The Chair Project - Winter 2018

The Chair Project

WINTER 2018

EVIE4000: Interior Design History and Theory 2 is an undergraduate level course offered by the Department of Interior Design in the Faculty of Architecture at the University of Manitoba. It examines concepts, theories and writings related to the development of interior design as a discipline and profession, from Modernism to the present day.

Designed and compiled by Theo Rutherford C O N TA C T Dr. Susan Close Department of Interior Design, Faculty of Architecture 201 John A. Russell Building University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2 Canada Phone: 204.474.6578 Fax: 204.474.7532

TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Akash Bali. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Nemuulen Battuvshin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Oren Binnun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Stephanie Champagne. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Paula Alyanna Combate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Melinda Dao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Clarissa Diaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Maria Dyson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Danna Dawn Faina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Tiana Friesen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Julie A. Hince. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Marlena Jankowski. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Kyle Kartzmark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Lauren Levin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Kaila Mueller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Robyn Muggridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Charles Padilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Roslyn Patterson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Jessie Procyshyn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Lissi Ranta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Amandeep Sehira. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Emily Warsza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Jonathan Wee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Hanzhi Zhang. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

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INTRODUCTION Interior Design History and Theory 2 is a course that offers a historical and theoretical review of interior environments and design since 1900. The Chair Project is an assignment that gives students an opportunity to research a designer, theorist, writer or architect significant to the history of interior design and then create a chair for them. Students also write a paper that includes a critical analysis of the ideas, concepts and theories that were used to inform the chair design. This e-zine is a compilation of these papers.

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A LVA R A A LTO

Fig. 1: View 1. Bali, Akash. 2018, Weave, Digital Image

Fig. 3: West elevation. Bali, Akash. 2018, Weave, Digital Image, West Elevation

Fig. 2: View 2. Bali, Akash. 2018, Weave, Digital Image, View Two

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Akash Bali

INTRODUCTION Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto, also known as, Alvar Aalto was a Finnish architect and designer who was born in Kuortane, Finland in 1898 and died in Helsinki, Finland in 1976. He was well known for his architectural and furniture designs, but also had experience in painting and sculpting. Aalto was known for being a modernist and his works were always “in harmony with the human being” (Koivu, 2017). Alvar Aalto is significant to interior design because of his works relating to humane design, the sense of regionalism, and organic architecture. His works were the driving elements in both his furniture and building designs.

HUMANE DESIGN The furniture designed by Aalto was based off of human forms, also known as humane design. This played a critical role in interior design and set a precedent for future designers. Alvar Aalto furniture exemplified his affiliation with straight lines, simplicity, organic forms, and sanitary surfaces in his furniture designs. Aalto believed the furniture is the “salt that makes the soup.” (Cantz, 2005, 13). His pieces of furniture were a driving force in interior design. He stated that the furniture was “part of an architectonic wholeness, in the mixed society of public buildings, aristocratic residencies and workers cottages” (Cantz, 2005, 13). His furniture designs showcased humane design by observing and translating gestures from humans. For example, the resting position of a human was an observed gesture, which was taken and translated into a chair. Perhaps, the most famous chair Aalto designed was the Paimio chair, which was designed according to the ergonomics of humans. The design of the interior corresponded with the furniture. The Paimio chair is a great example of where the furniture reflects into the setting of the interior. The chair was designed for patients with tuberculosis; Aalto did not want to make it look like a typical hospital seat. He wanted to create a situation where the patient using the chair did not feel like they were in a hospital but rather comfortable in their own home (Koivu, 2017). Aalto was successful in fulfilling his design by using the appropriate materials for this chair and by keeping the ergonomic design in mind.

Aalto’s location, setting, neighborhood layout, and furnishings played an important role as he designed his work. During the period of time when Aalto designed his furniture, other designers did not place emphasis on the human scale and functionality. The furniture available by them was solely created for an aesthetic appeal. Aalto’s works, on the other hand, featured best of both worlds: aesthetics & functionality. Aalto’s projects were part of the International style and Modernism, thus resulting in his simplified and functional designs. Humane design played an enormous impact on the design of his furniture. Aalto studied the physiology of all users and the different settings that they may be placed in. These settings included schools, diners, churches, and the workplace. Whether the furniture was used for sitting or lying down, the main focus was to create a comfortable environment for all consumers. After studying the mechanics, Aalto wanted to maximize the comfort of the furniture, in essence adding supports, making it commodious in terms of width and depth, adding inclined backs, and most importantly incorporating the flexibility to adjust the positions of the piece of furniture (MoMA, 1938, 19-20). Aalto’s furniture designs started to receive recognition after he partnered up with the company Art + Technology (Artek), and inspired other designers to explore organic forms in their works. The chairs designed by the famous Charles Eames would not have been as great if it was not for Aalto and the inspiration he shared with other designers (Koivu, 2017). According to George Nelson, an American industrial designer and a founder of

