 1994, p.8). Essentially, these

response to an event or an experience

trauma reflection spaces are important

that is deeply disturbing (ibid). Thus,

as they sometimes raise issues against

architecturally speaking, we can start

or for certain group, pushing narratives

bringing

that challenge agendas.

“preoccupation

architecture

with

and

trauma

together through Mark Crinson’s “Urban

Memory: History and Amnesia in the

and theorist also theorized about

Modern City” in which he references

viewing architecture as actually being

Sigmund Freud. He highlights that

traumatized. She sees these spaces

monuments,

other

as “a complex process of interactions

architectural interventions that act as

which affect the body of architecture

theatres of memory and trauma were

as well as its pasts, its memories, its

‘mnemic

narratives, and its languages”. Thus,

memorials

symbols’

and

(Crinson,

2005,

Theresa

Stoppani,

p.xvii). Essentially, Crinson suggests

trauma-reflection

that these spaces hold traces of events,

articulate the trauma through spatial

even as a collective. He also calls

operation while but also create an

contemporary spaces that do this as

almost bodily response that is rooted in

‘trauma-reflection’ spaces. He, along

time and space. Hence, in this thesis, we

with cultural and social historian, John

can suggest that identity and memory

R. Gillis, argues that these spaces

are important when articulating trauma

Page 24

spaces

architect

need

Theoretical Framework

Memorial

Monument

Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain

National Holocaust Monument

Gustafson Porter + Bowman London, United Kingdom// 2004

Studio Libeskind Ottawa, Canada// 2017

Installation

Film

Vertigo Sea

Iceland in a Blizzard

John Akomfrah London, United Kingdom// 2004

Adrian Searle Iceland// 2009

Page 25

Theoretical Framework

Exhibition

Photography

First World War Permanent Exhibition

Dusk #21 - Antelope Valley #230

Casson Mann London, United Kingdom// 2014

Mark Ruwedel Los Angeles, United States// 2008

Sculpture

Museum

Nkyinkim

The Palestinian Museum

Kwame Akoto-Bamfo Montgommery, United States// 2018

Heneghan Peng Architects Palestine, Palestine// 2017

THEATRES OF MEMORY

Page 26

Theoretical Framework

architecturally; these qualities need to be central. Along these lines, this articulation, as a trauma reflection space, should bring out these narratives,

Historians believed that approximately 1,200,000 to 2,400,000 Africans lost their lives during the trade and more did upon arrival to the Americas.

stories, traumas and memories of The Atlantic Slave Trade, acting critically as agents of political and social constructs. THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

This thesis, as much as it is

situated in articulating trauma and delves into what this means specifically for articulating trauma of The Atlantic Slave Trade, which serves as the second key notion for this work. This event was four centuries of transporting African bodies to The New World by Western European slave traders; the Portuguese were the largest trading nation by trade volume, followed by the British, the French, the Spanish and the Dutch respectively (Klein and Klein, 1999, pp.103 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 139). Historians believed that approximately 1,200,000 to 2,400,000 Africans lost their lives during the trade and more did upon arrival to the Americas (ibid). A specialist in migration in world history and the demography

Page 27

Theoretical Framework

GOREE ISLAND, WHERE SLAVES WERE KEPT BEFORE BEING PLACED ON A SLAVE SHIP Dakar, Senegal//2018

Page 28

Theoretical Framework

of African slavery, Manning (1992),

murder, he forced two other slaves to eat

suggests that approximately 12,000,000

the heart and liver of the corpse (ibid).

Africans entered the Slave Trade with

Resistance, either by refusal to eat or

almost a third dying on the continent

suicide were the two more common

itself.

ways of resistance. With suicide, slaves

Upon leaving the continent, along

sometime jumped overboard but then

The Middle Passage – being transported

they were either left to drown or they

along the Atlantic Ocean between Africa

were shot dead from the boat (ibid).

and the Americas – wasn’t anything less

This way of suicide was so common that

than being captured. The treatment was

captains attempted to prevent this. One

ghastly and shameful, treating Africans

captain took a woman and lowered her

as cargo; transported for marketing

unto the water as a threat, then pulled

and sale. For example, in 1781, British

her out as quickly as possible. By the

slave trader Zong, had an overcrowded

time they pulled her back out, a shark

slave ship heading towards the New

had already killed by, biting off the lower

World. Malnutrition and diseases killed

half of her body (Bly, 1998, pp.178 – 186)

approximately

slaves

(Rediker,

Upon arrival, the series of

2007, p. 16). Slaves were also drowned

traumatic events continued – being

to preserve drinking water; this was

packaged into warehouses, literally

approximately 130 slaves. Additonally,

being auctioned for sale like animals.

slaves also chose suicide by jumping

They were sold directly to planters or

into the water willingly (ibid). This kind

wholesalers, families were broken

of torture and scenarios were common

up if they managed to stay together.

during

Owners essentially began obliterating

the

Middle

Passage.

