Scientific bulletin 65 / Bulletin Scientific by Europa Nostra

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The XLVI meeting of the Scientific Council held in Istanbul (8th-14th june 2010) was made possible thanks to the coordination of Prof. Isik Aydemir and of prof Mehemet Alper in collaboration with the Kadir Has University of Istanbul ................................................................

La XLVI réunion du Conseil Scientifique qui a eu lieu à Istanbul (8-14-Juin 2010) a été possible grâce a la coordination du prof. Isik Aydemir et du prof Mehemet Alper, avec la collaboration de l’Universitè Kadir Has de Istanbul .......................................................................................................................................

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THE REUSE OF ANCIENT FORTIFIED SETTLEMENTS FROM MIDDLE AGES TO EARLY MODERN TIME LA RÉUTILISATION DES ANCIENNES INSTALLATIONS FORTIFIÉES DU MOYEN AGE AU DÉBUT DU TEMP MODERNE

EDITOR DIRECTION DE LA RÉDACTION GIANNI PERBELLINI

EUROPA NOSTRA BULLETIN 65 (2012) LANGE VOORHOUT 35, 2514 EC - THE HAGUE, THE NETHERLAND

CONTENTS / SOMMAIRE Gianni Perbellini Foreword by p. 5 Avant propos p. 6 Isik Aydemir, Pinar Arabacioglu Istanbul land walls and their environs within the context of revalorization of the city walls p. 7 Mehmet Alper, Berrin Alper Maiden’s tower: restoration process of a fortified islet in Istanbul p. 13 E. Füsun Alioglu, Yonca Kösebay Erkan A walled city: Nicea in the history p. 19 G. Mester De Parajd Le château royal de Vincennes utilisation et réutilisation du XII au XXI siècle p. 33 Etienne Poncelet Pour une Charte Europeenne des espaces militaires desaffectes p. 39 Conleth Manning Martello towers on the East coast of Ireland and their reuse p. 47 Peter Ros New Dutch Water Line: implementation leads to new questions p. 55 Naciye Doratli The case of Famagusta in North Cyprus p. 67 Agni Petridou The case of Nicosia in Cyprus p. 85 Naya Savvidou The castle of Limassol in Cyprus p. 89 Pedro Ponce De León The reuse of a medieval tower (Doña Blanca, in Albarracín, Teruel) as a small beaux-arts exhibition space p. 93 Ioanna Steriotou Fortified medieval settlements in the Aegean, past, present, future. the case of the island of Alonnissos in the Northern Sporades p. 99 Tomáš Durdík Vimperk castle/chateau as centre of national park Šumava and environmental education centre p. 113 Hermann Fabini Different approaches to a modern use of the transylvanian church-fortresses p. 123 Gianni Perbellini Re-use and beyond. Noto and L’Aquila, two different cases of reconstruction after the earthquake p. 129 Gianni Perbellini The town of Noto in Sicily p. 131 Patrizia Valle The various reconstructions of the city after the earthquaques of the L’Aquila city (1315-13491703-2009), between typological invention and morphological transformation p. 139 In memoriam: Tomas Durdik p. 147 Lucio Santoro p. 148 Mario Federico Roggero p. 148

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FOREWORD by G. Perbellini, President of Europa Nostra Scientific Council

The XLVI meeting of the Europa Nostra Scientific Council, was held, together with the Europa Nostra General Assembly, in Istanbul during 2010 when the city was European Capital of Culture. The meeting was hosted by Kadir Has University, and the subject 'The re-use of ancient fortified settlements from the middle ages to early modern times' involved many authorities and local associations operating in the cultural heritage sphere. Following a previous meeting in Istanbul in 2003, ENSC had the opportunity not only to verify once again the results of an approach that had been taken towards the restoration of the city walls but also to observe the new interventions that had evaluated the public transport network and had led to more careful restoration of many relevant monuments and to the discovery, and thus the future enhancement, of a series of archaeological sites. In the past, the notion of safeguard was deemed essential for the conservation of historical monuments, but that is no longer considered sufficient. The enhancement of historical centres is now set in a perspective which aims to recover the identities that characterise the 'many cities' that make up an urban settlement, that is, as the sum of many historical interventions and often also of many administrative units with different and widely diverse functions. In conservation, every action must also be aimed at enhancing the polycentric network of human settlements present in any territory as essential aids towards strengthening the sense of community and global quality. The continuity of the landscape from urban to agricultural also represents a significant value that can be preserved, and its partition into simplified and elementary cores that could trivialise or sterilise it should be avoided.. The different interventions must pay respect to the pre-existing and specifically local heritage, including non-physical aspects. This territorial approach must be aimed at the regeneration of the urban environment through the strengthening of those local cultural polarities that, in aggregate, are able to interact with new realities at the local level and beyond. This kind of action can provide favourable conditions for the social life of the city in an historical, artistic and environmental framework. Most of the quality criteria of human settlements are measured by historical features such as castles, villages and walled towns. For almost 50 years the Scientific Council of Europa Nostra has contributed to this study and has finalised a methodology that can guarantee the survival of a 'castellological' culture. In the early stages, research into the fortified heritage of Europe led to the creation of a scientific lexicon and the identification of different typologies, while more recently the focus has shifted towards issues of management for this particular form of heritage, issues of which we are much more aware today than in the past: 'l'idée que des institutions existent s'occupent de la conservation du patrimoine culturel a suffi jusqu'ici à tranquilliser la conscience publique. Mais ces institutions sont, comme il a montré l'expérience des dernières années, beaucoup trop faibles. Leur organisation, le fondement législatif de leur activité et leurs moyens financiers ne peuvent leur suffire pour venir seules à bout des exigences qu'elles ont à remplir'( G.Tripp, 'La réanimation des monuments en Europe', Conseil de la Coopération Culturelle, Vienne 1965, page 10). Moreover, inclusion of heritage sites in the UNESCO list is demonstrably insufficient to guarantee their conservation, whether as a result of warfare, as is currently being shown in Aleppo, Syria, or of natural disasters such as the recent earthquakes in L'Aquila and Emilia Romagna, Italy. In these situations we are completely unprepared about how such sites might be subsequently re-inscribed, and we remain especially unprepared about what preventative measures should be carried out in order to mitigate the effects of the calamities. A further long period of study and research thus awaits the Europa Nostra Scientific Council, in which new generations will hopefully participate to the full.

PREFACE par Gianni Perbellini, Président du Conseil Sciantifique d’Europa Nostra Le XLVI Conseil Scientifique de Europa Nostra s'est déroulé sur le thème de la réutilisation des anciennes installations fortifiées du moyen âge au début des temps modernes, auprès de la Kadir Has University de Istanbul, avec la participation de nombreuses autorités et des associations locales du patrimoine historique culturel, en même temps que l'Assemblée Générale de Europa Nostra, à l'occasion de la célébration de Istanbul capitale européenne. Après la précédente rencontre de 2003, nous avons pu vérifier encore une fois les erreurs d'une approche trop superficielle de la restauration des murailles, mais également les nouvelles interventions qui ont considérablement amélioré les transports publics et amené à une restauration bien plus attentive de plusieurs monuments ainsi qu'à la découverte et à la mise en valeur d'une série de sites archéologiques. Si la notion de conservantion était encore essentielle pour la souvegarde des Monuments Historiques, nous ne saurions plus nous en contenter aujourd'hui. Cependant le but de la requalification des centres historiques devient rapportable à la perspective de récupération des identités des "nombreuses Villes" qui forment un établissement urbain, somme de plusieurs interventions et souvent de plusieurs unités administratives, avec de nombreuses actions largement diversifiées. Chaque action conservative doit donc être finalisée à la mise en valeur de la structure polycentrique du réseau des établissements humains dans le territoire, en tant qu'instruments essentiels pour renforcer le sens d'appartenance et le niveau de qualité diffusé de la condition urbaine. La continuité du paysage de urbain à agricole représente une valeur qui doit être conservée en évitant sa répartition en noyaux élémentaires qui n'aurait comme conséquence que de banaliser ou en rendre stérile l'effet. Les facteurs communs aux différentes interventions à prévoir sont donc le respect des préexistences et des spécificités locales, y compris leur patrimoine immatériel. L'approche au système territorial doit être finalisé à la requalification de l'environnement urbain, en tant qu'instrument de renforcement de ces divergences culturelles locales, à même de constituer des éléments d'agrégation, interagissant avec les nouvelles réalités non seulement autochtones. Des interventions de ce genre déterminent des conditions de vie urbaine favorables à l'agrégation sociale, à l'intérieur des contextes historiques, artistiques et environnementaux. Les châteaux, les bourgs et les villes fortifiées sont les points saillants historiques qui ont qualifié les établissements humains dans le territoire en constituant une grande partie de ses paramètres de qualité. Au cours du dernier demi siècle, le Conseil Scientifique de Europa Nostra a contribué à l'étude et à la mise au point de ces critères méthodologiques qui en garantissent la survie. La comparaison au niveau européen des sites fortifiés a contribué, dans un premier temps, à la diffusion de leur connaissance, de la terminologie relative, des différentes typologies, alors que, plus récemment, on a pris en considération aussi les critères de gestion de ce patrimoine, conscients que aujourd'hui, plus encore que par le passé, "L'idée que des institutions existent et s'occupent de la conservation du patrimoine culturel a suffi jusqu'ici à tranquilliser la conscience publique. Mais ces institutions sont, comme l'a montré l'expérience des dernières années, beaucoup trop faibles. Leur organisation, le fondement législatif de leur activité et leurs moyens financiers ne peuvent leur suffire pour venir seules à bout des exigences qu'elles ont à remplir" (G. Tripp, La réanimation des monuments in Europe, Conseil de la coopération culturelle, Vienne 1965, p. 10) En outre, la conviction que le repérage des sites, patrimoine de l'Humanité, de la part de l'Unesco était suffisante à en garantir la conservation est en train de montrer son inefficacité à l'égard des événements de guerre, comme à Alep, mais également des grands événements naturels, comme dans le cas de la ville de l'Aquila et de l'Émilie en Italie, auxquels nous ne sommes absolument pas prêts en ce qui concerne leur suivante réanimation, mais surtout les mesures à appliquer préalablement pour atténuer les effets de ces désastres. Le Conseil Scientifique se trouve donc face à un long travail d'étude et de recherche pour lequel nous souhaitons également la collaboration des nouvelles générations.

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ISIK AYDEMIR, PINAR ARABACIOGLU

ISTANBUL LAND WALLS AND THEIR ENVIRONS WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF REVALORIZATION OF THE CITY WALLS

Introduction As a living entity it is inevitable that the city will be in a constant state of renewal and change. Historical environments gain significance as long as they can maintain their identity and can keep up with today's conditions during the process of change. The new demands caused by social and economic changes in the community require new functions in the city and the need to reuse historical buildings or build new structures in historical environments. The Problems the city walls are facing recently City walls are monuments that reflect all the features of the history of defense. The city walls have protected the city and its community from natural forces such as the sea and the wind, as well as human induced effects such as war or plunder. They defined the boundaries of the city, controlled the growth of the city in accordance with economic and administrative factors and have been used through history, restored when they were damaged and have become a symbol of the power and culture of the city. The city walls lost their defensive function as a result of developments in military technology, which resulted in the walls losing the perception of being indestructible. As the growth of the city became inevitable due to economic change and industrialization the city walls ceased to form the monumental boundaries of the city. The walls of fortified cities in many countries have been damaged as a result of natural factors and disasters and also human impacts such as a city's need for new transportation networks, while some of them were completely removed to accommodate contemporary needs. With much new development changing the physical structure of the urban environment, city walls lost their main functions and purpose.Today the city walls are part of the cultural and historical heritage. The limits of the historical pattern are defined through these walls. They have become a symbol, a reference point, a landmark reflective of memory and history. Defensive structures have the characteristics of being a historical monument and an archaeological document for their systems and architectural techniques. For all these reasons, preventing the loss of the city walls and their significance is of great importance.Protection of the historical city walls and the evaluation of the issues which must be taken into account can be considered under various headings.Within the master plan the monument has to be considered as part of the urban context, keeping in mind the definition of functions in the immediate environs and its visibility within the city silhouette. The quality of the conservation works carried out on the monument, namely the restoration and reconstruction, intervention strategies and techniques and materials used, must be correctly identified.

The defensive buildings have been built in accordance with their functions at the time they were built in a very solid and enduring way. This feature of these buildings facilitates new functions and the use of their interiors, even to build additions as necessary. The contents of the new designs, taking into consideration the buildings authenticity and originality and the analysis of successful examples, constitute a very important topic. The examples of interventions where the defensive structures are not handled appropriately in this sense are unfortunately very common nowadays. This case leads to irreversible and irremediable hazards larger than the damage caused by natural factors, and damages the significance of the monument. The revalorization of historical environs The reevaluation or revalorization means the revival of the values of the heritage, to uncover the "history", making it readable, visible and perceivable. It is to repair and keep the significance of the traditional space values and provide a reuse according to today's needs. It is the re-discovery of the traditional architectural and urban values which have not yet lost their validity. The revalorization of historical environs is closely related to the renewal of the physical pattern and active economic use of buildings and spaces. Accordingly these environs need to be reevaluated in the context of both physical and economic aspects. It is obvious that both perspectives would be balancing each other. A physical renovation might create positive spaces in the short term, but in order to sustain these positive aspects they need to be sustainable. In other words strategies, that involve rebuilding the economic base, supporting the rehabilitation and

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1. Map of the Byzantine Constantinople, showing the traces of the former landwalls

2. Analysis on the Istanbul Landwalls

functional diversity have an important place in the process of the revalorization of the historical environs. In this context, according to Tiesdell et. al., three main characteristics of the historical environs should be emphasized: the quality of space, obsolescence and the intensity of the development pressures. According to Doratli examples of successful revalorization show us that the proper definition of the contextual aspects previously mentioned during the analytical phase and the effective organizational, legal and financial means used, play a major role in determining the proper strategic approach to the revalorization project. Istanbul City Walls The environs of the historical monument, such as the land walls which have lost their primary function of defending the city but are still standing as a boundary element, are areas that have to be handled in this sense and have strategic plans drawn up for them. Primarily the work should begin with research on the meaning of the walls and priority should be given to the work which would strengthen this meaning. As was specifically emphasized at previous meetings the Istanbul land walls, which are in all 21 km long, are a priceless asset for contemporary Istanbul in regard to historical, cultural and intellectual matters, representing the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman civilizations. Although the restoration works are not the subject of this paper, and we are not experts on it, the negative impact of some of the restorations and especially the reconstructions on the environment and therefore on the cultural identity cannot be ignored. There is especially the need for a social plan for the environs of the walls. On these issues the attitude of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality as the owner of the city walls gains importance. The quality of the work in all its aspects should be discussed more than the quantity of the work, while not forgetting negative aspects. The need to identify the affected zone cannot be denied. That this zone, its landscape and requirements and the urban pattern within the city walls were not considered is another negative aspect. Clearly all the proposed projects on the city walls require prior analytical research on historical, urban and social aspects. The SWOT analysis Today in Turkey many studies on the redesign of historical environs are being performed, while the samples based on analytical studies remain a minority. Yet especially on historical environments, these analytical studies should be done carefully and reevaluated with constant feedback, and all the interventions should be reversible in nature. Recently for these kinds of analytical researches SWOT analysis approach has an important place. As in various fields SWOT analysis can also be used for short and long-term strategic plans in historical environments, whereby through the strengths of the site or monument in question and the opportunities they provide, the weaknesses and the environmental threats can hopefully be eliminated. Table.1 The work, prepared by P. Arabacioglu for her Ph D Thesis under the supervision of prof. Aydemir, represents the positive and negative aspects regarding the land walls and their environs. In this context among the positive aspects that should be taken into consideration, the undeveloped green zone, that enhances the visual impact of the walls, stands in the forefront. Regarding the built environment the uniqueness and iconic nature of the walls are their main strengths. The dense residential area would constitute an opportunity to eliminate the degradation and loss of pattern and to revitalize the environs of the walls. The density of public spaces allows for the creation of a suitable environment for public activities. Support

needs to be given to Istanbul as a center of attention for researchers and local and foreign visitors. In this sense because of the city's requirement for informational and recreational spaces with suitable architecture, accessibility and connections with the city center gain importance. The port could be a focus point. Improvements and artistic/sculptural installations at particular locations, that would revitalize the environment, could be achieved through architectural competitions. These functions would have to be in keeping with their environment and not be visually intrusive.

3. SWOT analysis regarding the Istanbul land walls .

Conclusion A number of law reforms regarding the subject within the EU integration process are certainly a positive step. In this context the ongoing project "Istanbul 2010 European Capital of Culture" is one of the opportunities to exploit. However, proper implementation of these regulations is of great importance as well. The studies related to the Istanbul city walls need to be developed with interdisciplinary cooperation of sociologists, economists, archaeologists, architects and urban planners. In particular the public and residents living in the neighborhood need to be kept informed within a process that involves transparent discussions and decisions, that are carefully thought out. Criticism is not to be feared but benefits should be gained from it. The surveys and researches made by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality for the Master plan indicate that the residents' education, income and level of awareness are very low. That the majority of those living in the area near the walls have only arrived there within the last 10 years, is a major threat for the future because short term residential use means that people are not aware of the historical identity of the environment. As we stated in former declarations the lack of a research center, which could be cooperating with international and national scientific communities, is a major deficiency. A center con-

taining a materials laboratory, capable of giving education on workmanship and construction technology and providing documentation, inventory and typological studies would make a great contribution on restoration and environmental design techniques. The interdisciplinary studies and analyses containing opinions of experts should help to construct a system that would work and that could not be abused. Hence decisions taken and conservation work properly carried out on historical monuments like the city walls would set an example for all such work on historical environments. References Ahunbay Z., (1996), Tarihi Çevre Koruma ve Restorasyon, Yapi-Endüstri Merkezi Yayinlari, Istanbul. Akçura N., (1992), "Günümüzde Tarihi Çevre Korumasi Konusunda Görüsler", Mimarlik Dergisi, 249:7. Akin N., (1995), "Istanbul'un Tarihi Çevrelerinde Kimlik Degisimi ve Yitirilen Çevresel Kalite", Mimarlikta Kalite Sempozyumu, 1995, Bursa, 150-153. Arabacioglu F.P., (2007), "Sur-Kent Iliskisinin Çevre Düzenleme Kriterleri Açisidnan Degerlendirilmesi", PhD Thesis, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul. Arabacioglu F.P., (2011) "The City and its Walls: A Research on Istanbul Land Walls", VDM Verlag. Ayan F.P., (2003), Tarihi Çevrelerde Yapilan Yeniden Degerlendirme Çalismalarinda Yöntem ve Nitelik Sorunu, Master's Thesis, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul. Aydemir, I., (2002), "Les remparts de la ville d'Istanbul", EUROPA NOSTRA Bulletin 57 pgs 75-84. Aydemir I., Arabacioglu F.P., (2003), "About the Contemporary Problems of Preservation and Revalorization of the Istanbul City Walls", EUROPA NOSTRA Bulletin 58 pgs 9-16. Cuesta R., Moughtin C., Sarris C., Signoretta P., (1999), In Urban Design: Method and Techniques (ed.) C. Moughtin, Butterworth Architectural, Oxford. Doratli N., Önal Hoskara S. and Fasli M., (2004) "An

analytical methodology for revitalization strategies in historic urban quarters; a case study of the Walled city of Nicosia, North Cyprus", Cities, Vol. 21, No.4: 329348, Elsevier, UK. Doratli N., (2000), A Model for Conservation and Revitalization of Historic Urban Quarters in Northern Cyprus, PhD. Thesis, Dogu Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Gazimagusa Kaufmann J. E., Kaufmann J., Kaufmann H.W., (2001), The Medieval Fortress; Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages, Combined Publishing, London. Kuban D., (2000), Tarihi Çevre Korumanin Mimarlik Boyutu, Yapi-Endüstri Merkezi Yayinlari, Istanbul. Önal S., Dagli U. and Doratli N., (1999), "The urban problems of Gazimagusa (Famagusta) and proposals for the future", Cities, Vol. 16, No. 5: 333-351, Elsevier, Tiesdell S., Öç T., Heath T., (1996), Revitalizing Historic Urban Quarters, Architectural Press, London. Tsangadas B. C. P., (1980), The Fortifications and Defense of Constantinople, Columbia University Press, New York Papageorgiou A., (1971), Continuity and Change, Preservation in City Planning, Praeger Publishers, London. Van Millingen A., (1899), Byzantine Constantinople, The Walls of the City and Adjoining Historical Sites, London.

Les murailles assurant autrefois la protection des villes anciennes, aujourd'hui font partie du patrimoine culturel et historique de nos villes médiévales. Elles définissent aussi les limites de ses tissus urbains et ses évolutions dans l'histoire. Aujourd'hui, ils n'ont plus à défendre un territoire, ni des routes, mais une image, une mémoire et des biens culturels. Ils représentent un point de référence, un point de repère. Ainsi, elles sont tous respectes et protégés comme étant le monument le plus significatif de nos villes. Les méthodes d'intervention et les questions qui se posent pour la protection des murs de la ville historique peuvent prises en compte sous certains titres. D'abord dans sa situation et sa valorisation dans le contenu du plan directeur de la ville le monument doit être considéré et être évalué dans son contexte urbain (SWOT analyse). Avec la redéfinition des fonctions urbains dans son environnement proche est surtout la visibilité du monument, que doit être assurée, tout en pensant a l'importance qu'il occupe dans la silhouette de la ville. Par la suite, la qualité des travaux de conservation du monument, à savoir les recherches, la restauration, les restitutions, les stratégies, les techniques d'intervention, et les matériaux a être utilise, doivent être correctement identifiés. Les bâtiments défensifs a cause de leurs fonctions initiales ont été construites d'une manière très solide et durable. Cette caractéristique les rend très adaptable a recevoir des nouvelles fonctions et facilite la réutilisation de leurs intérieurs. De tels choix comportent des avantages, bien sûr, mais aussi de nombreux risques liés à des solutions hâtives et trop ciblées. Nous savons que l'emploi de procédés forcés de réutilisation a parfois causé la perte définitive d'éléments historiques pourtant importants, au profit d'opérations dans lesquelles l'ancien n'est qu'un prétexte à de nouveaux projets caractérisés par une prédominance de transformations.

MEHMET ALPER, BERRIN ALPER

MAIDEN'S TOWER: RESTORATION PROCESS OF A FORTIFIED ISLET IN ISTANBUL

History The origins of the intriguing history of the Maiden's Tower, situated on an islet at the entrance to the Bosphorus, can be traced back to the myth of the bitter-ending love story of Hero and Leander. Associated with that myth, the tower has been called 'Tour de LĂŠandre' for centuries. Similar stories are told in Turkish folk tales. The best known is that in which the Sultan confined his daughter to a tower built on an islet to avoid the consequences of an ominous oracle, yet the snake found its way to the islet in a basket of grapes and killed the girl1. Although the islet was first mentioned in chronicles in the 5th century BC, the history of construction on the islet began in the 12th century A.D. According to chronicle sources, Manuel Komnenos I, Byzantine Emperor, ordered the building of a stronghold on the Damalis Island2 and it was reportedly connected to another tower on the shores of the Topkapi Palace with heavy chains. The purpose was both to prevent the passage of warships in case of an attack on the capital and to compel trade ships to pay toll. 1. 1422 C. Boundelmonti (P. Gilles, The antiquities of

Constantinople, 1729) J. Grelot 1680 (Istanbul Seyahatnaesi, 1998)

2.Maidenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tower views: in 1784 by C.C. De Carbognano (18.Yuzyil sonunda Istanbul, 1993), in 1920s (Istanbul Uskudar Municipality Archive).

3.Maidenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tower: section, east and north elevation, plans of ground and second floors,lantern third floor (measurement drawing by M. Alper).

4.Maiden’s tower:the deep cracks in the walls created by the earthquake in 1999, and the reinforcements added to the structures and the flagpole..

5.Maiden’s tower: axonometric perspective of the status before 1943; the courtyard trasformed into a close space during the restoration

6.maiden’s tower the reiforcenet of the tower and the flagpole:before and after the restoration,

After the conquest of Istanbul, Sultan Mehmet II ordered the demolition of the Byzantine tower and erection of a 'fortified castle', to quote Tursun Bey, the historian3. The engravings in Hünername portray a masonry castle with pointed gabled roof surrounded by a wall with crenellated parapet4. When damaged during the earthquake of 15095, Sultan Selim I ordered its restoration. In the 1600s, G J Grelot in his engravings portrayed a rectangular tower with a crenellated parapet6. In the 17th century, Evliya Çelebi described the castle as 'being rectangular, 80 (arsin) tall, having a 200 ft² area, a gate with a wide scope of vision, having cells in all seven stores, loopholes, castle guards, 100 soldiers, 40 long-range cannon and a rich stock of ammunition7. An 18th century writer, Inciciyan, recorded that the tower was connected to the shores of Üsküdar by an underwater channel and that previously there had been a stone wall to break the surface current which caused difficulty in rowing boats across the sea. Later, the wall was torn down and its stones were used elsewhere during the reign of Sultan Süleyman, the Magnificent. During the Ottoman era, the tower was no longer used for defence purposes but functioned as a lighthouse and a rescue station in case of storms, with a cannon firing from the site during ceremonies. Also, it was the place where Besiraga, the Chief Eunuch, was strangled8 during Sultan Mahmut I's reign and the prison where Hekimoglu Ali Pasa, the Grand Vizier to Sultan Osman III, was kept. In the 7.Maiden’s tower: restoration project elevations and detail of the drawing prepared according to the trace of the original roof.

8.Maiden’s tower: east and south elevation after the restoration.

In the 1830s, during a cholera epidemic, it also served as a quarantine hospital9. In 1725-6 the Grand Vizier, Nevsehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha, restored the tower that had burned down in 172010. The tower was heightened with the addition of a glass house and the dome was covered with lead. However, a more extensive renovation took place during the reign of Sultan Mahmut II (1808-39), when an inscription carved by the famous calligrapher, Master Rakim, was placed on a triangular pediment above the gate giving the date 1248 H./1832-33 AD, together with the Sultan's monogram11. The tower's baroque dome and the flagpole must have been added during this renovation. In 1943, a two-storeyed concrete structure was placed in the courtyard of the tower that functioned as a lighthouse while the wooden structure of the dome and tower facade was replaced with concrete12. For 17 years after 1964 the building was used as a radar station for mine-detection by the Bosphorus Command Head Quarters under the Ministry of Defence. In 1982, it was then taken over by Maritime Organisation and for a while it was even used as a cyanide container. Towards the end of 1992, the radar, generator systems and other equipment were dismantled and the tower was left untended13. The Renovation Process During the preparatory stage of the project, we have attempted to access written and visual sources to determine the architectural changes that the tower has undergone. Travelogues, chronicles, old photographs, journals and newspapers have been examined. By arranging these documents in chronological order, we have arrived at the conclusion that the tower does not offer a uniform architectural structure in all of these documents. An analytical survey of the present-day structure has been completed, all the features of place, style, structure and decoration having been analysed and photographed within the framework of these researches. A restoration project has been drawn up with the prospect of preparing the building for a new function while preserving its existing characteristics. Starting the Restoration The restoration project started on 26 September 1996 with the approval by the Cultural and Natural Heritage Protection Board As Maiden's Tower has spectacular value in the urban life of Istanbul, restoration work began with the removal of the 1943 additions which disregarded the original architectural characteristics. In this context, the structure with a 30-cm thick concrete curtain wall was removed, together with the external and internal plaster and the rubble that had been piled on the shore facing Haydarpasa. This took nine months of work, and as a result of this process the original castle has finally emerged close to its pre-1943 form. Its characteristic features were a crenellated parapet, observation holes, seven cannon-ports (three on each of the north and west sides and one on the south side) and original ground-floor stone walls. The cannon-ports were valuable data in the sense that they are witnesses to the building's defence role as a watchtower in controlling the ships entering the Bosphorus. Another important discovery was on the north wall of the tower where there were traces of the original gable roof covering the courtyard. The original space, stone walls, niches, details, materials, characteristics of the texture that emerged after the cleaning process have been documented and the new data have been provided for establishing a basis for restoration. However, the last survey showing all the hidden details of the building has caused a fresh reassessment of the renovation and restoration project which was based on the first survey. In other words, the basic principle that 'the building guides the proj-

ect, not the project guides the building' has once again been demonstrated. The Restoration Principles The approach we have adopted in the restoration of the Maiden's Tower is the 'contemporary restoration' approach based on the principles set out in the Venice Protocol, that is, in the retention of all traces that have survived from different time periods. It has been understood from the written and visual documents that the tower had different architectural and functional identities throughout the history of the city. The main goal of the restoration application has been to sustain the architectural features that have been dominant for over a century, while merging them with additions of the 20th century, especially the gabled roof over the courtyard and metal railings; window pediments have been preserved while a contemporary touch has been applied by metal-structured flooring and roof without damaging the architectural and structural characteristics of the building. The concrete interior floor and stairs, the dome and the flagpole have been retained intact despite being 1943 additions. It has been detected that the single-storeyed wooden entrance with a gabled roof also had a panelled wooden facade over the concrete curtain wall. This confusing discovery can be related to the additions of the 1943 restoration. The decayed wooden exterior coating has been replaced by one that is sea water- and dampness-resistant; doors and window panes have been renewed; the wooden window sills have been given their final shape and the triangular window pediments have been kept. The use of high-quality wood panelling has given rise to a debate as to whether the exterior should be left unadorned and plain or should be plastered white as we remember it. The stone wall has been left plain after removing the plaster as it contained a great number of reused rock pieces of antique value. Notes 1. T. Baykara, K?z Kulesi, Efsaneden Tarihi Gerçe?e, Ankara 2004, pp. 127-153. 2. W. Müler- Wiener, ?stanbul'un Tarihsel Topografyas?, 1998, p. 334; Ç. Gülersoy, "Kiz Kulesi", Dunden Bugune Istanbul Ansiklopedisi 5, 1994, p.10 3. M.S. Türkhan, "XVIII. Yüzy?lda K?z Kulesi", Üsküdar Sempozyumu V 1-5 Kas?m 2007 Bildiriler, I, 2008, pp.653-663. 4. Hünernâme : Minyatürleri ve Sanatçilari, ?stanbul Yap? Kredi Bankasi, 1969, p.37 5. M.S. Türkhan, p.659.

6 J. Grelot, ?stanbul Seyahatnamesi, (Çev. M. Selen) 1998, p.58 7. Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatname, I, O.?.Gökyay(Ed.), 1996, p.201 8.?.H.Uzunçar??l?, Osmanl? Tarihi, IV/1, 1995, p.332 9.?.H.Uzunçar??l?, p.338 10.?.H. Konyal?, K?z Kulesi, Tarih Hazinesi 1/7, 1528 ?ubat), 1951, pp. 351-352. 11.?.H. Konyal?, p. 351 12. Ç. Gülersoy, "Kiz Kulesi", Dunden Bugune Istanbul Ansiklopedisi 5, 1994, p.12 13. Ç. Gülersoy, (1994) "Kiz Kulesi", Dunden Bugune Istanbul Ansiklopedisi 5, p.12

Les origines de de la tour de Maiden, située sur un ilot à l'entrée du Bosphore, remontent au mythe de Héro et Léandre. Au 12ème siècle, Manuel Komnenos I ordonna la construction d'un bastion sur l'île de Damalis afin d'empêcher le passage des bâtiments de guerre et d'obliger les bateaux de commerce à payer un droit de passage. Après la conquête d'Istanbul, Mehmet II ordonna la construction d'un "château fortifié". Après le tremblement de terre de 1509 le sultan Selim I ordonna sa restauration. A l'époque ottomane, la tour fut utilisée comme phare, en 1725-26 fut restaurée après avoir été détruite par l’incendie du 1720. En 1943, une structure en béton de deux étages fut construite dans la cour de la tour qui fut utilisée uniquement comme phare; le dôme et la façade furent remplacés par structures du béton. Depuis 1964 le bâtiment a été station radar, Q G. de Comm. du Bosphore, et fut repris par l'organisation maritime en 1982. Fin 1992, les systèmes de radar fut démantelés et la tour laissée sans surveillance.

E. FĂ&#x153;SUN ALIOGLU, YONCA KĂ&#x2013;SEBAY ERKAN

A WALLED CITY: NICEA IN THE HISTORY

Introduction The foundation of Iznik is attributed to Antigones (d. 301 BC), one of the commanders in Alexander's army. The city was named after him as Antigonia. One of the satraps of Alexander the Great, Lysimakhos, defeated Antigonos in 310 BC and, gaining his land in Asia Minor, changed the name of the city to 'Nikaea', giving it his wife's name. The current Turkish name is believed to have evolved from 'Trace (Iz) of Nikaia' (Janin 1925). Iznik played significant roles in the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuq and Ottoman periods. Rulers of each period shaped the city according to their own circumstances and cultures, but the city also maintained its significant character in every period, one of the most important being that it remained confined within the city walls in all periods. From the 4th century BC and right through the medieval period, the city remained an important location between Constantinople and Asia that was protected by a defence system (figs 1-2). It is known that the kings of Bithynia, one of the kingdoms established in Asia Minor, lived mostly in their palaces in Iznik 1. Ancient roads of Bithynia region (Lefort, 1995). Iznik, is located at the east side of the Iznik Lake- for-

merly named as "Ascania" , in the Bithynia region (www.e-citadel.com).