American modernism, “If one takes the best of our modern furniture pieces and regards the Eames chairs as the ‘most American’ of them, then without the earlier work of Aalto in Finland, these chairs would not have turned out as they have” (Koivu, 2017).

CRITICAL REGIONALISM The concept of regionalism was emphasized in Aalto’s design of interior environments and furniture. Critical regionalism was a design philosophy that used contextual forms in the landscape to give a sense of place and meaning. The majority of Aalto’s furniture included materials like plywood and birch, which were taken from a nearby forest and was curved using machinery that was newly founded. Prior to getting into the design phase of the furniture, Aalto would test different forms using wood to get the most efficient design and context. The curves embodied the characteristics of nature in his design. The continuous lines and curves represented the surrounding lakes and forests of Jyvaskyla; Aalto described it as second nature. (Koivu, 2017) The concept of biophilic design is evident in Aalto’s design works. Regionalism fell under the category of Modernism and created a balance. It was tied to the geographical and cultural context of the setting. Forms were critical in all phases of Aalto’s design process.

Aalto stated that “the forms must have a content, and that content must be linked with nature” (Koivu, 2017). The integration of nature gave his designs a livelihood compared to the austere forms of pure functionalism while maintaining the authority of the style. Aalto considered all aspects when a furnishing was being designed. Since the context of the setting needed to be considered for critical regionalism, Aalto assessed the context of the proposed site. According to Kenneth Frampton, a British architect and historian, Aalto had the natural aptitude to assess his site, from climate, lighting, ventilation, temperature, topography, and views (Kenneth Frampton, 1983, 26).

Aalto’s proposition was moderately unique in regards to nature and how individuals would interact with it on a daily basis. His response to the question of what he thought a city should be like, he stated, “You should not be able to go home to work without passing through a forest”(Mark Treib, 1998, 47). Aalto’s furniture designs had a significant meaning as it related to humanism and regionalism. Modernism was critical in Aalto’s career and it aided in the popularity of Alto’s furniture designs into contemporary times.

ORGANIC DESIGN The second aspect and perhaps the most important of Alto’s design career, was his building designs. All three elements of Aalto’s philosophies were evident in his designs, humane design, regionalism, and organic design. The most evident was organic design. Geometry and functionality were a common trend in modernism and Aalto loved to utilize it in his designs. Aalto loved nature, and the link he created between nature and the design work of his buildings was unique and inspirational. The designs of his buildings “[embodied] a masterful organic interplay of volumes, forms and materials” (BMIAA, 2015). This is evident in one of his most successful designs, the Villa Mairea in 1939. The form and proportion of the Villa Mairea were taken from the concept of a forest. The Villa Mairea used the concept of organic architecture, including verticality, material use, and spatial control. According to Gunnar Birkerts, a Latvian-American architect in the modernism period, he observed that “Finland has a tremendous juxtaposition of horizontally and verticality” (Richard Weston, 1999, 60).

Horizontal and verticality are apparent in the design of the Villa Mairea throughout.

The exterior of the building is known for its materiality. Aalto wanted to create a link to the sunlight by using wood and light colored bricks to show a reflection of light. The 6