Even

rebellion came with punishment and

identities,

torture. In one instance, after a failed

Africans, severing the bonds to their

rebellion upon a ship, a captain punished

past. The gruesome working and living

the group of slaves by immediately

conditions were forced unto them

killing one of them. Following the brutal

until they were either beaten to death,

Page 29

memories,

cultures

Theoretical Framework

SPATIAL CONDITIONS ON A TYPICAL SLAVE SHIP USED ALONG THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

Page 30

Theoretical Framework

LYNCHING OF BLACK PEOPLE SPECTATED BY WHITE PEOPLE

Page 31

Theoretical Framework

worked to death or committed suicide. (International Slavery Museum). Even upon abolition of slavery, racial and social injustices still permeated the lives of the Black diaspora. Lynchings were a routine way of traumatizing the

Black

community.

“Lynchings

were a way to threaten and terrorize. Fingers and toes were amputated for keepsakes, picture postcards of the events were sold. Newspapers published advanced announcements. Families packed picnics and made and outing of it, hoisting young children up onto shoulders to witness the violence,” (Schumacher, Journal Sentinel, 2018) A lot of terrorization continued with mass incarceration, segregation and police brutality.

This catastrophe destroyed and

ripped individuals from their histories, families, cultures and identities. There is heaviness within the entire cataclysm; melancholy and acrimony surrounds the overtaxing experience. The immoral

“Lynchings were a way to threaten and terrorize. Fingers and toes were amputated for keepsakes, picture postcards of the events were sold.”

and inhumane actions has left the Black diaspora with a set of complex interactions with societies as various groups perpetuated narratives that

Page 32

Theoretical Framework

justified actions of The Atlantic Slave Trade, which brings out the legacy it has left behind. Hence, within the thesis,

Emptiness brings forth these eternal qualities and provides space for contemplation, memories, sensations and a new sort of interaction with absence.

these collective identities, narratives and trauma are deeply intertwined and thus, this lacuna of architectural knowledge

that

addresses

this

catastrophe and the trauma that comes with it will act as collective heritage as well as a collective identity, of which needs to be embodied. EMPTINESS

The third notion within the

theoretical framework is emptiness. Architectureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relationship to emptiness is quite a tricky one but one thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s undeniable. The field prides itself for being able conjure massive and aesthetic structures from this idea of emptiness or nothingness. However, what looking at emptiness does, is almost distills the architecture itself and presents it in a most meaningful way. Emptiness brings forth these eternal qualities and provides space for contemplation, memories, sensations and a new sort of interaction with absence. This in turn,

Page 33

Theoretical Framework

generates a new kind of dialogue not

be an event, a performance, according

only about the space and its possibilities

to Henri Lefebvre; he refers to space as

but the story emptiness seeks to convey.

“being produced by people,” (Lefebvre,

There are fundamental conditions of

1974). Similarly, in “The Empty Space”

space that play between what exists and

by Peter Brooks, he suggests of the

what doesn’t, between what is form and

creation spaces from other empty

formless, between the ordered and the

spaces (Brooks, 1968).

disordered. Emptiness allows for the

exploration of that interplay, making use

part of essential process of creation

of what in architecture is sometimes

and sensation. However, emptiness has

viewed as an “anarchic other space”.

many interpretations. From theoretical

Emptiness has possibility. We take the

understandings of the subject, we can

concept as a space of intimacy, a formless

identify five constructed classifications

field of contemplation or reflection, a

– nothingness, removal, enclosure,

space that is in between and a space

void and suspension. Nothingness is

within. Emptiness, therefore, becomes

the elimination of all senses, while

a process that reflects erasure, moving

removal is essentially displacement.

towards nothing, suspension and voids

With removal, one knows something

– all qualities that tie quite deeply to the

was there but now it is not. Enclosure

two previous concepts, trauma and The

is emptiness created by surrounded

Atlantic Slave Trade.

environment such as a courtyard.

A very simple definition of

Voids are volumes of spaces carved

emptiness is “a state of suspension and

out while suspension is emptiness

possibility.” Additionally, emptiness can

created by the sense of the body being

be a program – spaces where the void is

surrounded by nothing but space. For

the function. It can be observed in spaces

our sake, emptiness would be looked

such as contemporary art galleries and

at as a void in this thesis. The concept

religious buildings. This emptiness can

allows for the play between form and

express power or intimacy. It can even

formless, understanding the physicality

Page 34

In this thesis, emptiness is the

Theoretical Framework

“NOTHINGNESS”

“REMOVAL”

Elimination of all senses.