2. Iznik walls, outer walls, towers and ditch surrounds the city and preserves its main characteristics (Alioglu 1999). Roman buildings:

1.defence system 2.theatre 3.aqueduct (outside the walls) 4. Böcek sacred water

Bizantine buildings: 5. Hagia Sofia church 6.Koimesis church 7.church A 8. church B 9. Church C

Ottomans buildings: 10. Orhan Gazi soup-kitchen and bath

11. Haci Özbek mosque 12.Haci Hamza mosque and tomb 13.Süleyman Pasha madrasah 14.Çandarli Hayrettin Pasha tomb

15. Kirgizlar tomb 16.Yesil Cami (green mosque) 17.Nilüfer Hatun soup-kitchen 18. Yakup Çelebi Zawiye and tomb 19.Sari Saltuk tomb 20.Ismail Bey bath 21.Seyh Kudbbeddin mosque and tomb 22.Haci Hamza bath 23.Büyük bath 24.Çandarli Ibraim Pasha tomb 25. Mahmut Çelebi mosque 26. Esrefoglu complex 27. Çandarli Halil Pasha tomb 28. barh ruins 29.Prayer stone (Kent disinda) 30 bath 31. Kumluk-Agdalar mosque 32.Huyzuzlar tomb 33.Ahiveyn tomb 34. Alaaddin Missri tomb 35. Musa Baba tomb.

until Nicomedia I had a settlement organised and a palace built in Nicomedia/Izmit in 264 BC (Janin 1925). The Hellenistic period of Nicaea is described by Strabon (64 BC- 24 AD) "...The circumference of the city is 16 stadia with a rectangular shape..it is located in a plain and has four gates..the streets cut each other orthogonally, so that from a stone located at the centre of the gymnasium, one can view four gates of the city". (Strabon 1987). The Hellenistic limits of the city cannot be defined due to the expansions in the Roman period. With the addition of an outer wall in the Laskarids period, the city gained its current appearance comprising a curtain wall, outer wall, ditch and towers which has a perimeter of 4,970 metres. At the junction where the two main streets meet near the Hagia Sophia Church-Mosque the four gates can still be seen today (figs 3-4). The main gates correspond to ancient roads leading to significant cities in the vicinity. The city became the abode of the governors in the reigns of Nero (96-98), Trajan (98-117) and Hadrian (117-138) (Janin 1925). Some sections of the ancient walls are still standing, such as the Theatre and its entablature, which are attributed to the Roman civilisation. Under the rule of the Byzantine State, Iznik became a settlement where religious buildings were densely distributed, those such as the Hagia Sophia (5th-6th centuries), the BĂścek Ayazma (Sacred Spring), the remains of the Koimesis Church (8th century), the Byzantine Churches (Church B and Church C) between the Theatre and the Yenisehir Gate, the church near Istanbul Gate (Church A) still being identifiable. However, the locations of the buildings whose names are mentioned only in some sources, like the ArchistratĂ¨ge Church, the Armenian Church, the SaintAntoine Church, the Agalma Monastery, the Ay KyriĂśtisas Monastery, the Neophyte (Martyr) Monastery, the Tornikios Monastery, St. Trinite, and the St. Tryphon Church cannot be identified (Janin 1975; Yalman 1979). When it became the capital of the new Byzantine State (1204-1261) founded by Emperor

3. Iznik the gates Istanbul, Lefke, Yenisehir. All these gates have three gateways, the first and second are on the curtain wall, and the third one is on the outer walls. Istanbul gate, Pococke mentions "North Gate"; while Sestini calls it "Istanbul Kapusi". Lefke gate in the Christian chronicles, the Lefke Gate with a Roman arch located between two towers on the curtain wall, is referred as "Eastern Gate". In the account of Pococke, it is mentioned as "Karadin Gate", in Sestini's "Damascus Gate" is used. In later accounts, named after the city to its east Lefke "Lefke Gate" Yenisehir gate has three gateways. The gate with a Roman arch is located between two towers on the curtain wall and is referred as "Old Gate" by Pococke, "Gianizer" or "Yenisehir Gate" by Sestini and others. (Drawings, notes: Schneider ve Karnapp 1938, Photo: Alioglu, 2007)

4. Iznik walls:Wall structure schema and photo(Erkan, 2009), a the first stage the wallwalks was 9.00 m high (Schneider ve Karnapp) 5. Iznik walls: in Laskarids period (the third stage) the outer wall on the lake side was built in front of the curtain except between the 75th and 89th towers. (Schneider ve Karnapp 1938; Photo: Erkan, 2009). 6. Bรถcek Sacred Water, is located on the northern side of the Koimesis Church was built in the 4th century as referred by an inscription on a cruciform plaque. (Drawing Schneider 1943; Photo: Alioglu, 1999). 7. Hagia Sofia (5-6th century.) near the south east crossing of the Hellenistic cardinal roads, was a sacred place for Christianity because there gathered the 7th Council, it was converted to a mosque in 1331 by the Ottomans 8. Church A, By looking at the construction materials

and techniques, it is assumed to be constructed at between 11-13th centuries. (Eyice 1949) 9. Iznik Roman theatre built in the Trajan period (98117). Plinius in 111AD, when he was governor, mentions that the theatre was not complete. (Yalman 1981; Photo: Erkan, 2009) 10. Iznik Roman aqueduct, was constructed at the time of the Emperor Hadrian (117-138). ( Yalman; Photo: Erkan, 2009). 11. Koimesis Church was constructed by the Bishop Hyakintohos in the 8th century Today parts of the building are in situ, and some parts at the Iznik Museum (Peschlow 1972; Mango 1986). 12..Church B By looking at the use of the struck joint technique, it is assumed that the building remains were constructed in the 12-13th century. (Schneider 1943; Drawing, Photo: Yalman Tarihsiz).

Theodoros Laskarids (Ostrogorsky 1986) some important construction work took place: the city was surrounded with an outer wall (Dukas Vatatzas, 12221254) and the men's school, the palace of the Patriarch, the hospitals, the charity institutions, the fortified castles, and the churches at the borders were all built during this period. Before the period of Ottoman rule, Iznik had come under Turkish hegemony twice. The first time, Suleyman Shah, Sultan of the Anatolian Seljuks, captured Iznik in 1075 and made it his capital. According to Anna Komnena, the Sultan lived outside the city walls, in the Palace of Sultanikion, surrounded by gardens (Otto Dorn 1941). After Suleyman Shah died, his son Kiliรง Aslan built a palace in Iznik that bore his name. The first Turkish period came to an end when the Crusaders captured the city in 1097, but Iznik came under the rule of the Anatolian Seljuk State a second time between 1105 and 1147 (Inalcik 1997). In the second Turkish period, it is not clearly known what the nature of the social structure was in Iznik. Along with the administrator and military classes, a certain number of Muslims must have settled here and undertaken some building works, but nothing is known about the possible products of such activities undertaken in these periods. Once Iznik became part of Ottoman territory, great numbers of buildings were constructed. When the city was conquered, the population of the city was not dense, and in the early Ottoman period the Byzantine

13. Church C, It is assumed that this building could be the Hagia Tryphonos church built in the 13th c. by Theodoros Laskarids II. (Eyice 1991, Yalman 1995; Photo: Alioglu, 1999). 14. Murat I great, or old bath built in the 15-16th c. (Eyice 1960, O.Dorn 1946) 15. Mahmut Çelebi Mosque, was built in 1442 (H.846), and in 1447 (H.850) by Mahmut Çelebi the son of the Çandarli Ibrahim Pasha, the Grand Vizier of the Murat II .(Ayverdi 1966; Photo: O.Dorn 1941) 16. Haci Özbek Mosque, or Çarsi Mescidi on Lefke Gate Street: the building carries the oldest inscription from the early Ottoman era in the city 1333 (H.734) and is the first example of a central domed mosque in

the early Ottoman era . (Ülgen 1938, Ayverdi 1966, O.Dorn 1941; Photo: Alioglu, 2000) 17. Haci Hamza Mosque and Tomb, This building, not existing today, was situated on the Lefke Gate Street. It was constructed by Hamza bin Ardunsah in 1345 (H.746) according to its inscription. (O.Dorn 1941; Drawing: Ayverdi 1966) 18. Çandarli Halil Pasha Tomb, situated on one of the two ancient streets, the Lefke Gate Street, was built at the beginning of the 15th century when the elder son of Ibrahim Pasha, Halil Pasha,was executed in 1453 by Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, he was buried here. (O. Dorn 1941)

important centres around the city: Constantinople Gate (North Gate), Lefke Gate (Damascus Gate, Eastern Gate), Yenisehir Gate (Old Gate), and Lake Gate (Jaluke Gate). In addition, there are four more lateral gates (figs 5-7). There are 110 towers (either square, circular or polygonal) flanking the curtain wall, while the outer wall has several bastions. The curtain wall is approximately 9 metres high and about 3.60-3.85 metres thick (figs 8, 9). The outer wall is 13-16.00 metres distant from the curtain wall and has a height of 3-4 metres. The ditch in

period buildings and the city walls were intact. Several buildings like hamam, mosques, mesjids, madrasahs, soup-kitchens, and tombs were built. It is assumed that the city was occupied entirely in the Byzantine period. However the Ottomans settled in the eastern half of Iznik between Istanbul Gate and Yenisehir Gate, which can still be seen from the remaining buildings. The western part of the city in the Ottoman period displays a more rural character (fig 11). The construction activity in Iznik in the Ottoman Period intensified in two distinct phases. One phase began with the conquest of the city and its becoming the capital until the end of the 14th century when the city relinquished its position to Bursa. The second phase is marked by the construction activity of the Ă&#x2021;andarli family who served at the Grand Vizierate from the end of the 14th century until the second half of the 15th century. One of the prominent products of the city was tile manufacture, which mainly served the Palace and was active from the 15th century until the beginning of the 18th century. The Defensive System of Iznik: The Walls Situated at a strategic point between Constantinople and Asia, Iznik has survived throughout the ages. The city has owed this success to its lakeside setting with a port, creating an additional means of transport other than land, and to its strong defensive system. Although the limits of the city in the Hellenistic period are not certain, through the addition of an outer wall by the Lascarids in the Byzantine period the walls surrounding the city must have gained their present appearance. The defences of Iznik consist of a double wall system (curtain wall and outer wall) supported by towers with a ditch. The construction of the outer wall and ditch was eliminated on the lakeside, which was accepted as a natural barrier. Today the ditch is filled by soil and therefore cannot be seen. The Hellenistic city inside the walls presents a significant example of a hippodamos plan, with grid street pattern. Expanding in the Roman period, the newly constructed gates corresponded to the cardinal axis of the Hellenistic city. Additionally, the Byzantine structures also align with the same directions; therefore it can be assumed that the current city evolved around the Hellenistic structure. There are four main gates opening onto ancient road systems linking with

19. Çandarli Ibrahim Pasha Tomb: The building is situated on one of the two ancient streets, the Lefke Gate Street, near Lefke Gate. When the second son of the Hayrettin Pasha, Ibrahim Pasha died in 1429 (H.832), he was buried here (Otto Dorn 1941, Ülgen 1938) 20. Haci Hamza Bath, is located at the northeast of Mahmut Çelebi Mosque. The building has no inscription, therefore the construction date is approximated by its walling technique, which is assumed to be of the end of 14th century - beginning of the 15th century (Ülgen 1938, Otto Dorn 1941; Photo: Alioglu, 1999) 21. Süleyman Pasha Madrasah is constructed to the east of Mahmut Çelebi Mosque and Haci Hamza Bath. Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century describes the building as one of the seven madrasahs of Iznik but it is the only madrasah of Iznik today. It is assumed to be the earliest madrasah with a courtyard based on to the belief that it was constructed by the elder son of Orhan Beg, Süleyman Pasha.(Evliya Çelebi 1970, Otto Dorn 1941, Ayverdi 1966; Drawing: Alioglu)

22. Nilüfer Hatun Soup Kitchen is built towards the east side of the city near Lefke Gate. Based on the inscription found over the gate, it is dedicated to the mother of Murad I, Nilüfer Hatun and constructed in 1388 (H.790) . (Ayverdi 1966, Ülgen 1938; Photo: Alioglu, 2000) 23. Yesil Cami (Green Mosque), is built towards the east side of the city near Lefke Gate. The building is also referred as Hayrettin Pasha Mosque. Based on the inscription found over the gate, it was constructed by the first Grand Vizier of the Ottomans in 1378 (H.780). In another inscription found over a door sill in the portico of the mosque, the building was completed by Haci bin Musa in 1391 (H.794). (Otto Dorn 1941, Ayverdi 1938; Photo: Erkan 2009) 24. Yakup Çelebi Zawiya, is located at the south-east of the city near to the Koimesis Church. Although the building lacks an inscription, it is believed that it was built by the elder son of Murad I, Yakup Çelebi.(Otto Dorn 1941, Ayverdi 1966) 25. Iznik in the 19th century, 1833 (Texier, 1862)

front of the outer wall is assumed to have been filled with lake water at times of emergency (fig10). After the Hellenistic period, the walls were constructed in three phases. The first phase was in 258-269 AD when the walls were constructed with the late Roman technique of alternating layers of brick and stone. The brick layers are 27-30 cm high and the stone layers 180-220 cm. At this stage, the towers are circular and separated from each other by 60-70 metres. The second phase began after 368 AD until continued until 1206 and the Lascarids period. The height of the curtain wall remained the same, while additional towers were built between the towers in front of the curtain wall. In the third phase (from 1206 until the end of the Lascarids period) the outer wall was added to the defence system, creating an overall thickness of 160-200 metres. The outer wall is 13-16 metres beyond the curtain wall. In the construction of the city walls and of the towers, four types of masonry were used: 1) facing of stone or marble; 2) rough walling of rubble and mortar with four courses of bricks, similar to "opus caementium" (Kahya 1992); 3) walling of two lines of brick and two lines of stones where bricks are laid vertically or at certain angles; and 4) walling of complete brickwork. The Urban Development of Iznik In every period, building activity in Iznik was confined within the city walls, or in its vicinity, and has taken the ancient roads and directions as reference (fig11). Pre-Ottoman Period By looking at the axial layout of the gates over the Hippodamos city plan, it can be argued that Romans continued using the Hellenistic urban heritage. The current physical data is insufficient to define the Roman building activity in detail. The remains of the Roman buildings or its ruins are as follows: sections of the

defence system such as Istanbul Gate, Lefke Gate, Yenisehir Gate, Theatre, and the aqueduct outside the Lefke Gate which brought spring water from the skirts of the Elmali Mountain (figs 12, 13). The construction of the Roman Theatre was begun in the Trajan period (98-117). The ancient alignments of the Byzantine period can be traced by examining the location of the churches. In the Church of Hagia Sophia, the walls were built of rubble and stone with courses of bricks and of complete brickwork. In Koimesis Church, the following types of masonry were used: 1) brick walls; 2) alternate walling with five courses of bricks and four courses of rubble stone; and 3) alternate walling made up of six courses of bricks and one course of cut stones (Peschlow 1972). In the remains of Church A near Istanbul Gate were found alternate walls made up of four courses of bricks and one course of stones (Eyice 1949). In Böcek Ayazma (Sacred Spring) there was rubble stonework with fillers of brickwork. Church B near the Roman Theatre had four types of walls: 1) one course of stone on the ground and then complete brickwork walls; 2) one course of stonework on the ground and then two or three courses of bricks and one course of stone; 3) one course of stonework on the ground and then four or five courses of bricks and one course of stone; and 4) one course of stonework on the ground and then two courses of bricks, one course of stones with vertical bricks inserted in between the stones (figs 14-19) (Yalman 1979).

The Ottoman Period It is not known what the characteristics of the road pattern were when Iznik was captured by the Ottomans. However, it can be deduced that early Ottoman buildings were located with reference to the Hellenistic road layout. Murat I (Büyük or Eski) Double Bath (14th-15th centuries) and Mahmut Çelebi Mosque (1443) were situated on the street between Istanbul Gate and Yenisehir Gate; Haci

26. Monuments and the cross section (Alioglu 1999) Seyh Kudbbeddin 27. North-eastern part of Iznik, Hagia Sofia in the

foreground (Yalman) 28. South- western part of Iznik (Yalman)

29. Ancient roads brought by daylight through the Büyük Bath excavations (Photo: Erkan, 2009).

30. Lefke Gate excavations (Photo: Bilgin, 2009)

Özbek Mosque (1333, 1334) and Haci Hamza bin Ardunsah Mosque (13431346), the tombs of Çandarli Halil Pasa (d. 1453) and of Çandarli Ibrahim Pasa (d. 1429) were built on the streets between Lake Gate and Lefke Gate, the street which is perpendicular to the other main street (figs 20-25). Haci Hamza Bath and Süleyman Pasa masrasah are built behind on another perpendicular to the axis between Istanbul Gate and Yenisehir Gate (figs 26, 27). Additionally, in some examples such as Haci Özbek Mosque, Haci Hamza Mosque and Nilüfer Hatun Soup-kitchen (1388), the fact that the masses of these buildings do not turn toward Mecca shows the influence of the already existing direction of these buildings (fig 28). In some other examples like Yesil Mosque (1378-89), Yakup Çelebi Soup-kitchen (14th century), and Mahmut Çelebi Mosque, directions toward Mecca came to determine their constructional axes. It is observed that the building activity in this period was concentrated in the eastern section of the city (figs 29, 30).The street-level of Iznik has changed throughout history. At the time when Hagia Sofia was constructed in the 5-6th centuries the street-level was 4.73 metres below the current ground-level, at the time of the Koimesis Church in 8th century it was 2.50 metres below, and in the early Ottoman period 0.50 metres (Alioglu 2001) (fig 31). Flooding of Iznik Lake, as well as wars and earthquakes, must have caused the original ground level to rise. Very few buildings remain from the Antique and Byzantine periods; therefore it is assumed that this filling of the ground contains numerous significant archaeological remains. Explorations of the original ground-levels are undertaken in the immediate vicinity of restored buildings. Hagia Sofia, Buyuk Bath House and Kutbettin building complex are among those buildings where old ground-levels have been explored. Displaying these levels is accepted as an important operation in terms of exposing the characteristics of the city. In this context, Iznik restorations revealed partially the street pattern of Hellenistic and Roman periods, and to the exhibition of some underground edifices (Alioglu, Erkan 2009).

Iznik Today In 1930s Iznik, the settlement occupied only one-third of the walled city, barely reflecting its historical past. Today, Iznik is mostly confined to the walled city, and contact between the city and the defence system is provided sometimes by a

road and sometimes by a green belt, while the inner wall is used for housing and commercial activities. At the same time there is commercial production outside the Istanbul Gate and construction activity is observed outside the Lefke Gate. In addition, outside the defence system, sometimes a road, sometimes a green belt is observed. Contained largely within the city walls Iznik continues to show a symbiotic relationship with its ancient remains (figs 32-5) Conclusions The building activity of the Ottomans in Iznik came to an end with the tomb of Halil Pasha. During the reign of the Sultan Mehmet the Conquerer Iznik lost its administrative status as sandjak, becoming a kaza center of Bursa Province. In the 19th century it was reduced to village status of the Yenisehir Kaza, Hüdavendigar Province. The administrative, economic and political reduction of Iznik concurrently brought about physical contraction. In other words, long before other Turkish cities faced the dynamics of the 20th century which transformed them and led to their loss of traditional character, Iznik had already lost its traditional urban character from the second half of the 15th century. Following the 16th century recession and the 18th century retardation of the tile industry, the city was pushed outside the regular modernization trend of the Ottoman cities. Thus, the ancient character of Iznik can still be traced today under its existing structures. Recent archaeological evidence proves this hypothesis (Alioglu, Erkan 2009). For example, the ancient Roman road can be seen near the Great Bath, while excavations at the basement level of the Lefke Gate give clues to its original height (figs 36-8). As a walled city, Iznik is therefore providing a great opportunity for humanity. References Alioglu, E.Füsun, "Erken Osmanli Döneminde Iznik Kentinin Fiziksel Gelisimi", Aptullah Kuran'a Armagan / Essays in Honour Of Aptullah Kuran, YKB Yayinlari 1270, Istanbul, Aralik 1999, s. 83-100. Alioglu, E.Füsun, Erkan Yonca Kösebay, "Nicaea/ Iznik: A city Image as Heritage", The Image of Heritage: Changing Perception, Permanent Responsibilities, 5 - 9 March 2009, Florence / Italy. (http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/seminari) Alioglu, E.Füsun, "Similarities between early Ottoman architecture and local architecture or Byzantine architecture in Iznik ", Internationale Millenium Congress More Than Two Thousand Years in The History of Architecture, Selected Papers Volume I, Session 2 Historic Towns, 22-25 January 2000, Bethlehem. (http://www.icomos.org) Alioglu, E.Füsun, "Establishing the sustainable identity of a historical city field of research: Iznik", Internationale Millenium Congress More Than Two Thousand Years in The History of Architecture, Selected Papers, Volume I, Session 2 Historic Towns, 22-25 January 2000, Bethlehem. (http://www.icomos.org). Ayverdi, Ekrem Hakki, Istanbul Mimari Çaginin Mense'i Osmanli Mimarisinin Ilk Devri 630-805 (1230-1402), C.I, Istanbul Fetih Cemi'yeti, Istanbul Enstitüsü, No:57, Istanbul, 1966. Ayverdi, Ekrem Hakki, Osmanli Mimarisinde Çelebi ve II.Sultan Murad Devri 806-855 (1403-1451), C.II, Istanbul

Fetih Cemi'yeti, Istanbul Enstitüsü, No:65, Istanbul, 1972. Ayverdi, Ekrem Hakki, Osmanli Mimarisinde Fatih Devri 855-886 (1451-1481), C.III, Istanbul Fetih Cemi'yeti, Istanbul Enstitüsü, No:69, Istanbul, 1973. Evliya Çelebi, Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi, C.4, Çev. Zuhuri Danisman, Zuhuri Danisman Yayinevi, Istanbul, 1970. Semavi, Eyice, "Iznik'te Bir Bizans Kilisesi", Belleten, C.XIII, Türk Tarih Kurumu, Ankara, 1949, s.37-51. Inalcik, Halil, "Osman Gazi'nin Iznik Kusatmasi ve Bafeus Muharebesi", Osmanli Beyligi (1300-1389), Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlari 49, Istanbul, Agustos, 1997, s.78-105. Janin, Raymond, "Nicee, Etude Historique et Topographique", Echos d'Orient, Revue Trimestrielle d'Histoire de Géographi et de Liturgie Orientales, Tome XXIV, 1925, s.482-490. Janin, Raymond, Les Eglises et Les Monastères des grands Centres Byzantins (Bithynie, Hellespont, Latros, Galèsios, Trébizonde, Athènes, Thessalonique), Institut Français d'Etüdes Byzantines, Paris, 1975. Kahya, Yegan, "Istanbul Bizans mimarisinde Kullanilan Tuglanin Fiziksel ve Mekanik Özellikleri", ITÜ Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yayinlanmamis Doktora Tezi, Istanbul, 1992. Mango, Cyril, History of World Architecture, Byzantine Architecture, Faber and Faber / Electa,

London, 1986. Ostrogorsky, Georg, Bizans Devleti Tarihi, Çev. Prof.Dr.Fikret Isiltan, TTK Yayinlari, X.Dizi-Sa.7a, Ankara, 1986. Otto-Dorn, Katharina und Anheger, Robert Das Islamische Iznik, Istanbuler Forschungen, Herausgegeben von der Zweigstelle Istanbul des Archaologischen Instituts des Deutschen Reiches, Band 13, Berlin, 1941. Peschlow, Urs, "Neue Beobachtungen zur Architectur und Ausstattung der Koimesiskirche in Iznik", Istanbuler Mitteilungen, Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Band 22, Tubingen, 1972, s.145-185. Schneider, Alfons Maria und Karnapp, Walter, Die Stadtmauer von Iznik (Nicaea), Istanbuler Forschungen, Herausgegeben von der Abteilung Istanbul des Archaologischen Instituts des Deutschen Reiches, Band 9, Berlin, 1938. Schneider, Alfons Maria, Die Romischen und

Byzantinischen Denkmaeler von Iznik-Nicaea, Berlin, 1943, Istanbuler Forschungen, Herausgegeben von der Zweigstelle Istanbul des Archaologischen Instituts des Deutschen Reiches, Band 16, Berlin 1943. Strabon, Cografya, Anadolu (Kitap: XII, XIII, XIV), Çev. Prof.Dr. Adnan Pekman, Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayinlari, Antik Kaynaklar Dizisi:1, Istanbul, 1987. Texier, Charles, Asie Mineure, Description Géographique, Historique et Archéologique, des Provinces et des Villes de la Chersonnese d'Asie, Paris, 1862. Yalman, Bedri "Iznik'teki Kilise Alt Yapisi", VIII. Türk Tarih Kongresi, 11-15 Ekim 1976, T.T.K. Yayinlari,IX.Dizi-Sa.8, Ankara, 1979, s.457-466. Yalman, Bedri, "Iznik Tiyatro Kazisi 1980", III. Kazi Sonuçlari Toplantisi, T.C.Kültür ve Turizm Bakanligi Eski Eserler Ve Müzeler Genel Müdürlügü, Ankara, 1981, s.31-34. Yalman, Bedri, Nikaia-Iznik, Bursa Rotary Kulübü Kültür Yayini.

La fondation d'Iznik est attribuée à Antigone (301 av. JC), un des commandants de l'armée d'Alexandre. Iznik a joué un rôle important à l'époque hellénistique, romaine, byzantine, seldjoukide et ottomane. Les dirigeants de chacune de ces périodes modelèrent la ville en fonction des circonstances et de leur culture. Située dans un lieu stratégique entre Constantinople et l'Asie, Iznik a survécu au travers des ans. La ville doit ce succès au fait d'être installée au bord d'un lac relié à un port. Bien que les limites de la cité à l'époque hellénistique ne soient pas certaines, l'ajout à l'époque byzantine, par les Lascarides, d'un mur extérieur, fit que les remparts entourant la cité devaient avoir atteint leur aspect d'aujourd'hui. Le système de défense d'Iznik est constitué d'un système à double mur soutenu par des tours avec douves, étant donné que la côte du lac fut considéré comme une barrière naturelle. La ville hellénistique à l'intérieur des remparts présente un exemple significatif de plan d'Hippodamos. En expansion à l'époque romaine, les nouveaux ponts construits correspondent aux axes cardinaux de la ville hellénistique. De plus, les structures byzantines sont également alignées sur ces mêmes directions. Ainsi on peut supposer que la ville actuelle évolue autour de la structure hellénistique. Il y a quatre portes principales ouvrant sur les anciens axes Après l'époque hellénistique, les remparts furent construits en trois phases. La première se situe entre 258 et 269. A cette époque les remparts furent construits selon les dernières techniques romaines. La deuxième s'étend de 368 à 1206, époque des Lascarides. La hauteur des murs d'enceinte resta la même tandis que des tours supplémentaires furent construites entre les tours en avant des remparts. A la troisième étape (de 1206 à la fin de l'époque des Lascarides) le mur extérieur fut ajouté au système de défense, épais de 160 à 200 mètres. Les activités de construction des Ottomans à Iznik prirent fin avec la tombe d'Halil Pacha. Sous le règne du sultan Mehmet le Conquérant, Iznik perdit son statut administratif de sandjak devenant un centre caza de la province de Bursa. Au 19ème siècle, elle fut réduite au statut de village d'Yenisehir Caza, dans la province d'Hüdavendigar. En d'autres termes, bien avant que d'autres villes turques soient confrontées à la dynamique du 20ème siècle qui les transforma, aboutissant à la perte de leur caractère traditionnel, Iznik avait déjà perdu son caractère urbain traditionnel dès la moitié du 15ème siècle. Après la récession du 16ème siècle, le retard de l'industrie de la tuile excluait la cité de la tendance normale de modernisation des villes ottomanes.

G. MESTER DE PARAJD

LE CHÂTEAU ROYAL DE VINCENNES UTILISATION ET RÉUTILISATION DU XII AU XXI SIÈCLE

Le Château royal de Vincennes constitue un exemple marquant d'utilisations et de réutilisations d'un monument historique majeur, sur une période de plus de 800 ans. La résidence royale (fin XII - début XVIIIème siècle) Le Château de Vincennes a été une Résidence Royale pendant plus de 5 siècles (1). Fondé en 1183 par le Roi Philippe Auguste, il est établi aux portes de Paris, dans les vastes forêts à l'Est de la Capitale. Résidence de chasse, le domaine royal est clos de murs, dès cette époque et le restera jusqu'à la Révolution de 1789. Saint-Louis (Louis IX) en fera sa résidence préférée et c'est là, à Vincennes, qu'il 1.Restitution de l'état médiéval par l'Equipe de Recherche du Château de Vincennes (ERCVBE CNRS) - dess. J.C. Golvin

accueillera, en août 1239, les reliques de la Saint Couronne qu'il a acheté, deux ans plus tôt, de retour de Croisade, à l'Empereur de Constantinople. Une partie de ces reliques sera prélevée pour la chapelle du château, tandis qu'il fera construire la Sainte-Chapelle de Paris pour recevoir la Couronne (2). Mais c'est Charles V, un siècle plus tard, à partir de 1364, qui donnera sa physionomie actuelle au château de Vincennes (3) : - il commence par la construction du Donjon (4), élevé à 52 m de hauteur, en moins de 6 ans, avec sa " chemise fortifiée ", un système constructif totalement novateur, avec l'utilisation dans des proportions inconnues jusque là, pour cette époque, d'armatures métalliques (5), pour permettre d'établir en terrasse, à une telle hauteur, une artillerie à détente, qui deviendra une artillerie à poudre, quelques décennies plus tard (6), - à l'intérieur du Donjon, les appartements du Roi, son Cabinet de Travail, la Salle du Conseil (7) sont réalisés avec un raffinement extrême (8) (9) (10) et une recherche constante du confort, dont nous avons la chance de conserver les éléments authentiques, malgré les vicissitudes de l'histoire, - le Donjon et sa défense à peine terminés, il lance la construction de la Grande Enceinte (11), avec ses 9 tours de 40 m de hauteur (12) (13), plus d'un kilomètre de courtines de 18 m de hauteur, des douves en eau de 25 m de large et de 8 m de profondeur (14). Cet ouvrage titanesque, à la fois défensif et résidentiel, sera réalisé en moins de 8 ans, de 1370 à 1378 (15). Charles V est considéré comme le fondateur de l'Etat moderne. Il établit pour la première fois à Vincennes, dans sa résidence, toute l'administration du Royaume, comme le fera Louis XIV à Versailles, trois siècles plus tard. 2. Gravure d'Androuet Du Cerceau : détail du donjon vers 1575 (Les Plus Excellents Bâtiments de France 1575-79). 3.Relevé des structures métalliques mises au jour: plans et façades. 4. Le Donjon et sa " chemise ".

5.Le dérasement des tours sous Napoléon 1er (Archives S.H.D.). 6. Détail Miniature des Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry par les Frères de Limbourg vers 1440-50 (Musée Condé - Chantilly). 7. l'élévation Sud sous Napoléon 1er

8. La densification des archives du S.H.D. 9. Les archives du S.H.D. 10. La visite du monument:: Le monument, Le monument et sa decouverte, Le centre dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;interpretation

En 1379, il lance, juste avant sa mort, la construction de la Sainte Chapelle, qui ne sera achevée par François 1er puis Henri II qu'en 1552, sous la Renaissance (16) (17). Le jeune Louis XIV, avant de s'établir définitivement à Versailles, avait prévu d'installer la Cour à Vincennes. De très importants travaux sont réalisés par Louis Le Vau, qui sera ensuite l'architecte du Château de Versailles : - les Pavillons du Roi et de la Reine (1654-1660) (18) avec leurs décors prestigieux (19), - la Cour Royale avec l'Arc de Triomphe et le portique à l'Antique (20), - les jardins à la française dessinés par André Le Nôtre (21). Louis XIV sera le dernier Roi de France à résider à Vincennes. Bien que le château ne soit officiellement " déclassé " de la liste des Résidences Royales qu'en 1784, par Louis XVI, dès 1715, après la mort de Louis XIV, Vincennes est abandonné par la Cour, et les projets de " réutilisation " du hâteau commencent. Les réutilisations du château royal (XVIIIème - XXème siècles Le château de Vincennes, énorme ensemble bâti de près de 60.000 m², protégé par son enceinte médiévale et ses douves qui resteront en eau jusqu'au XVIIIème siècle, entouré de centaines d'hectares de bois, et le tout situé aux portes de Paris, attise les convoitises et les projets sont nombreux pour sa réutilisation : - en 1740 : est installée la première Manufacture Royale de porcelaine qui, devant son succès et en raison du manque de place, sera transférée et deviendra la Manufacture de Sèvres, avec ses célèbres porcelaines, - en 1751 : est installée l'Ecole Militaire, - à partir de 1752 : le Donjon devient Prison d'Etat et des détenus célèbres y sont enfermés : Diderot (l'encyclopédiste), Mirabeau, mais aussi le Marquis de Sade, - en 1759 : la Manufacture d'Armes de Vincennes est créée, - à la Révolution, en 1789, le château royal est mis en vente comme Bien National, mais, par miracle, il ne trouve pas d'acheteur pour être démoli et récupéré en matériaux de construction, comme tant de grands monuments de France, parmi lesquels l'Abbaye de Cluny, - en 1796, le château est transformé en dépôt de munitions avec le transfert de l'Arsenal de Paris, - mais, c'est Napoléon 1er, à partir de 1808, qui réutilisera radicalement le château, en le transformant en place de défense avancée de Paris : · il dérase les tours pour installer les pièces d'artillerie (22), · il rebouche l'élégant portique décoratif de Le Vau (23), - à partir de cette époque et jusqu'à la Guerre de 1939-45, cette vocation militaire et défensive de Vincennes est confirmée, développée et étendue : · de nombreux bâtiments sont construits, dont le Pavillon des Armes (1819) (24), · l'Ecole d'Artillerie s'installe en 1826, · en 1830 : la Grande Enceinte médiévale est bastionnée par des casemates voûtées de type " HAXO " (25), · en 1831 : un projet de bastionnement complet est finalement abandonné (26), · en 1841 : le Fort Neuf est construit avec une capacité de garnison de 5.000 hommes (27), · en 1851 : Paris est fortifié sur toute sa périphérie et Vincennes constitue la 1ère ligne de défense,

- parallèlement, Vincennes devient pour l'Armée Française, un lieu d'expérimentation des nouvelles armes, une zone " confidentiel défense ", en ces périodes de conflits répétés : mise au point du fusil de Gribeauval, projet de fusées dès 1811 (28), aérostation de Dupuy en 1872 (29), aviation militaire à partir de 1910 (30, - en 1936, l'Etat Major de l'Armée Française s'installe à Vincennes avec la création du PC Gamelin, - en août 1944, à la Libération de Paris, les troupes d'occupation laissent le château en partie ruiné (31), - depuis, les travaux de restauration ont permis l'installation dans le château du Service Historique du Ministère de la Défense, qui regroupe la totalité des Archives miliaires de la France, depuis leurs origines (32) (33) : par son importance, il constitue le 3ème lieu de mémoire de la France après les Archives Nationales et la Bibliothèque Nationale de France. Quel avenir, au début du XXIème siècle ? Archives militaires autrefois secrètes, elles sont aujourd'hui ouvertes aux chercheurs et au public. Les projets de réutilisation de l'ancien château royal de Vincennes, visent donc, pour les années à venir, · l'amélioration de cet accueil des publics (34), · l'augmentation des capacités de stockage des archives, · l'optimisation des conditions de conservation d'œuvres le plus souvent inestimables, · l'adéquation du service proposé à l'attente des lecteurs. Les programmes de travaux sont donc : - la création d'une bibliothèque unique du Service Historique de la Défense, - l'aménagement d'un auditorium pour les conférences et les colloques, - la restructuration des casemates et la création de nouvelles unités pour la densification des espaces de stockage selon les normes actuelles. Parallèlement à cette réutilisation par le Ministère de la Défense, la visite du château est développée par le Ministère de la Culture avec la réouverture du Donjon, puis de la Sainte-Chapelle, bientôt des courtines et de la Tour du Village (35).

The Vincennes Castle was made of a series of buildings covering a surface of about 60.000 m2 and hundreds hectares of wood. The castle was used until the end of the 18th c. with many different purposes: porcelain factory, prison, ammunition depot, arsenal and military air terminal. Finally it fallen into decay after the liberation of Paris in 1944. Its restoration allowed the installation inside of the castle of the historical service of the Ministry of Defence gathering together all the French military archives and thus becoming the third pole of research in France after the Archives Nationales and the Bibliotèque Nationales de France. The future programmes provides for the creation of a single library for the Historical Service of the Defence, the realization of an auditorium for meetings and conferences and the reuse of case-mates as storehouses. At the same time the Ministry of Culture will reorganize the visits of the castle and the reopening of the donjon, of the Sainte Chappelle and of the tower of the village.

