Rare earths industry technological economic and environmental implications 1st edition leal filho wa

Rare earths industry : technological, economic, and environmental implications 1st Edition Leal Filho Walter

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Editedby

IsmarBorgesDeLima

UniversidadeEstadualdeRoraima,UERR,Brazil,&Southern CrossUniversity,SCU,GoldCoast,QLD,Australia

HamburgUniversityofAppliedSciences,ResearchandTransfer Centre“ApplicationsofLifeSciences”,Hamburg,Germany

WalterLealFilho

Elsevier

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Notices

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ListofContributors

AidaAbbasalizadeh

DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft, TheNetherlands

VassilikiAggelatou InstituteofGeologyandMineralExploration,Athens,Greece

ZachariasAgioutantis DepartmentofMiningEngineering,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington,KY,USA

UweAltenberger UniversityofPotsdam,Potsdam-Golm,Telegrafenberg,Germany

HelmutAntrekowitsch

ChairofNonferrousMetallurgy,MontanuniversitaetLeoben,Leoben,Austria

EfthymiosBalomenos

NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthensSchoolofMiningandMetallurgicalEngineering, ZografosCampus–Athens,Greece

GeorgeBarakos

HZDR–HelmholtzInstituteFreibergforResourceTechnologies,Freiberg,Germany

GregoryB.Barnes

G.B.Barnes&Associates,SouthPerth,WA,Australia

EvaBartekova ´

UnitedNationsUniversity-MERITandMaastrichtUniversity,Maastricht,TheNetherlands

NinaK.Boesche

HelmholtzCentrePotsdam–GFZGermanResearchCentreforGeosciences,Potsdam, Telegrafenberg,Germany;UniversityofPotsdam,Potsdam-Golm,Telegrafenberg,Germany

IsmarBorgesdeLima

UniversidadeEstadualdeRoraima,UERR,Brazil,&SouthernCrossUniversity,SCU,Gold Coast,QLD,Australia

E.Bourbos

SchoolofMiningandMetallurgicalEngineering,NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens, Athens,Greece

MaximilianBrell

HelmholtzCentrePotsdam–GFZGermanResearchCentreforGeosciences,Potsdam, Telegrafenberg,Germany

PanagiotisDavris

NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthensSchoolofMiningandMetallurgicalEngineering, ZografosCampus–Athens,Greece

ElsDeCanck

DepartmentofInorganicandPhysicalChemistry,CenterforOrderedMaterials,Organometallics andCatalysis(COMOC),GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

JeriffaDeClercq

DepartmentofIndustrialTechnologyandConstruction,IndustrialCatalysisandAdsorption Technology(INCAT),GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

JeroenDeDecker

DepartmentofInorganicandPhysicalChemistry,CenterforOrderedMaterials,Organometallics andCatalysis(COMOC),GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

BayarmagnaiEnkhzul

CentralGeologicalLaboratory,Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia

AndreaFerrari

D’AppoloniaS.p.A.,Genoa,Italy

I.Giannopoulou

SchoolofMiningandMetallurgicalEngineering,NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens, Athens,Greece

BertilGrundfelt

KemaktaKonsultAB,Stockholm,Sweden

X.Guo

DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft, TheNetherlands

JensGutzmer

InstituteofMineralogy,TUBergakademieFreiberg,Freiberg,Germany

SabrinaHerrmann

HelmholtzCentrePotsdam–GFZGermanResearchCentreforGeosciences,Potsdam, Telegrafenberg,Germany;UniversityofPotsdam,Potsdam-Golm,Telegrafenberg, Germany

LarsOlofHo ¨ glund KemaktaKonsultAB,Stockholm,Sweden

SotirisN.Kamenopoulos

SchoolofMineralResourcesEngineering,TechnicalUniversityofCrete,Chania,Greece

A.Karantonis

SchoolofChemicalEngineering,NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens,Athens,Greece

S.Kaya

DepartmentofMetallurgicalandMaterialsEngineering,MiddleEastTechnicalUniversity (METU),Ankara,Turkey

MirandaKeith-Roach

KemaktaKonsultAB,Stockholm,Sweden

JamesC.Kennedy

ThREEConsulting,St.Louis,MO,USA

KostasKomnitsas

SchoolofMineralResourcesEngineering,TechnicalUniversityofCrete,Chania,Greece

FriederikeKo ¨ rting

HelmholtzCentrePotsdam–GFZGermanResearchCentreforGeosciences,Potsdam, Telegrafenberg,Germany;UniversityofPotsdam,Potsdam-Golm,Telegrafenberg,Germany

AnneKousa

GeologicalSurveyofFinland,Kuopio,Finland

JukkaLaukkanen

GeologicalSurveyofFinland,GTKMineralprocessing,Outokumpu,Finland

WalterLealFilho

HamburgUniversityofAppliedSciences,ResearchandTransferCentre“ApplicationsofLife Sciences”,Hamburg,Germany

LingZhiLi

ChinaWesternMiningCo.,Ltd,Xining,Qinghai,P.R.China

BatzorigLkhagvasuren

CentralGeologicalLaboratory,Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia

ChristinLubitz

HelmholtzCentrePotsdam–GFZGermanResearchCentreforGeosciences,Potsdam, Telegrafenberg,Germany

StefanLuidold

ChairofNonferrousMetallurgy,MontanuniversitaetLeoben,Leoben,Austria

PalomaMagistrati

FenMineralsA/S,Norway

NabeelA.Mancheri

InstituteofSocialScience,UniversityofTokyo,Tokyo,Japan

DelgermaaMargai

MongolGazarLLC,Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia

ChristianMielke

HelmholtzCentrePotsdam–GFZGermanResearchCentreforGeosciences,Potsdam, Telegrafenberg,Germany;UniversityofPotsdam,Potsdam-Golm,Telegrafenberg,Germany

HelmutMischo

InstituteforMiningandSpecialCivilEngineering,TUBergakademieFreiberg,Freiberg, Germany

Nicolo ` Olivieri

D’AppoloniaS.p.A.,Genoa,Italy

DimitriosPanias

SchoolofMiningandMetallurgicalEngineering,NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens, Athens,Greece

AnnePapenfuß

HelmholtzCentrePotsdam–GFZGermanResearchCentreforGeosciences,Potsdam, Telegrafenberg,Germany;UniversityofPotsdam,Potsdam-Golm,Telegrafenberg,Germany

IoannisPaspaliaris

SchoolofMiningandMetallurgicalEngineering,NationalTechnicalUniversityofAthens, Athens,Greece

SebastiaanPeelman

DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft, TheNetherlands

EsaPohjolainen

GeologicalSurveyofFinland,Espoo,Finland

AlexanderPoscher

ChairofNonferrousMetallurgy,MontanuniversitaetLeoben,Leoben,Austria

V.Prakash

DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft, TheNetherlands

ChristianRogass

HelmholtzCentrePotsdam–GFZGermanResearchCentreforGeosciences,Potsdam, Telegrafenberg,Germany

RobertoV.Santos

Servic¸oGeolo ´ gicodoBrasil–CPRM–SGAN603Conj.“J”ParteA–1 andar–CEP70.830-100–Brası´lia–DF,Brazil

HolgerSchnideritsch

ChairofNonferrousMetallurgy,MontanuniversitaetLeoben,Leoben,Austria

HansK.Schønwandt

G.B.Barnes&Associates,SouthPerth,WA,Australia

SeshadriSeetharaman

DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm, Sweden

DeborahShields

DepartmentofEconomics,ColoradoStateUniversity,FortCollins,CO,USA

JiltSietsma

DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft, TheNetherlands

FranciscoV.Silveira

Servic¸oGeolo ´ gicodoBrasil–CPRM–SGAN603Conj.“J”ParteA–1 andar–CEP70.830-100–Brası´lia–DF,Brazil

ZhiH.I.Sun

DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft, TheNetherlands

LucyTakehara

Servic¸oGeolo ´ gicodoBrasil–CPRM–RuaBancodaProvı´ncia,PortoAlegre-RS,Brazil

LidongTeng

DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm, Sweden

SabineTonn

HelmholtzCentrePotsdam–GFZGermanResearchCentreforGeosciences,Potsdam, Telegrafenberg,Germany

Y.A.Topkaya

DepartmentofMetallurgicalandMaterialsEngineering,MiddleEastTechnicalUniversity (METU),Ankara,Turkey

AkseliTorppa

GeologicalSurveyofFinland,Kuopio,Finland

ThomasUlrich

DepartmentofGeoscience,AarhusUniversity,Aarhus,Denmark

PascalVanDerVoort

DepartmentofInorganicandPhysicalChemistry,CenterforOrderedMaterials,Organometallics andCatalysis(COMOC),GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium

XiaoshengYang

GeologicalSurveyofFinland,GTKMineralProcessing,Outokumpu,Finland

YongxiangYang

DepartmentofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,DelftUniversityofTechnology,Delft, TheNetherlands

VolkerZepf

ScientistattheChairofResourceStrategy,UniversityofAugsburg,Germany

Preface

Rareearthsareelementsthatcomprisecriticalcomponentsofmanyofourmoderntechnological devicesandeverydayelectronics.Theirdemandworldwideisprojectedtoincrease,giventheir manyapplications.TheEuropeanUnion(EU)importsmorethan90%ofitsrareearthmetal (REMs)needsfromcountriessuchasChinabecausethereisnotenoughinternalsupply.Experts predictthatthedemandforthesemetalswillgrowasconsumerpreferencesshifttowardhigh-tech and“green”products.Toensuresupplysecurity,theEUistryingtoimproveaccesstorareearths, reducetheirconsumption,andenhanceextractionconditionsacrossthecontinent.Yet,despitethe relevanceofandneedforrareearths,theirtechnologicalandeconomicelementsandtheenvironmentalimplicationsoftheirexplorationandtradearenotfullyunderstood.Thisinnovativebook willprovidesuchacontributionandwilladdressthisgapinthebookmarket.