Displacement, something was there but now it’s not.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS OF EMPTINESS

Page 35

“ERAS

Created by surroun

SURE”

nded environment.

Theoretical Framework

“VOID”

“SUSPENSION”

Volume of space “carved out”.

The sense of body being surrounded by nothing but space.

Page 36

Theoretical Framework

“NOTHINGNESS”

“REMOVAL”

Elimination of all senses.

Displacement, something was there but now it’s not.

VOLUMETRIC ARCHITECTURAL EXPRESSIONS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS OF EMPTINESS

Page 37

“ERAS

Created by surroun

SURE”

nded environment.

Theoretical Framework

“VOID”

“SUSPENSION”

Volume of space “carved out”.

The sense of body being surrounded by nothing but space.

Page 38

Theoretical Framework

BERLIN JEWISH MUSEUMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S MEMORY VOID Studio Libeskind Berlin, Germany// 1999

Page 39

Theoretical Framework

of emptiness. Here, the void becomes a process of creating sensations through multiple layers of articulations â&#x20AC;&#x201C; urban, limitless, inconclusive, programmatic; a critical juxtaposition to the urban fabric of our site, London.

Page 40

The Articulation

06. THE ARTICUL Page 41

The Articulation

LATION Page 42

The Articulation

DESIGN MA

This design proposal seeks to take the conc

manifest these theoretical frameworks join

Slave Trade. It aims to articulate these traum

within the urban context of London. Throu literature and other research methods, the

question by unearthing a complex legacy of

city of London. It takes the layers of history

forefront. Through this proposal, hopefull

trauma and emptiness is diligently and el

under-represented topic that is ever so cri

future while simultaneously pushing the bou Page 43

The Articulation

ANIFESTO

cepts of trauma and emptiness as a void and

ntly through the specific lens of The Atlantic

matic events through the built environment

ugh a spectrum of precedents, analysis of proposal attempts to answer the research

f bodies, ideologies and erasure around the

y, culture and legacy and brings them to the

ly, the relationship between architecture,

loquently expressed, filling a chasm of an

itical to society and its social, and cultural

undaries within the architectural community. Page 44

The Articulation

WIDER URBAN CONTEXT OF THE SITE - 2019 The River Thames, London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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LONDON AND THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE: THE CITY AS A SITE

London had an integral role in

the Atlantic Slave Trade. The United Kingdom participated in the Atlantic Slave Trade for almost three centuries. That legacy is heavy, complex and layered. The industry of slavery created and supported significant financial institutions that are influential to this day such as The Bank of England. Though slave ports moved to Bristol and Liverpool in the later years, London was very essential in the beginning as ports of departure and receiving goods and slaves. A key area in this legacy is The River Thames.

The Thames was the central path

of transportation of human cargo and non-human cargo. The area of Thames looked at forms part of what we now consider east and southeast London; the boroughs of Southwark, Tower Hamlets,

The industry of slavery created and supported significant financial institutions that are influential to this day such as The Bank of England.

Lewisham, Newham, and Greenwich. At one time these areas were docks where the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest port was located. Sites such as Deptford Dockyard is an integral part of this socio-political urban

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The Articulation

fabric. It was an important point of entry

the urban landscape itself.

for s laving ships in East London. Within

the built environment, the location holds

trauma attempts to highlight the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

traces of histories of political, cultural

history and its connection to this

and social constructs that appears

uniquely horrific industry of slavery

even in contemporary buildings with

and Atlantic Slave Trade. By extension,

several of these buildings along the

this articulation on the site of The Bank

River Thames possessing thick bars

of England, moves further across the

that were once used to prevent the theft

urban landscape of London, creating

of sugar that was brought from the West

a series of empty spaces or voids that

Indies. There have also been gruesome

weave together the memories and

events related to the Slave Trade in

narratives of The Atlantic Slave Trade

Deptford. Among notable ones occurred

and the physical built environment of

in December 1772, when a sea captain

London.

Thus, the articulation of this

beat a black boy to death (International Slavery Museum).