ETIENNE PONCELET

POUR UNE CHARTE EUROPEENNE DES ESPACES MILITAIRES DESAFFECTES

La réutilisation des anciennes fortifications, avant d'être une question d'économie, de moyens ou de sauvegarde du patrimoine a d'abord été un véritable enjeu stratégique. Les fortifications étaient de coûteux investissements justifiés par l'impérieuse nécessité de se défendre. Le maintien de celles-ci en temps de paix ne justifiait pas les coûts d'entretien importants pour des ouvrages souvent devenus obsolètes du fait de la diversification permanente des moyens d'attaque. Certaines époques pouvaient renforcer progressivement les fortifications anciennes pour les adapter aux nouvelles menaces mais des seuils technologiques ont cependant défini des ruptures radicales obligeant au démantèlement des places ou à la destruction des ouvrages devenus peu performants voire gênants en cas de prise par l'ennemi. La première grande crise a été celle de l'artillerie au XV siècle, réduisant les murailles médiévales à servir de carrière pour la construction des bastions et des citadelles. L'autre crise majeure a concerné l'abandon du système bastionné, après Verdun et les leçons de la guerre 1914-1918. Les lignes Maginot et autres murs de l'Atlantique ont fait long feu après la guerre Quarante, justifiant le livre d'Egon Eis refermant définitivement " l'illusion des remparts ". Le rideau de fer et le mur de Berlin démoli le 4 novembre 1989 ont été les

1. La contregarde 157 dite du Roy à la citadelle de Lille (le plan et le profil du parapet géré de manière écologique).

2. Le projet du Champ de Mars de la citadelle de Lille.

derniers avatars de ces vaines escalades sans cesse remises en cause entre l'attaque et la défense. L'après-guerre a progressivement vu le transfert des espaces fortifiés aux collectivités locales qui s'essoufflent maintenant à essayer de les entretenir. La fin de la guerre froide, la réorganisation des Armées et notamment l'abandon de la circonscription militaire ont entraîné des modifications profondes et justifié une réaffectation des lieux traditionnels de l'occupation militaire en ville. Après le 11 septembre 2001, une nouvelle sensibilisation aux menaces terroristes change encore le profil de la Défense, accélérant les processus de professionnalisation des Armées de plus en plus développées dans le renseignement et la maîtrise des outils virtuels.

Dans ce contexte, l'architecture militaire devient un concept archaïque accentué encore par la dernière crise en date, celle de la mondialisation et de l'effondrement progressif de l'économie des Etats. Les dernières instructions des gouvernements sont maintenant la vente à tout prix des derniers biens immobiliers lestant encore les maigres budgets des Armées. C'est dans cette nouvelle configuration qu'il nous faut comprendre aujourd'hui la question de la réutilisation des espaces fortifiés, posée de manière lancinante, mais différente, à chaque époque. Que garder, avec quels moyens, pour quel usage ? Reposons nous encore une fois ces questions, adaptées aux cas de figures qui nous concernent. Certains ensembles fortifiés ont été protégés au titre des Monuments Historiques pour des raisons architecturales mais le plus souvent paysagères. C'est le cas de la plupart des châteaux, enceintes urbaines et ensembles bastionnés, allant jusqu'aux fortins en passant par la constellation des citadelles du XVII° siècle. Leur destin est maintenant dans la main des Services des Monuments Historiques, lorsqu'ils existent encore et des collectivités devenues propriétaires. Pour les autres, quels sont les véritables enjeux ? La première qualité de ces espaces fortifiés est leur échelle. Il s'agit souvent de grands ensembles, intéressant la continuité des enceintes urbaines souvent liées à des complexes hydrauliques, jouant un rôle de premier plan dans les paysages urbains. Ils servent alors l'image de la ville, en marquant de manière claire les centres anciens et en offrant des espaces libres en anneaux verts au cœur des grandes métropoles. Pour les villages et bastides fortifiés, ils contiennent l'expansion foncière du bâti et contribuent à façonner la silhouette extérieure de ces anciennes places fortes. Ces espaces sont progressivement pris en charge par les collectivités et assumés dans les plans d'urbanisme sous couvert de patrimoine monumental, d'espaces verts ou d'écologie urbaine. La question concerne l'équilibre à trouver entre les intérêts monumentaux et historiques face aux exigences légitimes mais de plus en plus envahissantes des aspects paysagers voire des dictats écologiques. Nous en revenons en ce cas à la grande question des années 1980, faut-il restaurer les ruines? Une sorte de nouvelle vague romantique vient peser sur ce patrimoine militaire, réitérant les questions du XIX° siècle entre le paysagisme et le pédagogique. Notre tâche est, en ce cas, de trouver le juste équilibre entre ces différents paramètres. Nous tentons cette expérience dans une opération innovante à la citadelle de Lille où nous venons d'engager la restauration de la contregarde du Roy avec une équipe composée de l'architecte en chef des Monuments Historiques, d'un écologue et d'un paysagiste. Avec nous, les gestionnaires des espaces historiques et du parc de la citadelle mènent le même débat au niveau de la maîtrise d'ouvrage. L'enjeu est une restauration équilibrée entre le respect d'une nature occupant les maçonneries et la nécessité d'une restauration qui doit être durable et rester fidèle à son image historique (dessin 1). En face de cette contregarde, nous avons préconisé la réalisation de zones de stationnement enterrées dans les profils engazonnés des glacis disparus de Vauban que nous proposons de restituer sous cette forme (dessin 2). Cette formule, devenue maintenant courante en matière de réutilisation des remparts, avait été élaborée dans les remparts de Bayonne sur une de nos propositions. Notre projet de restituer la courtine démolie de la citadelle d'Arras pour en

3. Hotel de la Marine, elevations el plan (E. Poncelet )

4 Vues de l'hôtel de la Marine - EtatMajor de la Marine à Paris.

5 Vues de l'hôtel de la Marine - Etat-Major de la Marine à Paris.

faire un nouveau casernement avait été écarté à l'époque par les Armées mais pourrait être à nouveau envisagé dans le cadre de la récente acquisition de l'ancien ouvrage militaire par la collectivité. Si la question des fortifications fortement marquées par leur caractère paysager les sauvent d'un abandon, il n'en est pas de même des bâtiments militaires euxmêmes, souvent isolés dans des contextes urbains évolutifs, soumis à de fortes pressions foncières. Les casernements en ville sont en premières lignes de ces convoitises et de ces menaces de destructions ou de réutilisations approximatives. Les casernements d'Arras, de Senlis et de très nombreuses villes de garnison sont concernés. Les bases militaires de l'Armée de l'Air comme celle de Cambrai - Epinoy et de la Marine sont sur les listes. Les abris souterrains, antiatomiques et les anciennes installations de l'époque de la guerre froide sont mal connus, non répertoriés et soumis aux aléas de ces transferts de propriété. Il est urgent de dresser de nouveaux inventaires et d'opérer des choix de conservation avec discernement dans un champ dont la doctrine n'est pas encore bien définie. Que faire des bases aériennes, des anciens chantiers navals, des anciens magasins et entrepôts ? A Bordeaux, la réhabilitation des anciens abattoirs et des bassins de carénage de la Marine sert de base à la restructuration complète d'un nouveau quartier. Nous sommes confrontés en ce moment même à la préservation ou la démolition des anciens stands de tir et d'entraînement des Armées à Lille. Comment leur trouver une affectation durable si une association locale de paramilitaires ne s'empare d'un tel sujet?

En France, une nouvelle politique touche également les Etats-Majors soucieux de se regrouper dans une sorte de " pentagone à la française " concentrant l'ensemble des Armées sur un seul et même site à Balard dans la banlieue de Paris. Si le site de la citadelle de Lille affecté à l'Etat-Major européen du Corps de Réaction Rapide échappe pour l'instant à ce type de restructuration institutionnelle, il n'en est pas de même pour d'autres grands lieux de présence militaire. A Paris, l'Etat-Major de la Marine, installé depuis plus de 220 ans place de la Concorde par Louis XVI, doit quitter les lieux. Nous avons été amené à gérer cette situation en liaison avec les différents ministères concernés, de la Défense, de la Culture et du Budget (photos 3 à 7 : vues de l'hôtel de la Marine). Notre mission a concerné la définition de la valeur patrimoniale des lieux, dans le contexte d'une réorganisation possible des lieux. De tels enjeux sont considérables, engageant l'avenir sur plusieurs décennies. Notre Conseil Scientifique est bien inspiré de mettre à l'ordre du jour cette réflexion dont dépendra, dans une ultime " crise ", le destin de nos anciens ouvrages militaires réaffectés aux aléas du monde de demain. Dans cet esprit, nous proposons une réflexion qui permettra de répondre aux questions suivantes : - Y a-t-il une spécificité du patrimoine militaire au-delà des stricts ensembles fortifiés? - Cette spécificité doit-elle être traitée en tant que tel ou peut-on laisser se banaliser de tels espaces? - Ces enceintes fortifiées sont étroitement liées à l'armement qui en justifiait l'existence. Les protections, restitutions et mises en valeur doivent-elles prendre en compte ces éléments d'équipement et de mobilier? - Nos Etats ont-ils les moyens de gérer au titre de la Culture des espaces que les budgets militaires ne peuvent ou ne veulent plus assumer? - Quels moyens mettrent en œuvre pour sauvegarder, faire comprendre et mettre en valeur les jalons principaux de notre histoire militaire, au-delà du simple intérêt paysager ou architectural? A titre d'exemple, nous pouvons évoquer quelques grandes questions de méthodologie à mettre en place. A l'échelle européenne, il nous faut identifier et fédérer les grands ensembles des théâtres d'opérations militaires : - Etablir la cartographie chronologique des vestiges des lignes de défense des territoires (limites des principautés, des états, des zones de résistance). On constatera que les croisements de ces lignes constituent des nœuds privilégiés de l'histoire militaire. Nous pouvons citer l'ensemble de Septentrion (le Bas Pays d'Europe du Nord-Ouest au XVII° siècle), les lignes du pré carré de Vauban, la défense de l'Atlantique, les défenses de Philippe-Auguste en France et du roi Edward I° au Pays de Galles, la défense des cols des Alpes, les lignes de défense de l'Adriatique, les tours insulaires en Méditerranée…). - Préciser la typologie des grands ensembles mettant en évidence l'aspect universaliste de l'évolution de l'architecture militaire (les castrums antiques, les châteaux en eau, les enceintes bastionnées, les lignes de défense du XIX° siècle, l'évolution des casernements, les bases militaires de la guerre froide…). - Reconnaître les étapes de la " muséification " et la " sanctuarisation " des espaces militaires au XX° siècle, depuis les musées de l'Armée jusqu'aux ensembles commémoratifs et cérémoniaires. Ces recommandations ne sont, bien sûr, données qu'à titre indicatif et devront être complétées par une véritable programmation d'objectifs à définir.

Nous appelons de nos vœux une réflexion de fond et générale sur l'aire européenne pour que cette question d'une particulière actualité soit traitée dans le cadre de nos organisations internationales. Il est nécessaire que cette réflexion associe de manière concertée les partenaires concernés par la Défense, l'Environnement, la Culture et l'Economie. En liaison avec les autres organismes internationaux spécialisés, notre Conseil peut recommander l'établissement d'une charte internationale sur ce sujet dont l'objectif sera la mise au point d'une doctrine européenne sur l'avenir du patrimoine militaire désaffecté.

After the series of crisis and recoveries that one after the other contributed to the evolution of military architecture through centuries, the modern crisis entails the abandon and the neglect of those spaces considered nowadays useless. Will the globalization and the reduction of the military funds involve the progressive disappearance of those spaces build for soldiers? Ore better, will we be able to discern the qualities that made interesting for the man of our days the spaces and the landscapes originally conceived for war? Such bet deserves an international observation in order to develop an European charter for military spaces in the list of redundancies.

CONLETH MANNING

MARTELLO TOWERS ON THE EAST COAST OF IRELAND AND THEIR REUSE

The opening chapter of Ulysses by James Joyce is set in the Martello Tower at Sandycove, Co. Dublin, where Stephen Dedalus, based on Joyce himself, Buck Mulligan, based on Oliver St John Gogarty, and Haines, based on Samuel Chevenix Trench, are residing. Some of the features of the tower such as the winding stair, the gunrest, the parapet (Fig. 1), the heavy iron door, the large key and the ladder outside the door are mentioned. Buck Mulligan claimed to be renting it from the Secretary of State for War for ÂŁ12 a year. Mulligan replied to Haines's question: 'Martello you call it?', with 'Billy Pitt had them builtâ&#x20AC;Śwhen the French were on the sea'1. Gogarty did in fact rent it for a time around 1904 when he was a medical student and invited his friend Joyce to stay with him. Joyce only stayed six days in the tower in September 1904, but subsequently based the first chapter 1. The gun platform on the roof of Sandycove Martello Tower. 2. Map of the Dublin coast showing the locations of

the extant Martello Towers with a solid dot (all named). An open dot with no name indicates those that are no longer extant

of Ulysses on his stay there. Ever since the wider distribution of Ulysses, which was first published in Paris in 1922, the Sandycove tower has become well known internationally and has since 1962 been made into a small museum on James Joyce. Martello towers are a distinctive feature of the coast around Dublin. They were part of a large scheme of coastal defences built in the first decade of the nineteenth century to counter the threat of a French invasion. The long-running war between England and France had led to a number of attempted invasions of Ireland by the French between 1796 and 1798. The most successful of these expeditionary forces, under General Humbert, landed at Killala, Co. Mayo and gained control over a large part of the north of Connacht but was defeated by the English at Ballinamuck, Co. Longford. The threat of another invasion by Napoleon in the early years of the nineteenth century made the administration plan for a better defensive system around the Irish coast, which, apart from a number of large forts, was poorly defended. Their plans involved further defences around the main ports and safe havens, a system of defences along the river Shannon to hold the line of the Shannon in the case of another incursion into Connacht, a series of signal towers on the main headlands along the south and west coasts and the Martello Towers and batteries mostly along the coast near Dublin2. Martello Towers got their name from an old Genoese tower at Mortella Point in Corsica, where in 1794 a French garrison successfully rebuffed an attack by two heavily armed British naval vessels. The tower was captured eventually from the land with an attacking force of 300 men and heavy artillery. The strength of the tower greatly impressed the British naval authorities and they built similar round artillery towers in 1796 in South Africa and Nova Scotia. Between 1798 and 1802 they built a number of circular coastal defensive towers on Minorca3 and some of

these, such as the tower at Adaya4, are very similar indeed to the Irish Martello Towers in that the interiors are of the same shape and are partitioned in the same way. Craig has pointed out that several towers on Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura are also similar to the Irish towers5. With the imminent threat of a French invasion in 1803 a decision was made to erect Martello Towers and batteries along certain parts of the coast of Ireland and Britain. Over seventy were built along vulnerable areas of the Kent and Sussex coasts between Folkestone and Seaford between 1805 and 1808 and a further 27 towers were built on the east coast between 1808 and 18126. Most of these towers were elliptical in plan unlike the Irish series of Martello Towers, which are mostly circular. The building of the towers in the Dublin area, all of which are circular, began in 1804 and most were completed and ready for use by December 1805. Colonel Benjamin Fisher of the Royal Engineers was in charge of the construction project and the work on the towers and batteries around Dublin cost ÂŁ64,082, the towers costing about ÂŁ2,000 each to build7. The towers were located between Bray, which is just outside Co. Dublin in Co. Wicklow, and Sandymount south of Dublin and between Sutton and Balbriggan north of Dublin (Fig. 2). They were positioned mainly to guard landing places and many of them can be seen from the nearest ones at each side, which are usually only one or two kilometres away. Some of those to the south of Dublin had batteries containing a number of guns positioned nearby as was the case with Dalkey Island and Sandycove. A few were built on important earlier sites such as the huge promontory fort of Drummanagh north of Dublin and the tower at Howth, which is located where the twelfth-century motte, shown in an illustration of about 1780, appears to have stood. The motte was probably levelled for the building of the tower. Dalkey Island is also an important archaeological site with a small promon3. Plans and sections of Bullock Martello Tower (after an original survey by Paul Kerrigan and Richard Stapleton).

4. The three doorways in the parapet of Sandycove Martello Tower. 5. The machicolation chamber at Sandycove with musket loops and murder hole.

tory fort and early church settlement. Though the Martello Tower and battery there are some distance from the archaeological sites, the small early medieval ruined church was reroofed and used for accommodation by the builders of the tower and battery and had a fireplace inserted behind where the altar had been8. A prehistoric megalithic monument on Dalkey Commons was destroyed and the stones used in constructing one of the nearby Martello Towers9. One of the best preserved examples of a Martello Tower around Dublin and one that has also been very well surveyed is that at Bullock Harbour (Fig. 3)10. It is some 8.4m high and 11.6m in external diameter at the base with walls averaging 2.5m wide at the base and narrowing towards the top due to the pronounced external batter. The entrance is at first-floor level and about 2.6m above ground level. An external ladder was necessary to access it and it was well defended by a machicolation above it externally and a murder hole above the lobby inside the doorway. The first floor of the tower was undivided and provided the main accommodation for the garrison. It had a wooden floor and a vaulted roof and daylight came through two narrow light-shafts in the wall. It also has a fireplace and a door that gives access to the spiral stair in the thickness of the wall. This stair gave access both up to the gun platform on the roof and down to the ground floor. The plans of both floors are curved on two opposing long sides and straight on the two 6. The Martello Tower on Dalkey Island 7. The Martello Tower on Ireland's Eye (Photos 6 and 7 by T. Roche).

8. The Martello Tower at Red Rock, Sutton. 9. The Martello Tower at Sandymount with attached structure.

shorter sides. The ground floor, lit again by two light shafts, is partitioned into three spaces, the smallest of which was the magazine, while the rest was used for storage. On the roof is a circular gun platform surrounded by a low wide parapet, the upper surface of which slopes outwards. The spiral stairs gives access via a short angled passage and a low doorway with steps through the inner face of the parapet to the gun platform. An adjacent low doorway in the inner face of the parapet gives access to the shot furnace, where iron shot could be heated until red hot for use against wooden sailing ships. The other end of this furnace is accessible from the passage at the head of the stairs. A third low doorway (Fig. 4) gives access to the machicolation chamber over the entrance to the tower, a trapdoor in the floor of which covered the murder hole (Fig. 5). The circular gun platform has an iron pivot in the centre and a circular rail near the edge around which the gun carriage could be moved. Neither the guns nor the traversing carriages survive or have been restored on any of the Dublin towers. An example of a Martello Tower with the gun and carriage restored can be seen at Dymchurch in Kent11. While there are many small differences in detail among the towers most conform roughly to this basic plan. The standard towers south of Dublin had an 18-pounder gun mounted on the roof. The towers at Dalkey Island (Fig. 6), Williamstown near Blackrock and Sandymount are larger than the rest and each had two 24-pounder guns mounted on top12. The Dalkey Island tower was also different from the rest in that its entrance was originally at the top through the parapet13. Subsequently an entrance was cut through the wall at a lower level. The towers south of Dublin were very well built of cut ashlar blocks of local granite, while those north of Dublin were built of local rubble masonry with an external render as can be seen on the towers at Ireland's Eye (Fig. 7) and Howth (Fig. 11). All of the towers north of Dublin had a 24-pounder gun mounted on it apart from Ireland's Eye, which had two14. Each of the towers would have had a garrison consisting of a sergeant and twelve men. The French never made an attempt to land anywhere on the Irish coast after the towers were built in 1804-5 so that none of them ever saw any military action. With the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815 there was no longer a threat of invasion and in the following years the garrisons were withdrawn from some of the towers. An account of Ireland's Eye from 1833 indicates that there was only a lone 'water-guard', stationed at the tower, who spent the time gathering mushrooms15. This man was part of the Preventative Service Water Guard, whose job was to combat smuggling and who had taken over six of the Dublin area towers by 1823 and eleven by 1830 16. Some towers were manned by invalid gunners and their families17 and must have served like retirement cottages for such individuals. Other towers, in particular those with adjacent batteries, continued to have a garrison and some of the towers south of Dublin, which were still in use, were equipped with higher calibre guns (24-pounders) in 1853 as a response to Louis Napoleon's seizure of power in France18. About 1865 the gunners were withdrawn from all the towers north of Dublin, apart from Red Rock, Sutton, and in 1869 from a number of the towers south of Dublin. The gunners were eventually withdrawn from Bullock in 1879, from Seapoint and Red Rock in 1881, from the tower and battery on Dalkey Island in 1886 and lastly from the tower and battery at Sandycove in 1897 19, only seven years before Gogarty rented it and James Joyce stayed there. Weston St. John Joyce, no relation of James Joyce, recorded that the military at Sandycove used regularly engage in artillery practice up to the time they were withdrawn 'causing much havoc among the windows of the adjoining houses'20. Of the original 26 towers in the Dublin area (14 south of Dublin and 12 north of it) 21 survive including all of the twelve north of Dublin.

The five lost towers were all demolished by 1853 to facilitate railway developments or because they were being undermined by coastal erosion. The towers are in fact very solid structures and many have survived because the cost and trouble of demolishing them would have been so great. Some are lying derelict. The one that has suffered most damage is that at Balbriggan, where most of the parapet has been removed21. Even though they do not lend themselves easily to other uses, a number have been adapted over the years for other purposes. For example a small number have been adapted as residences. The tower at Sandycove, while not specifically adapted as a residence, was, as already mentioned, lived in by Oliver St. John Gogarty in 1904. He may have been attracted by a combination of the low rent, the novelty of living in a tower and easy access to a bathing place. Two of the other towers south of Dublin have been converted into residences, Bray and Killiney. In the case of the tower in Bray, an extra room was formed within the gun platform by raising a roof above it with windows all around22. The owner of the Killiney tower, Victor J. Enoch, who wrote the small guide book on Martello Towers in Ireland, added two extra storeys to it to get further accommodation and this has greatly altered the appearance of the tower23. Four of the towers north of Dublin have been converted into residences in varying ways. The tower at Red Rock, Sutton, has had a roof added to it in a manner similar to that at Bray and is now available for rent (Fig. 8). The tower at Carrick Hill, Portmarnock has had a narrower crenellated storey added on top and a single storey extension to the side24. One of the earliest to be converted is the tower at Robswall, Malahide, known locally as Hick's Castle. A full conical roof with dormer windows was added to the tower along with a two-storey extension in the Arts and Crafts style by an architect called Frederick Hicks about 191125. As a result it is hardly recognisable as a Martello Tower. The tower at Portrane has been more appropriately converted with low extensions. This latter tower was used as a signalling station in the late nineteenth century for the inhabited off-shore island of Lambay, which at the time was difficult of access for lengthy periods in the winter26. The tower at Sandymount, the first of the towers south of Dublin, was extended on the sea side and converted into a cafĂŠ/restaurant many years ago with accommodation above (Fig. 9). It was renovated more recently but is now closed again. As with many of the towers that have been adapted for other uses ground-floor doorways have been cut through the walls to give easier access to the building. At Williamstown near Blackrock a carriage-maker converted the basement into a 10. The Martello Tower at Seapoint.

11. The Martello Tower at Howth, now used as a radio museum.

workshop in the nineteenth century after making a new ground-floor entrance and used the first floor as a residence27. It is now used as a store and changing rooms by sports clubs. The tower at Seapoint (Fig. 10) was used as a sweet shop in summer in the late twentieth century, being close to popular bathing places. In recent years it was acquired by the Genealogical Society of Ireland as a store for its archive. Archaeological supervision of the removal of the modern concrete ground floor revealed much of the original flagged floor and the bases of the original ground-floor partition walls, which are very similar to those at Bullock28. The adaption of this tower as a store for archives has been unsuccessful due to continuing problems with dampness within the tower and it is now lying empty. Two ships were wrecked in a storm in 1807 with a loss of 380 lives close to this tower, one, the Rochdale, on the rocks beside it, and the tower is shown in two contemporary illustrations of the wrecks29. The tower at Sandycove, often now known as Joyce's Tower, contains a museum about James Joyce, which was first opened in 1962 by Sylvia Beach, the original publisher of Ulysses. In recent years a low building, containing the reception area and shop was added to the tower and an access made at ground floor level from the new structure through the wall of the tower. This museum is run by the local tourist board and attracts visitors from all over the world. Another tower that serves as a small museum is that in Howth (Fig. 11), which houses the Museum of Vintage Radio having formerly housed the terminal for an under-sea telegraph and later telephone cable to Britain30. While many of the towers are easily viewed from the outside it is only these last mentioned ones at Sandycove and Howth that can be visited by the public and viewed internally. Many of the original features can be seen and appreciated in both towers but neither gives a complete background and interpretation of the buildings as Martello Towers because they are devoted to other aspects of heritage. In the last chapter of his wonderful book on Irish fortifications the late Paul Kerrigan suggests that one of the Irish Martello Towers should be restored as a small military museum 'with perhaps a reconstruction of a traversing platform and gun on the roof platform'31. This modest proposal has still to be realised and it certainly would be nice sometime in the future to see one of the Martello Towers around Dublin restored and opened to the public with good interpretative information and a reconstructed gun. NOTES 1. Joyce 1969, 9-29. Billy (William) Pitt was Prime Minister of England 1783-1801 and 1804-6. 2. Enoch 1975; Kerrigan 1995, 150-247; Saunders 1989, 130-52. 3. Kerrigan 1995, 168; Kerrigan 1983. 4. Kerrigan 1983, Pl. 20. 5. Craig 1982, 282. 6. Saunders 1989, 142-3. 7. Kerrigan 1995, 167-76; Hartnett McEnery 2006, 72. 8. Joyce 1921, 67. 9. Joyce 1921, 64. 10. Kerrigan 1995, 172-3. 11. Enoch 1975; Saunders 1989, 141. 12. Hartnett McEnery 2006, 82-3, 118; Kerrigan 1995, 170. 13. Kerrigan 1995, 251; The Dublin penny journal vol. 2, p. 257 (15 February 1834). 14. Kerrigan 1995, 174; Hartnett McEnery 2006, 83.

15. The Dublin penny journal vol. 2, p. 60 (August 24, 1833). 16. Hartnett McEnery 2006, 117. 17. Hartnett McEnery 2006, 117. 18. Kerrigan 1995, 251; Hartnett McEnery 2006, 118. 19. Hartnett McEnery 2006, 134. 20. Joyce 1921, 49. 21. Enoch 1975. 22. Enoch 1975. 23. Enoch 1975. 24. www.buildingsofireland.ie/niah (Fingal) 25. Joyce 1921, 280; Enoch 1975; www.buildingsofireland.ie/niah (Fingal) 26. Joyce 1890, 56. 27. Enoch 1975. 28. Corlett 2001. 29. Brady 2008, 326, 333. 53 30. Joyce 1921, 326; Enoch 1975. 31. Kerrigan 1995, 272.

References Brady, K., Shipwreck inventory of Ireland: Louth, Meath, Dublin and Wicklow (Dublin: The Stationery Office, 2008). Corlett, C., 'Some features uncovered at Seapoint Martello Tower, Co. Dublin', Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, 131 (2001), 140-43. Craig, M., The architecture of Ireland from the earliest times to 1880 (London: Batsford, 1982). Enoch, V.J., The Martello Towers of Ireland (Dublin: privately published, [1975]). Hartnett McEnery, J., Fortress Ireland: the story of the Irish coastal forts and the River Shannon defence line (Bray: Wordwell, 2006).

Joyce, J., Ulysses (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1969). Joyce, W. S., Rambles near Dublin (Dublin: "Evening Telegraph" Office, 1890). Joyce, W. S., The neighbourhood of Dublin (Dublin: M.H. Gill, 1921). Kerrigan, P.M., 'Minorca and Ireland, an architectural connection: the Martello towers of Dublin Bay', The Irish sword 15 (1983), 192-6. Kerrigan, P.M., Castles and fortifications in Ireland 1485-1945 (Cork: The Collins Press, 1995). Saunders, A., Fortress Britain: artillery fortification in the British Isles and Ireland (Liphook: Beaufort, 1989).

Les tours Martello sur la côte autour de Dublin sont décrites et étudiées. Leur nom vient d'une tour du Point Martella en Corse. Elles furent construites en 1804-5 pour contrecarrer la menace d'une invasion française en protégeant les lieux de débarquement le long de la côte. Toutes les tours de Martello de Dublin sont circulaires et la plupart ont un unique grand canon mobile installé sur le toit solide. Elles ne virent jamais d'actions militaires et les garnisons s'en retirèrent au cours du dix-neuvième siècle. Seules cinq des 26 tours d'origine n'existent plus et celles-ci étaient déjà démolies en 1853. Quelques unes de celles qui survivent furent converties en lieux de séjour au vingtième siècle. La tour à Howth contient un musée de la radio tandis que la plus célèbre de ces tours, celle de Sandycove, est un musée dédié à James Joyce, dont la scène d'ouverture de son livre, Ulysse, se situe dans la tour.

PETER ROS

NEW DUTCH WATER LINE: IMPLEMENTATION LEADS TO NEW QUESTIONS

Introduction The New Dutch Water Line (Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie; www.hollandsewaterlinie.nl) is one of the remarkable lines of defence found in the Netherlands, an impressive application of a military strategy designed to protect the most densely populated part of the Netherlands, the "Randstad", against enemies from the east in times of war. The Randstad is the conurbation of the cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht, four important economic centres. After losing its military function, the New Dutch Water Line served as a green space in the Randstad, counterbalancing the urbanisation. It was embraced by the national spatial planning policy, with the intention of using it as an example of how to manage heritage sites in heavily urbanised areas. Heritage sites and spatial development have traditionally been poles apart. In this article, we would like to discuss particular mechanisms which have been used to protect the New Dutch Water Line heritage site against spatial development. This is merely the beginning of an offensive strategy in which alliances will be made with parties who traditionally have been unsympathetic towards the notion of preserving heritage sites. 1. History The New Dutch Water Line was a line of military defence stretching from the former Zuiderzee (South Sea) at Muiden to the Biesbosch wetlands in the southwest. The Line formed a protective ring around the cities in the important northwestern provinces, and was approximately 85 kilometres long and three to five kilometres wide. It was an impressive application of a military strategy designed to defend the cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht against enemies from the east in times of war. The defensive weapon of the New Dutch Water Line was the water itself. Ten "basins" could be filled with water thanks to an ingenious water management system of sluices, inundation canals, and existing waterways and dams. These areas formed natural depressions in the landscape. In addition, good use was made of the natural variations in the landscape. A seemingly shallow layer of water, on average only 40 cm deep, was sufficient to make the area treacherously impassable for people, vehicles or horses. At the same time it was too shallow to be navigated by boat. The Water Line could be completely flooded in just under three weeks. At the weak points, which were often situated higher, sever-

1. The Hollandse Waterlinie defensive works overview 1. Forteiland Pampus 2.Westing Naarden 3. Fort Ronduit 4. Batterijen aan de Karnemelkslot 5.Fort Werk IV 6. Vesting Muiden 7.Het Muiderslot with sourrounding works 8.Westbatterij 9.Vesting Weeps 10. Fort Uitermeer 11. Fort Hindedam 12. Fort Kijkuit 13. Fort Spoin 14.Vesting and Fort Nieuversluis 15.Fort Tienhoven 16.Verk bij Maarsseveen 17. Fort aan De Klop 18. Fort De Gagel 19.Fort Ruigenhoek 20. Fort Blauwkapel 21. Fort Voordorp 22.Fort De Bilt 23.Werken bij Griftestein 24.Werk aan de Hoofddijk 25.Fort Vossegat 26. Lunetten op de Houtense Vlakte

27 Fort Rijnauwen 28.Fort Vechten 29.Fort tâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Hemeltije 30.De Batterijen aan de Overeindse Weg 31.Fort Jutphaas 32.DE Plofsluis bij Jutphaas 33. Defensive Work in Vreeswijk 34.Werk aan de Waalse Wetering 35. Fort Honswijk 36. Lunet bij Honswijk (Lunet aan De Snel) 37.Werk aan de Korten UItweg 38.Werk aan de Groeneweg 39.Batterij aan de zuidelijke Lekdijk 40. Fort Everdingen Three artillery 41.Embankements behind the Diefdijk 42.Werk aan het Spoel 43. Moveable dike and gun bunker Diefdijk 44.Werk op de spoorweg bij de Diefdijk 45.Batterijen aan de Meerdijk. 46. Fort Asperen 47. Batterij aan de Nieuwe Lingedijk

48. Fort Nieuwe Steeg 49.Foert Vuren 50.Vesting Loevestein 51.Batterij onder Brakel 52.Batterij omder Poederoijen 53.Vesting Gorinchem 54.Batterij aan de Broekse Sluis 55.De vesting Voudrichem 56. Fort Giessen 57.Fort aan de Uppelse Dijk (Fort Altena) 58.Weerk and Bakkerskil 59 Fort Steurgat 60.Flood sluice gate Papsluis

2.Waterlinie facts Lenght: 85 km from Muiden to the Biesbosch, Width: 3 to 5 km, Surface area: 50,000 hectares, Region: 5 provinces, 25 cities, 3 water board districts, Defensive works: 60, National Monuments: 21, Flood zones: 10 basins, Sluices, dikes, canals, bunkers: approsimately 1000

al casemates and group shelters and a total of fifty forts were erected. Additionally the Line consists of five fortified towns, Muiden, Weesp, Naarden, Gorinchem, and Woudrichem. The New Dutch Water Line had a permanent garrison of approximately 12,000 men. In times of international tension, the garrison was increased by 6,000 men. During threat of war, the Line was brought up to "organic strength". This meant that 33,000 to 36,000 men were quartered there. In order to have an unobstructed field of fire in the Line in times of war, the area surrounding each of the defences was divided into circular zones measuring three hundred, six hundred, and one thousand metres in radius. These were known as the "Verboden Kringen wet," or Law of Forbidden Circles, 1853. There were various building and farming regulations within these zones. For example, within the threehundred metre circle, only wooden houses could be built. In the event of war, all obstacles within the three circles, such as houses, other buildings and trees, could be demolished or burned, without exception. Intermezzo: From Old to New Dutch Water Line With the signing of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and the consequent formation of the Dutch Republic, the provinces of North and South Holland and Utrecht began to pursue a common defence policy. While up to this point only isolated local use had been made of water as a means of defence, from here on plans were made for a genuine line of defence. The intention was to make the best possible use of the geographic conditions in order to defend the largest possible area. A floodable strip of land was selected, located between Muiden and the river Lek, the Old Dutch Water Line. In 1672, known in Dutch history as the "disaster year," the line was brought into full use in connection with the invasion of the country by French troops, and large parts of the country were placed under water. Despite the heavy frost which resulted in the line being passable in places, it held out as a defence. This was instrumental in the Republic's ability to survive the Year of Disasters. After the French withdrew in 1673, the States of Holland decide to make the line more durable and permanent. Up to that point, the wartime inundations had been improvised rather than systematic, by cutting through dikes and raising bulwarks. This resulted in too many polders remaining flooded for too long over too large an area. Those living in the flooded areas were understandably dissatisfied with the inundations. Certainly when salt water from the Zuiderzee was used, the farmland was unusable for long periods afterwards. The locals often tried to sabotage the inundations or bribe the soldiers. The decision was therefore taken to execute the inundations in a more controlled fashion and to better protect the places where the water was let in. Sluices were created at various places, temporary structures were rebuilt into permanent fortifications, and at Nieuwpoort the inundation sluice was even built under the city hall to protect it from angry farmers. Napoleon first initiated extending the existing "old" Dutch Water Line to the east, creating the "New" Dutch Water Line. This resulted in the city of Utrecht being enclosed within the line. Cornelis Kraijenhoff, a doctor and patriot with a great interest in the military, played an important part in this. Kraijenhoff showed Napoleon around the line and was part of the committee to which Napoleon gave the order to draw up the plans. After Napoleon was overthrown, it was Kraijenhoff who once more proposed the plans for improving the Water Line. In the nineteenth century, the Water Line was further perfected and transformed into an optimal inundation system. The large floodable areas on both banks of the river Lek were reduced to a breadth of just a few kilometres. In order to better defend Utrecht, a new ring of

forts was erected around the city to protect the areas that were situated too high to be inundated. The invention of new sorts of artillery and grenades led to many adaptations and changes in the Water Line, often at great expense. When converted to modern figures, the amount of money invested in the New Dutch Water Line between 1815 and 1940 is equivalent to tens of billions of euros. This makes it probably the largest infrastructural activity in the Netherlands. Although it has been put in a state of defence three times, the Line has never truly had the opportunity to show its defensive capabilities. The New Dutch Water Line finally lost its military function in 1963. The end of the military function After the Second World War, the Water Line lost its military function as a result of modern tactical developments and a changing view of safety. The Water Line became forgotten. At that time owned by the Ministry of Defence, the various portions of the Line, isolated and hidden from view, received almost no attention. The forts were secluded and almost invisible from the public roads. Very few people knew anything about the original purpose of the forts. Gradually, however, various initiatives arose with the intention of respecting both the physical remnants and the history of the Dutch Water Line. In the 1990s, the awareness of the importance of maintaining and improving this extraordinary cultural and historical monument materialised in political spheres. 2. From vision to implementation The New Dutch Water Line has now become a deep military secret where a very modern battle is taking place: a feverish conflict of interests in the fight for space. The New Dutch Water Line is part of the national legacy. By using the past to gain inspiration for the future, we also gain meaning, beauty, and a cohesive landscape. The issues of spatial planning in the centre of the Netherlands can be interpreted as a cultural project. The alliance between cultural history and spatial planning offers unexpected opportunities. National project In 1999, government leaders from the Dutch Ministries of Culture, Housing & Environment, Agriculture, and Transport published the "Nota Belvedere". The purpose of this policy document was to take cultural history into account during landuse planning in the Netherlands. Cultural history is used here as a collective term for archaeology, monuments, and historical geography. "Preservation through development" is the Nota Belvedere's motto. Cultural history should provide a source of inspiration for spatial development. As an example of how cultural history can be integrated into spatial design, the government has launched the New Dutch Water Line Project. The Water Line was chosen because of the complex spatial and administrative task of collaborating between five ministries, five provinces, 25 municipalities and five water board districts. In 2008, these different parties signed an administrative agreement, known as the "Rijnauwen Pact," with the purpose of developing the New Dutch Water Line. This was so that the plans could be executed quickly. The provinces, together with the municipalities and water board districts, are to transfer the national policy to the local level. Public and private parties will also be included in the process. The entire process will continue until around 2020. The vision In 2002, the New Dutch Water Line Project Office created a spatial vision, "Panorama Krayenhoff," named after the original designer of the Water Line.