Amainmotivationforproposingabookonrareearthshasbeentheglobalincreasingdemandfor critical,updated,andextensiveanalysisandinformationonthetheme.Thebookhasaninterdisciplinaryorientationwithafocusontechnical,scientific,academic,economic,andenvironmental andmarketissues;thus,itwidelycoversmultipleinterestsoftheaudience.Thechaptersprovide updatedinformationandapricelessanalysisofthetheme.Theypresentthelatesttechniques, approaches,processes,andtechnologiesthatcanreducethecostsofcompliancewithenvironmental concernsinawaythatmakesitpossibletoanticipateandmitigateemergingproblems.Attheendof eachmainpartofthebook,acriticalsummaryoutlinesthetechnological,economic,andenvironmentalimplicationsoftherareearthreserves,explorations,andmarket.

Atthebeginning,achapteroffersaconcisebutmeaningfulgeopoliticalanalysisofthecurrent worldwidescenarioandtheimportanceofrareearthexplorationforgovernments,corporategroups, andlocalstakeholders.Rareearthelements(REEs)arecomposedof15chemicalelementsinthe periodictable.Scandiumandyttriumhavesimilarproperties,withmineralassemblages,andare thereforereferredtoalikeintheliterature.Althoughtheyareabundantontheplanetsurface,rareearths arenotfoundinconcentratedform,whichmakesthemeconomicallyvaluablebecauseofthechallenges anddifficultiesinobtainingthem.Theirimportanceintheindustryliesinthefactthatalmostallnewer technologiesrequiretheserareminerals,suchassolarandwindenergysystems,smartphones,theaerospaceindustry,high-efficiencylightingandelectricmotors,andhybridandelectricvehicles.

Inviewofthehighdemandforrareearths,theirexplorationshouldoccuronasustainablebasis usingprocesseswith“green”technologies;inthissense,recyclinghasapivotalroleandhasits ownspaceanddiscussioninthebook.Thebookprovidesadescriptionofthemanyfacetsand complexitiesrelatedtorareearthexploration,development,anddisposal,whichhaverevealedthemselvestobeofutmostimportancetotheeconomiesofdevelopedanddevelopingcountries,among whichareChina,theUnitedStates,Australia,India,Brazil,andGermany,tomentionjustafew. Rareearthshavesuddenlybecomeanationaltechnologicalandeconomicprioritybecausecountries haveaimedtobecomeevenmorecompetitiveintheworldmarket,andthesemineralsareunquestionablyessential.

Asobservedinthemarketfactsheetsandinstitutionalreports,worldwidedemandisexpectedto growby8–11%eachyearandminingandproductionmaynothappenatthesamestride.Theprojected globaldemandforREEsin2016isatleast160,000tonsannually,suggestingaHobbesandCalvin principlethattheoreticallyexplainsthedynamicsofagulfbetween‘supply’and‘demand’,inwhich rawresourcedemandssurpasssuppliesforspecificminerals.

Simplyput,inthenearfuturetheREEsectorrisksfacingshort-termshortages.Theincreasein demandisintertwinedwithenvironmentalimplicationsofproductionandexistingsupplyrisksowing toanintricateandcomplexmarket.TheseissueshavestrikinglyledtotheidentificationofREEsas criticalrawmaterials.

TherecyclingandreuseofREMsisapromisingfieldbecauseitalsosavesenergyusedinmining andprocessing,conservesresources,andreducespollutionandgreenhousegasemissions.Consistent withthisgoal,itisimportanttoundertakeananalysisofsocioenvironmentalandsocioeconomic elementsandtoproduceguidelinesthatshouldbeconsideredinthesustainablerecyclingofREMs, inlinewiththeprinciplesofsustainabledevelopmentandcorporatesocialresponsibility.

Intermsofsocioeconomicsustainability,apossiblecourseofactionistodevelopanalyticalguides forthesocioeconomicevaluationoftheexploitationofREMsandtheirrecycling.Suchguidesmay thenbeusedaspolicytoolstoallowinformeddecisionstoensuresocioeconomicelementsareconsideredintheexploitationandrecyclingofREMs,ensuringsustainabilityaspectsarefullyconsidered.

Companiesintheinformationtechnologyandenergysector(e.g.,windenergy)urgentlyneedto addressproblemsrelatedtotheirshortsupplyofREEs.Onewaytoaddresstheproblemistomaximize theuseofalreadyexistingREEs(i.e.,theirrecoveryfromexistingelectronicequipment);thisleadsa discussionofthesustainabilityoftherareearthsindustrynotonlyinminingbutalsoinoverallREE production,consumption,andrecycling.Inthiscontext,recyclingmethodsmayhaveanimportantrole andwillbeusefultocompanies.Yet,thereisapaucityofresearchinthisfield.

Thepurposeofthisbookistocompilecurrentinformationandreportonresearchandprojectsthat mayultimatelycatalyzeeffortstodevelopastrategyformanagingREEresourcesasawholeand reducingtheirpotentialenvironmentalimpactsinparticular.Itconsistsofasetofchaptersinwhich eachelement(technological,environmental,ormarket)isemphasized.Topresentthetopicssystematically,thebookwasdividedintothreemainparts. PartI dealswithrareearthreservesandmining; PartII focusesonrareearthprocessesandhigh-techproductdevelopmentandindustrymarketissues; and PartIII dealswithrareearthenvironmentalissues:opportunitiesandchallenges.

Eachchapterpresentshighlightsofthemethodsandfindingsofupdated,unique,particularstudies providedbyexpertsonrareearths,whoareeitherresearchersofacknowledgedhighereducation institutionsorbelongtorenownedresearchinstitutesworldwide.Thebookgathersacollectionof high-qualityscientific,academic,andtechnologicalworkthatisofutmostvaluetothoseinterested inorengagedwiththerareearthssector. Chapter1 offersanoverviewofthecurrentsituationand trendsofrareearthsrelatedtopertinentissuesoftheindustry,eithereconomicfactsorinnovativescientificsolutionsandnewapproachestoaproblemissue:forinstance,anenvironmentalone.Thusbeginsavaluableoutlineforastartupreadingintothetheme. Chapter2 providesacriticalreviewon Chineserareearthexportrestrictionsandimplicationswithregardtoitscurrentmonopolyoverthe industry,andprovidesinsightsintothemarketintermsofvolume,value,andavailability. Chapter3 examineshowUnitedStates/InternationalAtomicEnergyAgencyregulatoryconstraintshave beenunfavorableforWesternrareearthproducersandhavethereforecontributedtosomeextent toChina’srareearthproductionleadership.Thechapterdiscussestheeconomicviabilityofrare earthsintheinterfacesofgeochemistryandvaluechainintegration. Chapter4 reportsonthepotentialityofREEsinBrazilbycomprehensivelyanalyzingrareearthsitesinBrazilianlands,includingthe capacityofmineswithestimatedreserves.ItdiscussesdetailsaboutREEsinacountrywith promisingproductioninthefollowingdecades.Thecurrentstateofactiveoperationalminesin differentregionsofthecountryisfullydiscussedregardinggeologicalandeconomicvalueaspects. Chapter5 describestherareearthdepositTanbreezinsouthGreenlandanditspotentialityand concentratesinthesoilwithconservativeestimatesofmorethanfourbilliontonsofspecificREEs.