THE BANK OF ENGLAND

The most interesting thing yet

very

perplexing

and

disheartening

The

year

1660

marked

observation around the city is the

turnaround for Britain; it had a thriving

neglect and lack of acknowledgement

economy

of these cataclysmic events and trauma

institutions. Due to the expansion of

of these site. The city of London itself

overseas trade as well as the British

is traumatized, along the theory of

Empire, bills of credit were needed and

Stoppani. The city, as a body, has now

became essential to Atlantic Slave Trade

a complex connection or lack thereof

(BBC). The Bank of England, established

to its memories, its narratives and

in 1694, thrived on the system of credit,

its languages â&#x20AC;&#x201C; however gruesome it

especially to its members from The City

may be; almost an attempt to deny the

who made their fortunes through the

agonizing events that has occurred on

Atlantic Slave Trade. It also stabilized the

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due

British

financial

The Articulation

HISTORICAL, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT AND LAYERSOF THE CITY London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s finances and funded Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s major wars of that century. The bank became a depository for wealth stolen from Africa and the Caribbean from Apartheid dealings to providing millions of pounds to Caribbean slave masters. Thus, the Bank of England is chosen as a site for the proposal; not only is it a significant and powerful but the economic, social and political ties are there but hidden. By using the existing structure, one is able to highlight these ties; it becomes a space that reminds us of tragedies, that offers opportunity for reflection and possible emotional healing as well as inform Londoners on the history of slavery within the city. The void within the Bank of England is not empty but is full; an emptiness filled with trauma, terror and a grusome history.

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BANK OF ENGLAND City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2018

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The Articulation

BANK OF ENGLAND City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2018

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The Articulation

BANK OF ENGLAND City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2018

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The Articulation

THE SITE Bank of England City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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The Articulation

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The Articulation

FIGURE GROUND Bank of England City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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SITE DIAGRAM Bank of England City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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CONTEXT From the Figure Ground and the Site Diagram, one begins to understand the immediate context of the site. Many of the buildings are Baroque and some of the earliest buildings in London itself. However, the topographical relationship between the Bank and other sites around London and even outside is critical. Diagramatically, it allows to see the extension between this site, The Atlantic Slave Trade and the city of London.

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TOPOGRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SITE AND EVENT: THE EXTENSIVE INFLUENCE OF THE BANK OF ENGLAND IN THE SLAVE TRADE London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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ARTICULATIONS THROUGH THE BLACK LENS

Considering the nature of the topic, particularly its historical and cultural grounding, one has to proactively examine the ways that the Black diaspora has articulated trauma and memories of The Atlantic Slave Trade.

Critically reviewing the case

studies to inform the proposal brought out that the articulations were essentially homogenous in terms of who were designing – white and male. Considering the nature of the topic, particularly its historical and cultural grounding, one has to proactively examine the ways that the Black diaspora has articulated trauma and memories of The Atlantic Slave Trade. One sort of commonality is the material used as well as the human figure that possesses black features. However, there is also the very strange yet poetic approach of sinking these bodies or figures, an almost silent tale of struggle or an attempt to escape or being oppressed. This “sinking” of bodies coincidently ties in the concept of the void; being suspended in the unknown, the trauma that continuously plays out to the point where one’s humanity ceases to exist. Thus, the proposal includes this notion of void, sinking and body in order to articulate the trauma of The Atlantic Slave Trade.

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The Slave Memorial Clara Sornas Zanzibar, Tanzania// 1998

MEMORIALIZING THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE THROUGH THE BLACK LENS Zanzibar, Tanzania//1998

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Anse Cafard Slave Memorial Laurent Valere London, United Kingdom// 2004

MEMORIALIZING THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE THROUGH THE BLACK LENS Diamond Rock, Martinique//1998

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THE ARGUMENT OF THE PROPOSAL: ARTICULATING THE TRAUMA OF THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

From the coalition of research,

information, theoretical framework as well as design intentions, the proposal essentially argues for the highlighting several sites that connect to the Atlantic Slave Trade in London. The design approach fundamentally starts with voids within these buildings, in this case â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the Bank of England; or the complete removal of the building itself always for an expression that appears intangible but feels tangible, an interplay between what is there and what is not. These spaces also leave room for social engagement,

interaction,

reflection

and discussion, of which the last is critical to the progress of society as a whole. The legacy of the Bank of England and, by extension, London is made public â&#x20AC;&#x201C; openly showcased,

The void becomes a physical manifestation of the traumatic event, attempting to tie the multiple layers of the built environment, slavery, narratives and erasure together.

striking conversations and allowing the formation of newer and more honest narratives about catastrophe, trauma and the communities affected. The void becomes a physical manifestation of the

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traumatic event, attempting to tie the multiple layers of the built environment, slavery, narratives and erasure together.

The collective trauma and memory of the black community should centre the articulation; black identity and its journey from this specific trauma should serve as the agent of creativity.

The articulation also attempts

to bring forth emotions â&#x20AC;&#x201C; sorrow, disturbance, anger, pride, rage, remorse, empathy, drive. The truth is, The Atlantic Slave Trade remains as one of the most arduous and vexatious episodes in history. The stealing of Black people from the continent of Africa, storing and treating them as nothing more than cargo, as well as the psychological and emotional grievances both during slavery and after, has lasted generations. The effects are still lingering. Any articulation that intentionally dilutes this catastrophe for the sake of â&#x20AC;&#x153;making other comfortableâ&#x20AC;? is doing a disservice to the cataclysm and the communities affected by it. The collective trauma and memory of the black community show centre the articulation; black identity and its journey from this specific trauma should serve as the agent of creativity. Navigating

these

histories

and

memories and using them to inform the articulation would allow for society and citizens to acknowledge loss and accept

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the violence and suffering that occurred, and in turn, serve as a heavy reminder of the possibilities of cancerous ideologies.