3. A shallow layer of water 40 to 50 cm deep completely obscured the ground below making the coutry impassable for soldier, vagons and horses. at the same time the water was too shallow to navigate by boat.

This vision was implemented in the National Spatial Strategy. This policy document designated the Water Line as one of the twenty National Landscapes and it became part of the spatial superstructure of the Netherlands. The Panorama Krayenhoff Line Perspective describes the protection and development of the historical landscape of the Water Line. The goal of this jointly implemented vision document is to determine a common spatial policy for the entire Line and to give impetus to the establishment of spatial planning on a provincial level. This calls for a variety of measures. As far as safeguarding monuments and limiting spatial planning are concerned, much can be accomplished. But in many cases it is also possible to alter the spatial changes, either planned or arising independently, around the Water Line, such that they support and embody the characteristics of the Water Line (the "Water Line profile"). This characteristic Water Line profile is typified by the following main points: 1. Accentuating the main military line of defence. 2. Keeping the former inundation plains and fields of fire open. 3. Expanding and developing the area to the west of the main line of defence. The west side of the Line has traditionally been characterised by density of population, and the east side by openness. After all, the area to the west of the main line of defence was the area to be defended, where it was safe to live. It was necessary that the area to the east remain open in order to be able to see the enemy's approach. Ambition The confrontation between on the one hand the Line's essential characteristics, and on the other hand spatial development, takes place on many levels. The ambition in all of these confrontations must be to regard the Line as the basis for spatial development. If the Water Line is seen as an issue of sectorial interest, it will compete with every other spatial and programmatic demand in a particular area. This could result in the Line being seen as an inconvenience. If the Water Line is seen as an integral design project, it acquires a different perspective. The Line suddenly becomes a powerful underpinning feature within the area. A unity is created which determines identity across provincial boundaries. This cultural-

historical quality can be successfully expressed by using the basic structure of the Line as a foundation for prioritising and developing spatial usage in the Central Netherlands region. The presence of a structural element of this sort already distinguishes the Randstad from other conurbation. Preserving and strengthening this structural element will be of conclusive importance in the future in terms of recreation, tourism, and international junctions policy. Implementation With the establishment of Panorama Krayenhoff, the Project is concentrating on formulating a programme of development which will guide implementation. The Line Perspective is after all in the visionary stage, and is not yet a fully developed organisational plan. The implementation is arranged into seven project portfolios directed towards regions and one national portfolio. Each of the portfolios covers a large number of projects which are related in terms of design, implementation and exploitation. Portfolio committees for the individual regions have already been established and will set up their own implementation programmes on the basis of a mutually determined directive. The challenge at present is to forge the implementation programmes of the various portfolios into one goal for the entire Line. Listed as protected heritage In September of 2009, the Minister of Culture announced that the New Dutch Water Line was to be placed on the list of National Monuments. The registration of the New Dutch Water Line brings us one step closer to a new approach towards protecting monuments. This approach enables the protection of not just the monument itself, but also its environment, and makes it possible to designate landscapes, canals and dikes as culturally and historically valuable. This was not an option in the past. For the Water Line this means that the portions built for military purposes will be protected as such. Besides the possibility of developing objects other than buildings as valuable, the procedures for both owners and governments have been simplified and are thus faster. At the same time, it is now easier to re-designate a monument's use, so that forts and other monuments can be used for purposes other than those for

which they were originally built. 3. Three examples of development in the Water Line Allocating new functions to the cultural-historical elements and spatial edicts could strengthen both sides. In this framework, we will examine three projects. Each of the projects takes place at a different level. The first example describes a new use for a fort, the second example illustrates a regional approach, and the final project relates to methods by which entrepreneurs can utilise heritage sites through developing new recreational products. Example 1: Redeveloping Fort de Klop In 1997, the Municipality of Utrecht bought Fort de Klop (www.fortaandeklop.com). The municipality's aim was "Preservation through development." It was important that justice was done to the fort's character, that it complement existing facilities in the area, and that it be made accessible to the public. The intention was to build a café and a small campsite and/or hostel on the grounds. Its location on the river Vecht and on footpaths and bicycle routes made the fort appealing to hikers and cyclists. The fort could also serve as a public park for the neighbouring districts of Overvecht and Zuilen. The design was as follows: The municipality would finance the necessary physical restorations, after which the developer would fund the measures necessary for redesignation. Potential developers were approached in 2001. Joost Batelaan was chosen as a suitable manager. Not until 2004 did the municipality receive the necessary financing from the province of Utrecht, the national government, and the European Union. The European subsidy was connected to a European project entitled "Crossing the Lines". This European project resulted not only in a sum of money, but also in the exchange of technical knowledge about restoring forts. While the developer was being chosen, restoration began on the guardhouse and the sheds. The main obstacle to restoration was the guardhouse itself. This structure had originally been erected in stonework, and a reinforced concrete shell was placed around it at a later date. After researching the possibilities for repairing the structure, an independent bureau suggested placing dilatation joints in the concrete shell and then filling the joints with a flexible material. This controls the tension in the concrete shell and prevents the occurrence of further cracks. The ground floor of the guardhouse and the sheds were to serve as recreation and catering space in the fort's new function. The café in the guardhouse became the central location of the grounds. The three wooden sheds were designated as recreation area and dormitory. They offer a total of 48 beds, two large conference and recreation rooms, a large kitchen and two small kitchens. No definite plans have yet been made for the metal shed. The cellar of the guardhouse, however, remained in the possession of its original residents, the bats. The climate in this space was perfect for these nocturnal animals and the decision was made to preserve this as it was. On 13 July 2007, ten years after its purchase by the municipality of Utrecht, Fort aan de Klop opened its doors to the public. After just under two hundred years of existence, the grounds are open to the public. In its first season, the fort welcomed a handful of campers, a few groups staying the night, several conferences, and countless locals who came to drink coffee and tea. The bombproof café has proven to be a hit. The neighbouring districts had long felt the lack of a catering establishment with a large terrace in green surroundings. Example 2: Regional development of the "Lingekwartier" On 23 November 2007, the agreement of intent "Lingekwartier" was signed at Fort Asperen (www.lingekwartier.nl). This completed the first phase of a region-

ally oriented approach to the forts along the river Linge. Two forts, Fort Asperen and Fort Nieuwe Steeg, form part of the 300-hectare grounds. Besides the forts, there are several hydraulic works which form part of the New Dutch Water Line. The goal is to strengthen the ability of the region to defend itself against future threats such as the construction of houses and industrial estates. This threat is not pressing at the moment, but such things can change overnight, especially in a region located so close to the Randstad and other economic centres. By taking a coordinated approach, i.e. not developing simply an individual fort or bicycle path, and by paying attention to opportunities in the market and economic vitality, it is possible to strengthen the protection of the area. The rough draft for the Lingekwartier, designed by the architect Peter van Assche of the architectural bureau SLA, is based on the Kringenwet (Law of forbidden circles, see paragraph 1). In the centremost circle between the two forts a "water line landscape" was to be laid in phases. New construction is discouraged in this area. There are fewer regulations in the outermost circle. The two forts are the most conspicuous objects and therefore the most central objects in the plans for the Lingekwartier. Fort Asperen has a reputation for being a "culture fort" since 1984. In 2006 the British artist Peter Greenaway held the exhibition "Ark: A Flood Warning" there. Part of the plan is for Fort Nieuwesteeg to have a public purpose for the first time. It will be a so-called "geofort" with an exhibition relating to maps and navigation. This might include anything from the Blaeu atlas of 1635 to TomTom navigation systems. The intention is that both forts would act as "magnets" for regional development. A ferry connection between the two defensive works is also a possibility. In order for the Lingekwartier project to succeed, it is essential that the different parties are willing to cooperate. The Province of Gelderland, the municipalities of Lingewaal and Geldermalsen, the Water Board District of Rivierenland, and the Dutch Forestry Commission, which owns the land, are of great importance in achieving this. Example 3: Cooperation among entrepreneurs Along with re-using the forts, one of the aims is to develop a good atmosphere for entrepreneurs within the area of the New Dutch Water Line. It is also desirable that entrepreneurs develop products which have a strong connection to the sense of place in this region. The New Dutch Water Line is currently participating in a European Interreg IVB project, COLLABOR8 (www.collabor8.me). Within the framework of this project, entrepreneurs are stimulated to mutually co-operate and to follow high standards of quality and certain sustainability standards. Along with this, the identity of the region is promoted as a unique selling point. The entrepreneurs within the New Dutch Water Line are asked to meet the challenge of arriving at a set of principles which the Water Line as a brand will radiate. The project is a co-operation between nine partners. The leading partner is South Kerry Development Partnership, a development organisation in south-west Ireland. There are also two partners in Wales, the Brecon Beacons and the neighbouring borough of Merthyr Tydfil. In England there are two regions, the Westcountry Rivers Trust and the South Downs. There are two participating regions in Flanders, Meetjesland and Merode. The regions in the Netherlands are the municipality of Tilburg and the New Dutch Water Line. There are two reasons why the New Dutch Water Line is participating in this project. The first reason is to increase awareness of its history among entrepreneurs. This will enable them to develop a greater understanding of the landscape in which they work. That may in turn

stimulate them to relate their products to the identity of the Water Line area. The second reason is that the clients of these entrepreneurs are also the visitors to the area of the New Dutch Water Line. As a result of a strong connection between products and the regional identity, visitors will be unmistakably aware that they are in the area of the New Dutch Water Line. Stimulating entrepreneurs to mutually co-operate will bring about entrepreneurial networks. These networks would be able to present all sorts of new and innovative combinations of products and arrangements, or product packages. One example could be a cycle rental shop which co-operates with the manager of a fort, a professional storyteller, and a restaurant in order to mutually develop a bicycle route. By means of a GPS device, children would be able to answer various Water Line quiz questions while following the route. Up to now the New Dutch Water Line has organised three clusters of entrepreneurs. Since the summer of 2009, these clusters have been actively developing new product packages which have a strong link to the forts and the landscape of the New Dutch Water Line. The clusters are comprised of entrepreneurs currently managing various forts as well as entrepreneurs not located specifically at the forts. This has led to a diverse network which includes entrepreneurs in recreation, IT businesses, event organisation bureaux, filmmakers, professional storytellers, and businesses in various other fields. It is hoped that this will lead to new products which attract the attention of a broad public and awaken their interest in the magnificent history of the New Dutch Water Line. 4. Implementation leads to new questions The three cases described above show that projects are implemented on various levels within the New Dutch Water Line region. Each project has achieved success in its own way. Fort de Klop has increased the public accessibility of the surrounding area, the openness of the area around the river Linge has been protected by the Lingekwartier project, and entrepreneurs are working to bring the heritage of the area closer to the public. Yet it is much too early for the New Dutch Water Line Project Bureau to pat itself on the back and claim that success has been achieved. These projects also indicate that the current practice of implementation has its limits. Many questions remain unanswered. We can divide the questions into those relating to technology and those relating to social and procedural issues. This is briefly explained below. Technological questions Up to now the search for technological solutions has been very creative, but in many cases the solutions are specific to the project. Fort de Klop, for example, searched for a good solution to the bat problem. Space was created for this protected species to exist alongside human activities. However, this does not always occur without friction. The flora and fauna laws and the related bat question call for an accumulation of knowledge on this subject. This must be found not just in the Netherlands, but also elsewhere in Europe. This issue is one of those to be discussed at an upcoming European conference currently in preparation. Ecology is not just of importance from the point of view of legislation, but also from the point of view of its intrinsic historical value. We know too little about the original plans for planting the areas around the forts. Where we do have this information, it calls for an appraisal of how to take this into account when doing restoration work. Fort de Klop teaches us that new kinds of uses for the Water

Line also require new and innovative building methods. The knowledge gained in this way is only a beginning. The questions of construction in and around forts are very specific, and it is necessary to search for solutions on a case-bycase basis. This requires continuous technological innovation. This has to do not only with the technological execution, but also with the proper historical considerations. In other words, which time period should be presented when doing restoration work? As far as quality of design is concerned, it can be said that the designer had a large role in each of the projects discussed above. It is also possible to question whether this awareness of design is already present within the entire area of the New Dutch Water Line. To what extent is it desirable to work according to the principles of commonly created standards of design? These standards of design ought to offer guidelines for a basic cultural and historical quality of design. The Office of the Chief Government Architect and the New Dutch Water Line Quality Team both have an important role to play in this. Social and procedural questions The three projects described above, particularly the Lingekwartier project, show that a process which encourages co-operation and rapport between parties is essential for successful implementation. This is true not only in terms of developing an administrative base, but also for creating a base of residents, entrepreneurs, and other local concerned parties. The latter in particular is often ignored, or only receives attention at a very late stage of planning. If the story of the Water Line is told better and more engagingly, it will be possible to generate more interest. Is it possible to utilise oral history as a technique to demonstrate how the story can be applied to new developments? Ultimately, new ideas will need to be found to connect people to all the cultural and historical beauty of the Water Line. Entrepreneurs should be stimulated to develop products which are associated with this cultural-historical story. Ideally they should co-operate from the realisation that the Water Line can be a unique selling point and therefore can compete with surrounding regions. This is not only true for the tourism sector. There are many opportunities for entrepreneurs in the cultural sector, from performing arts to crafts. The cultural sector can contribute strongly to connecting people to the Water Line. Along with entrepreneurs, other social sectors should be involved with the Water Line. A possible example is the "Stichting Herstelling" (Recovery Foundation), which helps troubled youths get back on track. They learn skills by assisting with the restoration of various forts. This is a fantastic example of how youth community work, social reintegration, and cultural history can combine. Would it not be possible to set up these kinds of Water Line alliances with sectors such as integration or health care? Every such connection could ultimately lead to a greater social significance of and involvement in cultural history. In terms of society, the question is how to bring about a change in people's way of thinking. This more than anything else will determine the success of the New Dutch Water Line. No matter how much money is invested in developing the physical landscape, if people do not acknowledge and engage in the story of the Water Line, every effort will be pointless. 5. Conclusion Introduction 5. Conclusion Despite the visibility of the early successes in implementing the New Dutch Water Line Project, we are now being confronted with the vagaries of imple-

mentation. We at the New Dutch Water Line Project Office are well aware that we do not have all the answers. We need to search for answers to technological and restoration questions, procedural questions, and social questions. This wide scope of issues demands a wide variety of people and groups able to provide answers. To achieve this, the national project must delve to the regional and local levels. Only then will the New Dutch Water Line Project Office be capable of making new and unexpected alliances with parties able to help it solve these questions. Bibliography: · Panorama Krayenhoff; Linieperspectief. Stuurgroep Nationaal Project NHW, Utrecht (2004). · Sterk Water - de Hollandse waterlinie. Will, C. Utrecht (2002). · Advies Kwaliteitsteam aan Liniecommissie over adressering enveloppen. Utrecht (2005). · Uitvoeringsprogramma NHW - concept 2. Projectbureau NHW, Utrecht (May 2006). · Lingekwartier - samenhang forten en omgeving. Bert Bukman. Published in: Monumenten, year 29, number ½, January/February 2008. · Waterlijn number 24, September 2008. Newsletter of the National New Dutch Water Line Project. · Op zoek naar de identiteit van Asperen. Weijschedé, T.J., Mulder, J.R. Wageningen, 2007.

· Een kloppend hart voor de buurt- de herontwikkeling van Fort Aan de Klop. Steenhuis stedebouw/landschap. 2008. · De Hollandse Waterlinie- van concept naar uitvoering. Published in: Topos, May 2006. Wageningen. · NHW: uitvoering leidt tot nieuwe kennisvragen. In: Vitruvius, tijdschrift voor erfgoed. Juni 2009. · De Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie. Matsier N., Keyzer, C. de, Schepel, S. 2001. Zwolle. Websites: http://www.lingekwartier.nl/ http://www.fortaandeklop.nl/ http://www.hollandsewaterlinie.nl/ http://www.fortasperen.nl/ http://www.collabor8.me/ http://www.herstelling.nl/

La nouvelle ligne d'eau néerlandaise (Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie; www.hollandsewaterlinie.nl) est l'une des remarquables lignes de défense trouvées aux Pays-Bas, une application impressionnante de la stratégie militaire destinée à protéger la partie la plus densément peuplée des Pays-Bas, le "Randstad", contre les ennemis de l'Est en cas de guerre. Le "Randstad" est la conurbation des villes d'Amsterdam, Rotterdam, La Haye et Utrecht, quatre centres économiques importants. Après avoir perdu ses fonctions militaires, la nouvelle ligne d'eau néerlandaise servit d'espace vert pour le Randstad, contrebalançant l'urbanisation. Elle fut incluse dans la politique nationale de planification de l'espace avec l'intention de l'utiliser comme un exemple de gestion des sites du patrimoine dans des régions fortement urbanisées. Les sites du patrimoine et le développement de l'espace ont traditionnellement été des pôles séparés. Dans cet article, nous voulons aborder les mécanismes particuliers qui ont été utilisés pour protéger le site du patrimoine de la nouvelle ligne d'eau néerlandaise contre le développement de l'espace. Ceci est simplement le début d'une stratégie offensive dans laquelle des alliances seront faites avec des groupes qui traditionnellement ont été peu compatissants avec les notions de préservation des sites du patrimoine.

NACIYE DORATLI

THE CASE OF FAMAGUSTA IN NORTH CYPRUS

Introduction The internal structure of a city is defined by the set of activities that take place in the city, their spatial dimensions and distribution in geographic space, as well as the connections between them. The spatial structure of cities changes in the course of time. The urban morphology can change over time as new urban fabric is added and as the existing fabric is modified internally (e.g. new buildings replace the old ones, plots are amalgamated or subdivived, street layout is modified) (Knox 1995; Cadwallader 1996). These internal modifications are of major concern because they represent the physical manifestation of aTo translate in french range of social, economic, cultural and political dimensions associated with urban dynamics (Rashed, T., Weeks, J. R., Stow, D., Fugate, D., 2005, p. 700). In this regard, Fortified Settlements with unique image and identity a considerable urban and architectural value and which are either independently or as part of a larger urban settlement, are no exceptions. As with any human settlements, they are shaped through prevailing natural, economic, political, social and cultural factors and forces. It should be noted however that formation or development of fortified settlements during medieval period have also been influenced by invention of gunpowder, which had completely changed not only the type of warfare, but also the style of military architecture, hence fortifications. From the middle ages until today, all these settlements have been changing and adapting themselves to the changing political, economic and social conditions. Throughout this adaptation process, the built artifacts have been either demolished to give way for new buildings or may be to new streets, or they have been/ are used with the same function or with some others. This is a natural process that almost all settlements have been faced with. However, settlements on the islands, especially in the Mediterranean Sea, which were faced with colonial or other type of occupations like the island of Cyprus, are being additionally transformed in line with the political, cultural and ethnic struggle. As home to many different cultures, the Walled City of Famagusta is one of the best examples of a medieval city, not only around the Mediterranean region but within Europe, with its multi-cultural identity, exhibiting a variety of cultures through Roman, Byzantine, Lusignan, Venetian, Ottoman and the British. All these have been reflected in the development, spatial structure and morphology of the town. This paper aims to present the adjustment of the physical fabric of the Walled City of Famagusta in line with the changing political, socio-economic and cultural conditions from the medieval period until today and question its potential for

1. Lusignan Period (1192-1489) (Doratli et al., 2003) 1 Carmelite Church, 2 Church of St.Catherina, 3 Church of St.Anna, 4 Nestorian Church, 5 Othello Castle, 6 Church of St.George of the Latins, 7 Biddulp’s Gate, 8 Church af Temolars and St.Antuan, 9 Church of Stavros, 10 St.Nicholas Cathedral, 11 church of St. Peter and

Paul, 12 Ruined Church, 13 Church of Stavros, 14 Church of St.George of Greeks, 15 Ruined Church, 16 Church of St.Nicholas, 17 Church of Ayia Zoni 2. Venetian Period (1489 -1571) (Doratli et al., 2003) 3. Ottoman Period (1571 -1878) (Doratli et al., 2003) 4. British Period (1878 – 1960) (Doratli et al., 2003)

reuse of underutilized structures, which would proudly proclaim its multi-cultural heritage and character. Accordingly, the paper will firstly put forward significanty overall change and reuse of the Walled City in general terms. Secondly, narratives of some selected buildings/area/place that have been reused throughout different periods, through consultation of some selected images will be presented. Finally, potential for reuse of some of the outstanding structures will be highlighted. Reuse of the Walled City throughout History Depending on the attitude of the conquerors, the Walled City of Famagusta has always been a settlement with a different emphasis in terms of its socio-economic life since its foundation. Although foundation of the city dates back to 300 BC, in line with the main aim of this paper, in this section the Walled City of Famagusta will be explored in general spatial, physical, functional terms, starting from Lusignan (1192-1489), Genoese (1374-1464) and the consequent Venetian (1489-1571), Ottoman (1571-1878), British (1878-1960), Independence (19601974 & 1974 onwards) periods. Lusignan Period (1192-1489) – A Trade Centre & District of Churches It is well known that during the Lusignan period Famagusta was a mediaeval fortress city of the first rank (about the year 1300), when the refugees from Syria and Palestine were offered an asylum here by the Lusignan King Henry II. It became important on account of its natural harbour, and citadel and a fort was

built to protect the city. Thus, originally a small fishing village, Famagusta grew in size and importance under the Lusignans in the 13th century, developing into an important trading centre between the East and the West. The belief that people's wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches constructed in varying styles. These churches, some of which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as "the district of churches" (fig. 1, Doratli et al., 2003).The statement of various scholars about the number of churches in the city at that time, which is 365, would be debatable when considering the remained ones both fully standing or in ruins. William Dreghorn, who supports this idea, mentioned that the existing seventeen churches including St Nicholas Cathedral within the town walls could be a sort of evidence for the exaggerated number. He further stated that: “It is hardly likely that any ancient church should completely disappear, foundations and all. Even if we suppose that a few have escaped detection hidden under some later building, at the most we could say that no more than 25 ancient churches are in Famagusta.” (Dreghorn, 1985) To this period belong the cathedral of St. Nicholas, the adjacent mediaeval Bishop's Palace, the churches of St. George the Latin, the Carmelites, the Franciscans, the Nestorians, and perhaps St. Anne. Some mediaeval shops, formerly the rez-de-chaussee of the Bishop's Palace, and the hardly traceable vestige of the original Royal Palace in the centre of the town may be added to the list. As stated by Ludolf von Suchen in 1336, it was a very rich city. “It is the richest of all cities and her citizens are the richest of men. A citizen once betrothed his daughter and the jewels of her head-dress were valued by the French knights who came with us as more precious an all the ornaments of the Queen of France.” (De Terra Sancta, 1336 in Jeffery, 1918.) Genoese Period (1374-1464) – A Place of Tension in Decline Troubles, which had been started between Venetians and Genoese in 1373, led to

a struggle between Lusignans and Genoese; and in 1374 (Jeffery, 1918), ended up with the Genoese occupation of the city until 1464. The extravagant luxury and splendor of the community which had been transferred from Acre to Famagusta in 1300 was doomed to disappear as suddenly as it had arisen, and the Genoese invasion appears to have swept it entirely away. Thus during this period the city, which was a sort of ‘place of tension’, declined until it was regained by the Lusignans in 1464. It is known that during Genoese occupation, priority has been given to protection and the defensive measures of the walls and the harbour had been strengthen. (Uluca et al. 2008) Venetian Period (1489-1571) – A Military Base During Venetian Era, the administration of the island seems to be highly militaristic (Gunnis, 1973), thus the physical appearance and the layout of the settlements had been formed accordingly. The old city of Famagusta had been surrounded by fortifications all around, consisting a dozen bastions, a citadel (Castella) and two gates - one as Land Gate (Ravelin), and the other as Sea Gate (Porta del Mare) – both still standing (Gunnis, 1973), which was a sort of remodeling the existing walls and towers . The ramparts, which were nearly perfect, were surrounded by a ditch of considerable depth and cut in the rock. The link in between the two gates was forming the main axis, and the city was reflecting an organic tissue, which was made up of mainly terrace houses and shops. Just at the centre of the city, lying on the Lusignan inheritance, was the central piazza, which seems to be the focal point since Lusignan period. The palace of Provveditore (the governor) as the administrative unit was framing the piazza on the opposite edge, facing the significant St. Nicholas Cathedral. The central piazza, besides being the center of administrative and religious activities, was also the centre in terms of social activities.

5. Detached House from British Period. 6. Piercing of the Wall near the harbor (Walsh, 2010) 7. Railway construction between St George of the Latins and the sea wall. (Image courtesy of the National Archive, Girne). 8. Walls from inside during 1900s (Severis, R. C., 2003 9.Land Gate before 1937 (Bahir Pulhan's Archive) 10. Walls in 2000s 11.Land Gate Today

Apart from the main axis in the south-east/north-west direction, there is evidence to believe that there was another axis, which was crossing the main one, while linking the northern part of the Walled City to the south. On this axis, it is still possible to perceive the original tissue of the era and some remarkable architectural remains from that age (fig. 2: Doratli et al., 2003). Ottoman period (1571-1878) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Station for Privileged Political Exiles During this period, the Walled City has been utilized primarily as a kind of secure home for privileged political exiles and a military base. The attitude of the Ottomans with respect to the Walled City affected the social and economic life as well as the consequent physical and spatial form, which resulted in somewhat continuity in urban pattern of the Venetian period. While constructing new structures, the Ottomans also preferred to keep the existing buildings and structures and make use of them with necessary modifications and transformations through addition of second floors in order to fit the socio-economic and cultural life of the new inhabitants. They had preserved the main axis linking the two gates as it had been during Venetian era. The main piazza kept its role during this period, however, the Venetian Palace was destroyed during the Ottoman attacks in 1571; only the grand facade has been left (Dreghorn, 1985). The significant Cathedral was converted into a mosque (Lala Mustafa Pasa Mosque) through an addition of a minaret; a bedesten (typical Ottoman shopping centre), arasta (shopping street), additional shops along the main axis and a khan (inn) were developed to fulfill the requirements of merchandise activities; a medrese (school), baths, and fountains were built to complete up the physical infrastructure in order to meet the basic daily needs. (Cobham, 1969; Onal, et. al., 1999) Concentration of population and accordingly the buildings were mainly on the southern half of the Walled City, and the organic urban pattern was enriched

through the introduction of cul-de-sacs, which fitted well the Islamic culture and life style. Besides, a special house form the so-called ‘kemeralti’ house, which allowed both pedestrian and vehicular flow, had been developed. (fig. 3: Doratli et al., 2003) In general, the buildings of the Ottoman period expose a traditional and local quality, through the usage of local construction materials and building techniques, which to a large extent are not exhibiting any outstanding architectural and artistic characteristics. However, when considering their proportions and scale, they fit quite well with the existing urba scene. Exception to this general trend and appearance, are a few large houses, which might have been dwellings of the ruling staff (Cobham, 1969). When considering the Walled City towards the end of the Ottoman Period, according to Luke, it had a small population, with empty spaces and a few kitchen gardens, date palms and fig trees (Luke, 1969). The central piazza in the middle of the city was surrounded by Turkish coffee shops, and appropriately designed new market and a small covered bazaar (Cobham, 1969). British Period (1878-1960) - A Modern Harbour City of the Levant In 1878, the Ottomans hired the Island to the British and in 1910 the Island became a true colony of the British Empire. As stated by Walsh: “What the British inherited in 1878 through the ‘‘Convention of Defensive Alliance between Great Britain and Turkey’’ was clearly a city wealthy in history, legend and architectural pedigree, but impoverished in almost every other respect.” (Walsh, M. J. K., 2010, p.250). Expansion of the city outside the Walls towards the south - which

12. Genoese and Venetians fighting after the coronation of King Pierre II at the St. Nicholas Cathedral. 13. Main Piazza in 1834 (Severis, R. C., 2003) 14. Main Piazza end in1928 (Bahir Pulhan Archive) 15. Venetian Palace at the main piazza end of 19th century (Bahir Pulhan Archive) 16: Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque in 1878 (Walsh, M. J. K., 2010, p.255) 17. Main Piazza in 1960s (Bahir Pulhan Archive) 18. Main piazza in 1970 19: Is Bank, contrasting building at the site of the traditional building at the main piazza.

already started during the Ottoman period, was accelerated then. However, the Walled City still kept its significance as a traditional core as well as a residential quarter. Additionally, due to the increasing use of the harbor, a number of storage buildings, which strongly contributes to the morphology and the identity of the Walled City, were constructed (fig. 4: Doratli et al., 2003). The main difference in the British Period was the neglect of existing building stock and the construction of new buildings on vacant land or to replace old buildings with no consideration of the traditional pattern and characteristics (Luke, 1965). This approach of the new administration resulted in differences in the development pattern of the historical area in such a way that new roads were constructed which were in contrast to the traditional pattern and row houses which formed the traditional urban pattern were interrupted by detached houses (fig. 5). It is worth mentioning that 52.5% of the buildings existing in the walled city today date back to the British period. In addition, later additions to the monumental buildings from Lusignan and Venetian periods were also demolished (Doratli, et.al., 2001). The Cyprus Government Railway, with the head offices located in Famagusta, is said to have transformed Famagusta from an old Turkish town into a modern harbour city of the Levant (figs 6 and 27). After 1946, a new legislation â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Streets and Buildings Regulation, Cap 96â&#x20AC;&#x2122; for organizing new developments was introduced, and the amount of contrasting new developments in the walled city was increased considerably. However, height restriction was introduced through an additional regulation in 1960s, which kept the building line constant at 27 feet along the streets.

20. Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque Today 21. Namik Kemal Square TodayFigure

After Independence (1960-1974 & From 1974 Onwards) Between the years 1960-1974, when the British hads left ruling of the Island to the Republic of Cyprus, the administration of the overall city was separated into two municipalities, the Turkish one dominantly in the Walled City and the Greek one in all other districts outside of the walls. During this period, the walled city was neglected and substantial development did not take place, which resulted in a static state in terms of development of the urban pattern. 1974 has been one of the important turning-points for the city of Famagusta, just as for all Cypriot settlements. Following the war in 1974, after the division of the Island into two sectors (Turkish in the north, Greek in the south), the whole city has turned out to be one of the rarear examples of a war-torn city. Although the overall city has been faced with multi-dimensional urban development problems, the Walled City has kept its historic urban character and identity with its monumental structures and with its organic urban pattern (Onal, et.al. 1999). It should be noted however that until the beginning of 1980s, when the adjustment process to the new circumstances has been more or less settled, the walled city, the Turkish quarter of the city since Ottoman Era, has been most attractive place for any type of use, which meant pressure for new development and danger for the historic buildings that were not listed. As a result, houses, some office buildings (such as Is Bank at the main piazza) etc. have been constructed either on some empty building plots or on sites of unlisted traditional structures. Hovever since after 1986, the increasing attractiveness of the newly developing quarters, especially those towards the University, has ked to residents and businesses moving outside the walled city. The strategic importance of the walled city in terms of its economic and mixed-use function has gradually been diminished. Although being faced with deterioration and decay, the Walled City is still a place of concentrated commercial, residential, and manufacturing activities (Doratli et al., 2007, p.73). It was declared a Conservation Area in 1989 under the new Town

Planning Law (55/89), 249 buildings were listed in 1999 by the Department of Antiquities and Museums and in December 2005 a ‘Revitalization Plan for the Walled City’ was finalized. Additionally, projects such as the pedestrianization of Namik Kemal Square and Istiklal Avenue and the provision of car parking areas have been implemented. However, these efforts have so far not been sufficient to address the process of decay, and it is as yet too early to expect any discernible impact from the new Revitalization Plan. Most recently, the Walled City has been included in the 2008 Watch List of the World Monuments Fund (WMF) (Doratli, N., 2012). Considering the chronological transformation of the historic area highlighted above, it can be argued that the walled city in its totality and beauty is made up of numerous different periods of formation as well as transformation: the unity of these moments is the urban unity as a whole, which has endured more than nine centuries. The possibility for reading the city with any continuity resides in its dominant formal and spatial characteristics, which is strongly defined by the fortifications, the monumental buildings, and many mundane buildings, most of which are houses. Use, Reuse & Disuse of Some Selected Buildings / Places As Aldo Rossi points out in The Architecture of the City, the city consists of Urban artifacts, the constants in the changing urban fabric. As an adaptive construct, the city contains both constants and variables. The constants, however large or small, tangible or intangible, provide a parametric framework through which the city defines itself. This observation applies fundamentally to any adaptive system. There are those elements which define a framework, between which other elements fluctuate. These variables, defined by behavioral inputs, create new forms within existing parameters (Rossi, 1982). Although buildings as urban artifacts come and go, among them the monumental ones are those, which are the most permanent as they withstand the passage of time. Additionally, the monuments are the “collective memory”, providing structure to the city; even if they are used in a much different way than what they have

been constructed for. In addition to these urban artifacts, the urban spaces, which count for the most durable components of the urban form and once have had a different meaning, have witnessed the changing way of life throughout centuries. Based on what has been stated above, in this section, narratives of some selected monumental or public buildings/area/place that have been reused throughout different periods, through consultation of some selected images will be presented. Selection criteria rest upon, firstly, to the importance of the presented artifact from the point of view of the changing use and meaning for the city and the inhabitants. Secondly, to be among the artifacts, which were once important components of the urban form and social life and currently non existent. The Walls As it has been presented in the previous section, the existing walls, one of the most important constant urban artifacts, have been achieved through the remodeling of the walls and towers of the previous periods during the Venetian occupation. It was a superb defencse (and protection) system against the possible Ottoman attacks. During the following Ottoman Era, the walls preserved to a larger extent the major function of protection and defencse (fig. 8). However, due to changing circumstances in the British Period, the major role of the walls as a defencse and protection system declined. During this era, it was acknowledged that the historic walls are a significant cultural heritage, which should be preserved rather than only being a defencse system. Accordingly, there has been an enormous work for the walls as well as other monumental buildings (figs 33 and 34). Uluca Tumer states that there has been extensive restoration of monuments and 22. Khan at the Main Piazza during the First half of the 20th Century (Bahir Pulhan Archive) 23. A New Building on the Site of the Khan

24. Covered Bazaar (Bandabulia) in 1928 (Bahir Pulhan Archive) 25. Covered Bazaar (Bandabulia) Today 26. Inside the Covered Bazaar (Bandabulia) After Restoration

rehabilitation of the environmental conditions, which included excavations and restorations on and around the walls and has been completed between 1935 and 1960 (Uluca Tumer, E. 2007). Based on extensive analysis and evaluation of the pictures taken and reports written by T Mogabgab, Uluca Tumer highlights the fundamental changes that have been executed in front of the Land Gate inside the walls with a major aim of improve the view and traffic (Uluca Tumer, 2007, p.407). Accordingly, 18th century fountain of the Akkule Masjid has been moved on the other side of the road in 1937, after the removal of the water tank there. However, later this fountain was removed with an aim to improve the view and the traffic (figs 9, 11). In line with the improvement of the harbour and construction of the railway, the British administration introduced changes to the walls, in terms of piercing the east wall towards the harbour. As stated by Walsh: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The piercing of the curtain wall, instead of its demolition, was carried out in 1902 on the understanding that many of the stones were to be replaced to their original position when the overall works were completed in 1904 (Hill, 1952, p.610 in Walsh, 2010, p. 263) (Figure 9.2). Between the years 1963-1974, the historic walls once again signified protection for Turkish Cypriots, as the Turkish enclave within the walls was the safest place to live. From 1974 onwards, being in the mono ethnic zone (Turkish sector) meant there wasno need any more for protection and defencse from the walled city of Famagusta. Hence since then the fortification is under consideration as a significant monument in need for protection and enhancement but not as an artifact of defencse system (fig. 10). The Main Piazza According to Camillo Sitte, one square or a group of squares located at the center is usually the most important, the main urban space of the city. In this main square or group of squares, the community displays - to the greatest effect - its public art, great sculptures, fountains, obelisks, etc. The most important and decorative buildings are also located here (Moughtin, C. et al., 1999). The main piazza of the walled city of Famagusta well fits with this interpretation, since the most important buildings, the cathedral (later mosque), the Venetian Palace are located here. Due to its location it can be considered as a cathedral square as well as a ceremonial square, as it had witnessed a variety of ceremonies in the medieval era, among which the crowning of the Lusignan Kings as the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;King of Jerusalem, can be counted as the most important one (fig. 12). During the Ottoman period, in line with the way of life of the new community

some new artifacts such as medrese, khans, fountains, baths, and coffee shops have been added to the square. These new additions can be considered as reflection of the change in use and meaning of this particular space (figs 13, 14, 15). Even if there have been changes in terms of function, it has always kept it popularity for the inhabitants both in social, cultural as well as economic terms throughout centuries. However there have been changes in physical terms. During the British period (mid 20th century), as part of the action of cleaning the surrounding area of the monuments, the most imposing and earliest ottoman fountain, Cafer Pasha Fountain, was carried from the north corner of the Venetian Palace to a few meters in north west direction to its present location (Uluca Tumer, 2007, p.407). From the British period onwards and especially after 1963, for the Turkish Cypriots it meant the heart of the town and many contrasting new buildings replaced the old ones other than those monumental ones to meet the needs at those times (figs 17, 18, 19). In line with the changes in the understanding of protection of cultural heritage, from 1990s onwards physical revitalization efforts for the main square have been initiated and as a first step it has been pedestrianized (fig. 21. However, due to

27. Harbour in 1928. (Bahir Pulhan Archive) 28. Famagusta Harbour in 1971 (Bahir Pulhan Archive) 29. Famagusta Harbour Today

30. Storage Buildings 31. Storage Buildings along the east wall 32. Interior of Storage Buildings

missing measures, it could not be transformed into a lively place as it now fails to compete with the newly developing areas outside the walls. St. Nicholas Cathedral (Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque) Representing the wealth of that time, St. Nicholas Cathedral was built during the Lusignan period at the turn of the 11th century and was used as the coronation place for the Lusignan dynasty as Kings of Jerusalem, after they had been crowned in Nicosia as Kings of Cyprus (Gunnis, 1973) According to George Jeffery, although the cathedral was not commenced until after 1300, Hugh III. (the Great) was probably crowned here in 1267, John I. in 1284, and Henry II. in 1285. The last King to be crowned in Famagusta was the unfortunate Peter II. in 1369. After the Genoese occupation this ceremony was transferred to Nicosia. (Jeffery, 1918, p.118). Refering to the significance of the cathedral, M.J. K. Walsh stated that: “Standing as a direct contemporary of the Doge’s Palace in Venice, the grandiose experiments of Beauvais, Giotto’s Campanile in Florence, the Popes Palace in Avignon,Wells Cathedral, Dante’s Inferno and the Black Death, it reminds us, however, of the intended permanence of the Medieval church in Lusignan Cyprus”. (Walsh, 2005, p.2) The magnificent St. Nicholas Cathedral was converted into Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque3, short after the Ottoman occupation of the city. A minaret was added and in accordance with Moslem religion all images of the human form in stone, in fresco or in stained glass windows were either removed or plastered over. (Jeffery, 1918, p.119.) Since than it has been the main mosque of Famagusta (figs 16, 20).

The Covered Bazaar (Bandabulia) As it has been previously mentioned, the covered bazaar as well as the market place was developed at the edge of the main piazza during the Ottoman period (Figure 21). Throughout the following centuries it has been one of the lively places in the life of the citizens; especially for the Turks, since other ethnic groups were not allowed to enter the walled city short after the Ottoman occupation. However, towards the end of the 20th century, the popularity of Bandabulia gradually declined as it failed to compete with the modern supermarkets and it became a rarely visited vegetable bazaar. Being aware of this unfavourable situation as well as the overall decline of the attractiveness of the walled city as a whole, several restoration projects, including the restoration project of the Bandabulia, have been prepared and implemented by Gazimagusa Municipality with funds from EU under the Partnership for Future (PFF) Programme in collaboration with the United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) in 2006 (Figures 25, 26). Since then the historic building is utilized for leisure activities such as cafes, restaurants etc. which have replaced the former original and traditional function. Nonetheless, the new uses have not been as successful as the original one in terms of attracting the citizens as well as the tourists. The Khans Analysis of the old maps as well as information from records from 16th century reveals that several khans were built in the walled city during the Ottoman era (Onal, et. al., 1999). It should be noted however that in contrast to those in the Walled City of Nicosia, these khans were very modest and small in scale. All of

them have been demolished, including the one at the main plaza, which contributed to the unity of the area and has been replaced by a contrasting building in late 1980s; since then it is used as a café. (figs 22, 23) The Harbour Founded on the ruins of the ancient lagoon settlement of Arsinoe in 300 BC, which then was an undistinguished little coastal, fishing town, Famagusta flourished as a trade centre during the Lusignan period on account of its natural harbour (Onal, S. et al., 1999, p. 335). It is this period, 13th century, when Famagusta became the main port and the city was favourable because of its closeness to the ports of Holy Land and Ayas in Lesser Armenia and its geographical advantages. According to Uluca, at the beginning “the physical elements of the port mostly had defence functions. Presenting the importance of the port as a defence line, these elements preserved their significance until military technology changed in the 19th century. The chain was still there at the beginning of 20th century” (Uluca, E. et al., 2008, p.63). As many other activities in the town, the activities of the port of Famagusta had declined during the 90 years of the Genoese occupation. During the Venetian era, the port was subject to improvement, parallel to the improvement and rebuilding of the walls. Sir Harry Luke noted that during the Ottoman Period, “The harbour, in a direct link with the central piazza through Porta del Mare, was the only one, the best of the thirty six anchorages on the coast of the island “ (Luke, 1969; p.180). It is during the British period (1905 and 1933) when the port was extensively developed, which then followed by the extension of the port in 1965 under the Republic of Cyprus period. Today, together the with the Free Port and Zone area, the port of Famagusta is the largest one on the North Cyprus (figs 27, 28, 29). The British Storage Buildings Analysis of the building stock in the Walled City of Famagusta reveals that 52% of the currently existing buildings date back to the British period (Doratli et al., 2001), among which the storage buildings can be considered as a strong contribution to the urban form and pattern as well as the identity. The storage buildings were constructed on the empty land facing the east wall between Arsenal Bastion and Porta del Mare as well as the along the main path 33. Martinengo Bastion from the Moat. 34.Ravelin from west moat

35.Ravelin entrance 36. Kertikli Hamam

between the main piazza and Porta del Mare. Additionally a few more were built on the main path between the Land Gate and the Venetian Palace. Until shortly after 1960, these buildings were utilized for storage purposes, since then some of them had other uses. Today, especially most of those, facing the east wall, are occupied with incompatible uses such as car repair or carpentry workshops. With their robust structure and their backyards, they have a great potential to infuse life to the walled city and to increase attractiveness of the area (Figures 30, 31,32). Potential for Reuse of Some of the Outstanding Structures As stated by Cohen, it has been recognized that if historical elements are not correctly integrated in daily life, protection efforts will fail and urban centres will continue to empty with the past simply becoming both a cultural stumbling block and burdensome to the public (Cohen, 1999). Integration in daily life can only be meaningful and successful, if the historic area is considered within the context of the city as a whole, and conservation is considered, not as a straightforward and restrictive concern with preservation, but as a concern with revitalization and enhancement (Tiesdell et al., 1996). It is important to note that through utilization of the most relevant approach for revitalization, buildings and urban spaces have been given new uses, whit vacant buildings and sites reused to answer the contemporary needs as well as to contribute to their protection. Evaluation of the walled city of Famagusta from this perspective reveals that, the medieval town has a great potential especially when considering the monumental and historic buildings. With the awareness of this potential, a tourism focused Revitalization Plan for the Walled has been prepared in 2005, which includes proposal for reuse of many important artifacts as well as for the improvement of the social and economic life (Gazimagusa Belediyesi, 2005). Due to their robust character, monumental buildings, among which Martinengo (Figures 33), Ravelin (Figures 34, 35) and Canbulat (Arsenal) Bastions, Othello Tower, Sea Gate (Porta del Mare), St. Peter & Paul Church (Bugday/Sinan Pasha Mosque), Kertikli Hamam (Figure 36) are among fifty eight projects of the Revitalization Plan. Through their restoration and enhancement, these monumental structures, which were once built for the defencse of religions, would firstly serve the citizens as well as the tourist from all around the world with a cultural emphasis. Secondly, their life cycle will be extended. This positive attempt, together with the restoration and enhancement and adaptive re-use of many mundane buildings in line with the vision and project proposals of the Plan, would result in a completely different scene, with many different uses and a very different way of life. Concluding Remarks In this paper it has been attempted to summarize the adjustment of the physical fabric of the walled city of Famagusta in line with the changing political, socioeconomic and cultural conditions from medieval period until today and question its potential for reuse of underutilized structures, which would proudly proclaim its multi-cultural heritage and character. For more than seven hundred years, between the 12th-20th centuries, it was predominantly external forces, factors that act from beyond the community and intervene without its consent, that shaped and used its built environment. Whereas, from 1960 until today, it has been more the endogenous forces, more representative of the local community whit its social structure, and way of life that have determined interventions to the built environment. Ttoughout these changes sometimes significant sometimes minor both

physical and functional, the historic city has succeeded to preserve its medieval character. Although not having the same sensitiveness, depending on their general attitude towards the town,the authorities have generally been careful with the overall context. Most probably the strongest elements of the urban form of the town, the Venetian Walls, and the monumental buildings, have played an important role in shapingthis attitude. However, considering the value and potential of this unique place as well as the latest trends and approaches in urban conservation and revitalization, it can be concluded that there is an urgent need for more concentrated and concerted efforts both at local and international levels to infuse new life to the walled city of Famagusta. Currently it is not used to its best advantage. It should be kept in mind that, it is the most sympathetic utilization of the buit environment in line with the contemporary circumstances, that will preserve and extend the historic cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life cycle.

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Perbellini G. (2011) Cipro la dote di Venezia, Biblion Rashed, T., Weeks, J. R., Stow, D., Fugate, D.(2005) Measuring temporal composition of urban morphology through spectral mixture analysis: toward a soft approach to change analysis in crowded cities, International Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 26, No. 4, p.700. Rossi, A. (1982; The Architecture of the City, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. (first published in Italian, 1966) Severis, R. C. (2003) Travelling Artists in Cyprus,1700-1960, Philip Wilson Publishers. Tiesdell, S., Oc, T., Heath T. (1996) Revitalizing Historic Urban Quarters, Architectural Press, Cornwall. Uluca, E., Akin, N. (2008) Gazimagusa Limani: 13. yüzyildan 20. yüzyila bir Akdeniz limaninin gelisimi, itüdergisi/a, mimarlik, planlama, tasarim, Cilt:7, Sayi:1, 62-73 Uluca Tumer, E. (2007) Evaluation of Conservation and Restoration Works Realized by

T.A.H. Mogabgab in Famagusta Inner City Between 1935 and 1960 Through Contemporary Conservation Approaches, Proceedings of International Gazimagusa Symposium 2007, mediology2: CCC Coastal Settlements Culture Conservation, 405-412, Eastern Mediterranean University Press, Gazimagusa, North Cyprus. Walsh, M. J. K. (2005) A Gothic masterpiece in the Levant. Saint Nicholas Cathedral, Famagusta, North Cyprus, Journal of Cultural Heritage Vol. 6, pp. 1-6. Walsh, M. J. K. (2010) ‘‘The Vile Embroidery of Ruin’’: Historic Famagusta between Ottoman and British Empires in Fin de Siecle Cyprus: 18781901, Journal of Intercultural Studies, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 247-269. Yildiz, N. (2002) Kibris’ta Osmanli Kültür Mirasina Genel Bir Bakis, in Türkler, (Yeni Türkiye Yayinlari, H.C. Güzel, K. Çiçek, S. Koca (eds.), Cilt 19, pp. 966-993.

En tant que patrie de nombreuses différentes cultures, comme l'île de Chypre, la ville fortifiée de Famagusta est un des meilleurs exemples de cité médiévale, non seulement dans la région méditerranéenne mais dans toute l'Europe, avec son identité multiculturelle, montrant une variété de cultures sous les romains, byzantins, lusignans, vénitiens, ottomans et anglais. Le plan urbain traditionnel de la ville fortifiée de Famagusta à un caractère médiéval avec son plan d'ensemble urbain organique, des rues étroites bien dimensionnées et des culs de sac, de nombreux bâtiments publics et des espaces publics de taille irrégulière à l'intersection des rues et/ou devant des bâtiments publics. Ce plan urbain, et ainsi la structure organique et la silhouette dynamique qui donnent aujourd'hui son image à la ville fortifiée, sont les produits de l'histoire. En termes d'organisation de la vie de la ville, de densité, de taille de la population, de différentiation d'occupation, de distribution spatiale des activités urbaines, de l'utilisation des terrains et du plan des rues, la ville fortifiée de Famagusta a développé ses qualités formelles au cours de nombreuses périodes de l'histoire, sous plusieurs influences sociales, culturelles, économiques et politiques. La ville fortifiée de Famagusta a toujours été une place attractive pour vivre et travailler de la période médiévale à aujourd'hui. Bien que conservant fortement son caractère médiéval exceptionnel, elle s'est adaptée aux différentes exigences des conditions socio-économiques et politiques dominantes tout au long de son développement. Cet article a pour but de présenter les ajustements de la structure physique de la ville fortifiée de Famagusta de la période médiévale à aujourd'hui et de questionner son potentiel de réutilisation de structures sousutilisées, qui pourrait fièrement révéler son patrimoine et son caractère multiculturels. Mots clés : ville fortifiée de Famagusta, réutilisation, édifices monumentaux, revitalisation.

AGNI PETRIDOU

THE CASE OF NICOSIA IN CYPRUS

1. Background Information This paper focusses on the need for public information and participation in the regeneration of historic settlements. Its divided state makes Nicosia especially sensitive and actions need to be more careful than elsewhere because of political sensitivities. Since the late seventies the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities of the city have established a close co-operation at the level of the local authority in order to prepare a common physical master plan for the divided city. During the first twenty five years the bi-communal Nicosia Master Plan team was working at a very low profile level far from any publicity in order to save this collaboration from various political interferences. In 2005 a detail assessment of the work of the Nicosia master plan was carried out and several bi-communal priority projects for the revitalisation of the old part of Nicosia have been implemented. Despite the direct impact of these projects on the city the private sector was not mobilised enough as had been hope and there were people who remained unavare of the project. Therefore the need for further public awareness was raised and a public information action programme was set up towards this goal .This provided including several actions such as: - Extensive public participation during the preparation of the new development plan for the city core. - Establishment for a bi-communal information office - Operation Of Guided tours - Preparation of Information materials - Educational centres for children - Occasions for children participation - Collaboration with NGOS for public participation activities - Promotion programmes of the city Public participation during the preparation of the new development plan for the city core The purpose of the New Vision Project was to provide the two communities with a common development strategy aiming to use the common architectural heritage as a tool for the city's regeneration. 1. Expected Impact. - Citizens' participation in the definition of a common vision for the city will

facilitate the development of the feeling of ownership of the projects, - Such commitment to support the rehabilitation efforts will assist planners to define the real priorities of the city. - Public awareness about the intentions of the local policy makers and the international community to support rehabilitation of the divided city will encourage the inhabitants and users to remain in areas that now are neglected and assist in their reuse. - Provision of information about the ongoing projects and the prospects of new developments will cultivate the confidence in the private sector to invest in the city centre. Public Participation - Strengthening Bi-communality Public Consultations and Awareness During the planning process for the new vision project the following actions were taken: - On-going separate meetings were held with key stakeholders such as local authorities representatives, Major Property Owners ,Chambers of Commerce and industry, Scientific Technical Chambers and professional associations, Associations of Shopkeepers, Development Banks, , etc. - Thre was a series of common Consultation workshops targeted at bi-communal groups of stakeholders - Such Meetings/Workshops led to the presentation of the requirements for establishing an Urban Regeneration Company and for proposals for Public/Private Partnerships. - International Consultative Panels with personalities from cities with common experiences with Nicosia were held to advise and build on local experience of all aspects of urban regeneration. Nicosia Master Plan information centre The overall aim of the Info Centre is to promote public participation and public awareness. This project refers to the establishment of an Information Centre at a key position of the city next to the buffer zone to inform citizens, and visitors about the on going process of the rehabilitation of Nicosia. - To inform the citizens about the collaboration between the two communities that worked together for a unified development of a divided city. - The Information Centre can provide information to both communities of the city about the projects that have been implemented by the NMP on both sides. This Info Box adequately equipped can provide its visitors with an overview of the NMP's vision for the city to make them aware about the proposed plans and actions, to inform them about the incentives available in order to improve their dwellings and premises. - The Information Centre can also advertise development and act as a catalyst for an exchange of ideas between tourists, inhabitants of Nicosia, students and researches around the world. The Cenre will make evryone of Nicosia rich cultural heritage through the different projects already implemented in the city and will be a point for sharing experiences and information in designing and implementing projects. - The Centre can also act as catalyst for exchange of professional views about development between NGO groups in the same field of action and in expressing ideas for projects of common interest. It can sharesolutions to problems that occur with on going projects on either side, promote collaboration and the formation of

bi-communal discussion, Fora, as well as co-ordinate bi-communal participation in order to raise public awareness for certain fields such as the protection of the environment and the cultural heritage etc. The Info Box Centre includes the following areas and activities: · A small exhibition area with information about Nicosia Master Plan, and the projects implemented by the NMP over the years. · A web site with all information for the NMP's work and future regeneration policies. · A small souvenir shop with a collection of brochures, post cards, posters, and other products inspired by the NMP's projects. Profits from sales will be used to maintain a stock of the products. The people working in the Info Box are two ladies, one from each community. They work in shifts (mornings or afternoons) and are trained to give information about the NMP and its history as well as the city itself to tourists or school students that might visit the Info Box., as well as to provide the necessary details for communication with the head offices to researchers, university students and professionals from the private sector interested in project areas. For the first year, the operational expenses were undertaken by funding from BDP. From the second year onwards, these costs were undertaken by the two communities. Money generated from the sale of promotional items are reinvested to procure more items for sale and to cover as much of the operational costs as possible. The Relocation of the Information Centre Currently that the two sides of the city are connected at Ledra street we are thinking to relocate the info centre. ILLUMINATED WALKING TOUR Two guided routs were defined in the two sides of the city aiming to be connected through Ledra and Locmaci streets that now has been achieved. These routs facilitate the citizens Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots as well as foreign visitors to visit the main monuments of the city, museums, galleries and the development projects that were implemented by the NMP. Considering the long hot periods of the city and the habits of the citizens to walk mainly during late afternoon hours, the routes have been illuminated by photovoltike paving glass blocks. Signs were designed for both sites. These were made in Plexiglas in order to be simple and transparent and not disturb the monuments. GUIDE BOOK A guide book was prepared by the bi-communal team. This includes all the monuments and the projects and places that a visitor can follow for taking the guided tour. This guide book gives all the information about the bi-communal collaboration, gives historic information about all the monuments, information about galleries and museums and information about the projects that have been implemented Children Art Centre and the shadow theatre museum: Within the framework particular attention is given to children telling them of the need to collaborate for the benefit of their city as well as to appreciate the cultural heritage of their country. For the same reason the cildren’s Art Centre was created to organise art lessons

for all local children as well as children of the migrant families who live in the city. There is also a special museum for shadow theatre which has a long-established local tradition in our country. This includes a permanent exhibition that includes original figures of the traditional shadow theatre, an old original stage, tools and materials, photos, videos and so on. Apart of the permanent exhibition, the centre will organize seminars and lectures related to its subject, regular performances of shadow theatre and performances that can be arranged in collaboration with the schools of Nicosia. Other activities are also organized for children from the local museums as well as the UN agencies. PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPETITION Further events for public participation are organized with the collaboration of the Nicosia Master Plan with other NGOS such as the photographic competition. The competition had as a subject cultural heritage within the walled city including architecture or traditional habits. Many people from both communities participated providing opportunities for many citizens to visit important parts of our city. CITY'S PROMOTION Certain actions such as international architectural competitions have been organized for the promotion of the city as well as a studyto illuminate the city’monuments. A European competition was announced for this and now we are about to implement the illumination project. This is not limited only to the monuments but also includes street lighting.

Dans le cas de Nicosie, les choses sont plus sensibles et les actions ont besoin d'être plus circonspectes que dans d'autres cas car la ville est divisée et que des sensibilités politiques existent. Depuis la fin des années soixante-dix les communautés chypriotes grecque et turque de la ville ont établi une coopération étroite au niveau des autorités locales afin de préparer un plan d'ensemble physique commun pour la ville divisée. Durant les vingt-cinq premières années l'équipe bicommunautaire du plan d'ensemble de Nicosie travailla de manière très discrète, sans publicité, afin de préserver cette collaboration de différentes interférences politiques. En 2005 une estimation détaillée des travaux du plan d'ensemble de Nicosie fut officialisée et plusieurs projets bicommunautaires prioritaires pour la revitalisation du vieux Nicosie furent été exécutés. En dehors de l'impact direct de ces projets sur la ville le secteur privé ne fut pas autant mobilisé qu'espéré et il y eut des gens qui ne furent pas au courant de ce projet. L'objectif du projet " nouvelle vision " était de procurer aux deux communautés une stratégie de développement commune ayant pour but d'utiliser le patrimoine architectural commun comme un outil de régénération de la ville.

NAYA SAVVIDOU

THE CASTLE OF LIMASSOL

The town of Lemesos (Limassol) which is situated between the ancient towns of Amathus and Curium was inhabited from very ancient times. Graves that were found here date back to 2,000 B.C. and others date back to the 8th and 4th century B.C. The few remains that are left behind show that a small colony must have existed which did not grow or develop. The history of Lemesos (Limassol) is largely known from the events of 1191 A.D. that put an end to the Byzantine dominion of Cyprus. The King of England, Richard the Lionheart, was travelling to the Holy Land in that year, when he landed in Limassol in search of his fiancĂŠe Berengaria of Navarre and his sister loanna (Queen of Sicily), whose ship had become separated from the fleet in a storm. Richard married Berengaria in Limassol on the 12th of May 1192 and Berengaria was crowned Queen of England in Cyprus. According to legend they celebrated their marriage in an ancient church within the castle. Archaeological excavations brought to light a marble pedestal of Early Christian date, having most likely come from a small church, as well as the floor of a Middle Byzantine edifice (10th-11th cent.). In the northern room of the ground floor, four square bases of a colonnade are visible at floor-level, denoting the position of an Early Christian or Middle Byzantine basilica which was most likely incorporated in the Byzantine phase of the castle. According to Etienne Lusignan Limassol Castle was built origi-nally by Guy of

1. Cyprus, map os the town of Limassol and its ancient settlements.

2.Limassol old port area: aereal wiew and map.

Lusignan in about 1193. Willibrand of Oldenburg found Limassol weakly fortified and Florio Bustron maintains that it was not a royal foundation but was a former Templar Castle. A not very accurate map drawn by Francois de Naberat, a member of the Templar Knights, shows Limassol having a rather weak circular fortification. In any case there certainly was a Castle in Limassol in 1228 when the Roman Emperor Frederick the Second arrived in Limassol and took over the town using Limassol Castle as a prison for hostages. The Castle of Limassol can be found on the western edge of the historic town centre and its purpose was to guard and protect both the port and the town itself. The surviving thirteenth-century portions are a massive square keep, like the one at Kolossi, but originally without vaulted ceilings, and a large hall or chapel (as shown in the blue circle). The destruction of the medieval phase of the castle must have happened during the Genoese raids in 1373. A restoration of the Castle carried out by James Ist involved a total reconstruction of the interior. The keep became the single lofty hall we see today, having been given a ribbed and vaulted roof carried on eight sturdy wall pilasters and a central 3. Castle est facade. 4.Castle ancient tower ground floor. 5. Castle plan. 6. Castle section (by C. Enlart). 7. Castle XIII century addition ground floor. 8. Castle first floor.

column ( all shown in blue colour). The keep had lacked a cellar; now an ample one was provided under the chambers. This part of the castle includes two long parallel buildings separated by a narrow courtyard closed at one end by the old keep and at the other by a strong curtain wall. The two struc-tures are both divided into two storeys, each of which consists of five or six pointed barrel-vaulted chambers opening onto the courtyard through door-ways with pointed arches at ground level and with flattened arches on the upper floor, leading onto a wooden balcony. Beneath each building and the courtyard there are three parallel galleries of the same pattern, with pointed barrel vaults and communicating doorways. This basement is exactly similar to the one at Kolossi Castle. In 1413 the Castle survived the first attack of the Egyptian Mamelukes but could not withstand the attack of 1425. In 1489 A.D. the Cypriot Queen Catherine Cornaro was forced to leave the island and Cyprus passed to the state of Venice. The Venetians skilfully removed the central pillar and replaced the springer which it carried with a lowered section of vaulting. They then added an extra storey to the keep, divided into two rooms with pointed barrel vaults like those in the keep at Kolossi. In 1538 the Venetians having decided to shift their defence to the KyreniaNicosia-Fammagusta axis, partly dismantled the Castle because they were concerned that it was an easy prey for the Ottomans. In 1567 and in 1568 the buildings of Limassol were badly damaged by earthquakes. In 1579 the traveller Carlier wrote: 'Most of the houses had been shaken by earth-quakes three or four years before our visit as was the castle also, of which only the masonry walls remain; but the town was once rather beautiful, as can be realised from the ruins to be seen.' Following the complete conquest of the island (1576) by the Ottomans, the ruins of the old castle or parts of it were incorporated into a new Ottoman Fort, which was strengthened considerably with walls measuring two meters thick (shown in purple colour). The underground chamber and the first floor were transformed into prison cells. The British took over Cyprus in 1878. The Castle continued to be used as a prison until 1948 when the Central Prisons in Nicosia were built. In 1950 the Castle was handed over to the Archaeological Department and considerable maintenance

work was carried out. Limassol Castle was then used as a District Archaeological Museum. Cyprus became an independent state in 1960. During the period 1963-1974 the Castle served as a guard Tower for the Cypriot Army. In 1987 after another renovation Limassol Castle became the Mediaeval Museum of Cyprus. Today the Castle is in the middle of a rapidly developing area in the middle of the historic centre of Limassol, surrounded by heavy traffic and busy cafeterias and restaurants blocking the view from and towards it. A revitalisation plan for the historic centre of Limassol is currently being drawn up in order to promote the cultural legacy and the antiquities and the development of the structures that represent the history or are typical of the town and which render the area more advantaged than other areas. A pedestrian area is to be created around the castle in order to control the traffic as well as the restaurants and coffee shops thereby enhancing in this way the Castle's presence.

L'histoire de Lemesos (Limassol) est en grande partie connue par les événements de 1191 qui mirent fin à l'autorité byzantine à Chypre. D'après Etienne Lusignan le château de Limassol fut construit à l'origine par Guy de Lusignan vers 1193. Il y avait certainement un château à Limassol en 1228 quand l'empereur romain Frédérique le Second arriva à Limassol et prit la ville, utilisant le château de Limassol comme prison pour les otages. Le château peut être trouvé sur le côté ouest du centre historique de la ville et son objectif était de garder et protéger à la fois le port et la ville elle-même. Les parties du treizième siècle ayant survécues sont celles d'un donjon massif carré, comme celui de Kolossi, mais à l'origine sans plafond voûté et avec un grand hall ou chapelle. La destruction de la partie médiévale du château a dû avoir lieu durant les raids des Génois en 1373. Une restauration du château entamée par James Ier entraîna une restructuration totale de l'intérieur. En 1413 le château survécu à la première attaque des Mameluks égyptiens mais ne résista pas à nouveau à l'attaque de 1425. Ensuite, en 1489 la reine chypriote Catherine Cornaro quitta l'île et les vénitiens ôtèrent le pilier central et remplacèrent le plan d’imposte qu'il soutenait par une section de voûtes plus basses. Puis ils ajoutèrent un étage supplémentaire au donjon, divisé en deux pièces avec des voûtes en berceau pointues. En 1538 les Vénitiens ayant décidé de déplacer leur défense sur l'axe KyreniaNicosie-Fammagusta, démantelèrent partiellement le château. En 1567 et en 1568 les bâtiments de Limassol furent gravement endommagés par les tremblements de terre. Après la conquête de l'île par les ottomans en 1576, les ruines du vieux château ou des parties de celui-ci furent incorporées dans un nouveau fort ottoman qui fut renforcé par des murs de deux mètres d'épaisseur. La chambre du rez-de-chaussée et le premier étage furent transformés en cellules de prison. Les britanniques prirent Chypre en 1878. Le château continua d'être utilisé comme prison jusqu'en 1948. En 1950 le château fut cédé au Département archéologique et des travaux d'entretien considérables furent effectués. Le château de Limassol fut ensuite utilisé comme Musée archéologique du district. Chypre devint un état indépendant en 1960. Durant la période de 1963-1974 le château servi de tour de garde pour l'armée chypriote. En 1987, après une autre rénovation, le château de Limassol devint le Musée médiéval de Chypre.