Thechapterlargelycontributestotheliteraturebyadvancinghigh-intensemagneticseparation,and thereforecansubstantiallyminimizetheimpactofwasteproducts. Chapter6 contributestothe rareearththemebydevelopingamixofqualitativeandquantitativesustainabledevelopmentcriteria andindicators,whichcaninturnbeusedforassessingREEminingprojects.Theproposedcriteriaand indicatorscanbeusedbyoverallstakeholders,aswellastoassistdecisionandpolicymakers regardingthebottomlineconcerningsocial,economic,environmental,geopolitical,andtechnological aspectsforREEdevelopment. Chapter7 extendstheanalysisofsustainabilityinREEminingbyelaboratingaframeworkthatincludesfundamentalelementscontributingtoaholisticsustainableplatform forREEsincludingtangibleandintangiblevariables,limitingandcontrollingfactors,andoutputsfor improvingaglobalscenarioonREEsgiventheabsenceofanexistinginternationalinterorganizational regulatoryagencyforthesector.Theframeworkcanbewidelyappliedtoasetofsituationshelpingto balancegoverningpositionsanddecisionsaboutcertainmultidimensionalproblemissuesintherare earthindustry. Chapter8 dealswithananalysisofrareearthundergroundminingandradioactivityin termsofcontrolandmonitoringstrategies.Itattemptstodetermineradondispersionsourcesandthe risksrelatedtoradiationexposure.Itfocusesonkeyissuesofrareearthexplorationandprocesses, suchasoccupationalexposition,tailings,minewater,dustsuppression,andventilation.Thechapter discussesenvironmentalandhealthissuesofrareearthproduction. Chapter9 examinesChina’s rareearthresources,production,mines,andoremineralogy,aswellasbeneficiationtechniques includingflowsheets,flotation,andleachingreagents.ThechapterdiscussesionadsorptionandfocusesonthelargestactivereservesoftheworldinChina,amongwhichistheBayanObo REE-Nb-FeoreinInnerMongolia. Chapter10 dealswiththeroleofrareearthsupplyrisksin low-carbontechnologiesinnovation.Itanalyzesoffshorewindturbinesandelectricallypoweredvehiclestodetermineactualquantitiesofrareearthsusedwithintheirgenerators,electricmotors,andbatteries.Thechaptercontestsprevalentviewsandallegationsthatapaucityofpotentialsupplywould disruptthefurtherdevelopmentoftheautomotiveindustry,forinstance. Chapter11 studiestheeffects ofhigh-pressureacidleachingbehaviorofscandiumtogetherwithnickelandcobaltfromarefractory nickellateriteore.Itseekstodeterminetheprocessparametersandoptimumprocessconditionsover finerparticlesizesandlongerleachingduration. Chapter12 investigatesleachingREEsfrombauxite residueusingBronstedacidicionicliquids.Itappliesinnovativesolventscalledionicliquidsinrare earthexploitationbyleavinglower-valuemetalssuchasironundissolved. Chapter13 brieflyreviews therecentliteratureonionicliquidsinREMelectrodepositionandsystematicallypresentsthemain electrochemicalpropertiesofionicliquidsandapplications.Asanoutcome,thechapterpresents theresultsofapreliminaryinvestigationforthesuitabilityofapyrrolidinium-basedionicliquidfor theelectrodepositionoflanthanum,thusaddingsignificantlytotheliteratureonREEs. Chapter14 describesdifferentoptionsofprocessingforpolishingglasssubstratesorwafersandtheuseof fine-grainedparticlesbasedontheoxidesofthelanthanidesceriumandlanthanum.Itexamines differenthydrometallurgicalmethodsincludingmineralacidsforextraction.Italsoinvestigatesprecipitationmethods,bycarbonateoroxalatecarriers,asthemeanstoproducearareearthconcentrate requiredforreuseinfabricatingnewpolishingpowders. Chapter15 offersacriticalevaluationofthe solubilityofrareearthoxides(REOs)inmoltenfluorides.Itpresentsacomprehensiveanalysisof availabledatafrompreviouspublicationswithafocusonthelimitedsolubilityofREOsasanobstacle topreparingREMs. Chapter16 providesahyperspectralREEmappingofthreeoutcropsattheFen Complex,Norway:calcitic,dolomitic,andankeriticcarbonatites.Thenewapproachallowsacharacterizationoftheoutcropmineralogyinarapidandrobustmannerbecauseofnewspatiotemporal hyperspectralmethods. Chapter17 providesageneraldescriptionofsomeenvironmentalimpacts oftheexploitationofREMsandoutlinesareaswhereattentionisneeded,suchasecosystemalteration

andenvironmentalrisksofgroundandsurfacewatercontamination,forexample.Aparticularreview isdoneofwaste,radioactivewaste,thegenerationoftailing ahazardouswastematerial andits particulates,andfugitivedustfromtailingsimpoundmenttransportedbywindthatmayaccumulate indownwindareas.Thechapterdiscussesthetopicbyoutliningtreatmentanddisposalsolutions. Chapter18 appraisesenvironmentallegislationandbestpracticeintheemergingEuropeanREE industrywithregardtoquantitiesofwasteandtonontargettoxicmetals,fluorine,andradionuclides. PastREEminingandprocessingresultedinsignificantenvironmentalimpactsinseveralcountries,and thechapterassessestheEU’sexistingenvironmentallegislation,comparingitwithregulationswith otherREE-producingcountries. Chapter19 reviewsthemainrecyclingaspectsofREEelements byofferinganoverviewofongoingpossibilitiesandadvancesworldwide.CurrentREErecyclingprojectsandprospectivefieldsareidentifiedintheliteratureandnewsreports.Recyclingistakenasone solutiontothelikelyscarcityofrareearthsupplies,besidesbeingecologicallydesirabletoalleviatethe pressuretoopennewminesorincreasecurrentproduction.Notwithstanding,economicandcostaspectsandfeasibilitiesareexaminedinthereview. Chapter20 investigatesthesystemicneedfor andapproachestoneodymiumuseandrecyclingpotential.Consequently,thestudyaimstodetermine andevaluatethequantitativerecyclingpotentialwithafocusonneodymiumusedinNdFeBmagnets inwindturbines,electriccars,andcomputerharddrivesatalocallevelinthedomainsoftimeand space. Chapter21 examinestheleachingofREEsbyreviewingpastandpresenttechnologiesinprimaryREEproductionandincurrentREErecyclingascriticaltohydrometallurgicalREEprocessing. ThechapterprovidesacomprehensiveunderstandingoftheseprocessesasfundamentaltoREErecyclingfromsecondaryresources. Chapter22 providesatheoreticalanalysisofsimultaneouselectrochemicalrecoveryofREEsandironfrommagnetscrap.Itreviewstheroleofthemicrostructureofthe alloyanddifferentelementsinthedissolutionmechanismoftheREEmagnet.ThefocusisonunderstandingtheelectrochemicalbehaviorofdifferentcomponentsintheNdFeBmagnetalloyaswellasa selectiveextractofREEsintoaqueoussolutions. Chapter23 contributestotheliteraturewithscientificadvancesbyprovidingmetal-organicframeworksinthefieldofliquidadsorptionforrecovering rareearths.Selectivitytestsdemonstratedveryhighselectivityforeuropiumoverthetransitionmetal zincandgoodselectivitybetweentherareearthseuropiumandyttrium. Chapter24 examinesrare earthextractionfromNdFeBmagnetsandREOsusingaluminumchloride–fluoridemoltensaltprocesses.ThechapterpointsoutthatthemethodiswellsuitedforrecoveringREMsfrommagneticscrap containingthesemetals.Themajorfieldknowledgeadvanceslieinthemoltensaltandelectrodepositionwithregardtotherecoveryofneodymiumanddysprosiumfromusedmagnets. Chapter25 dealswiththemineralogyandbeneficiationofREEintheMushgiaKhudagore,SouthGobi,in Mongolia,asinvestigatedduringajointresearchanddevelopmentprojectofGTKFinlandand CGLinMongoliain2012–2014.SampleswereexaminedbyMLA,XRD,EMPA,XRF,andICP–MS. Inadditiontoapatiteveins,thedepositalsocontainscarbonatite;bothrocktypesareassociatedwith Mesozoic,c.140Ma,syenitemagmatism.Thischaptercontributestoknowledgeofprocessingan extremelyREE-enrichedigneous-hydrothermaloretype. Chapter26 summarizesthemajorkeyfindings,outcomes,innovativeapproaches,andpertinentmethodspresentedinthechaptersasthemeans topromotetheoretical-conceptualadvancesintheliteratureandtheapplicabilityofinnovativeprocesseswithregardtorareearths.Thechapterisasynthesisofthepreviouschapterswithacompilation ofthekeycontributionsoftheauthorsinacademic,scientific,andtechnologicalterms.

WehopethisbookwillserveasareferencesourceforthoseworkingwithREMsorforthosewho areinterestedintheirvariousapplications.

Enjoyyourreading! TheEditors.

ANOVERVIEWOFTHE USEFULNESSANDSTRATEGIC VALUEOFRAREEARTHMETALS 1

VolkerZepf

ScientistattheChairofResourceStrategy,UniversityofAugsburg,Germany

1. CRITICALRAREEARTHS

Therareearthelements(REEs),alsocalledrareearthmetalsorjustrareearths(REs),havebeenthe mostprominentanddiscussedrawmaterialssinceabout2009.Inthatyear,Chinaannounceda reductioninREEexportquotasofnearly50%to30,000tons(t)1 rareearthoxides(REOs)(theusual measurefortradedREmaterials)(Zepf,2013).Thus,asupplyriskwasfearedbecauseChinahasade factoproductionmonopoly.Atthesametime,theeconomicimportanceoftheREEsemergedbecause ofimportantfunctionsinenvironmentallyfriendlyproductssuchasenergy-savinglamps,electriccars, and(sometypesof)windturbinegenerators(WTGs).Consequently,REEshaverepeatedlybeen identifiedassomeoftoday’smostcriticalelements.

ThesupplyriskissuegainedfurtherweightwhensomeobviousenvironmentalproblemsinREE miningwerereported(Bradsher,2009).Toovercometheseriskysituations,newREEminesoutside Chinawereplannedandsetup.Researchforbettermaterialsefficiencyandsubstitutionswaspushed. Eventually,theformermineatMountainPass,California,andtheMountWeldmineinsouthwestern Australiawentintocommissionaround2012.There,newmining,separation,andrefiningtechnology wasinstalledtoallowenvironmentallysoundproduction.Yettoday,bothcompaniesstrugglewithlow pricesforREEs,whichcausehugefinancialdeficitssothatevenbankruptcyisimminent.Despite theseproblems,thecompaniestrytokeepoperationsrunning.Nevertheless,REEshaveinherent specialchemicalandphysicalcharacteristicsthatallowextraordinaryfunctionalities,andthusREEs areidealingredientsforahugevarietyofapplications.