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The Articulation

“BANK OF ENGLAND”

“THE VOID”

The Bank of England is highlighted for its connection to The Atlantic Slave Trade. The traumatized architecture is highlighted and the hidden narrative is uncovered and revealed.

The carved out void into which the place of contemplation, revelation, what is known and unknown, is materialized. One is able to enter the void, 20m deep.

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= “THE MONOLITH”

“THE PROPOSAL”

The singular monolith as an abstraction of trauma. The monolith itself has a void to be entered. The monolith stands 35m above ground.

Essentially, the site of Bank of England becomes a theatre of memory and trauma, highlighting and connecting the built environment to the human catastrophe. The monolith, sunk into the void, is visible within the urban context. Additionally, connect to other trauma-reflection sites related to The Atlantic Slave Trade across the city of London.

THE CONCEPT Bank of England City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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THE PROPOSAL Sinking Into The Void City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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PLAN Sinking Into The Void City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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CONCEPTUAL PLAN Synopsis of Spatial Thresholds City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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SECTION The Monolith + The Void + The Bank of England City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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CINEMATOGRAPHIC EXPERIENCE OF THE PROPOSAL Synthesis of Simultaneously Experiencing Space, History and Emotion in the Void City of London, London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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The House of Parliament

Guildhall Town Hall

West India Quays

Site where the law allowing Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participation in The Atlantic Slave Trade was passed as well as abolished.

Site of the Zong Massacre trial. Slave Trades who manned The Zong, a slave ship tied the hands and feet of 133 slaves and threw them overboard, and then tried to collect insurance on their dead cargo.

Site where many warehouses of Atlantic Slave Trade was situated. Good and sometimes slaves were stored in these warehouses; particularly those from the Caribbean, hence the name of the location.

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Deptford Dockyards

Cato Street

439 New Cross

Slave ships were built at this location. However, another noted event occcured in December 1772, when a sea captain beat a black boy, who was a slave, to death.

In May 1820, William Davidson was arrested at Cato Street, convicted, and then executed in front of a huge crowd by heing hung by the neck until dead, before having his head chopped off.

At this site, thirteen young black people were murded in a racist arson attack

SERIES OF PROPOSED SPACES TO UNDERGO SIMILAR ARTICULATION Possible Wider Urban Context of Proposal London, England, United Kingdom//2019

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Conclusion

07. CONCLU Page 79

Conclusion

USION Page 80

Conclusion

Architecture, catastrophe and

trauma have a considerable impact on individuals, communities and societies. Architectureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach to trauma

To architecturally articulate the trauma of The Atlantic Slave Trade, a system of narratives, memories, emotions, nuanced experiences and conversation needs to be captured within the space.

merits criticality, both in theory and in practice. More specifically, the gap of this discourse as it relates to the trauma of The Atlantic Slave Trade is greatly underrepresented, and that in itself raises questions. This thesis started with the question, â&#x20AC;&#x153;How does one design space that articulates the trauma of the cataclysmic event of the Atlantic Slave Trade into space, however letting emptiness and the experience control the narrative?â&#x20AC;? Even with the research for this done, and a proposal given, the answer to this question is not yet complete. Its complexity provides a deeper landscape of approaches, histories and literature to be explored. However, this thesis does begin to fill the lacuna with regards to the research question.

architecturally

articulate

the trauma of The Atlantic Slave Trade, a system of narratives, memories, emotions, nuanced experiences and conversation needs to be captured

Page 81

Conclusion

within the space. The articulation of trauma needs to create a landscape of consciousness that not only highlights the community affected or the dealers of trauma, but also allows for citizens to reflect on society and its ideologies past, present and future, individually or collectively.

In terms of design approaches,

in this thesis the notion of emptiness and the void served as a framework, allowing for eternal qualities to be drawn out and the opportunity for interpretations of these voids as space of form and formlessness as well as what exists and what doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t. The void becomes an anarchic other space where trauma is revealed, terror is showcased, identities are highlighted, and stories are unearthed. By using the already built environment, a more tangible yet intangible articulation is achieved. Furthermore, the notion of voids or empty spaces are not the only design approaches. Others include, but

The void becomes an anarchic other space where trauma is revealed, terror is showcased, identities are highlighted, and stories are unearthed.

are not limited to, a series of memorials, a new typology of the museum, removal or reinterpretation of monuments and the like.