PEDRO PONCE DE LEÓN

THE REUSE OF A MEDIEVAL TOWER (DOÑA BLANCA, IN ALBARRACÍN, TERUEL) AS A SMALL BEAUX-ARTS EXHIBITION SPACE

Foreword: Due to its historical and artistic value, Albarracín, a small city of Islamic origin (Xth. Century), was declared an "historic-artistic ensemble" in 1974, being the first one in the Aragon region. The town is situated twenty five kilometres from Teruel, the capital of the province of Teruel, one of the three provinces of the Aragon region. In 1994, a Special Plan for the Protection of the Historic Town was approved and implemented. The protection included not only the city enclosed by the walls, but also, and for the first time in Aragon, the surrounding natural landscape. The area enclosed by the historic walls is about 155,000m2. The total length of the walls is about 1,100m. The external area visually protected is about 1,200,000 m2 (about eight times the "urban" area). In this natural space the possibility of new constructions, reservoirs, antennas, etc., has been greatly restricted. Regarding the town inside the walls, new building was strongly discouraged and preference was to be given to rehabilitation of vernacular architecture. A system was established whereby the inhabitants and citizens could purchase vernacular

1. General map showing the historic town with the shape of a human foot, and the area of protection (inside the crosses line). 2. General view from the south of the ensemble church of Santa María (left), Tower de Doña Blanca (right) in 1940.

materials and techniques (gypsum, timber frame, etc) at a reduced price. On the other hand, a public Foundation (Foundation Santa María de Albarracín) began the process of restoration and upgrading of the most significant buildings of the city. As a result, after eight years of continuous work, the restoration of the Bishop's Palace received a Europa Nostra Award in 1996. This palace is located on the north side of the cathedral, to which it is connected by a cloister. After that, every couple of years, the recuperation of an old building was achieved. Therefore, we will focus our article on explaining the reuse of an ancient fortified settlement, from the middle ages to modern times. We well describe and analyse the recuperation of a medieval tower (Doña Blanca, in Albarracín, Teruel) as a small beaux-arts exhibition space. We know that In the XIVth. C., the defensive system of the town was made up of the city walls, with the tower of "El Andador" on the south summit of the city; the pasture area enclosed allowed the flocks to be fed in case of siege; so, the south face of the hill was historically free of constructions; it was really a feeding trough. The castle of the lord, erected on an isolated rocky rise, was the last 3.South and north façade before works and ground plan of the tower, with the big holes opened during the Dominican period (above). Cross section and plan of restauration project (below). 4.The interior, with the big holes opened during the Dominican period, even enlarging the original entrance arch. 5.The south façade, after works, with the staircase "saving" the cemetery. 6.Final view of the tower of Doña Blanca. 7. South facade detail of the gate. 8.nterior of the entrance. 9.Interiors with the temporary scultures exibition

redoubt. Finally, two massive watchtowers, one outside the walls, called "the molar" ("La Muela"), and the other in the south corner of the surrounding walls (La "Torre Blanca"-"white tower"), were connected by visual links, and, each one of them was a vantage point over the surrounding areas and valleys. The oldest historic reference dates from 1327; the 27th january of that year, the King Jaime II, ordered Ferrando López de Luna, to pay his lieutenant Lope de Espejo for the building of a tower in Albarracín (The literal transcription is: es "tenente pro nobis turrim per eum constructam de mandato nostro in loco de Albarrazino". In the XVIIIth. C., the Dominican monks became the owners of the Santa María Church, located only fifty meters to the east of the Torre Blanca. They undertook quickly the construction of a Dominican monastery; as a result of that, the defensive tower was embraced by the order. We found documents relating that monks reduced the level of the summit, partially destroyed the enclosure walls and enlarged the main door; finally they added a roofed construction beside the south façade connecting with the church. The defensive building was adapted as a library and a lecture hall; for that reason, a series of big holes were opened in the north, east and west

façades, to provide natural light to the interior; the different medieval floors were also demolished and the interior was covered by a brick and gypsum dome. The interior walls were plastered with gypsum and plaster arches hid the medieval masonry walls (see drawings). In this way the medieval fortified building adopted a civil and neoclassical appearance; but the process involved the destruction of significant parts of the original building. Moreover, these big holes were opened and balconies added without any lintel or structural reinforcement. Physical description of the "Torre de Doña Blanca": The tower de Doña Blanca was not only a defensive enclave, but also a watchtower, commanding not only the city of Albarracín, but also the perimeter walls, the hills and the surrounding landscape. So, the residential use was secondary and most of the garrison probably lived inside the town during peaceful times. The site is +1,170m. above sea level. The materials and techniques employed in the construction were very simple and austere: masonry of rough stone bonded with lime mortar, with small pieces of slag over the joints. The original timber frame was destroyed during its use as a lecture hall; some holes inside showed the original disposition of the levels and shapes of the wooden frames and floors (planks supported by pinewood beams).The shape of the Torre de Doña Blanca is quadrangular, with sides of 11m in average length and with loopholes in the sides. The enclosed free area is about 50 m2. The original access was a door in the north façade about 5 m. higher than the surrounding land. The thickness of the walls range from 2.30 m (lower plan) to 1.30 m (summit) .The original height of this tower was about 12 m. No battlements survived due to partial destruction during the Dominican reuse of the tower as a library. The interior floors were made up of wooden main beams supported off the walls and secondary beams supported by the main beams. Previous situation and pathologies: In the XIXc. the Dominicans abandoned Albarracín and subsequently, the librarytower. So, since that time the tower was totally abandoned and neglected, and it has been used as an element of fantasy for tales and children. Nobody took any care of it or attended to its maintenance. The previous situation was dramatic (see photos), with the walls in a state of collapse. In the walls, no mortar linked the masonry. The lack of an "enclosed ring", essential to connect the walls with the floors, was a major weakness, leaving the structure vulnerable to strains provoked by the wind and weaknesses in the walls. Solving this problem was a fundamental target. It was also essential to protect the interior from rain by providing a new roof capable of channelling rain water away from the walls by the reuse of gargoyles. The works began in 2000 with an archaeological survey and a general scaffolding system bracing the remaining walls and reinforcing the walls by the recuperation of the original shape. In April 2001, the restoration works were accomplished. Thereafter no movements or changes (cracks, subsidence), have been noted. A new electrical system and lighting was installed, and a new staircase around the tower was built in order to "save" the area of the cemetery located below. Description of criteria, main principles and final proposal: - To give priority to the use of traditional techniques and materials, similar to those originally employed in the construction and in the early times .

10. Wiew of the landscape and the scyline from the

terrace roof of the tower

In general terms, avoid the use of too rigid or hard materials and structural solutions (no steel, no reinforced concrete). - To give priority to the recuperation of the medieval "appearance", due to the damage caused by the reuse of the tower during the Dominican period. As an example of this, the five medieval loopholes found during the archaeological survey, were reopened and protected with glass. - To make accessible all the parts and levels of the tower, in conditions of safety. - To add to knowledge about the tower by recording "mason's marks" and studying the proportions of the different parts in relation to medieval metric systems, etc. - To contribute to the diffusion of this knowledge in order to improve the general theoretical knowledge and practical experience of this type of monument. - To add to the attraction of a visit to the tower by facilitating the accommodation of temporary beaux-arts exhibitions (paintings, artistic photographs, sculptures…) - To implement the possibilities of new uses for the tower (observatory for migratory birds and resident birds of prey). Conclusions: As with all restoration processes in old fortified monuments, this intervention can be reviewed; but the works and principles explained must be examined in the light of finding a compatible reuse for the tower. The demonstration that the original techniques and materials employed in restoration of monuments are effective and durable is, in our opinion, a good achievement. So, the tower becomes a "reliquary" of the objects and art elements displayed inside, and also becomes a beacon for the surrounding landscape and natural environment.

Bibliography García Miralles, Fray Manuel: "Los dominicos en Albarracín". Instituto de Estudios Turolenses. Teruel, 14, 1955 Laguía, César Tomas: "Las Iglesias de la Diócesis de Albarracín". Instituto de Estudios Turolenses. Teruel

nº 32, 1964. Ministry of Cultura, Spain: "Inventory of the province of Teruel", 1974. Ponce de León, Pedro: "Proyecto de Restauración de la Torre de Doña Blanca en Albarracín". Ministerio de Cultura. 2001.

Albarracín est une très ancienne ville, placée dans le sud-est de la région d'Aragon, à 27kms. De distance de Teruel et à 310 kms. de Madrid. Déclarée dans 1974 " ensemble historique ", devient la première ville d'Aragon avec cette distinction, A partir de 1991, on rédige un Plan Spécial pour la protection de la ville, ses monuments et ses alentours; on protége l'enceinte intérieur de la ville (155.000m2), mais aussi les alentours, les paysages, les parois et l'environnement ont une protection visuelle (1.200.000 m2, presque 8 fois la surface urbaine) La longueur total de la muraille extérieure est presque de 1.100 m. La Torre de Doña Blanca est une tour fortifiée avec le plan carré, érigée dans le coin sud-est de la ville pendant les XIII-XIV siècles . Dès son origine était intégrée dans le système de défense de la ville, dont elle occupait le coin sud-ouest. Elle avait le caractère de point fortifié, mais aussi de tour de guet et des signales. Liée visuellement avec le château de la ville et avec une autre tour (la Tour de la Muela, ou tour molaire), elle a le plan carré, et a été érigée sur un rocher naturel. Bâtie avec des gros murs en maçonnerie (2,30m.1,50m d'épaisseur), avec une petite porte surélevée dans le sud, la Tour de Doña Blanca était partie fondamentale du système défensif de la ville d'Albarracín. La cote de son emplacement est la +1170 m, sa hauteur originale était proche au 15m., et la longueur majeure du coté de sa base est de 7m. On conserve sa image dans une gravure du XVIIème siècle. Au moyen du XVIII siècle, les pères dominicains demandent au roi Felipe III la cession de la tour pour l'annexer à un convent qu'ils viennent de fonder dans la ville. Le monarque donne sa approbation dès la ville de Valladolid le 24 septembre de 1600. A partir de ce moment la tour reste ajoutée au monastère dominicain, qui occupait aussi l'église de Santa Maria, placée 50 m. vers l'est. La Torre Blanca fait donc partie d'un monastère dominicain ; a cause de sa réutilisation comme bibliothèque et salle de lecture, la tour supporte des destructions considérables; on détruit les étages intérieures en bois, on réduit la hauteur du sommet, on ajoute une toiture à tuiles et on ouvre des grands trous dans les façades sans aucune précaution ou considération constructive, afin d'illuminer naturellement l'intérieur. Finalement, on revête les parois intérieurs avec de plâtre, on invente une coupole intérieure, et on adosse une construction sur son coté sud. Le résultat est la perte de son caractère défensif, la mutilation de ses éléments et l'affaiblissement de sa solidité et de sa stabilité. Alors, la tour dévient un élément monacale et à partir du XIX siècle commence sa décadence et son oubli. Dans l'année 2000, et par l'initiative de la Fondation Santa María de Albarracín, on décide son étude, pour après accomplir sa restauration et sa mise en valeur, avec l'utilisation des techniques et matériaux traditionnelles. Sa utilisation finale, comme une série des petites espaces pour accueillir des expositions temporales des beaux-arts, a permet la reconstruction des étages originales avec des poutres et solives en bois, la réouverture des cinq anciens embrasures médiévales, et la récupération de sa terrasse supérieure, qui grâce à la consolidation et récupération de la tour est devenu un belvédère sur la ville historique, et, en même temps, un observatoire des oiseaux rapaces.

IOANNA STERIOTOU

FORTIFIED MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENTS IN THE AEGEAN PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE THE CASE OF THE ISLAND OF ALONNISSOS IN THE NORTHERN SPORADES

Introduction The fortified medieval settlements and the conditions under which they were created The small fortified settlements in the islands of the Aegean, under the general name "Kastra" (Castles), are a special category of monuments. Their peculiarity is the fact that they are fortifications which provide residence for the population. A great number of them are still inhabited; that means they have retained their first use. They are living monumental complexes. These settlements, the castles of the Aegean, isolated on the rocky coasts or in the interior regions of the islands, are still, in many cases, ignored by the State and their historical value is given little importance. The Aegean sea was always a place of communication, trade and the crossroads of various cultures. Navigation all through the ages required marine refuges which enabled ships to take on provisions. The sheltered bays of the Aegean were ideal. But on the other hand, the Aegean sea, as a region of economic and cultural communication, was not always peaceful. For many reasons the small settlements, on the islands were very insecure and open to attack from the enemy. Both merchants and conquerors were forced to rely on the population of the islands. So, during the Latin sovereignty, after 1204, the new rulers began to fortify the medieval settlements, very often in the same positions where there were previous settlements,

1.Sporades islands: The map (above) A.M.Mallet, Description de l'Univers, 1683, The Sporades islands Skiatho, Scopeli, Dromoi Alonnissos, Pelagonissi (right).

2. Plan of "Castro Liadromia", the fortified medieval settlement of Alonnissos (1978) 3.The fortified settlement of Alonnissos (1978).

fortified or not. The same practice continued after the Latin conquest. Organization, structure, architectural character, typology of the fortified settlements The small fortified settlements in the Aegean were created to provide a passive defence. They are different from the big fortified cities in some of the islands in relation to their structure and organization. This phenomenon appears only in the Aegean sea and not in other Greek regions. These settlements are different in that the external wall of the fortification is not free; it is either connected to a zone of perimetric buildings-houses or it is the external walls of the houses themselves. The typical structure of the houses and the great thickness of their external walls created the main defensive line. The height of these walls, at least ten metres, the small, relatively few openings, were the main elements of their defence. Additional features of defence such as towers in the interior space of the settlements or in the external walls, and well defended gates, offered additional defence and security. To accommodate a greater number of inhabitants in these fortified settlements, the dimensions of the house had to be small; it was a single, rectangular space with a narrow faรงade. The sum of those spaces created the defensive 4.Within the fortified settlement of Alonnissos (1978)

5.The path-road around the cell of the fortified settlement of Alonnissos, in 1978

line. As these small castles in the islands of the Aegean generally occupied positions fortified by nature, such as hill tops, their presence was and still is very elevated, and so they are landmarks in the wider area. In some of these castles there were not towers in the perimetric defensive line but there were many towers in the fortified settlements in the islands of Chios, Shiphnos, and Naxos. The towers differ in structure, construction, and use, and this depends on the defensive complex of which they are part: they are either rectangular or round in shape, with or without an escarp. Their exact use also differed. Alonnissos - The Fortified Medieval Settlement - Past After this brief introduction concerning the historical framework of the development of the medieval fortified settlements in the islands of the Aegean, I shall present the example of Alonnissos castle, in the group of islands of the Northern Sporades. I want to point out that the material and research of the historical elements referred to in this paper come from my first research and visit to the island during the summer of 1978. That study was published in the IBI Bulletin No 39 (1981). I am presenting only the most important information. Alonnissos is one of the islands of the Northern Sporades. It is the third island from the peninsula of Magnesia after the islands of Skiathos and Skopelos, towards the east. It covers 62 square km and it has a chain of hills the highest of which is Kavouli 476 m. According to most historians, the ancient island of Ikos is now known as Alonnissos. Ikos played an important role and was densely inhabited right from prehistoric times. It dated back to the Middle Paleolithic era, when it is thought the island was possibly connected to all the other islands of the Sporades and the mainland of Thessaly. There is archaeological evidence for habitation from the Middle Paleolithic period [100.000-33.000] to the Middle Neolithic one [5.000-4.000 B.C.]. During the classical era, Ikos probably had two towns. The geographer Skylax [5th century B.C.] calls Ikos "Dipoli", which means two settlements: one must have existed in the position of Kokinokastro, where there are remains of ancient walls, and the other in the same place as the village - castle of Old Alonnissos. The geographical position of the island was very important during the classical era as is verified by the many ancient shipwrecks found around the island. During the Byzantine era, we have no clear evidence concerning the island. No mention of Ikos is made. It may have been sparsely populated and it did not belong to any of the nearby regions. According to some historians, in the place where the village of Alonnissos is now, there were remains of a Byzantine fortress which, together with the Byzantine coins found in the area, are evidence that a small town has existed since that time. As we will see later, there is no evidence of a Byzantine fortress in the village (castle). During the 4th Crusade, the brothers Andreas and Ieremias Ghizis, Venetian nobles, masters of the islands of Tinos and Miconos, extended their occupation in the Northern Sporades during the 13th century. In 1276 the island of Alonnissos with Skiathos, Skiros and Limnos were given back to the Byzantine Empire till the occupation of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453. During that time the island was known by the name Liadromia or Dromi. We do not know precisely when it took that name. The oldest reference to the island under the name Liadromia goes back to 1439. Buondelmonti simply calls the island Dromi. In "Odiporikon" of Iakovos Miloitis in 1588 the island is called Chiliodromia. We can arrive at the conclusion that this name, having so

many variants, comes from the word "Diadromi" that the inhabitants changed into "Liadromia", while various writers changed it into "Chiliodromia" or even "Iliodromia". After the occupation of Constantinople by the Ottomans, the Venetians again became masters of the Northern Sporades till 1538 when, on the basis of a treaty signed between Venice and the Ottomans in 1540 at the end of the 3rd war between them, the island was again occupied by the Ottomans. From that period on, Liodromia [today's Alonnissos] has probably had the same fortune as the other small islands of the Aegean sea. Particularly during the last centuries of the Byzantine history and the first centuries of the Ottoman occupation the small islands of the Northern Sporades, Cyclades and Dodecanese were either the home of pirates or the targets of a series of invasions. In 1538, Haireddin Barbarossa, in addition to the other invasions and looting he did in the islands of the Aegean sea (Aegina - Saronikos Gulf, Crete etc.), also invaded the islands of the Northern Sporades and occupied Skiathos after a period of siege. Alonnissos was probably destroyed in 1538. As a result of the conditions in the Aegean at that time, we can assume that the fortified settlement of Alonnissos was probably built during the16th - 17th centuries. It was built on a pass at a height of 210 m, with a wonderful view in all directions. During the Greek Revolution in 1821 and the first years of Independence, many Greek people from other regions took refuge in Alonnissos. After the liberation of Sporades, in 1830, the State gave the island the official name Alonnissos (in 1836) which is also its present day name. The jobs of the inhabitants were agriculture, commerce and the building of wooden ships. World War II stopped any development on the island and finally the great earthquake in 1965 caused so much general damage financially and to housing which lasted until the decades of '70 and '80. During my first visit to the island in 1978, the castle of Alonnissos was almost deserted after the earthquakes (1965) and had been abandoned by its inhabitants who moved to the new settlement of Patitiri near Patitiri bay. There were only five or six families living in the castle at that time. Description of the situation of the fortified settlement in 1978 The castle of Alonnissos is built on a rocky hill, unapproachable from the west and the south and fortified on the north and the east sides. It constitutes a typical example of an Aegean fortified settlement of the Middle Ages, the fortification of which is formed by the external walls of the houses. On those walls there was no opening but only some fissures from which the most strategic points could be observed. The fortified settlement of Alonnissos has an elliptic form. Its internal cell, which is made up of 33 one-room houses placed beside each other, is divided roughly in the middle by a path which goes from north to south. This cell is surrounded by another series of approximately 30 one-room houses also placed beside each other. One can approach the castle from the northern side. At this point, one can distinguish outside the fortification the rudimental "centre" of the village which once developed linearly towards the south. In the N.E. there was the gate of the initial fortified nucleus which the natives called "Paliopourta". Close to the gate there was the building of "Casarma" where the guards of the castle were housed. The principal internal path which starts from the castle-gate has an elliptic form. This pathway, exactly like the other pathway of the central cell which goes past the church of Saint George (Aghios Giorgios)

is very narrow (1,5 to 2,5-3 m) and stone-paved. One could approach the houses from both sides of the pathway. Sometimes the threshold was elevated and the entrance was through a kind of wooden balcony that could be reached from a staircase that ran parallel to the faรงade. They usually stored the provisions in the place under the staircase. In other cases the threshold of the entrance was slightly higher than the level of the road and it led to an underground space which was the main everyday room of the Alonnissos house. Its dimensions were: 2,5-5 m width and 3-7 m length. However, we should say that even from the period of 1978, in the houses of the initial nucleus ( those which were not demolished in the earthquakes), many alterations for example balconies, canopies or reinforced concrete angle marks had been made. They were added during the last years before the inhabitants abandoned the settlement and moved to Patitiri. 6 The entrance to the fortified settlement of Alonnissos (1978)

7.Part of the fortified settlement of Alonnissos, today 8.The broader area of the old settlement of Alonnissos

The Fortified Medieval Settlement of Alonnissos; present We have seen that Alonnissos, the key position on the maritime route that begins from the northern Aegean Sea and goes to Cyclades and Crete, is one of the most beautiful landscapes in Greece. Alonnissos is a highly protected environmental area, because of the existence of the seal, Monachus-Monachus. Thanks for this situation is due to the National Marine Park of Sporades, which exists on the N.E. side of the island group. One of the main characteristics of the island, especially on the northern and western sides, are the steep rocks and the caves where the Mediterranean seal finds a safe refuge. The old settlement of Alonnissos, called "Chora", constructed on the southern side of the island at an altitude of 210 m, was abandoned by its inhabitants after the earthquake in 1965; they were transferred to Patitiri, the small village-port on the south-eastern side of the island, which is now the seat of the Municipality of Alonnissos. After the touristic development in recent years, "Chora" has many restaurants, cafĂŠs and accommodation which means that it can offer a comfortable sojourn in the reconstructed houses or in new ones. In the last decades, the 2,700 inhabitants, with ci. 1600 permanent residents are involved with agriculture, livestock and fishing. In recent years tourism has also increased. At the entrance of "Chora", outside the fortified settlement, the former threshingfloors are today areas full of new buildings, used in relation to tourism. The old, stone paved steep road is still conserved and leads to the old entrance of the castle. Close to it, the building of "Casarma" has been restored and is used as a traditional museum, which is the initiative of private individuals. A great number of the abandoned and ruined houses have been maintained by their owners, mainly foreigners, who use them as a second residence for vacations or they now sell them to others, as the tourist trade is increasing and therefore the need for cafĂŠs, restaurants and bars. Around the old, fortified settlement, especially towards the northern and eastern slopes, many new houses are being constructed, creating a zone that has changed the historical character of the settlement from the outside. The recent alterations and interventions in the houses of the castle, in many cases aesthetically unattractive are visible, at least in their faĂ§ade, which has made it similar to all the other villages on Greek islands. Only in the ruined houses, not yet restored, can we distinguish the unique characteristics of the medieval, fortified settlement of Alonnissos. Finally in "Chora", there are some old medieval churches: one dedicated to the Birth of Christ - the Nativity - [17th cent.], exists exactly outside the castle; it was once isolated in the countryside, but today it is surrounded by new buildings. Another one is the church of St George inside the fortified settlement [16th -17th cent.], with wall paintings and an iconostasis with icons of 17th -18th cent. There are also, St Athanassios [17th-18th cent.] and the new St Nikolaos, as the old one was demolished after the earthquake in 1965. Fortified Settlements In Other Islands of The Aegean Sea Concluding this paper, it is very important to present, briefly, some other examples, especially from Cyclades islands and from the island of Chios. These examples are the most characteristic. Citadel of Sifnos - Castle The castle was built during the period of the Frank rule by the "house" of Da Corogna (late 14th cent.). It features the characteristics of a fortified Cycladic set-

tlement. Its exterior front is composed of the walls of houses of the settlement joined together but with narrow openings that are suitable for embrasures. A number of individual mansions still remain, along with important churches which date back to the 16th and 17th centuries. Sections of a Mycenean wall have been discovered in the castle's interior, along with foundation stones of a citadel dating back to the classical period. The situation, created during the last decades means that the surviving remains of the fortified constructions are not clearly visible. On the other hand, the demolition of old, historical features without previuos study, resulted in many alterations. Castle of Kimolos Inscriptions and wall-paintings in the central church of the castle, which is dedicated to Jesus Christ, show that it was constructed in the late 16th century by a ship-owner called Ioannis Rafos, probably in order to house his sailors and their families. The exterior ring of the castle is formed by the walls of the two-storeyed houses, joined together in the shape of a trapezium, which are founded on the carved rock. In the 17th century the settlement was extended outside the walls. The castle was conquered in 1617 by the Ottomans and in 1638 it was burnt by pirates. The situation, created during the last decades, is similar to the other medieval settlements in the islands of the Aegean.. Castle of Antiparos The castle of Antiparos is a fortified settlement, constructed ex novo according to 9. The old path (road) towards the entrance to the fortified settlement ("castro") of Alonnissos, today 10. The old "casarma" at the entrance of the castle, restored and reused as a "Traditional HouseMuseum" of Alonnissos 11. The entrance to the "castle" of Alonnissos 12. View from the old settlement of Alonnissos 13.The small path in the inner cell of the castle of Alonnissos

14. A traditional house in the old settlement of Alonnissos 15. The Citadel of the Castle in the island of Siphnos, Cyclades 16. Plan of the fortified medieval settlement of Olympoi, in Chios island

a plan, about the middle of the 15th century by the Venetian G. Loredano, brother in law of the Lord of Paros Cr. Somaripa. It is square in shape, with sides of 50.0 m. In its circuit line there are the three storey buildings. In the centre of the castle there is the central tower. There are two historical periods in its construction: 1st period for the inner ring-circuit of the cells around the tower; 2nd period for the square closed perimeter of the houses that made up the external defensive "wall". Today [ci. 2000], the fortified settlement of Antiparos does not retain its original historical physiognomy. Interventions, old and contemporary, normal modifications in the course of time, caused many changes to the original character and hid the historical structure. The alterations were demolitions in some parts of the monument itself, modifications in the organization and arrangement of the inner spaces of the houses, or modifications and interventions on the faรงade. The major part of these interventions were carried out until 1972 and because of them the castle has lost many parts of its historical structure and monumental character. The houses are used as a second residence in summer and they are privately owned, mainly by foreigners. Chios island and its fortified settlements The medieval fortifications of Chios island appear to have a significant and highly interesting variety regarding the condition in which they can be found nowadays. The relationship between the monuments and local society have an additional interest and deeper meaning espe-

cially in cases where the attempted interventions on the monuments create inevitable objections and counteractions. Due to its monopolistic trade of mastic, Chios was the target of pirates and prospective conquerors. The need to protect it from those outside factors required the fortification of the settlements. The defensive fortification of the island included observation posts, castles, fortified monasteries and fortified settlements. The settlements of southern Chios are unique in Greek regions. Their design was structured in Genoa and possessed specific features: a continual circular outline, circular pinnacles on the four corners of the walls, a big central tower, buildings which are completely constructed of stone, narrow roads, very small openings or even none at all and the total absence of public areas. The settlements of southern Chios have a lot of similarities with those of Genoa. This is because of the fact that the settlements in both places were designed and constructed by the same administrative authorities. The main similarities related to the structure of the accommodation itself and specific details, plus the use of a similar kind of stone, a type of granite, which was the main construction material. The differences are due to the particular climatic conditions in each place and of course, to the influence of each civilization over the years. From all the fortified settlements in the island of Chios, I shall refer to another very important example: The fortified settlement of Anavatos Lying in the centre of the west side of the island of Chios, over the Aegean coastline, Anavatos is constructed on the top of a steep inaccessible rock, offering natural fortification. From a distance one can hardly recognise the man-made from the natural environment. The impressive medieval village of Anavatos, probably built for defence reasons during the middle-Byzantine era, lies 23 km west of the town of Chios. The first settlement was safely situated on the top of a rocky hill (approximately 450 meters above sea level), fortified by the thick outer walls of the houses (called "Kastro"), accessible only from the north-eastern slope by a steep narrow path. Based on the evidence of coins retrieved during excavations on the site of Anavatos, it is recognised that the initial settlement dates back to the earlyByzantine period and had a military character. During the Genoise rule (1346-1566), according to numerous coins that were found during the archaeological excavation of Acropolis, its interior had grown into an active settlement. At the end of the Genoise occupation, the settlement extended outside the castle walls, covering the ground alongside the existing path. This part, called "Messochori", existed until the end of the 19th century, as indicated by coins and items of daily use. Later finds are very fragmented, showing that the area had gradually been abandoned. Small stone-built units, mostly one or two-storeyed vaulted with characteristically small arched openings and no foundations, give visitors a good idea of medieval everyday life and of how villages and houses were organized and built in difficult circumstances. The part of the settlement, "Mesochori" and the castle area too, were completely ruined and abandoned, as a consequence of the notorious massacre by the Ottomans in 1822 and the disastrous earthquake of 1881. Returning survivors left the older ruined constructions unrepaired and created a new settlement known as the "New Village". Anavatos today The village of Anavatos is, since 2001, characterized as a National Monument and

17. The fortified medieval settlement of Kimolos island, Cyclades 18. The fortified medieval settlement of Antiparos, Cyclades. Graphic representation

19. The medieval settlement of Anavatos, in Chios island 20. Houses from the medieval, fortified settlement of Mesta, in Chios island

is under the supervision of the Greek Ministry of Culture. Major repair works were carried out in the upper castle area only, during the period 1997-2001, following a project funded by the 2nd Community Support Framework and supervised by the Ministry of the Aegean, the Greek Ministry of Culture, the ARF (Archeological Receipts Fund), the Northern Aegean Region, the Chios Prefecture and the Municipality of Omiroupoli on Chios. Since 2005, restoration works are being carried out focusing on the central "Mesochori" area only, funded by the 3rd Community Support Framework under the supervision and conduction of the Greek Ministry of Culture and the Finance Management Fund for Archaeological projects (TDPEAE). The project is financed by the Regional Operational Programme of Northern Aegean Region at the sum of â&#x201A;Ź 2.500.000 for the period 2005-2008. The project started in the summer of 2006 and concluded in December 2008. The master plan is organised in order to promote and designate the archaeological site of Anavatos, under the following central axis: a) Archaeological surveys and excavations. b) Expropriation of any possible private property.

c) Conservation of buildings and restoration of units and groups in order to host certain cultural and educational activities and to guarantee easy and safe access to the whole system of ruins, buildings and paths in "Mesochori" in addition to the central square of the "New village" for all the visitors. d) Promotion and designation of the archaeological site. The Anavatos case is thought to be a characteristic example of a monument where the abandoned settlement, state intervention and the possible re-use of the monument co-exist. These elements, when combined, can lead to positive results. The case of intervention in Anavatos on Chios has no precedent in Greece, therefore it poses particular difficulties. Anavatos is not an isolated monument but a settlement, ruined and almost, but not entirely, abandoned. Comparisons with Mystras or Monemvasia are not appropriate, since Anavatos has its own special character, a combination of architecture and spectacular landscape. The settlement will make the leap from the 19th to the 21st century directly, as there were no interventions during 20th century. This facilitates planning today. From the research done on the fortified medieval settlements in Cyclades, Sporades and Chios islands, it is obvious that there were and still are a great number of such settlements on the islands of the Aegean. During their existence, over a period of 5 to 8 centuries, it is clear that the fortified settlements in the Aegean suffered many modifications, over two different periods. The first one began at the time of their foundation and stopped with the official termination of piracy, in 1830, by the new Greek State. During this period the circumstances required limited and not radical modifications to the settlements. During the second period from 1830 onwards, a notable change in the character of the settlements, was the extension of the inhabited areas. The extensions covered large zones and the countdown began for the fortified cells. The consequences were abbandonment, lack of maintenance, the collapse and loss of historical evidence and the destruction of the original, authentic parts of the fortified medieval constructions. The greatest danger was and still is the abbandoment by the inhabitants, as human presence gives life to the historical constructions and conserve them. Many factors have played a part in the survival or the abandonment of the fortified settlements in the Aegean. The accessibility and the quality of the historical constructions are very serious factors. With the passage of time and especially over the last decades, despite the classification of the castles, by the State, as monuments, the alterations have spread dangerously and some of these castles have been lost among the new constructions. So, the once impressive, imposing outline of the fortified settlements of the Aegean, has become an oxymoron and in many cases there is doubt as to whether the settlement actually existed or the name "kastro" = (castle) is only a placename. In many cases, too, the character of these settlements is not defensive but only the character of a settlement with traditional architecture, as in the case of "Chora" in Alonnissos. On the other hand, the basic target of the local societies is more the real estate profit than the preservation of the settlement and that naturally has a tragic impact when the preserved settlement is somewhere between an archaeological site or a monumental complex and a living settlement. The Northern Sporades in the Future. their sustainable development Returning to the case of Alonnissos, we can say that over the last decades, the Northern Sporades has begun to be developed in relation to tourism. A balance

between tourism and the conservation of tradition and the significant natural wealth of the islands is very difficult to achieve. A significant step towards this target, is the establishment of the National Marine Park of Alonnissos and the Northern Sporades in 1992. This Park is proof that the region is blessed by nature. It is considered the largest protected marine zone in the Mediterranean, as it provides protection of the ecosystem in conjunction with the sustainable development of the island of Alonnissos. The Park has an area of 2.200 km2 and apart from Alonnissos, some smaller islands Peristera, KyraPanaghia, Psathura, Piperi, Skantzoura, Giura and 22 other smaller rocky islands are included. In addition to the Mediterranean seal about 300 species of fish, 80 species of birds and numerous reptiles and mammals are also under protection and find a safe refuge. Today, the island of Alonnissos is the perfect base not only for marine tourism, but also for a visit to the National Marine Park, where the Mediterranean seal Monachus-Monachus can be observed in the sea caves of the region. The deep crystal-clear waters are ideal for those who love diving. The need to retain the indigenous population of the island is requisite if we are to Bibliography For the fortified settlements in the Aegean in general, see: MARO PHILIPPA-APOSTOLOU, To Kastro tis Antiparou. Symvoli sti meleti ton ochyromenon messeonikon oikismon tou Egeou, Athina 1978 [study of Phd]; MARO PHILIPPA-APOSTOLOU, Mikroi ochyromenoi oikismoi tou Egeou. Sta ichni tis istorikis tous taftotitas, Instituto Archaiologias Parou kai Kykladon, Athina 2000, p. 11-13, 21-57; MARO PHILIPPA-APOSTOLOU, O Anavatos kai oi ochyromenoi oikismoi tou Egeou. Typologiki katataxi, axies, deontologia epemvaseon, in: Abstracts of the International Congress "The Architecture of Fortifications in the Aegean and the Medieval Setlement of Anavatos of Chios", Chios 2628 September 2008, p. 26. For the castle of Alonnissos, see: IOANNA STERIOTOU, "The castle of Alonnissos: the settlement - fortress of Chiliodromion", IBI- BULLETIN, No 39, 1981, p. 111-123, with the relative bibliography. See also: edit. "Militos", Athina 2009, p. 15, 120, 224. For the Citadel of Sifnos castle and the castle of Kimolos, see: "Castrorum Circumnavigatio", Hellenic Ministry of Culture - Archaeological Receipts Fund - Directorate of Protractions, Athens 2001, p. 42-43, 70-71. For the fortified settlements of the island of Chios, and that of Anavatos, see:

The Abstracts of the International Congress "The Architecture of Fortifications in the Aegean and the Medieval Setlement of Anavatos of Chios", Chios 26-28 September 2008, organized by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture, the Finance Management Fund for Archaeological Projects, the The Scientific Committee of Anavatos of Chios and the 3rd Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities. S. GKOTSIS, S. FAITAKI, Monuments, local society and collective memory. Observations on Chios island medieval fortifications", p. 38 - A. KAVVADIA, The Medieval settlement of Anavatos of Chios: a. New research evidence b. The work of the Committee for the Restoration and Enhancement of the Medieval Settlement of Anavatos of Chios under the 3rd Community Support Framework (E.U.), p. 51 - M. KOLTSAKI, When the monument is a complete settlement. A methodological approach of the traditional settlements of Kalamoti in Chios, p. 57 - L. MARTAKIS, A.GIOUTSA, M. SDRAKA, The defensive character of Chios- similarities and deferences of the medieval settlements of Chios and Liguria of Italy, p. 77 - G. SARIYANNIS, Anavatos, Chios - Museum or a living settlement ??, p. 102 - P. STATHAKOPOULOS, TH. MAGGANA, The archaeological and cultural Park of Anavatos, as an advertising and promotional intervention, p. 109 - E. FILIPPOPOULOU, A leap in time for Anavatos of Chios, p. 122

La mer Egée a toujours été un lieu de communication, de commerce et de croisements de cultures variées. La navigation au travers des ans nécessita des refuges maritimes qui permettaient aux navires de refaire des provisions. Les baies abritées de la mer Egée étaient idéales. Pour de nombreuses raisons, les petites colonies sur les îles étaient très exposées et ouvertes aux attaques ennemies. Tant les marchands que les conquérants étaient obligés de compter sur la population des îles. Aussi, pendant la souveraineté latine, après 1204, les nouveaux dirigeants commencèrent à fortifier les colonies médiévales, très souvent aux mêmes endroits que de précédentes installations, fortifiées ou non. La même pratique continua après la conquête latine. Les petites colonies fortifiées des îles de la mer Egée, sous le nom générique de "Kastra" (châteaux), sont une catégorie spécifique de monuments. Leur particularité vient du fait qu'il y a des fortifications qui procurent un lieu de résidence pour la population. Un grand nombre sont encore habités. Ce phénomène apparaît seulement dans la mer Egée et pas dans d'autres régions grecques. Ils sont différents du fait que le mur de fortification externe n'est pas libre; soit il est connecté à une zone d'édifices périmétriques, soit c'est le mur externe des maisons elles-mêmes. Comme ces petits châteaux dans les îles de la mer Egée occupaient généralement des positions fortifiées par nature, tels les sommets de montagne, leur présence était et est toujours très élevée, et ils sont ainsi des repères dans une zone élargie. Alonnissos est une des îles des Sporades du Nord. C'est la troisième île depuis la péninsule de Magnésie après les îles de Skiathos et Skopelos, en direction de l'est. Selon la plupart des historiens, l'ancienne île d'Ikos est actuellement connue sous le nom d'Alonnissos. Ikos joua un rôle important et fut habitée de manière très dense depuis les temps préhistoriques jusqu'à l'époque classique et byzantine. Pendant la 4ème croisade et la période qui s'ensuivit, l'île fut connue sous le nom de Liadromia ou Dromi. Après l'occupation de Constantinople par les ottomans, l'île connu probablement la même fortune que les autres petites îles de la mer Egée; elles furent soit des repaires de pirates, soit la cible de séries d'invasions. En 1538, Haireddin Barbarossa envahit aussi les îles des Sporades du nord. Alonnissos fut probablement détruite et comme résultat des conditions dans la mer Egée à cette époque, nous pouvons supposer que la colonie fortifiée d'Alonnissos fut probablement construite au cours des 16ème et 17ème siècles. Elle fut construite dans une passe à 210 m de hauteur. Elle constitue un exemple typique des installations fortifiées de la mer Egée au moyen-âge, fortification qui est composée des murs externes des maisons. Elle a une forme elliptique. Sa cellule interne qui est constituée de 33 maisons d'une seule pièce, placées les unes à côté des autres, est divisée approximativement au milieu par un chemin allant du nord au sud. Cette cellule est entourée par une autre série d'environ 30 maisons d'une pièce également placées les unes à côté des autres. Au nord est il y a la porte du noyau fortifié d'origine. Près de la porte il y avait le bâtiment de la "Casama" où les gardes du château logeaient. Pendant ma première visite dans l'île en 1978, le château d'Alonnissos était quasiment déserté après les tremblements de terre de 1965 et avait été abandonné par ses habitants qui s'étaient déplacés vers la nouvelle colonie de Patitiri près de la baie de Patitiri. L'ancienne colonie d'Alonnissos, appelée "Chora" après le développement touristique des dernières années a de nombreux restaurants, cafés et logements ce qui signifie qu'elle peut offrir un séjour confortable dans les maisons reconstruites ou de nouvelles. Autour de la vieille colonie fortifiée, plus spécialement sur les versants nord et est, de nombreuses maisons nouvelles ont été construites, créant une zone qui a changé le caractère historique de la colonie de l'extérieur. Ce n'est que dans les maisons

en ruines, pas encore restaurées, que nous pouvons distinguer les caractéristiques uniques de la colonie médiévale fortifiée d'Alonnissos. Au cours des dernières décennies, les Sporades du nord ont commencé de se développer en lien avec le tourisme. Un équilibre entre le tourisme et la conservation des traditions et la richesse naturelle significative des îles est très difficile à atteindre. Aujourd'hui, l'île d'Alonnissos est la base parfaite non seulement pour le tourisme maritime mais aussi pour une visite au parc maritime national où le phoque méditerranéen Monachus-Monachus peut être observé dans les grottes marines de la région. Enfin, quelques autres colonies fortifiées sur d'autres îles de la mer Egée sont présentées, en tant qu'exemples les plus caractéristiques : la citadelle du château de Sifnos - Cyclades (fin 14ème siècle - 16ème/17ème siècles), le château de Kimolos - Cyclades (fin 16ème siècle), le château d'Antiparos - Cyclades (moitié du 15ème siècle), les colonies fortifiées de l'île de Chios - est de la mer Egée (14ème - 16ème siècles).