Thisintroductorychapterwillexplaintheseissuesbrieflytoshowthewholecomplexityofthe productionanduseoftheREEs.Theintroductiongivesanoverviewwithouttoomuchdetail,because thefollowingchapterswillprovidetheseanalyses.

1.1 WHATREEsARE

TheInternationalUnionofPureandAppliedChemistryclassifiesREEsasagroupof17elementsin thethirdgroupoftheperiodictableofelements(Connelly,2005).TheREEsthusincludescandium

1Note:Commashavebeenusedas1000dividers;pointsindicatedecimals.

RareEarthsIndustry. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802328-0.00001-2 Copyright © 2016ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.

(Sc,atomicnumber21),yttrium(Y,39),andthelanthanides,whicharelanthanum(La,57),cerium (Ce,58),praseodymium(Pr,59),neodymium(Nd,60),promethium(Pm,61),samarium(Sm,62), europium(Eu,63),gadolinium(Gd,64),terbium(Tb,65),dysprosium(Dy,66),holmium(Ho,67), erbium(Er,68),thulium(Tm,69),ytterbium(Yb,70),andlutetium(Lu,71).Promethiumisnot usuallyincludedinthediscussionbecauseitistheonlyradioactiveREEandprincipallyitdoesnot occurinnature.Nexttotheumbrellaterm“REE,”theelementsarefurthergroupedintolightREEs (LREEs)andheavyREEs(HREEs),andsomeauthorssuchas Kingsnorth(2010) addamediumclass ofREEs(MREEs).Theattributionstothesegroupsarenotdistinct:theUnitedStates(US)Geological Survey(USGS)callsLatoGdtheLREEsandTbtoLuandYtheHREEs(USGS,2014).Kingsnorth, however,usesLatoNdasLREEs,PmtoGdasMREEs,andTbtoLuplusYasHREEs(Kingsnorth, 2010).IntroductionofthethreegroupsmaybecomecommonbecausethenewChinesetaxrates differentiateamongLRE,MRE,andHRE,i.e.,light,medium,andhighrareearth–richconcentrates (Argus,2015).

Theterm“rareearth”tracesbacktothetimeofdiscoveryoftheelements,ataround1800.The originandreasonforcallingthematerials“rare”arenotexplicit,buttheetymologicalexplanation givenby Reiners(2001) ishelpful.Shearguesthattheadjective“rare”wasusedfromthefifteenth centuryonwardforsomethingstrange,extraordinary,andastonishing(Reiners,2001).Thus,“rare” doesnotrefertoarareoccurrencebuttoastrangehabitusofthematerials.Today,thelowconcentrationsofREEsinorebodiesmaybeconsideredasbeingrare.“Earth,”however,isclearlyacommon wordforoxidicmaterialsinthenineteenthcentury.

1.2 CHEMICALANDPHYSICALPROPERTIES

Muchinformationaboutspecialchemicalandphysicalpropertiesisprovidedinstandardscientific encyclopediasandschoolbooks.Therefore,hereonlyafewspecialtieswillbediscussedbecause theyexplainbothchallengesduringseparationandrefiningandpotentialapplicationareasfor REEs.Ingeneral,withincreasingatomicnumbers,atomsattachonemoreelectron,whichaddsto theouterelectronorbitalandtheatomradiibecomelarger.Forthelanthanidesnotonlytheouter shellbutalsothelower-lying4f-orbitalisbeingfilledwithelectrons.Thisresultsinasimilarouter (electron)appearanceofalllanthanidesbutalsostrongerforcesinsidetheatoms.Asaconsequence, theatomicradiiaredecreasingwithincreasingatomicnumber,aphenomenonknownaslanthanide contraction.SomeREEatomshaveatomicradiisimilartorock-formingelements,whichexplains whyREEsareoftenfoundinrocksthatcontaincalcium,thorium,uranium,andstrontium(formore informationsee Zepf,2013 ).However,thephysicalpropertieshavenosuchsimilaritiesbutrather differences.SomeREEshaveidealmagneticbehavior,suchasGd,Dy,Nd,andSm,whereasothers suchasErandTbinheritsharplydefinedenergystatesthatcanbeusedefficientlyinlightingand laserapplications.

2. THECRITICALITYISSUE

ThecriticalityoftheREEshasbeendeterminedinnumerousstudies.Oneofthefirstarticles addressingREEsas“criticalresourcesforhightechnology”wastheUSGSinaFactSheetpublishedin 2002(USGS,2002).Afurtherremarkablestudy, Minerals,CriticalMinerals,andtheUSEconomy, publishedin2008bytheNationalResearchCouncil(NRC),developedthewell-knowncriticality

matrixintroducingasmainindicators“supplyri sk”andthe“impacttosupplyrestriction”;the latterindicatorisaboutequivalenttotheterm economicimportance.ThegroupoftheREEswas identifiedashighlycriticalinsupplyriskandnearlyhighconcerningtheimpactofsupplyrestriction( NRC,2008).

In2009,Angereretal.conductedaprofoundstudyonrawmaterialsforemergingtechnologiesin whichneodymiumwasrankedthesecondmostcriticalelement(Angereretal.,2009).In2010,the EuropeanCommissionissuedthe CriticalRawMaterialsfortheEU,areportoftheadhocworking groupthatpinpointedthegroupoftheREEsascriticalwiththehighestsupplyriskandmedium economicimportance(EuropeanCommission,2010).

AsequeltotheNRCworkwasthe CriticalMaterialsStrategy publishedin2010bytheUS DepartmentofEnergyinwhichinthematrixasdevelopedbytheNRCindividualREEswereidentifiedasbeingthemostcriticalelementsunderinvestigation(USDOE,2010).Theupdate1yearlater confirmedthestatus(USDOE,2011).Consultantsandpressmediajoinedthepublicationcircle,e.g., Reuters’analysisofthe“FightforRareEarths”(Reuters,2010). Hurst(2010) reportedontheChinese REEindustryandexplainedlessonstobelearned.

In2011, ErnstandYoung(2011) reportedonREEsastechnologymineralsforwhichdeficitsin supplywereidentified.Thefocuswasmoreonminingventuresratherthanongeneralcriticality.Inthe sameyear,theEuropeanJointResearchCenterdealtwith“CriticalMetalsinStrategicEnergy Technologies”andattributedtodysprosiumandneodymiumanoverallhighriskbasedonmarketand politicalfactors(JRC,2011).In2014,theUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment producedaspecialreportonREsthatdiscussedglobalhighdependencyonChineseREEproduction andtheimportanceofREEsfordefenseapplications(UNCTAD,2014).Sinceabout2010,manymore suchstudiesandsequelswithmoreorlessthesameassessmentshowedup,sothatfromthis perspectivetheextraordinaryimportanceandcriticalityofREEswereunderlined.

3. OCCURRENCES,MINING,ANDPRODUCTION

3.1 ABUNDANCEANDGEOLOGY

Theattributeofrarityinthenameof“REEs”requiresacloserlook.Thereare12elementsinthe earth’scrust,whichtogethercomprisemorethan99%ofthemass(O,Si,Al,Fe,Ca,Mg,Na,K,Ti,H, Mn,andP)(Skinner,1976).Allotherelementssharetheremaining1%.AmongthemaretheREEs. Withinthisgroupofrelativelyrareelements,theREEsrangeinthelowerhalf,whereasseveral elementsseemfairlyabundant.Accordingtotheresearchof RudnickandGao(2003),yttriuminthe uppercontinentalcrustisaboutasabundantaslithium;ceriumisaboutasabundantaszinc;neodymiumandlanthanumareaboutasabundantascopper,andevendysprosiumisabouttwiceas abundantasgoldoreighttimesasabundantasplatinum.However,thesecitationsofabundancegive onlyaverageconcentrationsandmassvalues.Thenumbersdonotreflecttypicalconcentrationsof elementsinrocksthatdevelopduringpetrogenesis.Goldandcopper,forexample,occurinnative states;i.e.,theseelementsaggregate(sometimes)tonuggettypes,whereasREEsneveroccurinsuch nativestates.Aninterestinginsightgivestheannualminingproductionquantitiesofyttriumatan estimated7000tandlithiumat36,000t;copper18.7milliont;lanthanum2 about25,300tand 2Assuminganaverageoreconcentrationof23%Laand18%Nd;calculatedwithanannualproductionof110,000t.

neodymium1 19,800t;andcerium1 55,000tandzinc13.3milliont(USGS,2015b).Thus,themessage ofthetabledescribingabundanceisofnorealhelpwhentalkingaboutactualextractionpotential. ThemajororesfromwhichREEsarebeingproducedarebastnaesite,monazite,xenotime,andionadsorptionclays.Bastnaesiteisafluorocarbonatemineralwiththebasicformula3 [(Ln)(CO3)F] composedofvariousadditionsofLREEandafewHREEs(Zepf,2013).Thisoreistheprimary feedstockoftheChineseBayanOboandtheCaliforniaMountainPassMine.Monazite,aphosphate mineralwiththetypicalformula[(Ce,La,Y,Th)PO4],cancontainadditionsofotherLREEsandafew HREEs.Amajorproblemwhenprocessingmonazitesisradioactiveresidues,whichhavetobetreated accordingly.MonaziteisthemainoreoftheAustralianMountWeldmine.Xenotimesandion-adsorption clayscontainrelativelyhighpercentagesofHREE,butthesemineralsthemselvesarerareorhavean overalllowREEconcentration.MainextractionareasofthesemineralsareinsoutheasternChinese provinces.