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Conclusion

From research, it is clear that the

just the beginning in understanding how

most important and critical aspect of

architecture plays a role in manifesting

architecturally articulating The Atlantic

the best and worst of the human

Slave Trade, regardless of the design

experience.

approach, is bearing the monumental weight of The Atlantic Slave Tradeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s legacy. It is raising arduous and complex questions that may not necessarily be the easiest to answer but necessary to at least attempt to do so as honestly and critically as possible. Essentially, as previously mentioned, in designing for the trauma, black identity and its journey from this specific trauma should serve as the agent of creativity. That is to say, these histories and memories, when being used, should be done so sensitively. It is the unearthing of history, culture and legacy and shining light unto them, regardless of how ugly, disturbing or uncomfortable it may be. This is because, in order for society to move forward together, there needs to be reconciliation. However, in order to reconcile, there needs to be truth. This thesis attempts to take the truth of The Atlantic Slave Trade and look at the larger story of human cataclysms and destructive ideologies. Hopefully, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

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Conclusion

It is the unearthing of history, culture and legacy and shining light unto them, regardless of how ugly, disturbing or uncomfortable it may be. This is because, in order for society to move forward together, there needs to be reconciliation. However, in order to reconcile, there needs to be truth.

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Bibliography + List of Images

08. BIBLIOG + LIST OF IMAGES Page 85

Bibliography + List of Images

GRAPHY F S Page 86

Bibliography + List of Images

BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, S., 1999. Memory without Monuments: Vernacular Architecture. Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review, 1 September, 11(1), pp. 13 - 22. Anon., 1979. The African Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Century. s.l.:United Nastions Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Baer, U., 2002. Spectral Evidence: The Photography of Trauma. s.l.:MIT Press. Bastea, E., 2004. Introduction. In: E. Bastea, ed. Memory and Architecture. s.l.:UNM Press, p. 5. Bloom, S. L., 1999. Trauma Theory Abbreviated. The Final Action Plan: A Coordinated Community Response to Family Violence, 1 October.pp. 1 - 17. Boym, S., 2009. Nostalgia and Its Discontents. The Hedgehog Review, 1 July, 9(2), pp. 7 18. Breuer, J. & Freud, S., 2009. Studies on Hysteria. s.l.:Basic Book. Brooke, P., 2015. Tracing the Legacies of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade with Images of Identity, Race and Custom. [Online] Available at: https://prisonphotography.org [Accessed November 2018]. Chibber, K., 2017. Inside the African-American history museum on the last day of Obamaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s presidency. [Online] Available at: https://qz.com [Accessed October 2018]. Chisick, H., 2016. On the Margins of the Enlightenment: Blacks and. The European Legacy:, 20 January, 21(2), p. 138.

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Bibliography + List of Images

Crinson, M., 2005. Urban Memory - Introduction. In: M. Crinson, ed. Urban Memory: History and Amnesia in the Modern City. s.l.:Routledge, p. xviii. Figueira, J. & Carvalho, B., 2016. Architecture and Pain. Lisbon, University of Coimbra, pp. 1 - 9. Fisher, T., 2004. What Memory? Whose Memory. In: E. Bastea, ed. Memory and Architecture. s.l.:UNM Press, pp. 283 - 291. Gaber, C., 2018. New Orleans Area Plantations. [Online] Available at: https://www. neworleans.com [Accessed December 2018]. Gillis, J. R. ed., 1994. Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity. s.l.:Princeton University Press. Guerin, F. & Hallas, R., 2007. Introduction. In: F. Guerin & R. Hallas, eds. The Image and the Witness: Trauma, Memory and Visual Culture. s.l.:Wallflower Press, pp. 1 - 17. Herman, J. L., 2015. Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence--From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror. 2 ed. s.l.:Hachette UK. Hicks, D., 2000. Ethnicity, Race and the Archaeology of the Atlantic Slave Trade. [Online] Available at: http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk [Accessed November 2018]. III, J. J. C., 2015. The U.S. has 35,000 museums. Why is only one about slavery?. [Online] Available at: www.washingtonpost.com [Accessed October 2018]. Jones, E. & Wessely, S., 2006. Psychological trauma: a historical perspective. Psychiatry, 1 July, 5(7), pp. 217 - 220.