TOMÁŠ DURDÍK

VIMPERK CASTLE AND CHATEAU AS CENTRE OF NATIONAL PARK ŠUMAVA AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION CENTRE

The general cultural, historical and monument preservation significance of the castle and chateau in Vimperk1 (fig. 1; 2), in the Šumava (Bohemian Forest) Mountains in South-West Bohemia, Czech republic, is multilayered, multifaceted and its attributes clearly exceed the regional context. Regarding some of them, it even appears to be irreplaceable. Initially, it was a royal castle, highly important, situated on one branch of a longdistance trail of European importance, the Golden Path. This route is still a busy international road till today. It was a structure of great importance in the 13th century and even nowadays is the largest and best preserved castle on both on either the Czech and German side of the border. This strong castle was one of the most important strongold of of Czech kings2. To incomers, it represented a highly visible demonstration of power of the last Premyslids; thus it played a major role internationally. It has remained intact up to now, though it has been slightly changed. The castle/chateau of Vimperk assumed its current shape as a result of complicated building development3 taking place in a number of medieval and early modern construction and functional stages, each of which left substantial and hight-quality traces on its current appearance. Their understanding has been considerably enriched by archaeological investigation, carrier out by the Institute of archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague4. 1. Vimperk castle: Above aerial view from the southeast. (photo M. Gojda.). Below virtual visualisation of aerial view from west (by Plzenský projektový a architektonický ateliér s.r.o and GEODIS Brno s.r.o).

Practically all the medieval and early modern developmental phases of the castle, from its original royal foundation, through a major aristocratic castle to an imposing renaissance and mannerist chateau, were of hight quality. To a large extent, they have survived in the form of a complete complex that is unique and of exceptional quality. The castle and chateau in Vimperk thus represents a self-contained monument where it possible to follow the hight quality changes and solutions employed at this vast and imposing feudal centre. Vlcek's Tower (Fig. 3), a massive square keep or donjon of a characteristic type, which used to be erected at royal castles with peripheral development around 1250 and later5, is the most significant, sutviving structure from the initial, royal building stage. Of this type, there were only two vaulted towers in Bohemia (Vlcek's Tower and Hlízová Tower at Zvíkov Castle - Fig. 3), representing the highestquality completion in this type of construction. In its first building phase, the castle with at least two palaces obviously belonged among multi-tower castles with peripheral development (in addition to the keep, it contained a square tower of 2. Vimperk castle. Above south-east side of Upper castle. On the left side Vlcek's Tower, in the middle late gothic palace with renaissance addition, on the right side late gothic gate tower. (Photo S. Chmielowiec); Excavated remains of square tower on the highest terrace of Upper castle.(photo by the author).

3. Vinmperk castle, Vlcek's Tower:Above left side: view from the north. Above right side: vaulted interior of lower level. Below cavalier view and section of Vlcek's Tower (right side) compared with the same of Hlízová (Markomanka) tower on Zvíkov castle (Drawing P. Chotebor).

Bergfried type revealed recently in archaeological investigation - fig. 2); these castles became a basic kind of major power supports of the last kings of Premyslids dynasty. In the following building phase, the castle fortification, except the main line created also by the outer ward wall, was secured by a system of rounded turrets. The generous dimensions of this, originally royal Premyslide castle, suited the successive aristocratic owners over a long time. The size permitted various, more or less small reconstructions and additions, thanks to which the castle approached the period standard (fig. 4). Only the construction of a new, spacious palace meant a substantial change; the area of the castle complex was enlarged because of it. Extensive building activity in the Late Gothic period, especially at the time of Kaplír a member of Sulevice family made Vimperk one of the foremost aristocratic residences in the country (fig. 5). The castle area was strongly extended in direction to the town to provide space for another, new palace of imposing architecture (fig. 2). The fortification was provided with a vaulted firing gallery. With a communications system working even today, the castle also gained a new gate tower (fig. 6), creating the landmark of the chateau so far. City walls strengthened by gun towers were connected to the castle. The stand-alone, advanced bulwark6 or bastion called Haselburk (fig. 5; 6), erected on the top of a promontory outside the castle in the 1460s, became an essential and uniquely preserved part of the Gothic defensive system of the castle. It was a massive fortification structure with massive round artillery tower. a strong wall (with gun chambers at the head, probably creating a torion-like construction) and outer ward walls. This was an exemple of the apex of the development of artillery defensive structures at the time when the Czech lands were still at the head of European military engineering7. Together with the upper advanced bastion of Ceský Šternberk Castle8, Haselburk represents the best preserved example of this progressive defensive facility of the highest quality. Its significance not only surpasses the regional context, it is undoubtedly European. The Renaissance with the modification it broughtto lifestyle and the imperative changes to the appearance and furnishings of a prominent feudal seat that came naturally meant major changes for Vimperk. These were taking place gradually and culminated in the late 16th and early 17th century. Development was carried out at the Upper chateau, parts of older constructions perished, and the southern Late Gothic palace was completed in the form of a monumental and impressive chateau wing (fig. 2). As documented also by preserved painted ceilings, con-

4. Vimperk castle. Stove tiles from the 15th century (photo H. Toušková).

5 Vimperk castle. Ground plan, level of knowledge before on going archaeological excavation mentioned in this article.New information and corrections mentioned in the text are not yet included 1 - masonry from the 13th century, 2 - younger masonry from the 13th century, 3 - masonry from the second building

period, 4 - masonry of the outer ward wall, 5 - late gothic masonry, 6 - probably late gothic masonry, 7 early modern building layout (not classified in detail), 8 - older than late gothic masonry.(drawing J. DurdĂkovĂĄ.) 6. Vimperk castle. Left side: late gothic gate tower of

struction took place in practically all parts of the periphery of the upper chateau in which also impressive St. Joseph Chapel and the Chapel of Four Evangelists were erected (fig. 7). As the size of the original castle could not suit the demands on the appearance and operation of a foremost Renaissance residence, the vast complex of the Lower chateau was generously situated in front of it (fig. 1). Its main buildings above the service ground floor contained richly furnished halls with painted ceilings and fresco paintings. The large hall (fig. 8), which makes rehabilitation possible, is among the largest and most demanding preserved spaces of the kind in the Czech lands. Imaginatively designed gardens with a unique, stand-alone arcade wing (fig. 8) finished with a towerlet adjoined the Lower chateau. The development of the chateau was completed, after it suffered damage in 1619, by the construction of a crosswise mannerist wing (fig. 9) with a new large hall and other modifications at the upper chateau house in 1624. The entire generous and demanding spatial arrangement of the complex of the Renaissance Ro mberk and Kolovrat chateau (fig. 9) is well preserved rarely as is the artistic design of a part of its interiors. Vimperk is an austanding historical monument Later Baroque and newer Schwarzenberg modifications and building activities adjusted the vast chateau complex to period needs in a corresponding way and illustrate well the development of a foremost residence todays. After the tragic fire in 18579, only a basic repair for utilitarian use was performed. The area of the chateau in Vimperk has a notable landscaping element characteristic of this part of the Ĺ umava Mountains. It dominates a historically interesting town of the same name (fig. 9; 10) with which it is also connected by a Gothic town walls10 many of which have been preserved (fig. 10). The monument preservation and generally cultural potential of today's chateau complex is undoubtedly exceptional and, as has been said, multi-layered and more Upper castle, right side: Gun tower and gate of Haselburg advanced bastion as seen from the southeast.(Both photos by the author). 7.Vimperk castle, Upper castle. St. Joseph Chapel from the east. (photo S. Chmielowiec) and. Chapel of Four Evangelists, painted vault. (photo by the author).

than regional importance. In its unprecedented complexity, it facilitates a multifaceted and plastic presentation of the development and transformations of the appearance of this significant feudal residence from the Middle Ages up tol Modern Times. Also, the adjoining complex of the Ĺ umava National Park offers highly interesting values both natural and historical. Particularly another, though completely different donjon-like medieval royal castle of Kun vart11 (fig. 11) should be noted. This simple defensive castle12 with rectangular stone dwelling tower and light, probably wooden fortification, is situated at a high elevation (over 1,000 m above the sea level) controlling one of branches of Golden Path. It is visible for a long segment of this important long-distance trail and has survived as an impressive ruin. Also the canals for floating wood, the most important of which being Schwarzenberg Canal, are remarkable and rarely preserved works of ancient engineering. The current state of the complex, long unused, which was listed as part of the national cultural heritage in 2010, is poor and in several places even alarming. Therefore, it requires speedy conservation. The vast complex currently hosts only a museum in a very small part of the space. Aware of the significance and the

8. Vimperk castle, Lower chateau. Left side: South wing, arcades and garden from the south. Right side: the great hall of the south wing. (Both pictures are part of the reconstruction project made by M. Dostál and B. Kubát). 9. Vimperk castle. Left side East façade of mannerist wing of Upper castle. Right side: the chateau and town of Vimperk from south.(Painting of Jindrich de Verle from the year 1686, which is the oldest depiction of the monument.

10. Vimperk. Castle left side: Castle and town from the south. right side: Black Tower gate of the city walls. (Both photos J. O. Nedbal.) 11. Kun vart castle. left side:Engraving of A. Langweil after sketch made probably by Paulina countess of Schwarzenberg in the beginning of 19th century.In the centre; photo from the beginning of the 20th century by J. Seidel working in Ceský Krumlov.Right side: courtyard façade of dwelling tower. (photo tby he author).

above-mentioned versatile potential of the Vimperk Chateau, the concept of its revitalization and reconstruction has been the initiative of its current owner, the Administrative Unit of the National Park and Protected Nature Reserve of Šumava. The concept is dependent on its use as an international centre for environmental education. The Museum of Šumava and the Town of Vimperk, presenting the development and changes of the Šumava region and settlement in the course of three millennia, will remain its focus as well as the presentation of a part of the most important and beautiful chateau rooms for visitors. The environmental training centre is expected to host international conferences and other events at various levels, including the most advanced, and become involved in environmental instruction, including interactive teaching. The establishment of the

Methodological Centre for Preservation of Historical Natural Heritage is another interesting idea, as are other cultural activities. The designed concept, whose main author is Bohumil Kubát, Diana s. r. o., as well as the project worked up by the studio of architect Michal Dostál facilitate successful preservation of an exceptionally valuable monument at the eleventh hour, and also suggest possible uses for it. Let us hope that this ambitious plan will be put into effect fully in a manner respecting the great historical and cultural value of the monument. This text was written as part of the grant project of the Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic DB06P01OPP004 entitled Czech Castles - the saving of a Resource.

Notes 1.The overview of knowledge and bibliography relating to the castle see Durdík 1999; 2002; 2005 a, 2008; forthcoming. To the history Walter 1887; Sedlácek 1897; Puhani 1926; Beneš - Starý - Solar 1979; Tríska (ed.) 1986; Urban 1989. 2. For instance Durdík 1992. 3. Older works for instance Mareš - Sedlácek 1913; Menclová 1976; Beneš - Starý - Solar 1979; Poche (ed.) 1982; Kašicka - Nechvátal 1990. For contemporary level of knowledge see Muk - Jesenský 1990 and tittles in ref. 1. 4. Archaeological excavations in the 90ties of the 20th century for instance Durdík - Kašpar 2000. Recent excavations Durdík - Chmielowiec - Nedbal - Perina Polcar forthcoming. 5. Last overview concerning dwelling towers in Bohemia Durdík 2009. 6. On advanced bastions of Czech castles Durdík 2000. 7. For instance Durdík 1996. 8. Durdík 2005 b. 9. Záloha 1978. 10. Razím 1989. 11. Durdík - Kubu - Zavrel 2002. 12. Durdík 2004.

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horských hrádku - Zur Problematik der kleinen Befestigungsanlagen, der sog. "kleinen Gebirgsburgen" in gebirgigen Grenzgebieten", Archaeologia historica 29, 2004, 343 - 356. Durdík, T., Ilustrovaná encyklopedie ceských hradu. Dodatky 2. (Praha: LIBRI, 2005 a). Durdík, T., „The Southern Advanced Bastion of the Ceský Šternberk Castle - Le bastion avancé méridional du château de Ceský-Šternberk". EUROPA NOSTRA Scientific Bulletin 59, 2005 b, 121 - 128. Durdík, T.: Ilustrovaná encyklopedie ceských hradu. Dodatky 3 (Praha: LIBRI, 2008). Durdík, T., „Dwelling towers of Czech castles". EUROPA NOSTRA Scientific Bulletin 63, 2009, 139 - 150. Durdík, T.: Ilustrovaná encyklopedie ceských hradu. Dodatky 4 (Praha: LIBRI, forthcoming). Durdík, T. - Chmielowiec, S. - Nedbal, J. O. - Perina, K. - Polcar, D., "Predstihový výzkum hradu Vimperku v roce 2009". Zprávy Ceské archeologické spolecnosti Supplément, Archeologické výzkumy v Cechách 2009, forthcoming.

Kašicka, F. - Nechvátal, B., Tvrze a hrádky na Prachaticku - Mittelalterliche Festungen und Hausberge im Gebiet von Prachatice (Prachatice: Okresní muzeum v Prachaticích, 1990). Mareš, F. - Sedlácek, J., Soupis památek historických a umeleckých v politickém okresu prachatickém (Praha: Archeologická komise pri Ceské akademii císare Františka Josefa pro vedy, slovesnost a umení, 1913). Menclová, D., Ceské hrady (2 vols., 2nd edition, Praha: ODEON, 1976). Muk, J. - Jesenský, V., Vimperk zámek. Stavebne historický pruzkum. II. díl. Historickoarchitektonický rozbor (Praha: manuscript, 1990). Poche, E. (ed.)., Umelecké památky Cech T (Praha: Academia, 1982). Puhani, J., Chronologische Notizen zur Gechichte von Winterberg und Umgebung 1195 - 1926 (Winterberg: Puhani, 1926). Razím, V., „Povrchový pruzkum mestského opevnení Vimperka". Archeologické výzkumy v ji ních Cechách 6, 1989, 125 - 152.

Le château et le manoir à Vimperk comme centre du Parc national de Šumava et centre d´éducation sur lénvironnement La signification culturelle et historique du château et le manoir de Vimperk, situé dans les montagnes de Šumava en Bohéme du sud-ouest, ainsi que sa significance comme composante de l´héritage artistique du pays, se présente comme un phénomène polyvalent, à plusieurs couches, dont les aspects dépassent marquement le cadre régional; quelques-uns parmi ces aspects en font même un monument architectural unique. Le caractère dénsemble présent a été formé par une série des développpements assez complexes, s´étendents sur plusieurs phases des activités bâtissières et dájustements fonctionels du Moyen Age jusquáux les temps modernes, dont chacun a laissé des traces d´haute qualité bien visibles aujourd´hui. Nos connaissances de ces séries d´évènements sénrichissaient especiallement grâce aux fouilles archéologiques, menées sur site par lÍnstitut archéologique de lÁcadémie des Sciences de la République tchèque à Prague, v. v. i. Pendant toutes les phases déxistence de lénsemble architectural de Vimperk, dès l´érection originelle du château royal du 13e siècle, situé sur une des branches dúne communication à longue distance du rang européen - la Voie dÓr (Goldener Steg) - , à travers une résidence aristocratique importante du 14e siècle, et celle du temps du style gothique tardif avec un important bastion avancé d´Haselburg, jusqu´à le grand et impressionant manoir de l´époque de Renaissance et de Mannerisme, lárchitecture de Vimperk possédait les traits de très haute qualité. Les vestiges de toutes cettes phases se sont préservées dans la forme présente dénsemble architectural dans une complexité et qualité uniques. Le château et le manoir de Vimperk constitue ainsi un monument à caractère complex, qui nous ouvre la voie à l´étude des transformations qualitatives de la forme dúne grande et impressionante résidence féodale, sur un haut niveau de qualité de recherche. De plus, il représente une composante importante du paysage, caractéristique pour cette partie du pays haut de Šumava, ainsi quúne dominante de la ville éponyme à haut valeur historique et artistique, avec laquelle il est lié par une ligne de fortifications assez bien conservés de l´époque du

style gothique tardif. En reconnaissance de límportance et du potentiel riche et varié du site, le propriétaire présent du château de Vimperk, lÁdministration du Parc national et de Région du paysage protégé de Šumava, a initié la préparation dún document de conception de lémploi de cet ensemble architectural, et de son reconstruction et révitalisation, y proposant láménagement dún centre d´éducation sur lénvironnement international, dont une partie sera constituée par le Musée de Šumava et de Vimperk, qui montrera le développement et les transformations du paysage et d´habitat de Šumava à travers trois millénaires d´histoire humaine. Le programme dún tel centre comprendrait lórganisation des conférences et colloques internationaux, les activités des niveaux variés jusquáux entreprises de plus haute qualité, mais aussi l´éducation en écologie, y compris l´éducation interactive. Dáutres impulses intéressants sont représentés par l´établissement dún Centre de création des méthodes pour la sauvetage du patrimoine historique et naturel, ainsi que par activités culturelles supplémentaires.

HERMANN FABINI

DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO A MODERN USE OF THE TRANSYLVANIAN CHURCH-FORTRESSES

The repeated clashes between medieval Europe and the Orient, which occurred against the historical background of Transylvania in the second millennium Anno Domini, triggered a variety of reactions to these existential challenges. Such a reaction was the construction of church-fortresses in Transylvania, defensive structures erected by rural communities of free peasants. The Saxons and the SzĂŠkelys, two ethnic groups living within the boundaries of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary and present in this geographic area in the twelfth century, were responsible for building them. The church-fortresses are the physical representation of certain social structures, in which the free peasant's individual freedom is reduced by mutual agreement in favour of the community. In this context, in times of siege and war, these architectural ensembles ensured the spiritual and the cultural needs, as well as the basic existence of the community. The church-fortresses were built either in the centre or in close proximity to the villages in order to provide the villagers' rapid access to their premises. Given the geographical position and the complexity of their architectural programs, these ensembles differ from other medieval constructions, like monasteries and manor houses, through their well-marked architectural diversity. Further influence alsocame from the neighbouring localities. The close bond between the community and the architectural ensemble finds its urbanistic and aesthetic expression in the harmonizing relation established between the locality, the monument and the landscape. There were numerous fortified 1.Map of Transylvania with isometric drawings of Saxon built church, fortresses and peasant fortresses.

churches and church-fortresses in many areas of Europe during the Middle Ages, but gradually they disappeared in modern times with the loss of their defensive function. Firstly, the close emotional bond between the community and the monument and, secondly, poverty are the reasons why over 200 such ensembles have been preserved in Transylvania, of which approximately 160 were built by the Saxons. In a world, in which material consumption carries such great weight and information is no longer controllable by a single person, the existential dimension of the church-fortresses can now be considered a most necessary and convenient source of information, when seeking to establish value criteria of human existence. At present, these historical monuments are faced with dilapidation, mostly because the communities that once looked after them no longer exist. The events that occurred between 1914-1989, which the Romanian historian Neagu Djuvara calls "the Seventyfive Year' War," brought about the decline in number of the Saxon communities to less than ten percent of the entire population living in Transylvania before 1945. Three factors contributed to the emigration of the German communities: firstly, the Saxons and Swabians from the Banat, secondly, the communist regime in Romania and, thirdly, the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany. As in other neighbouring countries under Soviet occupation, many citizens spared no effort to leave the Communist Bloc and find new

homes in capitalist countries. The Saxons and the Swabians enjoyed a somewhat privileged position, as the German State paved the way for their assimilation, while the Romanian Communist State gained substantial financial advantage through their emigration. We are faced today with a most difficult situation. The communities no longer use the religious buildings, as there are very few German Lutherans left in the respective villages. At present, the rest of the inhabitants are Romanian ethnics and in numerous villages, they are Roma people. Given these facts, an accurate inventory of the extant valuable structures has become of utmost importance; expecially as the monuments, furniture and interior decorations are constantly exposed to acts of theft and vandalism. Shortly after 1990, the process of cataloguing and gathering evidence began with the photographic documentation of the state of affairs existent in the last decade of the twentieth century. In the second half of the past century, the cleric Dr. Helmut Klima collected historical data in connection with the various localities and sites. In time, the ground surveying of these monuments was completed and then published around 2000. The activity of cataloguing and gathering documentary evidence continues at present with the help of modern means and devices. After the emigration of the Saxon communities, mostly in 1990 and 1992, a series of actions were taken with a view to the conservation of these monuments. Moreover, various trusts expressed their support for these initiatives. Worth mentioning here is the German Heritage in Romania Foundation founded by Dr. Klaus Terfloth, the former German ambassador in Bucharest. It contributed to the restoration of the church-fortresses in Hosman and Homorod and of a Renaissance house in Medias. In the 1990s, another German trust, the Cultural Foundation of the German States, contributed to the restoration of the church-fortresses in Bagaciu and Ghimbav. The roof covering and the walls of eighteen churchfortresses will undergo repair works conducted by the Consistory of the Lutheran Church through acquisition of European funds. There are a series of associations of former villagers, mostly in Germany, which have contributed and will continue to contribute to the preservation of the monuments in their native villages. For seventeen years, the Mihai Eminescu Trust from Great Britain, whose royal patron is HRH Prince Charles, heir to the British throne, has carried out a most fruitful and intensive activity in Transylvania. This foundation has restored and maintained in good condition rural houses in several villages, mostly in Mal창ncrav and Viscri. Taking immediate measures, the Trust has preserved valuable construc-

2. View of the town of Cisnadie (Heltau) with the chuch-fortress in the middle of the settlement. 3.- Isometric view of the chuch-fortress of Cisnadie (Heltau).

4.-Isometric view of the chuch-fortress of Valea Viilor (Wurmloch). 5.-General view of the village of Valea Viilor (Wurmloch).

6.- The chuch-fortress in Hozman (Holzmengen).

tions and the cultural landscape of these villages. In selected neighbourhoods, the Trust has helped the inhabitants to develop new sources of revenue and to restore their houses with the use of traditional materials. These successes have influenced regional conservation policy and served as a model for threatened communities elsewhere. The village of Viscri, has attracted international attention as an example of historic preservation combined with economic regeneration. Employing local labour, the Trust teaches forgotten building methods, including the use of lime mortar, which gives the houses their distinctive character. At MalĂ˘ncrav, the Trust has bought and restored a romantic abandoned Hungarian manor house that was the centre of the village from the sixteenth century. It has been converted into a library and a lodge for scholars and visitors. In June 2007, the Mihai Eminescu Trust received the EUROPA NOSTRA award for Dedicated Service to Conservation. Worth mentioning here are also other trusts, industrial companies and firms, which, though not directly involved in the conservation of monuments, still do their utmost to create a viable economic basis in these communities. In doing so, they implicitly help creating the necessary economic climate for the preservation of historical monuments in the midst of these communities. Thus, the Adept Trust, a foundation standing under the patronage of various other organizations in the United Kingdom, takes a deep interest in fostering ecological

7.-Wedding-procession in the front of the chuch-fortress in Viscri (DeutschweiĂ&#x;kirch). 8- General view of the village of Bunesti (Bodendorf).

9- Isometric view of the chuchfortress, and plan of the chuchfortress in Axente Sever (Frauendorf).

farming and developing economically efficient programmes in Southern Transylvanian villages. The objectives of the Adept Trust are the protection of biodiversity and of the landscape, linked to economic regeneration of the area, so that each supports the other. The landscape is still a functioning ecology with man and nature in balance. Despite its increasing relevance as a model in the present world, this low-intensity sustainable agriculture is under threat. Farmers have created this landscape of exceptional biodiversity over hundreds of years and it is only the farmers' continued traditional management that can really ensure the proper conservation of the landscape. By linking economic and social benefits with biodiversity conservation and by raising local capacity with a view to good management in the future, the Adept Trust carries out an integrated programme. Another interesting example is the activity carried out by Schreiber Tours, a Danish company, which through a local firm has managed to purchase several houses in Bagaciu, Mures County. The village lies in the midst of nature, in an impressive and beautiful landscape. Schreiber Tours has purchased a handful of houses and has turned them into accommodation units with their own restaurant, swimming pool and traditional wine cellar. The interior of these holiday houses has been reshaped to meet West European standards, while the exterior still fits naturally the cityscape. The guests fly by a charter plane to T창rgu Mures Airport and over a period of seven to fourteen days an instructive and entertaining programme introduces the guests to the geographical, the historical and the ethnographical background of the region. Consequently, a vacation in the small and pleasant village of Bagaciu becomes a journey back in the time, seen through Danish eyes. One of the promising fields of activity is tourism, more precisely cultural tourism. Taking into account the potentials of the landscape, of the spas and of alpine tourism, we believe that Transylvania meets the requirements for durable and ecological tourism. However, intensive promotion is needed in order to provide the tourist with the necessary information about the historical monuments and access to them, about accommodation and local traditional gastronomy. The United States Embassy in Bucharest has had an interesting initiative in this respect. It gave our firm an order for a map with axonometric projections of 23 church-fortresses and which was published then under the title "Three Tourist Routes for Visiting the Saxon Fortified Churches in the Sibiu-Sighisoara Region." The map was printed in Romanian, English, German and Hungarian and ever since its publication in 2004 it was, and still is, well received by the public. In keeping with the title, the map covers the localities in the environs of the cities of Sibiu and Sighisoara. A second similar map was drawn up for the Brasov-Rupea Region. A general inventory of such monuments was accomplished in 1999-2000, when the Atlas of the Transylvanian-Saxon Church-Fortresses and Village Churches came off the presses. Volume one contains plans and axonometric projections, along with the historical presentation of the villages and towns. Volume two contains photos recording the state of these monuments in the last decade of the twentieth century. Moreover, a series of brochures focusing on the presentation of single monuments have also been published and they can be purchased at the respective sites. Promotion of these historical monuments is then rounded off with the printing of a wide range of picture postcards, leaflets and flyers. In what concerns accommodation facilities, mention must be made that guesthouses have been set up in a certain number of communities, mostly in the vicarages. A book has also been published, offering tourists valuable information about accommodation capacity, conveniences, contact persons and useful addresses. Very important, too, is the information about access roads, simply because in

certain cases the roads have not yet been modernized. In one particular instance, in Axente Sever, Sibiu County, boarding rooms have been set up right within the precincts of the church-fortress. However, mention must be made that, in many cases, it is not at all possible to set up boarding rooms within the historical monuments, because sanitation facilities would seriously damage the original substance and because the size of the window apertures and other openings is too small for such purposes. Another important factor relates to the size of the sites many of which are far too small to justify major investment in accommodation. In their process of emigration, the community members left behind a series of cultural artefacts related to their habitat, their work, their professions and the farming activities. These objects were collected and then stored inside the fortresses. In time, small local museums were set up in the churchfortresses. Such programmes can optimally be integrated into the existent spaces. Thus, inside the church-fortress in Prejmer, a classroom and workshops for ropemakers, blacksmiths, and weavers were set up in the chambers along the enclosing wall. At Viscri, the south bastion hosts in three storeys a local rural museum, displayings a wide range of artisan tools. Many other farm tools, such as ploughs, pitchforks and hoes are displyed along the wall-walk. We are glad to say that, over the past twenty years, there have been a series of local, national and international initiatives focused on the conservation of this historical heritage. Moreover, a change in the people's mentality has also been noticed, in the sense that they finally realize the economic potential of cultural and ecological tourism. However, one issue remain unsolved, the preservation of the setting of the monuments, which are often brutally altered by structures that are not compatible with the architecture of the ensemble, both in terms of size and of the materials employed. Without reservation, all local administration, traders and public organizations must spare no effort and carry on their educational and explanatory work with society, until the latter becomes fully aware of the value of historical monuments, helping the latters durable and regenerative development.

Les conflits répétés entre l'Europe médiévale et l'Orient qui se produisirent à l'encontre du passé historique de Transylvanie au second millénaire, déclenchèrent des réactions variées face à ces challenges existentiels. Une de ces réactions fut la construction d'églises fortifiées en Transylvanie, c'est-à-dire de structures défensives érigées par des communautés rurales de paysans libres. Nous sommes heureux de dire qu'au cours des vingt dernières années, il y eut une série d'initiatives locales, nationales et internationales concentrées sur la conservation de ce patrimoine historique. De plus, une modification de la mentalité des gens a également été notée, dans le sens où ils ont finalement réalisé le potentiel économique du tourisme culturel et écologique. Cependant, une question reste ouverte, celle de la préservation de l'environnement des monuments qui est souvent brutalement altéré par des structures qui ne sont pas compatibles avec l'architecture de l'ensemble, à la fois en termes de taille et de matériaux employés. Inconditionnellement, l'administration locale, tous les opérateurs et toutes les organisations publiques ne doivent pas ménager leurs efforts et apporter leur travail explicatif à la société, jusqu'à ce que cette dernière devienne parfaitement consciente de la valeur des monuments historiques, si nous voulons leur développement durable et régénérateur.

RE-USE AND BEYOND Noto and L'Aquila two different cases of reconstruction after the earthquake by Gianni Perbellini

The link between conservation and creation is the research of an identity. In facts while the idea of Heritage is universal, we must acknowledge that at the same time it is strictly connected with the local and national art history and the same classification of the styles is almost always accompanied by an adjective qualifying the national or local range. Recently the Heritage or "Patrimoine" was politically used to identify - for better or for worst - the national, ethnic, religious or simply cultural identity as a predominance or discrimination issue of a culture, or of a nation on another. This explain how the conservation, or the abandon, the sacralization, or the destruction, of great part of our heritage are connected, even if only unconsciously, to the regard that national, or local, society have towards their history or their cultural values, remembering that the "restoration" is the denial of history and it is "èvocation caricaturale, l'avatar grotesque-vivant d'une rèference legendaire" (Baudrillard, La société de consummation, Denöel, 1996). Aiming the restoration to a present re-use is the only possibility to let the heritage participate to the history, while its formal reconstruction represents a betrayal and the symbolic evocation, for speculative purposes, of the consumer society. In many cases conservation is impeded by anthropic events as in architecture by the inadequate use, at public but also private level, of making a building the emblem of a social or cultural state; by territorial plans favouring the welfare of many against few, or by violent events of discrimination of a culture on another. Finally the last case is represented by big natural disasters that often cannot be remedied, as earthquakes. To this last category belong the two Italian example presented: the case of Noto and L'Aquila. In the first one a society structured under the Spanish administration of Sicily could move its settlements to a site considered more safe (even if the following events showed the opposite) keeping themselves united and determined to save the value of their inheritance, reinterpreting and innovating, but at the same time following the local popular culture and remaining close to models elaborated despite the sequence of earthquakes that continued to put in danger great part of the buildings of the new town. The baroque of Noto, defined by art criticism as "late baroque" is in facts the demonstration of the joie de vivre of a culture that can still express its creativity (even if naif) innovating under the architectural point of view a stylistic model that had exhausted its vital force. Nowadays in L'Aquila, the present society deceived by consumerism and globalisation, ended up to be object of the exorcism of the popular anguish through the myticizing of the modern earthquake-proof technology and the embalming of the signs of the identity culture of the inhabitants. The town was therefore transformed into a useless and impassable kind of archaeological park made of ruins and debris, maze of props and scaffoldings thanks to the foolish attempt of the incumbent property speculation that have anyway alienated the town from its inhabitants condemning them to the sad isolation of their heritage considering the advancing of the European economic cri sis. Differently from Noto, where the urban and the social fabric of the new town were displaced together, in L'Aquila the nineteen new settlements highlight the loss of those signs that constituted the fabric replaced by a technology without values that even if relieved the fear, couldn't give back the culture nor the town, making of these new settlements a sort of "refugee camps" real "ghettos" of the XXI century.