3.2 MININGANDPRODUCTION

3.2.1HistoricalDevelopment

ThefirstcommercialuseofREEswasprobablytheinventionofAuer-LightandAuermetalusedfor lighterflints;bothproductswerediscoveredandmerchandizedbyAustrianchemistCarlAuervon Welsbacharoundtheyear1900(Zepf,2013).Therawmaterialswereheavysandthatservedasballast inships.Overthecourseoftheworldwarsheavysandminingwaspushedinasearchforradioactive materialsfornuclearresearchmainlyintheUS.ThisfirstphaseofREEminingiscalledtheMonazite Placerera(USGS,2002).

Withtheinventionofcolortelevision,theneedforeuropiumincreasedrapidly,andthediscoveryof theREEdepositatMountainPassinCaliforniainthemid-1960scanbeconsideredthebreakthroughof REEmining;thissecondphaseiscalledtheMountainPassera,whichendedinthemid-1980s.Inthe 1950s,theironoredepositinBayanObowasdiscovered,whichsoonshowedconsiderableREEcontent. MajorproductionoftheseREEsbeganinthemid-1980sandbecametheprimaryproducerofREOs intheworld.WithclosureofthemineatMountainPassaroundtheyear2000,monopolyoverproduction ultimatelywenttoChina.ThisthirdphaseiscalledtheChineseera(USGS,2002).

3.2.2GlobalProductionandReserves

Figure1 showsthedevelopmentofglobalREEproductionfromthe1950sto2014.Inthe1950sthe globalproductionofREOsreachedabout1000tanditdoubledin1960.In1970productiongrewto 16,000t;in1980to27,000t;in1990to53,000t;andin2000to90,000t,reachingtwopeaksin2006 and2009at137,000and135,000t,respectively.Since2009,globalproductiondeclinedforthree yearsto110,000tin2014(USGS,2015a).Inadditiontothesenumbers,considerableillegalminingis probablypresent.

Annualillegalproductionisestimatedtobe40,000t(Xinhua,2014).Atthefinalconferenceofthe EuropeanRareEarthsCompetencyNetwork,KingsnorthstatedthatChinaadmitteda40%shareof illegalmagneticREsupply(Moores,2014).Bothnumbersreferringtoillegalproductionare emphasizedonlytobeestimates.Itisalsouncertainwhatthesenumbersactuallytell:Does40,000t refertoREOsanddoesithavetobeaddedtoofficialproductionvalues?Whatelementsbelongtothe

3Lnstandsforlanthanides.

Rareearthelementproduction,1950–2014.Notes:Theproductiondatarefertothelanthanides, i.e.,excludingyttriumandscandiumproduction.Datagiveninmetrictons(1t=1000kg).

Sources:USGSMineralsYearbooks1994–2012;USGSMineralCommoditySummarises2015.

magneticREsupply?Itislikelythatconsiderableillegalminingandtradearepresent,butactualdata remainobscure.

Annualglobalproductionnumbersareknown;quantitativesharesoftheindividualREEsarenot available,however.Thenumberscanandhavetobeinterpolatedfromknownconcentrationsofsingle elementsintheminedores.OftheREEscontainedinthebastnaesiteoftheBayanOboorebody,50% iscerium(CeO2),lanthanumcomprisesabout25%(La2O3),andtheneodymiumcontentisabout17% (Nd2O3)(ZhiLiandYang,2014).Usingasimplifiedassumptionthattheentireglobalproductionis derivedfromsuchores,theindividualsharecanbededucedwithreasonablereliabilityforLREEs:In 2014,withanannualproductionof110,000tREOs,ceriumcontainedis55,000t,lanthanumis 27,500t,andneodymium18,700t.

Variousseparationandrefiningtechniquesareexplained,e.g.,by GuptaandKrishnamurthy (2005),sojustonemajoraspectneedsrecognition:thatduringseparationandrefininginafirststep, ceriumandlanthanumalwayshavetobeseparatedbeforeotherREEscanbeextracted.Thismeans thattheseparationofthecheapestREEs,ceriumandlanthanum,requiresalotofbeneficiationcost. Thesupplyofthesetwoelementsislikelyhigherthandemand.Forlanthanum,thesystemicsubstitute oflithiumionbatterytechnologyalsoreducesdemand.

3.2.3Reserves

GlobalREEreservesin2014aregivenas130milliontREO.Until2008,globalreserveswere 88milliont(USGS,2009),sothattoday’sreservesaretheresultofrecentexplorationsuccesses.From thesereserves,55milliontbelongtoChina(42%),22milliontareBrazilian(17%),andAustraliaand theUStogetherown5milliont,whichislessthan5%ofglobalreserves(USGS,2015b).Itispossible

FIGURE1

thatsomeofthecurrentexplorationprojectswilldetectevenmoredepositssothatreservefigures couldincreaseevenmore.Basedoncurrentannualproductionof110,000tREOandsome 130milliontofreserves,areserves-over-production(R/P)valueofnearly1200yearsresults,arange thatisoneofthelongestofallelementsknown.Thisfactshouldhaveacomfortingeffect,butREEs arestillconsideredcriticalelements,becausethetopicofreservesisnocriterionfordetermining criticality.Also,R/Pvaluesareonlyoftheoreticalqualitybecausesomebodyhastostartamining project,whichrequireslargeinvestmentsforseveralyearsbeforesomecashbackcanbeexpected. Obviouslyonlylong-termconsiderationsbasedonpositivefutureearnings,i.e.,highpricesforraw materials,maypushsuchprojects.However,recentminingprojectsshowedthatpredictionshavebeen toooptimistic.

3.2.4MajorMines

Today,themajoractiveREEminesarelocatedinChina,theUS,andAustralia,withseveralglobal projectshavingreachedmaturestatesofdevelopment.InChina,theworld’slargestREEmineis locatedinBayanObo,InnerMongolia,withseparationandrefiningfacilitiessome150kmsouthin Baotou.FurtherminingareasareinSichuanandinthesoutheasternprovinces,wheremainlyHREEs arebeingproduced.IntheUS,theformerMountainPassminewasreopenedin2012andwasplanned toproduceabout20,000tREOsperyearwiththeoptiontorampupproductionto40,000tREOs.In the2014annualreport,however,thecompanyreportedproductionofabout5000tREO,butalso considerablerisksandproblems,sothatprolongedoperationisnotguaranteed.Currentproduction willincreaseonlywhenmarketconditionsimprove(Molycorp,2015c).

TheAustralianLynasCorp.openedtheMountWeldmineinsouthwesternAustralia,whereREEs areminedfromphosphateoresandthecompanyproducednearly4000tREOin2014(Lynas,2015). Plansdated2010talkedabouttheproductionof22,000tREOsin2014(Lynas,2010),whichshows theerrorofthisprediction.Numerousotherexplorationprojectswereorareongoingandafewhave reachedmatureplanningstages. Elsner(2011) reported381knownREprojectsworldwide(Elsner, 2011)atdifferentprogressstages,andTechnologyMetalsResearch(TMR)providedanupdatedlistof advancedREprojects,theTMRAdvancedRare-EarthProjectsIndex,whichcurrentlycontains53in anadvancedstate.Amongthemareprojectswithhugeorebodies,e.g.,inGreenland,Canada,theUS, Kenya,Australia,Brazil,SouthAfrica,andRussia(Hatch,2015).

PredictionsforfutureREEminingwereandarecontroversial.Basically,allfuturedemandpredictions,aspresentedbyminingcompanies,weretoooptimistic.In2010,LynasCorporationestimatedglobaldemandtoreach182,000tin2014(Lynas,2010).Consultantsestimateddemandfor 2015toreach185,000tgivenadatauncertaintyof 15%(ChegwiddenandKingsnorth,2010). Factually,productionin2014was110,000tREO(USGS,2015b);thefirstpredictionwasoffbyabout 50%;howaccuratethesecondestimatewashasyettobeseen.Itis,ofcourse,extremelydifficultto predictmarketdevelopment,especiallyinthecaseofREEs,whensupplyrisksleadtoincreased researchformaterialefficiencyandsubstitutesandthuschangedemand.

3.2.5Ecology

In2009,journalistsreportedondamagingeffectstohumansandtheenvironmentfromREEmining andseparation.HilsumreportedfromBaotou,wheretailingpondswerefullofacidandchemicals (Hilsum,2009),andBradsheraddressedsoutheastChineseminingofionicclaysinwhichREEswere

minedwithprimitiveandnonsustainingextractionmethodsbydrainingacidsonsoiltodissolveREEs. Theacidsarethenwashedintogroundwaterandriversandpoisonsoils(Bradsher,2009).TheUS EnvironmentalProtectionAgencydealtwiththenegativeenvironmentalimpactsofREEminingin bothChinaandtheUSandconfirmedreporteddamage(EPA,2012).However,thenegativeeffectsto naturearenotsolelyassociatedwithREEminingbutaccompanyallmining,beneficiation,separation, andrefiningactivitiesirrespectiveoftherawmaterial.Miningleadstoencroachmentsonnatureand requiresenergy,fuels,andchemicals,whichhavetoberemediatedaccordingly.Ifthisisnotdone properly,environmentaldamageisinevitable.