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Keys, D., 2018. Details of horrific first voyages in transatlantic slave trade revealed. [Online] Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/ [Accessed November 2018]. Klein, H. S. & Klein, J., 1999. The Atlantic Slave Trade. s.l.:Cambridge University Press. Leys, R., 2000. Trauma: A Genealogy. s.l.:University of Chicago Press. Maclear, K., 1999. Beclouded Visions: Hiroshima-Nagasaki and the Art of Witness. s.l.:SUNY Press. Manning, P., 1992. The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe. s.l.:Duke University Press. Mâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Baye, B., 2016. Configurations of Enslavement. The European Legacy, 20 January, 21(2), pp. 205 - 209. Mustakeem, S. M., 2018. Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage. The American Historical Review, 1 February, 123(1), pp. 188 - 189. Novak, L., 2012. Photographic Interference. In: J. Prosser, G. Batchen, M. Gidley & N. K. Miller, eds. Picturing Atrocity: Photography in Crisis. s.l.:Reaktion Books Ltd, pp. 283 311. Reilly, K., 2016. Read President Obamaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Speech at the Museum of African American History and Culture. [Online] Available at: http://time.com/ [Accessed November 2018]. Ringel, S. & Brandell, J. R. eds., 2011. Trauma: Contemporary Directions in Theory, Practice, and Research. s.l.:SAGE. Rodney, W., 2018. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. 4 ed. s.l.:Verso Books.

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Rowlands, M., 1998. Trauma, Memory and Memorials. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 1 September, 15(1), p. 54. Schneider, T. & Till, J., 2009. Beyond Discourse: Notes on Spatial Agency. Footprint, 1 January, 3(4), p. 108. Schumacher, M. L., 2018. Alabama memorial captures the scale of racial terror in the U.S.. [Online] Available at: https://eu.jsonline.com[Accessed December 2018]. Solomon, A., 2018. Writing Wrongs: The National Memorial for Peace and Justice. [Online] Available at: http://www.designcurial.com [Accessed December 2018]. Stoppani, T., 2016. Architecture and Trauma. In: Interdisciplinary Handbook of Trauma and Culture. s.l.:Springer, p. 137.

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Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of Wikipedia

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Slaves>

[Accessed August 1, 2018]

Page 2

Chapter Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of Lisson Gallery

<https://www.lissongallery.com/news/akomfrah-s-vertigo sea-opens-at-the-arnolfini>

[Accessed November 31, 2018]

Page 6

Chapter Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of Wikipedia

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Slaves>

[Accessed August 2, 2018]

Page 8

The Door of No Return

[Photograph] Courtesy of Wikipedia

< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Slaves>

[Accessed August 2, 2018]

Page 10

Chapter Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of Lisson Gallery

<https://www.lissongallery.com/news/akomfrah-s-vertigo sea-opens-at-the-arnolfini>

[Accessed November 31, 2018]

Page 13

A Caged Slave

[Photograph] Courtesy of Lisson Gallery

<https://www.lissongallery.com/news/akomfrah-s-vertigo

Page 91

Bibliography + List of Images

sea-opens-at-the-arnolfini>

[Accessed November 31, 2018]

Page 16

Chapter Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of ArchDaily

<https://www.archdaily.com/894065/new-photographs-released- of-mass-design-groups-national-memorial-for-peace-and-justice- in-alabama/5af1d345f197cc611900036d-new-photographs-released- of-mass-design-groups-national-memorial-for-peace-and-justice- in-alabama-photo>

[Accessed November 3, 2018]

Page 16

The National Memorial for Peace and Justice

[Photograph] Courtesy of ArchDaily

[Accessed November 3, 2018]

Page 22

Chapter Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of Travel Brothers

<https://www.travelwithbrothers.com/the-senegal-what-to see-dakar-goree-island-trip>

[Accessed August 12, 2018]

Page 25

Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain

[Photograph] Courtesy of ArchDaily

Page 92

Bibliography + List of Images

sea-opens-at-the-arnolfini>

[Accessed November 31, 2018]

Page 16

Chapter Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of ArchDaily

[Accessed November 3, 2018]

Page 16

The National Memorial for Peace and Justice

[Photograph] Courtesy of ArchDaily

[Accessed November 3, 2018]

Page 22

Chapter Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of Travel Brothers

<https://www.travelwithbrothers.com/the-senegal-what-to see-dakar-goree-island-trip>

[Accessed August 12, 2018]

Page 25

Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain

[Photograph] Courtesy of ArchDaily

Page 93

Bibliography + List of Images

<https://www.archdaily.com/803509/diana-princess-of-wales- memorial-fountain-gustafson-porter-plus-bowman

[Accessed December 10, 2018]

Page 25

National Holocaust Monument

[Photograph] Courtesy of ArchDaily

<https://www.archdaily.com/881316/national-holocaust-monument- studio-libeskind/59dccf55b22e383a41000075-national-holocaust- monument-studio-libeskind-image>

[Accessed December 10, 2018]

Page 25

First World War Exhibition

[Photograph] Courtesy of ArchDaily

<https://www.archdaily.com/529022/imperial-war-museum-foster-pa rtners/53c94041c07a80492d000204-imperial-war-museum-foster- partners-photo >