AU DELÀ DE LA RÉUTILISATION Noto et L'Aquila deux cas différents de reconstruction après le tremblement de terre par Gianni Perbellini En effet, si l'idée d'Héritage est universelle, nous devons reconnaître qu'en même temps elle est strictement reliée à l'histoire de l'art locale et nationale et la même classification des styles est presque toujours accompagnée par un adjectif qui qualifie le milieu national ou local. Récemment l'Héritage ou "Patrimoine" a été utilisé politiquement pour identifier - pour le mieux ou pour le pire - l'identité nationale, ethnique, religieuse ou simplement culturelle comme une prédominance ou une discrimination dérivée d'une culture, ou d'une nation sur une autre. Cela explique comment la conservation, ou l'abandon, la sacralisation, ou la destruction, d'une grande partie de notre héritage sont reliés, même si seulement inconsciemment, à la considération que la société nationale, ou locale, a pour leur histoire ou leurs valeurs culturelles, en se souvenant que la "restauration" est la négation de l'histoire et c'est une "évocation caricaturale, l'avatar grotesque-vivant d'une référence légendaire" (Baudrillard, La société de consommation, Denöel, 1996). Adresser la restauration à une réutilisation actuelle est la seule possibilité de laisser que l'héritage participe à l'histoire, bien que sa reconstruction formelle représente une trahison ainsi que l'évocation symbolique, pour des buts spéculatifs, de la société du consommateur. Dans plusieurs cas, la conservation est entravée par les événements humains et dans le cas de l'architecture, par l'utilisation inadéquate, au niveau public mais également privé, du bâtiment en tant qu'emblème d'un état social ou culturel; par des plans territoriaux favorisant le bien-être d'un grand nombre de personnes contre les moins nombreux ou par de violents événements de discrimination d'une culture sur une autre. Enfin, le dernier cas est représenté par de grandes calamités naturelles qui souvent ne peuvent pas être remédiées, comme les tremblements de terre. À cette dernière catégorie appartiennent les deux exemples italiens de Noto et L'Aquila. Dans le premier cas, une société structurée sous l'administration espagnole de la Sicile pourrait déplacer ses établissements vers un site considéré plus sûr (même si les événements suivants ont démontré le contraire) en les gardant unis et déterminés à sauver la valeur de leur héritage, en réinterprétant et innovant, mais en même temps en suivant la culture populaire locale et en restant près des modèles élaborés. Cela, en dépit de la séquence des tremblements de terre qui ont continué à mettre en danger une grande partie des bâtiments de la nouvelle ville. Le baroque de Noto, défini par la critique de l'art comme "baroque tardif", est en effet la démonstration de la joie de vivre d'une culture qui peut exprimer encore sa créativité (même si naïve), innovant du point de vue architectural un modèle stylistique qui avait épuisé sa force vitale. De nos jours, à L'Aquila, l'actuelle société déçue par l'aspect de la consommation et de la mondialisation, a fini par devenir l'objet de l'exorcisme et de l'angoisse populaire à travers la mystification de la technologie moderne à l'épreuve des tremblements de terre et l'embaumement des signes de l'identité culturelle des habitants. La ville a été donc transformée en un type de parc archéologique inutile et impraticable plein de ruines et débris, labyrinthe de matériaux et d'échafaudages grâce à la folle tentative d'une pressante spéculation de la propriété qui a, de toute façon, éloigné la ville de ses habitants, en les condamnant au triste isolement de leur héritage, vu l'avancée de la crise économique européenne. Contrairement à Noto, où les structures urbaine et sociale de la nouvelle ville ont été déplacées ensemble, à L'Aquila les dix-neuf nouveaux établissements mettent en valeur la perte de ces signes qui ont constitué la structure remplacée par une technologie sans valeurs qui, tout en atténuant la peur, ne pourraient rendre ni la culture ni la ville, en faisant de ces nouveaux établissements une sorte de "camps du réfugiés", de vrais "ghettos" du XXI siècle.

GIANNI PERBELLINI

THE TOWN OF NOTO IN SICILY

The old town of Noto, situated on Alveria Mountain, was a very ancient settlement that was probably founded by the Trojan exiles. In the XIII and XIV centuries, when Sicily was divided into three districts called Valli (from the latin Vallum), Noto with its 25,000 inhabitants, was the second most important city, after Siracuse, in the Noto Valley. The city was rich in important buildings among which: a walled enceinte and a castle, and also 53 churches and 19 convents. The urban shape, palimpsest of different ages, was typical of the medieval hill city with castle and walls, narrow and winding roads and only few squares of small dimension. The earthquake of the 10th and 11th of January 1693 seriously damaged the town along with other 40 sites located in south-oriental Sicily. Therefore the viceroy of Sicily, Duke Uzeda, immediately set up a central task force and two councils provided with special powers for the rescue operations in Noto and Demone Valleys. In a short time the double vicarage was gathered under the charge of the Duke of 1.The town of Noto before the earthquake of 1693.

Comastra co-operating with Don Giuseppe Asmurdo and Carlos Von Grunemberg, active from 1694 in the fortification of Messina. In the meantime the Municipal Council, after having supported in a first series of meeting the necessity of an in situ reconstruction of the town, decided on a more downstream displacement and rebuilding. After having examined different locations, it was decided to displace the town in Pianazzo inside of the feud of Meti at 7 Km downstream from the old settlement and not far from the coast. Under the political and military point of view the Spanish government, trying to avoid the proliferation of fortified towns, assigned

2.Noto and Avola after the earthquake in 1693 was rebuilt as new town in new sities. Noto new settlement was organised on two different levels:the site of Meti for people buildings and the site of Pianazzo for nobility and religiou complexes. Avola new town was conceived as a XVII century fortress vith six bastions, two gates and a regular square gride for plots ( drawings by M. Tanara). 3. Noto historic centre core in 1712. 4.Noto and Asola XVII century map (Syracuse State Arkiv, fondo Pignatelli-Avola), compared with P. Labisi general view of the town in XVIII century (Noto Municipal library). 5. Noto the ancient castle and the old fortified settlement before the earthquaque and its to day ruins 6.Noto the churchs of St Charles, in the Gesuits college, and the St Dominic; this two monuments bult in XVII century clearly represens the best of the “barocco notino” classified as “late baroque” (photos by M. Tanara 2008).

this function to the new town of Avola that was only 4 Km away and was structured as a modern fortress with a hexagonal plan by Grunemberg. Therefore Noto was organised on a reticular pattern into two parallel blocks following the shape of the ground. In 1702 the new settlement was made official and wasn't actually much different from the present situation. From the beginning, the collaboration among government, local powers and citizens was really active both thanks to municipal and senatorial councils and made the new area sacred through the displacement in 1694 of the Ark of the Saint

patron (St. Corrado) from the old town to the new one with a big procession accompanied by all the citizens and lead by the high religious and political representatives. Both the nobility and the leisure class, were engaged in contributing to the public dignity even if this happened through the demonstration of their status. On the other hand craftsmen, stone-cutters and workers were involved in the same project of which they were actually the releasers. In actual fact the wide urban shape, the large roads and broad squares, satisfied all, from the cloth to the aristocrats, to the humblest classes, offering them a modern city. The first provisional buildings were turned into true government/administrative buildings thanks to the collaboration of the major local families, when in 1727 another earthquake produced new significant damages. The succession of these seismic events, delaying and thinning the edification and the interventions on the existing buildings, contributed somehow to a halt in stylistic shapes. The distance of Noto from the Spanish motherland and its cultural isolation, if compared to Central Italy and more specifically to the Papal State, made the conservation of the renaissance tradition possible, distinguishing every floor of the building using different architectural orders even if enriched with a richer baroque ornamentation more suitable for the spirit of the Island. In the meanwhile the damages caused by the seismic activity of the site, compelled the operators to continually adjust their primitive plans. Moreover the golden colour of the local stone contributed to making the global image of the city uniform and homogeneous. In fact all the buildings of the 1700 repeat similar themes and homogeneity of the treatment, realising an exceptional coherence of style, superior to the majority of the European towns.

7-8. Noto Villadorata’s and Nicolacci’s palaces balconies. The richest details of balcony corbels are one of the caracteristic of noble palaces, but also of humble houses (photo M. Tanara). 9 Noto, building in Ducezio street (photo M. Tanara).

10 Noto, the Catedral: plan, facades and structures. The axonometry shows the dome support made by the crossing system of four central pillars, unfortnately collapsed during the differents earthquaquques (drowings by M. Tanara).

Noto the town, its cathedral and the series of earthquakes from 1693 to 1990 1693 The earthquake destroyed and damaged 40 towns in Sicily. Among these: Catania, Caltagirone, Modica, Noto, Palazzolo Acreide, Ragusa, Sicli etc… 1693 The building of the new town of Noto starts with the construction of a shed for the Saints of the Ancient Cathedral 1699 The new town of Noto appears in form of a shantytown 1702 The new town became officially Noto 1703 The new church is opened and some houses or palaces are standing 1727 New earthquake 1745 The construction of the new Cathedral starts around the previous church 1753 Report by the Architect Gagliardi that suggests the demolition of the previous building before starting with the construction of a new Cathedral 1769 The old Cathedral is demolished 1780 The Dome of new Cathedral collapses 1796 The Architect Bernardo Maria Labisi is charged for the reconstruction 1818 New earthquake 1848 New earthquake. The Dome of the Cathedral collapsed again and many buildings of the town are ruined 1854 Luigi Cassone is the new Architect of the Cathedral 1910 The Cathedral is finished 1981 Noto is officially declared by the Italian Government "site at high seismic risk" 1990 New earthquake followed by a new international meeting

1996 The Dome of the Cathedral collapsed again 1998 Presentation of the new restoration project for the Cathedral 2000 The works for the restoration of the Cathedral starts 2002 Noto with eight other towns of Sicily, stressed by the long series of earthquakes, was included into the UNESCO list of World Heritage 2007 Finally the restoration works on the Cathedral finished. UNESCO World Heritage list Identification: Noto (Italy), No 1024rev Nomination: The rebuilding of the Val di Noto in the Late Baroque Period (South-East Sicily) Location: Provinces of Catania, Ragusa, and Syracuse, Sicily State: Party Italy Date: First nomination received 22 June 2000, revised nomination 11 January 2002 Justification by State Party: The historic centres and urban environments of the towns proposed for inscription are a masterpiece of the human creative genius of the late Baroque epoch. Criterion (i): The historic centres and urban environments of the towns proposed for inscription reveal a remarkable and unique exchange of human values accomplished in the collective effort to reconstruct the towns after the 1693 earthquake. The social classes of that period (clergy, aristocracy, and the new urban middle classes) together with the Spanish government, architects, and craftsmen, co-operated in the recreation of entire urban realities. Criterion (ii): The historic centres and urban sites proposed for inscription bear witness to cultural traditions

that have disappeared elsewhere: eg the design abilities and the innovative approach typical of the post-1693 era, in which major and minor art forms intertwine into a peculiar unity, and the exceptional skills of workmen in using local stone. Criterion (iii): The historic centres and urban sites proposed for inscription are instances of great importance for the high concentration of monumental late Baroque buildings of outstanding architectural and decorative value: eg the plans and layouts of religious buildings and facades with bell-towers. Facades as urban monuments peak with San Domenico in Noto, San Giorgio in Ragusa Ibla, and San Giorgi' in Modica. Criterion (iv): The historic centres and urban sites proposed for inscription are vulnerable because of their location in an area of high seismic risk and because of the poor state of much of the stonework, especially the limestone. In addition, Catania is at risk from volcanic eruption. Criterion (v): The eight towns of south-eastern Sucily that make up this nomination, which are caracteristic of the settlement pattern and urban forms of this region, are permanently at risk from earthquakes and eruption of Mount Etna.

11. Noto Cathedral, the dome collapsed after the earthquaque in 1996 during the restauration works in 2003 (photo M. Tanara 2008). 12. Noto Cathedral the dome before and after the restauration (photo M. Tanara 2008). 13. Noto to-day the central square with the cathedral and the Municipal palace. 14.Notoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aerophotogrammetry (Noto Municipality).

Category of property In terms of the categories of cultural property set out in Article 1 of the 1972 World Heritage Convention, this nomination consists of eight separate groups of buildings. History and Description .................................omissis........................................... Description The territory of south-eastern Sicily, once the territory of the ancient province of Val di Noto, contains an exceptional homogeneity and quality of urban centres within it. They are characterized by a large number of late Baroque buildings and monuments, all built after earthquakes on 9 and 11 January 1693, which seriously damaged about sixty towns in that territory. ............................... omissis........................................... The rebuilding of the Val di Noto was a chance for an enormous artistic, architectural, and anti-seismic renewal of the cities, medieval in their styles until 1693. The architecture and "modern" town-planning of southeastern Sicily became the first specific response to seismic disaster, carried out by a host of people ranging from famous architects like Rosario Gagliardi and Giovan Battista Vaccarini to many inspired artists and thousands of skilled but anonymous craftsmen. Strongly influenced by external Baroque fashions, the "Sicilian style," including not least its characteristic tower in facades, developed to become itself influential, its achievement possible because of a strong economic interplay of different social groups in the aftermath of disaster. ..................omissis......................................... NOTO, outstanding among the towns that were totally rebuilt on a site close to the original town, is on two

levels, an upper part on the plateau and a lower, newer part on the slope below. The latter accommodates the buildings of the nobility and the religious complexes of the 18th century, the topography, town-plan, and architecture combining to create a spectacular "Baroque stage set." It includes nine religious complexes and numerous palazzi........omissis....................................... Management and Protection Legal status: .............omissis....................................... Management: ...........omissis...................................... There was no management plan in the original nomination, though a document with that title was included. This was, however, concerned only with the future..........................omissis...................................... the following structure for the eventual management plan was approved: 1. Analysis of the present situation: area; resources; issues; participants; current systems. 2. Definition of the conservation and promotional strategies: strategic objectives; participants and responsibilities; actions to be taken by participants; current or potential sustainable activities; promotional activities; funding. 3. Conservation-sensitive maintenance, restoration, and recovery: Assessment of the current state; definition of the scope of action; organization of the information and consultation systems; programming of events; monitoring and testing. 4. Risk prevention: documentation; definition of strategies and priorities; maintenance and consolidation projects and plans; emergency plans; monitoring. 5. Expected economic impacts (adding value to tourism and other economic activities): definition of an integrated programme; definition of plan for

adding value to tourism; utilization of cultural sites for tourism; definition of visitor profiles, etc; evaluation of capacity potential; promotion and image building the image; transport and access; education; identification of other resources and local tangible and intangible culture outputs; regional marketing plan; identification of sources of finance. 6. Programming and implementation of the Plan: coordinating committee; annual intervention programmes; relationship of annual programmes with long- and medium-term plans; assessment of financing resources. 7. Monitoring: parameter assessment and scheduling; programming of actions and reporting; testing of the management plan. The detailed guidelines for the management plan have been studied by ICOMOS, which consider it to conform fully with the requirements of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Conservation and Authenticity Conservation history The conservation history of all eight nominated towns is simply summarized as long-term maintenance battling ..........................omissis.................................. In artistic, architectural, and aesthetic terms, authenticity and integrity are high, both in original quality and survival. Additional quality and interest, again in both authenticity and integrity, are provided by the almost complete survival, with little inappropriate intrusion, of town plans expressing a variety of reactions to a single, disastrous event in 1693. ...............................omissis........................................... ICOMOS, January 2002

Acknowledgement: In the years 2007-08 I vas introduced on Noto subject being the supervisor of the Degree Thesis presented at Verona University by Marina Tanara, that I would thank for the information, the drawings and some photos of my article.

La vieille ville de Noto, située sur la montagne Alveria était une très ancienne colonie qui fut probablement fondée par les exilés troyens. La forme urbaine, palimpseste de différents âges, était typique de la ville de montagne médiévale avec un château et des remparts, des routes étroites et sinueuses et seulement quelques squares de petite dimension. Le tremblement de terre du 10 et 11 janvier 1693 endommagea sérieusement la ville ainsi que 40 autres sites du sud-ouest de la Sicile. Aussi le vice-roi de Sicile, le duc Uzeda, constitua immédiatement un groupe de travail et deux conseils ayant des pouvoirs spéciaux pour les opérations de secours dans les vallées de Noto et Demone. Après avoir examinés plusieurs endroits, il fut décidé de déplacer la ville à Pienazzo à l'intérieur du fief de Meti à 7 kms en aval de l'ancien village. Pour des raisons politiques et militaires, le gouvernement espagnol, essayant d'éviter la prolifération de villes fortifiées, assigna cette fonction à la nouvelle ville d'Avola qui était seulement à 4 Kms et était structurée comme une forteresse moderne sur un plan hexagonal de Grunemberg. Ainsi, Noto fut organisée selon un plan réticulé en deux blocs parallèles épousant la forme du terrain. En 1702 le nouveau village devint officiel et n'était en fait pas très différent de l'emplacement actuel.

PATRIZIA VALLE

THE VARIOUS RECONSTRUCTIONS OF THE CITY AFTE THE EARTHQUAQUES OF THE “L’AQUILA” CITY (1315-1349-17032009), BETWEEN TYPOLOGICAL INVENTION AND MORPHOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION

The banner (gonfalone) by Paolo Cardone is an important historical document because it shows the city of L'Aquila in the 16th century, before the terrible earthquake of 17031 On it one can see the main places and monuments: the city centre, the market square, the churches, San Bernardino and the fortress. It shows a dense texture of buildings, where religious buildings and the square, perhaps too great, stand out, and orchards and gardens, all enclosed by medieval walls. Geographical situation and foundation of the city In the Middle Ages the principal European urban areas were located in central and northern Italy and between the Seine and Rhine rivers. The Way 'Cammino') of Abruzzo was the route that connected with the south of Italy. Here, in the Roman period, there were structured settlements on the Via Claudia Nova which later connected monasteries and was a 'transhumance' route. In the past, there were sev1.Detail of the banner of the city of L'Aquila (P. Cardone, 1579)

2. City map of L'Aquila, G.P. Fonticulano 1575 (Engraved by J. Lauro) 3.Perspective map of L'Aquila 1622 "Fidellisima et nobil cittĂ dell'Aquila nell'Abruzzo" (engraved by J.

Lauro, according to Antonelli drawing) . 4.Aerial photo, before 2009 earthquake 5.The "red zone" after the earthquake

eral Roman cities in the valley of the River Aterno, including Amiternum, together with a dense network of plebeian settlements. After 970 these cities were no more. L'Aquila was a commercial emporium, a place of obligatory passage along the road connecting north and south2, and the trade routes of saffron and silk. Around 1000 we witness the phenomenon of fortification of the territory of L'Aquila, and it is against this background and among these castles of the countryside that the foundation of the city took place. Probably a rebellious act on the part of the citizens against these feudal castles led, in 1254, to the construction of a new city. L'Aquila was a 'civitas nova' that was built in the centre of an area where castles, each with a church built in the city, maintains a close relationship with it. it was one of the largest town planning projects of the Middle Ages3. A singular fact about this city is that, from its foundation, it always remained a gigantic construction site, and an important characteristic of its major public buildings was their incompleteness. Indeed, 'unfinished' became a connotation of this city in constantly changing circumstances, due to repeated earthquakes; phases of destruction and reconstruction, which have been interspersed throughout history, have become a modus vivendi. After each earthquake, the city is reborn like the phoenix from the ashes of its nest. The initial site of the city's foundation is never left, although it remains a place with a seismic hazard. The Cistercians, who had formed a commercial and economic network of abbeys in the territory of Abruzzo since the 12th century, might have contributed to the foundation of the pre-Angevin settlement in 1254-59. Another reliable hypothesis is that L'Aquila was a new urban organisation commissioned by Emperor Frederick II, in opposition to the multiplicity of 'castra' spread across the territory. The new city that started out as Ghibelline became Guelph, supporting the Pope, and in 1259 was destroyed by Manfred, King of Sicily. In 1266, a reconstruction of the city began on the orders of Charles I of Naples (Charles of Anjou). The religious orders had provided, in the 13th century, a great incentive by con-

structing a number of important buildings: (Franciscan) San Francesco a Palazzo, 1270; (Dominican) Royal Palace; (Cistercian) Santa Maria Nova, 1292; (Eremites) Convent and Church San Agostino, 1282; and (Benedictines and Celestines) Santa Maria of Collemaggio, 1294. The city walls were finished in 1316. They are four miles long with 12 gates, of which only four remain open, and there are four 'neighbourhoods' within the city perimeter. The perspective plan by Pico Fonticulano, realized in 1575, represents an 'interpretation' of the city. It has an east-west orientation with an orthogonal texture; it is possible to see a land partition inside the walls, between the castles and convents, which has contributed to the layout4. On the plan there are three axes with a east-west direction, and two north-south. Barete Gate and Bazzano Gate are both fortified, with a double order of access. The east-west axis from the Barete Gate, now the Via Roma (or Roman Way), is the Decumano Massimo, the continuation of the via Claudia Nova; the northsouth axis from Paganica Gate to Bagno Gate is the Cardo Massimo, tangent to the square, now Corso Federico II. The two empty centres are Mercato Square and Palazzo Square. Visible on the map are the pre-existing decentralised elements, which confirm the hypothesis of a previous urban structure centred upon the square, by the axis of the Bazzano Gate, where this is generated by an irregular texture; by contrast, the later urban development is based on an orthogonal grid towards the Via Roma.

6.The spanish fortress "Il Castello" after the last earthquake. 7.The church of San Pietro a Coppito after the last earthquake. 8.The Mercato Square and the church of Santa Maria del Suffragio after the last earthquake. 9.The church of Santa Maria del Suffragio after the last earthquake and the first emergency works.

10. The bell tower of the church of San Bernardino after the last earthquake. 11.Church of Sant'Agostino after the last earthquake. 12. Detail of the emergency work at the church of Sant'Agostino.

After the earthquakes of 1315 and 1349 the we east-west axis of the town was strengthened trough the reconstruction of public buildings and the enclosure of the new city within the walls. The 'forma urbis' concludes at the end of the 14th century with two interventions: the Basilica of San Bernardino and the extension of Via Roma. With the building of the castle in the 16th century, the system of representation of the city changes because the north-south axis, the modern Corso Federico II, is reinforced. The fountain of the Rivera quarter, which was begun in 1272 with 99 spouts that represented the castles in the area, is the secular monument that was most transformed during this period. The map of Vandi is the first cartographic representation that has a north-south orientation and no longer the east-west orientation as before, based on the symbolic axis of the Way of Abruzzo. This plan of 1753 is an illuminist representation that considers the progress in topography. It represents the buildings destroyed and rebuilt after the earthquake of 1703, with invariant urban planning and without any urban regeneration, so there is 'gone astray' 18th-century architecture, located in a 'not coeval' urban framework5. In this period, the reconstruction involved only private buildings; 39 churches have disappeared, and there are many open spaces within the walled city. The churches of San Agostino, Santa Maria of Sufragio, Santa Maria of Concezione,

13.The school in the S. Bernardino Square after the earthquake 14.Church of San Gregorio Magno after the last earthquake .

15. Naple's gate after the last earthquacke

Santa Caterina of Collemaggio, Santa Maria in Paganica were reconstructed or transformed in Baroque style, an architectural language that was so far a stranger to the city of L'Aquila. Reconstruction was particularly concentrated around the Mercato Square with the Cathedral of Santi Massimo and Giorgio and the new church of Santa Maria of Suffragio, and the dome that was attributed to Valadier. Orthogonal to the Duomo's axis, the new axis was changing the balance of the square. The 16th and 17th centuries witnessed the decadence of the city, the end of 'Aquilana libertas' and of the unique structure of a 'territorial city', and of the beginnings of Spanish rule, with a new feudal system. In 1799 French occupation began. Architecture and Urban Form It is very important to emphasise the influence of earthquakes on the form of the city of L'Aquila. Here, they represent a continuous 'unfinished' movement, as opposed to Noto, because its reconstruction is always in the same place. There are no complete bell towers, the towers are reduced and incomplete; the process of formal sedimentation is continuously interrupted.6 San Domenico is a monument, within the city walls, that represents all this; it is a synthesis of several remakings, after earthquakes, with the influences of external and local con-

struction practices intertwined with Northern Gothic. San Maria of Collemaggio is a great basilica outside the walls, with an apse on the slopes of a hill; it is an example which displays different techniques of addition and stratification of the component parts. The tower is unfinished. The fountain of Rivera is also the result of stratification and continuous additions to the original structure. Generally, the facades of L'Aquila churches are often independent of their internal structures; they are autonomous and spectacular elements compared to the architectural organisms of which they form a part. In the majority the plan of the churches have three naves, the others an aisle. The stone masonry is clear with only a few openings, which is unusual; they consist of a portal and rose window, decorated with a thin string-course and vertical pilasters. Earthquakes and their known effects in the city of L'Aquila from the Middle Ages to the 19th century: 1300 September 9 1300 December 13 1315 led to reconstruction of religious buildings 1349 led to demolition of portions of the city walls 1400 November 26 1461 led to reconstruction of the mint, university, printing works and the basilica of San Bernardo 1700 February 2 1703 heavy earthquake which destroyed much of the city, an historic low of number of 2,648 inhabitants. The earthquake accelerated the processes already in place, and led to reconstruction in Baroque style Earthquakes and the modern city We have collected images of the destruction caused by the earthquake of 6 April, 2009, pictures of new buildings and of areas that are not yet accessible which await urgent interventions that are unfortunately not yet begun. In particular we see the plan of the "red zone" demarcated in the centre of the city and the plan of the location of new settlements that were built during the post-earthquake emergency between 2009-2010. Unlike the past, these new towns and villages are being built outside; the old town has just been abandoned with the consequent loss of identity of the local community who cannot live in the historical centre of the city and gather around its symbols. But, as opposed to Noto, these new buildings are not planned to create in another place an 'analogous city', equal in importance to the original. Analysis of three monuments of the fortified city and the phases of their transformation from the Middle Ages to 'modern times' The Basilica of San Bernardino, with the staircase built in the 19th century, with a late-Gothic system, was transformed by Cola with a late Renaissance facade and restored after the earthquake of 1703. It became the natural conclusion of the 14thcentury extension of the Via Roma. In the course of time, the original shape of the perimeter of the Rivera fountain with its 99 spouts, was transformed many times. Located in the place of first settlement, it owes its present form to the additions made in different historical periods, a work very much 'open' to different interpretations and additions. The 16th-century fortress seems to have changed the urban orientation, but in reality it was abstracted from the city and became another element, an impregnable fortress and place of privilege, a symbol of power.

Conclusions Finally looking back towards my interpretation of the Alberti's concept of "forma aperta" and his restorations, he dealt with the ancient ruins letting the component elements of the building become part of the new decorations completing the incomplete project. Therefore these works remain unfinished showing a temporal continuity and, being opened to interpretations and changes, they are almost more complete. A city like L'Aquila, which has been so important to its own territory, has, through its withstanding of so many earthquakes and undergoing a constant process of change and incompleteness, acquired a distinct identity, but it is a pity that those who govern the city today are indifferent to that historical identity and process and are for the first time breaking the pattern. Will this be the end of this process? Or by the reuse of old buildings damaged by the earthquake will the city be allowed to take on a new role at a regional level, at a time when we are rediscovering the importance of cultural heritage in shaping the society of tomorrow?

Notes 1. G. Paolo Cardone, 1579 (L'Aquila, Museo Nazionale d'Abruzzo) 2. E. Ennen, Die europaische Stadt des Mittelalters, (it. traslation La grande società commerciale di Ravensburg), Laterza 1978, ill. pag.201 3. P. Lavedan, Histoire de l'Urbanisme. AntiquitéMoyen Age, Laurens, Paris, 1926 4. G.P. Fonticulano, Breve Descrittione di Sette Città Illustri d'Italia di Messer Ieronimo Pico Fonticulano

dell'Aquila, L'Aquila 1582. 5. A.F. Vandi, 1753; A.Clementi e E.Piroddi, L'Aquila, Editori Laterza, 1986. 6. L.B. Alberti, De re aedificatoria; P.Portoghesi (a cura di ), L'Architettura, Il Polifilo, 1966; M. Cenfanti, Cultura Urbana, Storia e Progetto, Atti del XXI Congresso di Storia dell'Architettura, Roma, 1983; G. Grassi, Leon Battista Alberti. L'architettura Romana, Franco Angeli, 2007; M.R. Petrignani, Egemonia politica e forma urbana, Dedalo libri, Bari, 1980.

La bannière (gonfalone) de Paul Cardone représente la cité de L'Aquila, dans le seizième siècle, avant le terrible tremblement de terre de 1703. La voie des Abruzzi était la route commerciale qui reliait les villes de l'Europe et le sud d'Italie. L'Aquila est une civitas nova construite le long de cet axe, au centre d'un territoire avec lequel elle entretient une relation étroite. Elle est devenue une des plus grandes entreprises dans la planification du Moyen Age. Depuis sa fondation, a toujours êté un chantier géant, une œuvre inachevée. Le "inachevé" est la connotation de cette ville en transformation constante à cause de répétés tremblements de terre, qui ont influencé la forme. Malgré cela, au cours des siècles on n'a jamais quitté le lieu ou la ville a été initialement fondée tel qu'il a êté en Noto. Après le tremblement de terre de 2009, contrairement au passé, la vieille ville a êté abandonnée pour construire de nouveaux quartiers résidentiels à l'extérieur, ce qui provoque la perte de l'identité de la communauté locale, qui ne peut pas vivre et se reconnaître dans sa ville historique. En effet la ville historique a êté fermé, entouré des barbelées, interdite a ses habitants, et soumise a une serie des mesures de securité dans l'attente de un fantomatique plan de restauration des batiments.

IN MEMORIAM Our colleagues: Tomas Durdik, member of the Scientific Council , and Lucio Santoro and Federico Roggero, honorary members, suddenly passed away in 2012. Tomas Durdik had an international reputation as the leading authority as archeologist on defence architecture in northern Europe from the 11th century to modern perod. As well as writting prolifically on these and related subjects, he had a busy professional career. Some of us first met Tomas just in the IBI Scientific Council, in which he represented the Czech Republic, in 1993 in Wales. After the merger of IBIwith Europa Nostra he continued to serve as Member of this Scientific Coucil until his demise. Apart this role he was, employed in the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic) from 1971, he carried aut pedagogical activities at the Faculty of Philosophy, Charles University Prague faculty of Architecture, Czech Technical University Prague and the Faculty of Philosophy, West Bohemian University Plzen. As member of the Executive Committee of Czech National ICOMOS he made several missions as expert (to Belarus and Estonia). He was also member of : the DBV Council, the Castrum Bene permanent committee, Castella Maris Baltici and Chateau Gaillard. He was President of the Czech Society of Friends of Antiquities, president of the Research Committee of the Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic, member of the Main Committee of the Czech Archaeological Society, member of the Scientific Council of the National Institute for the Preservation of Historical Monuments, editor of the Castellologica Bohemica periodical, editor-in-chief of the "Casopis Spolecnosti prátel staro itností" periodical and member of the editors' board of the "Zprávy památkové péce" periodical. During more than thirty years of his inexhaustible activities Tomas Durdik worked on the investigation and rescue of archaeological research of castles and castle ruins; he published more than 400 articles and other writings. Among these we remember his numerous and important reports and articles published on the EN Scientific Bulletin. Thanks to his devotion to the conservation of fortified architecture in the Czech Republic we can consider Tomas Durdik the real founder of modern castellology in former Czechoslovakia, a specific discipline which he placed on a top European level his country. In addition to his role in teaching at universities and leading or consulting research in field and research work of younger archaeologists, he placed vital importance on raising awareness of the North European heritage and its popularization among the population. The Europa Nostra Scientific Council remembers him as a close friend who, through his very great experience and knowledge, gave immense strength to this Coucil's work in the field of military architecture from medieval times to modem artillery fortifications. We were immensely gratified and proud that, to recognise his vast and unique contribution to the cultural heritage sector, Tomas Durdik was awarded the auspicios Europa Prize for Cultural Heritage/ Europa Nostra award in 2011. It is sad that he had so little time left to enjoy this so well deserved honour. In recognition of what he did for Europa Nostra and for his coutry, the recent meeting of the EN Scientific Council held in Kappadocia was dedicated to the memory of Tomas Durdik and to the constant support he gave to the safeguarding and conservation of military architecture.

Tomas Durdik, Nicosia, Cyprus 2011. (by Grazia Bartolozzi)

Lucio Santoro Architect, retired professor of restoration, he taught history of architecture and history of town planning at the Federico II University in Naples. Unesco counsellor on the subject of heritage conservation he was also a member of international associations such as Icomos and Ibi, of which he was a member of its Scientific Council from 1983 to 1993 and then of the Europa Nostra Scientific Council, where he became an honorary member in 1999. Under Gazzola's presidency he was one of the founder members of the Istituto Italiano dei Castelli and from 1988 to 1990 he chaired its Scientific Council and was a member of the editorial staff of the magazine Castellum. For many years he contributed to the Europa Nostra Scientific Bulletin about first-hand data and information regarding military architecture and the cultural heritage of Southern Italy. Among his many publications we remember the following dealing with military architecture: Restauro dei Monumenti e Tutela ambientale dei centri antichi (Di Mauro, 1970); Aspetti e problemi dell'ambiente campano (Tecnarch, 1979); Castelli angioini e aragonesi (Rusconi, 1982); Le mura di Napoli (Istituto Italiano dei Castelli, 1984); Fortificazioni urbane dell'Italia Meridionale in etĂ aragonese (SocietĂ Napoletana di Storia Patria, 1998). Lucio Santoro represented for the Europa Nostra Scientific Council one of the most rigorous researchers on the subject of cultural heritage and in particular on military architecture, remarkable for his moral honesty and his scientific rigour. Particularly memorable was the international meeting on the subject "Castelli e vita di castello" (Castles and life in the castle) that he organized for Ibi and Istituto Italiano dei Castelli in 1995 in Naples.

Mario Federico Roggero He was a leader in the field of international cultural associations, was an honorary member of Icomos international and served as president of Italian Icomos from 1984 to 1993. Emeritus professor, Dean of the Faculty of Architecture from 1969 to 1981, ViceRector of the Polytechnic of Torino from 1967 to 1981, he was also a member of CUN from 1984 to 1987. He chaired the Piedmont division of the Istituto Italiano dei Castelli from 1963 and represented Italy on the Scientific Council of Ibi from 1980 to 1990 and then as an honorary member of the Europa Nostra Scientific Council. He was Vice President of the Centro Studi e Ricerche sull'Architettura militare del Piemonte since 1996, was appointed as Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the MinistĂ¨re des Affaires Culturelles in Paris in 1963 and Grande Ufficiale dell'Ordine al Merito della Repubblica in Rome in 1980. As an Architect Roggero reintroduced the matter of quality in construction and in the urban fabric through engagement with the use of residential space, while being mindful more of the practicalities than the ideal. We remember Roggero as the friend with which we shared many initiatives, for his inexhaustible activity and his complete openness in broadening the knowledge of our cultural, artistic, monumental, military but also human heritage, thanks to his many writings and participation in meetings and symposia. His collaboration with the first President of the Scientific Council of Ibi, Piero Gazzola, was fundamental. Like him, he believed that culture wasn't only the privilege of the few and he was supported by the belief that everyone could contribute and participate. Europa Nostra and its Scientific Council are honoured to have enjoyed for many years his important friendship and to have availed of his precious advice on the conservation of European heritage thanks to his deep experience, knowledge and human kindness.