ForREEs,environmentaldamagehascertainlyoccurred,buttosolvetheproblem,onemoreaspect hastobeconsidered:Whatcausedtheimpact?Wasitduetononexistingenvironmentalproceduresin legalminingortoinadequateadherencetoexistingregulations,orcandamagebetracedbacktoillegal andprohibitedactivities?

3.3 RECYCLING

RecyclingofseveralREEshasbeendemonstratedatleastinresearchandatlaboratorylevels. Binnemansetal.discussedvariousapproachesinacomprehensivemeta-studywithdisappointing resultsthatin2011onlyabout1%ofREEshadbeenrecycled(Binnemansetal.,2013).Research aboutin-usestocksofREEswasprovidedby DuandGraedel(2011);oneresultfor2007wasthatthe stockofLa,Ce,Nd,andPrequaledfourtimesannualproduction.Incaseofnorecycling,thesheer amountofcurrentdissipativeusebecomesapparent.IfproductsthatcontainREEsarerecycledtoday, usuallybaseandnoblemetalsareregainedbuttheREEsarelostanddisappearinslagsorresiduesor getstoredinlandfillsites.Infact,considerabledissipationhastobeassumedformostREEs.

Nevertheless,recyclingoftheseapplicationareaswasinvestigatedandbasicallyvalidated:the recyclingofphosphorsfromenergy-savinglampsandlight-emittingdiodes(LEDs)toobtainmainly europium,terbium,andyttrium;therecyclingofbatteriesofthenickelmetalhydridetype(NiMH), fromwhichmainlylanthanum,butalsocerium,praseodymium,andneodymiumcanbeextracted;and therecyclingofneodymium-iron-boron(NdFeB)permanentmagnetstoregainneodymium,praseodymium,anddysprosium.Inthelattercase,theMotorRecyclingprojectinGermanyin2011–2014led by Siemens(2011) showedpromisingresultsforfuturerecycling.

3.4 SUBSTITUTION

ThespecialcharacteristicsoftheREEspredisposethemforahugevarietyofapplicationsandfunctions. Formost,nodirectsubstitutesareavailable,i.e.,elementforelement,butseveralsystemicsubstitutesare onthemarket.InthecaseofNdFeBmagnets,nodirectreplacementofNdorPrisknown.Onasystems levelothermagnettypesareavailablebutmostdonotreachthestrengthofNdFeB-typemagnetsor cannotbeproducedsmallenoughwiththesameperformance;directorsystemicsubstitutionsareonly partiallypossible.

OnedisadvantageofNdFeBmagnetsistheirsusceptibilitytooperatingtemperaturesaboveabout 100 C.Oncethesearereached,themagnetsbegintolosetheirremanence(magneticcharacteristics). Theadditionofabout3–6%dysprosiumenhancestheCurietemperature(theresistancetohigher temperatures)sothatthemagnetsaresuitableforapplicationinautomotivetractionmotors.Toreduce

theneedfordysprosium,whichisoneoftherareREEs,intensiveresearchhasbeguntoidentify substitutesfordysprosiumorevenformagnetswithnoREEs(ARPA-E,2015;ArnoldMagnetics, 2013).

Inthecaseofwindturbines,thosebasedonREEmagnetsdonothaveadirectionsubstitution material;onthesystemiclevel,however,thereareotherefficienttechnologiesinoperationsuchas asynchronousdriveturbinesorelectricallyexciteddirectdriveWTGs.

Forphosphorsinlightingapplications,nopotentialsubstitutesarecurrentlyavailable,butthe inventionofLEDsledtoonewaytoreducephosphorquantities.BatteriesoftheNiMHtypereceived competitionbylithium-iontechnology,whichhasbetterenergydensitiesandthussmallersizes,faster recharging,nomemoryeffect,lessdischarging,andlongerpoweravailability(Bosch,2015).

Insummary,thesearchforsubstitutessoundsambiguousbecauseforseveralapplicationssystemic alternativesareavailable(e.g.,windturbines);theR/Pismorethan1200years,andresearchon recyclingispushedforward.

4. APPLICATIONS

TheREEsareagroupof17elementsthathavesomesimilaritiesbutalsoindividualcharacteristicsso thateachelementhasavarietyofapplications,summarizedin Table1

ItshouldbenotedthatthislistdoesnotshowwhichquantitiesofREEsarerequiredinthevarious applications,nordoesitsaywhetherdemandandsupplyarebalancedorifthereexistsurplusesor deficitsofsupply.

Anotherdepictionofapplicationsisoftenusedalongapplicationareassuchaspermanentmagnets, phosphors,batteryalloys,fluidcatalyticcracking(FCC),ceramics,glassadditives,polishingpowders, autocatalysts,andmetallurgy. Table2 showstheuseofselectedREEsinvariousapplications.

AdominantargumentisoftencitedthatREEsareindispensableoratleastnecessaryforhightechnologyapplications,lifestyleproducts,andproductsandsystemsthatguaranteethechangeover toalow-carbonenergysociety.TheconsiderationthatREEsarerequiredforhigh-technologyproducts iscorrect,butthismessagedoesnotsaywhichelementisrequiredforwhichapplicationinwhat quantity.Cerium,forexample,isrequiredtoproduceautomotivecatalyststoenable,togetherwith noblemetalsplatinumorpalladium,anefficientexhaustemissioncontrol.Thisapplicationiscertainly ahigh-techoneandservestheenvironment.CeriumiscurrentlythemostavailableREEandthusisnot criticalwithrespecttogeneralphysicalexistence,noristhereasupplyriskexpected,becauseChina itselfprobablyisinterestedinsellinghugeamountsof(cheap)ceriumtoobtainatleastsomecashback tosupportoperations.

ThestatementthatwindturbinesrequireREEsisoftenheard,butagainthisdogmatic-sounding “fact”usuallyimpliesawrongperception,that all windturbinesrequireREEs.Thisdefinitelyis notthecase.TheshareofasynchronouswindtechnologythatdoesnotcontainREE-basedgenerators wasatabout82%attheendof2013(Smith,2014),with318GWofwindenergyinstalledglobally (GWEC,2014).Theremaining18%weredirectdrivesystems,ofwhichabouthalfwereENERCON turbinesthatuseseparatelyexcitedmagnetsusingcopperwiring(Zepf,2015).Infact,about9%or about30GWofinstalledWTGsarebasedonREEmagnets.Directdrivesystemsincorporatefeatures andcharacteristicsthatmakethemmoresuitableoradvantageousforlocationssuchasoffshore windparks.

Table1Listof(Selected)REEApplications

La · Nickelmetalhydridebatteries(Prius,forklifts)

· HydrogenstoragealloysLaNi3

· Alloyingagent

· Sputteringtargets

· Opticallenses

· Hostforphosphors

· Petroleumfluidcatalyticcracking(FCC)

· Cathodematerialinsolidoxidefuelcell

Ce · Catalystforautomotivethree-way-emission catalysts

· Petroleumfluidcatalyticcracking(FCC)

· Glassadditives

· Decolorizer,opacifier

· Ultravioletlightabsorption

· Polishingmediaforglass,lenses, semiconductors

· Phosphors

Pr · AdditivetoNd2Fe14B

· Pr-stabilizedZrO2

· Coloringagents

· Glassblower’sandwelder’sgoggles(withNd)

· Telecommunicationsystemsasdopantin fluoridefibers

Nd · Nd2Fe14Bpermanentmagnets

· AlloyingagentforMgalloys

· Lasers

· Metalhalidelamps

· Nd-stabilizedZrO2 syntheticgems

Sm · SmCopermanentmagnets

· Coloringagent

· Phosphors

· Nuclearindustry radiationshielding

Eu

· Phosphors(redcolors)

· Nuclearindustry radiationshielding

Gd · Hostforphosphors

· Magneticresonanceimagingcontrastagents

· Nuclearfuelrodaddition,safety

· X-rayintensifyingscreen

· LaserYGG(yttrium-gadolinium-garnet)

Tb · Phosphors(green)

· X-rayintensifyingscreens

· Terfenol-D(TbxDyy)Fe2

· Magneto-restrictivealloy

Note:Thisislistisnotall-inclusive.

Source: Gschneidner(2011) and GuptaandKrishnamurthy(2005)

Dy

· AdditivetoNd2Fe14Bpermanent magnetstoimprovehigh-temperature performance,increasecoercivity

· Phosphors

· Nuclearindustry radiationshielding

Ho

· Research

· Metalhalidelamps

· YIG(yttrium-iron-garnet)lasers

· YAGandYLFsolid-statelasers

Er

· Fiberoptics signalamplifiers

· Lasers(mainlymedical/surgicaland dentaluse)

· Coloringagent

Tm

· X-rayintensifyingscreens

· Metalhalidelamps

· Research

Yb

· Opticallenses

· Pressuresensors(metal)

· Research

Lu

Sc

Y

· Research

· HostforscintillatordetectorsandX-ray phosphors

· High-performancealloys

· Lasers

· Phosphors

· Ceramics

· Hostforphosphors

· YAGlaserhostmaterial

· Y-stabilizedZrO2

· YIG(yttrium-iron-garnet) communications,radars,phaseshifters

· YBa2CuO2 high-temperature superconductor

· Alloyingagent

Notes:PercentagesshowtheshareofthesingleREEsintheapplicationarea.Forexample,FCCmeansthatfromallREEsused,90%isLaand10%isCe.Thesevalueshaveno connectionwithactualquantitativenumbers,nordotheyhintofsupply demand(im)balances. Actualproductionin2010was126,000tREO,asreportedbythe USGS(2015b),p.2012,MineralsYearbookRareEarths.AdvancedreleaseasofFebruary2015. aLynas(2010):InvestorPresentation,March2010. bCalculatedusingdemandestimatepercentageswithestimatedproductionfor2010.