[Accessed December 10, 2018]

Page 25

Dusk #21- Antelope Valley #230

[Photograph] Courtesy of ArchDaily

https://www.anothermag.com/artphotography/gallery/7431/the- memory-of-time/3>

[Accessed December 10, 2018]

Page 25

Vertigo Sea

[Photograph] Courtesy of Lisson Gallery

<https://www.lissongallery.com/news/akomfrah-s-vertigo sea-opens-at-the-arnolfini>

[Accessed December 10, 2018]

Page 94

Bibliography + List of Images

Page 25

Iceland in a Blizzard

[Photograph] Courtesy of Archdaily

https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/interactive/2013/may/19/ power-photography-time-mortality-memory#adrian-searle>

[Accessed December 10, 2018]

Page 25

Nykyinkim

[Photograph] Courtesy of Archdaily

[Accessed December 10, 2018]

Page 25

The Palestinian Museum

[Photograph] Courtesy of Archdaily

<https://www.archdaily.com/871986/the-palestinian-museum- heneghan-and-peng-architects/59246a0be58ece158400020e-the- palestinian-museum-heneghan-and-peng-architects-photo>

[Accessed December 10, 2018]

Page 28

Goree Island, Where Slaves Where Kept Before Being Place On

a Slave Ship

[Photograph] Courtesy of Travel Brothers

<https://www.travelwithbrothers.com/the-senegal-what-to see-dakar-goree-island-trip>

[Accessed December 10, 2018]

Page 95

Bibliography + List of Images

Page 30

Spatial Conditions On a Typical Slave Trip Used Along The

Atlantic Slave Trade

[Photograph] Courtesy of Re-Reading Public Images

<https://readingpublicimage.wordpress.com/2012/04/12/ iconic-image-of-a-slave-ship/>

[Accessed December 10, 2018]

Page 31

Lynching of Black People Spectated by White People

Atlantic Slave Trade

[Photograph] Courtesy of BlackPat

<https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/marion- indiana-lynching-1930/

[Accessed July 20, 2018]

Page 37

Volumetric Architectural Expressions of Conceptual

Frameworks of Emptiness

[Photograph] Created by author

Page 39

Berlin Jewish Museumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Memory Void

[Photograph] Courtesy of Archdaily

<https://www.archdaily.com/773361/daniel-libeskinds- jewish- museum-berlin-photographed-by- laurian-ghinitoiu/55f089dde58ece 9c4e000008- daniel-libeskinds- jewish-museum-berlin-photographed-by- laurian-ghinitoiu-photo>

[Accessed November 31, 2018]

Page 42

Chapter Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of Economy

Page 96

Bibliography + List of Images

<https://www.ecnmy.org/engage/bank-england-thinks-public-can- teach-something-economics/>

[Accessed August 10, 2018]

Page 45

Wide Urban Context of the Site

[Photograph] Courtesy of Google Maps

[Accessed March 8, 2018]

Page 48

Historical, Political and Economic Context and Layers of the

City

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 50

Bank of England

[Photograph] Courtesy of Economy

<https://www.ecnmy.org/engage/bank-england-thinks-public-can- teach-something-economics/>

[Accessed August 10, 2018]

Page 51

Bank of England

[Photograph] Courtesy of Economy

<https://www.ecnmy.org/engage/bank-england-thinks-public-can- teach-something-economics/>

[Accessed August 10, 2018]

Page 52

Bank of England

[Photograph] Courtesy of Economy

<https://www.ecnmy.org/engage/bank-england-thinks-public-can- teach-something-economics/>

[Accessed August 10, 2018]

Page 97

Bibliography + List of Images

Page 53/54 The Site

[Photograph] Courtesy of Google Maps

[Accessed August 1, 2018]

Page 55/56 Figure Ground

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 57

Site Diagram

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 59/60 Topographical Relationship Between Site and Event

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 67/68 The Concept

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 69

The Proposal

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 70

Plan

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 71/72

Conceptual Plan

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 73/74 Section

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 75/76 Cinematographic Experience of the Proposal

Page 98

Bibliography + List of Images

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 77/78 Series of Proposed Spaces to Undergo Similar Articulation

[Drawing] Created by author

Page 80

Chapter Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of ArchDaily

[Accessed November 31, 2018]

Page 86

Chapter Cover

[Photograph] Courtesy of Lisson Gallery

<https://www.lissongallery.com/news/akomfrah-s-vertigo sea-opens-at-the-arnolfini>

[Accessed November 31, 2018]

Back

[Photograph] Courtesy of Lisson Gallery

<https://www.lissongallery.com/news/akomfrah-s-vertigo sea-opens-at-the-arnolfini>

[Accessed November 31, 2018]

Page 99