5. PRICEDEVELOPMENTANDCONSEQUENCES

Untilabout2008to2009,theprices4 forREEs,whicharenottradedonthestockexchanges,were relativelystableandmoderate.In2010,pricesforbasicallyallREEsincreasedmoderately,andin early2011pricessoaredtoanunprecedentedpricepeakinJuly2011.Thispriceexaggerationstruck allREEswithsomevariations.Sharesofstockmarketsofnon-Chineseminingcompaniesclimbedin parallel,pushingtheiroperationalstatus.AwaytobreaktheChineseproductionmonopolywasin sight.FromtheendofJulyonward,however,pricesdeclinedandthetrendcontinuedinprincipleuntil mid-2015,withafewvariationsforsomeREEsinbetween.

Theexpectationofhighmarketpricesforcriticalelementsisnolongervalid.Deceasingprices causedthesharesofnewminestodeclineaswell,sothattodaythesecompaniesfaceseverefinancial problems.ThechangeintheChineseexportsystemin2015raiseddifferenthopes.InJanuary,the exportquotawasrevokedandinMay,exporttaxeswererelieved.Lowerpriceswereexpectedby customers,andhigherpricesbyproducersasaresultofnewandclearregulations.Indeed,prices declinedevenfurther,maybebecauseMolycorp,Inc.,hadfiledavoluntarypetitionforreliefunder Chapter11oftheUSBankruptcyCodeandappliedforrestructuringsupport(Molycorp,2015a).Soon, pressreleasesannouncedtheendoftheREEhype(e.g.,DPAreleasepublishedby FAZ,2015).

6. POLITICSANDPOLICIES

TheoftendeterminedcriticalityoftheREEsmainlycausedbytheChineseproductionmonopolyand theexportrestrictionsimposedonvariousREEproductsmadethetopicageopoliticalissue.The followinginformationisbasedon Zepf(2013),whodealtwithChinesepredominanceinthiscase.

AfterclosureoftheUSmineinMountainPassin2000,China’sproductionmonopolywassubstantiated.Atthesametime,thefirstexportquotasweredisseminatedbyChinabutwereneverusedto theirfullestextent.In2006and2008,Chinesecompaniesimposedproductionandprocessingquotas. Exporttaxesandthereductionofexportquotasfor2010eventuallyledtoacriticalperception regardingthefuturesupplyofREEs.Accompaniedbyunprecedentedpricehypeinmid-2011,fears existedthatthesupplyofREEscouldactuallybeatstake.

ChinaarguedthattheyhadtosolvesevereenvironmentalproblemsthatoccurredduringREE miningandprocessing.DisputesettlementsbroughtforwardtotheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO) bytheUS,Japan,andEuropeagainstthisargumentandagainsttheChinesepracticeofexportrestrictionswerepartiallygranted(Zepf,2013).Asaconsequence,Chinawithdrewtheexportquotain thebeginningof2015andabolishedtheexporttaxesasofMay1,2015.Instead,anewREresourcetax wasintroducedtoreplacerecentpolicies.Thenewratesarestaggeredwith11.5%forLREEproducts outofInnerMongoliaand27%forMREEandHREEproducts(LOC,2015).

IntheUS,themonopolisticproductionofChinawasseentobecriticaltothedefenseindustry, whichrequiresREEsforavarietyofproductsandweaponsystems;consequently,REEswereputhigh ontheagenda(GAO,2010).TobreakChina’sdominanceoverproduction,numerousexploration projectswerestartedworldwideandafewmineshavesucceededasfarashavingstartedproduction. Lostknow-howinextractiveREEindustrieshasbeenreworked.Minersandindustriesattheendofthe

4MarketpricescanberetrievedfromInternetplatformssuchas www.metal-pages.com or www.asianmetal.com.

productionchainhavestartedverticalintegration-typecooperationtosupportminingandsafeguard supply.Thisisshown,forexample,bysignedcooperationbetweenMolycorp,ShinEtsu,andSiemens toprovideREEsupplyformagnetproductionandthesubsequentmanufactureofwindturbinesovera 10-yearperiod(Molycorp,2015b).Next,intensiveresearchprojectsespeciallyintheUSandEurope weresetuptoinvestigatematerialefficienciesandsearchforpartialorcompletesubstitutionofREEs inseveralapplications.Optionsforrecyclingincreasinglyimprovedandresearchisfocusedon obtainingprocedurestorunlarge-scalerecycling.

7. WHEREWEARETODAY

Withoutquestion,theREEsaresomeofthemostinterestingmaterialsthatshowimpressivecharacteristicsinahugevarietyofapplications.Theserangefromsimplelighterflintstomagnetsfor speakers,motors,generators;specialsteels;optimizedfluidcatalyticcrackingtoachievehigheryields inoilrefining;lasers;batteries;andmanymore.Theyallowtheproductionoflightweightmaterials withbetterstrengthwithafewpercentadditionsofREEs.Someoftheseproductscanhelpinlow carbontechnologiesandapplicationsandprovidenicelifestylegadgets.Otherusesarerelatively profanebutstillrequired.So,fromaneconomicimportancepointofview,theREEscancertainlybe consideredofhighvalue.

ThesupplysideisdominatedbythecurrentandperhapsfutureproductionmonopolyofChina. Supplyriskscanbeconsideredhighbecauseinprincipleonlyonesuppliercountryisavailable.Onthe otherhand,Chinaitselfisparticipatingintheglobalmarket,sotheriskmaybelowerthananticipated. RegulatoryinterventionsinChina’sexportpracticesthatwerenotaccordingtoWTOrulessucceeded atfirstbecausequotasandtaxeshavebeencanceled,butnewlyannouncedresourcetaxesmayshow thatintheendnolowerpricesinthisrespectcanbeexpected.ThismayproveadvantageousforChina, fortheenvironment(asmoremoneypotentiallyisavailable),andfornon-Chineseminers,andhigher pricesmayrendereconomicrecyclingpossible.

Rareearthelementshaveavastarrayoffunctionalitiesthatmakethesematerialsidealcandidates forapplicationsandproductsinallaspectsoflife.ThecomplexstoryoftheREEsstillneedstobe entangledtounderstandtheirrelationshipsandtoidentifysolutionsforREEuse.Thisbookaddresses thesechallengestothebenefitoffutureeconomicandecologicREEuse.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Theauthor’sworkissponsoredbytheBayerischesStaatsministeriumfuerBildungundKultus,Wissenschaftund Kunst(BavarianMinistryforEducation,Culture,ScienceandArts)underthegraduateprogram“Resource strategicconceptsforsustainableenergysystems”attheUniversityofAugsburg.

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ANOVERVIEWOFCHINESERARE EARTHEXPORTRESTRICTIONS ANDIMPLICATIONS 2

NabeelA.Mancheri

InstituteofSocialScience,UniversityofTokyo,Tokyo,Japan

1. INTRODUCTION

Theconcentrationofrareearthelement(REE)productioninChinaandChineseexportrestrictions haveraisedconcernsinindustrializedcountriesaboutthecriticalnatureofthesematerials.Rareearth elementsareanindispensablecriticalcomponentofmanyhigh-technologygoodssuchasmobile telephones,computers,televisions,energy-efficientlights,andwindenergyturbines.Rareearth elementsareimportantcomponentsinlasers,superconductingmagnets,andbatteriesforhybrid automobiles.DespitetheChinesemonopoly,therewasstillenoughsupplytoreachothermarketsuntil thepastcoupleofyears.ThegrowingeconomyofChinaiscreatingaworldwiderisktosupply, becauseChina’sgrowingconsumptionlimitsitsexports,makingrareearthsmorecritical.

Exportrestrictionsonmetalsandmineralproductshavebeenbroadlyappliedbymanycountries withaviewtosecuringdomesticsupplyandtoaddressingtheproblemofresourcedepletion.Export restrictionsaredesignedtomeetdiversepolicyobjectivesrangingfromenvironmentalprotectionand increasingfiscalrevenuetodevelopingprocessingsectors.Restrictionstotradeincludetaxesandother legislationsuchastariffandnontarifftradebarrierssuchasquotas.

ThereisnosingleGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT)/WorldTradeOrganization (WTO)articledealingexclusivelywithexportrestrictions.Still,ArticleXIoftheGATT1994isthe keyprovisionregardingexportrestrictions.Itprohibitstheuseofquantitativerestrictionsonboth importsandexports.ExportdutiesareinprinciplenotsubjecttoArticleXIandthusarenotprohibited underthisarticle,whereasquantitativerestrictionsare.Regardingquantitativerestrictionsthatare generallyprohibited,theissueiswhetherthesemeasurescanbeexceptionallyallowedunderArticle XI:2(a)(criticalshortageoffoodstuffs),ArticleXX(GeneralExceptions),andArticleXXI(Security Exceptions).ArticleXI:2(a)allowseachmembertoapplyexportrestrictions“temporarily”toprevent orrelieve“critical”shortageoffoodstuffsorotherproductsessentialtotheexportingcountry.Article XXallowsexceptionalquantitativerestrictionsforpolicyobjectivessuchasconservationof exhaustiblenaturalresources,andensuringessentialmaterialsfordomesticprocessingindustryunder “certainqualifications”(OECD,2010).

Beforetheglobalfinancialcrisisof2008,exportrestrictionshadbeenusedbymanycountriesto achievediversepolicyobjectives. Piermartini(2004) notedthatapproximatelyone-thirdofWTO membersimposedexporttaxes.Economicanalysisprovidesseveralmotivationsforusingthese instruments.(1)Exporttaxescanraisetheworldpriceofexportedproductsandthereforeimprove

RareEarthsIndustry. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802328-0.00002-4 Copyright © 2016ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.

termsoftrade;(2)exporttaxescanreducethedomesticpriceofthetaxedcommodityandthusbenefit finalconsumersofthiscommodity;thiselementisespeciallyimportantwhenfoodsecurityisatstake; (3)exporttaxescanreducethedomesticpriceofthetaxedcommodityandbenefitconsumersofthis commodityasinputs;and(4)exporttaxesincreasepublicrevenue,whichisbeneficialinacountry wherefiscalreceiptsondomesticbasearelimited(BouetandDebucquet,2010).Thestudyfindsthat allofthesereasonsexceptthefourthonemayhavepromptedChinatoimposerestrictionsonthe exportofrareearthminerals,althoughChinaclaimsenvironmentaldegradationasthemainreason.

Anumberofscientificarticlesandpolicyreportsbothfromgovernmentalandprivateorganizations havebeenpublishedontheseminerals,particularlyafterthe2010incidentofChineseexport restrictionstoJapanoveraterritorialdispute.Thesearticlesandreportshavedealtwithawiderangeof aspectsconcerningrareearthsfromassessingcriticalityofindividualmineralstothepossibleeffects offuturescarcity(Hedrick,2010;Hurst,2010;Hoenderdaaletal.,2013;Wubbeke,2013).Mostof thesereportsintroduceaframeworkformeasuringthecriticalityofrawmaterials.Keyfactors consideredaretheireconomicimportance,theirsubstitutability,thediversityofsupply,thesizeof knownresourcesandreserves,andthepotentialforrecycling(Kleijn,2012).Assumingtheseminerals arecriticalbasedonthepreviousstudies,thecurrentstudyevaluatesChina’smonopolyoverthe industryandprovidesinsightsintohowwidelytradedthesemineralsareandChina’spositionsinthe internationaltradeintermsofbothvolumeandvalue.Thestudyinvestigatesthevarioustrade restrictionsimposedbyChinaanditsimplicationsincludingtheavailabilityofmaterialstoWestern companies.Someindividualrareearthsmineralsaremorecriticalfromthedemandandsupplyside. AlthoughChinahasbeenrestrictingtheexportofhighrareearthsmore,thestudydoesnotattemptto evaluatethecriticalityofindividualelementsanddoesnotdifferentiateamongthem;rather,ithas takenthemasatotal,largelybecauseofthenonavailabilityofdataonindividualrareearths.

Metalsandmineralsaccountforarelativelysmallshareoftheworldindustrialoutput,buttheir supplyisessentialforlargevalue-addingactivitiesinanyeconomy.Thedemandforrawmaterialshas beenincreasingasgreaternumbersofcountriesmoveupinthedevelopmentalstage.Thegreater demandfromoutsideusuallypromptsresource-endowedcountriestoimposerestrictionsonminerals thatareconsideredcritical.Therehavebeenseveralsuchrestrictionsimposedbyvariouscountries. Researchershavealreadyconductedstudieswithdifferentbackgroundsusingdifferenttechniqueson thesetraderestrictions.Restrictionstotradeincludequotas,taxes,andotherlegislationsuchastariff andnontarifftradebarriers.Forexample, Peelingetal.(2010) providedaneconomiccontextofexport restrictionswithparticularfocusonthemetalandmineralsector.Therecouldbevariouspolicy objectivesinimposingtheserestrictions,andmanyarguethatChineseexporttaxesontheseminerals areimposedtomaintainmineralsecurityinthedomesticindustries. Kim(2010) examinedtheuseof exportrestrictionsonrawmaterialsandanalyzedthepolicyobjectivesofexportrestrictionsandtheir effectivenessinachievingtheirstatedgoals.Thisstudyfoundthatbyaffectingthepriceandquantity oftrade,exportrestrictionsproducetrade-distortingeffectsinthesamewayasimportrestrictionsand mayresultinefficiencylosses.

Exportrestrictionsofonecountrymayinduceotherexportingcountriestotakesimilarmeasures. Onceanexportrestrictionisapplied,itislikelythatimportingcountrieswillshifttheirsourceof importstoothercountries.Theotherexportingcountriesmaythenbeforcedtoapplysimilarmeasures tomeetdomesticdemandbylimitingtheirexports(Dollive,2008).Risingglobalfoodpricesduring 2006–2008contributedtohighfoodpriceinflationthatcreatedseriousconcerninseveralcountries.In response,severalgovernmentsappliedexporttaxestolimitexportsandthusincreasedomestic

suppliesatlowprices.However,inthecaseofrareearths,theexportrestrictionsofChinaactually resultedinincreasedpricesthateventuallypromptedothercountriestoenterthemarkettosupplythese minerals.Somestudiessuchasthatby Fabiosaetal.(2003) and FabiosaandBeghin(2002) examined theeffectofremovingallbordertaxes,includingexporttaxes,domesticsubsidies,andotherdistortionstoworldcommoditymarkets. BouetandDebucquet(2010) providedatheoreticalbackgroundto usingexporttaxestomaintainingfoodsecurity.Theiranalysisemphasizedthenegativeimpactofsuch measuresonthewelfareoftradepartnersandtheeffectsofnoncooperativetradepolicies. Tarr(2010) analyzedexportrestraintsbyRussiaonnaturalgasandtimber,whichsharedthedualeffectof decreasingdomesticpriceswhileincreasingexportprices.Theanalysisfocusedonadevelopment perspectiveofexportrestrictions,inthattherestrictionsareappliedtoimprovetheexporter’stermsof trade.OurstudydoesnotfindthatChinahadtheintentionofimprovingitstermsoftradebyapplying exporttaxesanddutiesonrareearths.Thismaybetrueinthecaseoftradeinhydrocarbons,because bothexportersandimportersimposeseveraltaxesanddutiestoincreasegovernmentrevenueor improvethetermsoftrade.

Chinaclaimsthatitsexportrestrictionsareimp osedtoprotecttheenvironmentandconserveits rapidlydepletingresourcebase.However,astudyby KorinekandKim(2010) foundthattheexport restrictionsputinplacedidnotfulfilltheirobjectiveofenvironmentalprotectionandthepresenceof exportrestrictionsinonecountryputpressureonotherexporterstoapplyrestrictions,whichsuggeststhepotentialforcompetitivepolicypracticesin restrictingexports.Anotherimportantquestion raisedintheliteratureiswhetherweakenvironmentallawsattractforeignfirmsintomining.This maybetruefordomesticfirms,becauseweakenvironmentalregulationmaypromptprivatecompaniestoentertheminingbusiness,whichhashappenedintheChineserareearthminingbusiness foralongtime.However, ToleandKoop(2010) foundthatstringentenvironmentalregulationshave noeffectonforminginvestmentlocationdecisio nsbyminingfirms.Regar dlessofanyshort-term costsavingsfromlowerenvironmentalstandards,mostmultinationalminingfirmsnowviewtheir presenceinenvironmentally“dirty”partsofth eworldaspotentiallydamagingtotheircorporate reputation,eventhoughtheymayadoptinternationalbestpracticestandards.InChina’scase, althoughenvironmentalregulationswereweak,exceptforinternationalfirms,theregulatory frameworkforthemineralssectorwascomplex.T heframeworkmanifestsitselfintermsofbotha complexapprovalprocessandinconsistentregulationsandpolicyamongcentral,provincial,and locallevelsofgovernment( Penneyetal.,2007).

2. CASEAGAINSTCHINAINWTOONREEEXPORTRESTRICTIONS

InJune2009,theissueofdwindlingsupplyofrareearthmineralsandChineseexportrestrictionscame totheforewhentheUnitedStates(US)andtheEuropeanUnion(EU)(laterjoinedbyMexico,India, Brazil,Japan,andKoreaasthirdparties)lodgedacomplaintagainstChinatotheWTO,claimingthat exportrestraints(includingquotasandexporttaxes)imposedbyChinaonanumberofrawmaterials violatedWTOrules.AlthoughitiswellknownthatWTOrulesaimtoreduceprotectionismonthe importside,therulesconcerningexportrestrictionsarelessknownandvague.Again,inMarch2012, theUS,theEU,andJapanfiledcoordinatedcomplaintsagainstChinatotheWTOregardingChina’s exportcontrolsonrareearthandnon–rareearthmetalssuchastungstenandmolybdenum.Theyalso challengedaspectsoftheallocationandadministrationofexportquotas,exportlicenses,andminimum exportprices,andtheallegednonpublicationofcertainmeasures.TheyfurthercontendedthatChinese