ribbon windows and flat roofs followed the characteristics of the International Style as was determined by Le Corbusier. The vernacular design was evident with curvature on both sides of the Villa Mairea with different flairs of wood to provide a feel that a forest was along the façade of the building. The entrance of the building had the feeling of walking into a forest. The column use along with the windows, let light in to get a view of the exterior. The floor surfaces alternated from soft to hard, from carpet to tile. Curved walls were used to create a sense of direction throughout the house. The Villa Mairea also had small details located around the house made of wood and brass to create a connection to nature. Functionality was evident through the design of the Villa Mairea and was only considered, to create a link to his inspirations. The furniture was typically made out of wood and ceramics and proper attention was given to the placement of furniture in the Villa (Megan Sveiven, 2010). Aalto’s main intention was not to create a house that had no meaning, but rather to create a connection wherever required. He wanted users to feel a connection to the natural world. Aalto believed the Villa Mairea would bring an exciting future and hopefully start a new trend where it would allow designers to create a connection to the natural world. Aalto knew he could not ignore the structural component of his designs, as it was a “practical necessity and as an affirmation of modernity, but then transformed it in terms of his presiding idea: the interior as a metaphoric forest” (Weston, 1999, 70). Despite keeping structural competency and the limitations that came with it, Aalto still found a way to create a link to nature. Many designers followed the work of Alvar Aalto and used him as an inspiration to guide themselves in their own designs. He helped establish a foundation in modernism by creating new, and following old styles within that period, specifically as they related to organic design.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, Alvar Aalto designed over three hundred buildings, furniture’s, and lamps – the majority of them located in Finland. The majority of his designs were built and few remained on paper. An architectural critic, Sigfried Giedion, called him the “Magus of the North” because Aalto was considered to be the best Finish architect of Modernism (BMIAA, 2015). Aalto’s works mainly focused on the Modern period, specifically focusing on human design, regionalism, and organic architecture. All of his design principles reflected aspects of nature because he felt there was something beautiful about it. He thought all humans should interact with nature. A lot of representations were taken from the bodies of waters and nearby forests, which then were translated into his design work. Aalto played a significant role in the development of interior design, and his work is continuously being researched in the present day and beyond.

CHAIR DESIGN CONCEPT Ultimately, Aalto’s furniture designs were based on humane design and the nature’s elements. He would study the human gestures and create a chair for them. Aalto’s intention was to create his pieces of furniture as comfortable as possible for the users.

He studied many forms of local woods. Aalto liked the concept of continuity and by integrating it in his projects he “constructed ‘architecture parlante,’ which it articulates by means of curved line” (Hatie Cantz, 2005, 13). My chair design follows a similar design conscience as that of Alvar Aalto’s. The intention of my designed chair is to maximize the comfort and have a representation of nature attached to it. It consists of free flowing curves made out of plywood. It starts at the floor and weaves up to the head position. The seat is designed for a resting posture, which allows an individual to 7

lie down to sleep or read a book, and be comfortable while doing so. This is achieved by the continuous curve, which allows for no sudden change of planes on the chair, making it comfortable when occupied. The chair is equipped with an armrest to be used for support when getting up from the chair or to simply place your arm for rest.

The materials and the curvilinear lines represent the concept of nature.

REFERENCES A History of Architecture - Critical Regionalism.” Historia Sztuki Tylko Dla Orlow. Accessed March 11, 2018. http://www.historiasztuki.com.pl/kodowane/003-02-05-ARCHWSP-REGIONALIZM-eng.php.

Aalto, Alvar, Aalto, Aino, Kellein, Thomas, and Kunsthalle Bielefeld. Alvar & Aino Aalto : Design. Collection Bischofsberger. Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2005.

Aalto, Alvar, Nerdinger, Winfried, and Achleitner, Friedrich. Alvar Aalto : Toward a Human Modernism. Munich ; New York: Prestel, 1999.

Aalto, Alvar, Reed, Peter, Frampton, Kenneth, and Museum of Modern Art. Alvar Aalto : Between Humanism and Materialism. New York: Museum of Modern Art : Distributed by H.N. Abrams, 1998.

Alvar Aalto 1898-1976. Organic Architecture, Art and Design” at CaixaForum Madrid.” BMIAA. Last modified October 6, 2015. http://www.bmiaa.com/alvar-aalto-1898-1976-organic-architecture-art-and-designat-caixaforum-madrid/.

Interview with Kenneth Frampton on Alvar Aalto.” YouTube. October 5, 2015. Accessed March 3, 2018. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmBi_T-3ZAA. Museum of Modern Art. Architecture and Furniture : Aalto. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1938. 5-21 Pile, John;Gura, Judith. History of Interior Design. Wiley, 2013. 349,353 Reed, Peter, Kaizen, William, and Smith, Kathryn. The Show to End All Shows : Frank Lloyd Wright and the Museum of Modern Art, 1940. Studies in Modern Art ; No. 8. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2004.

Sveiven, Megan. “AD Classics: Villa Mairea / Alvar Aalto.” ArchDaily. Last modified October 28, 2010. https:// www.archdaily.com/85390/ad-classics-villa-mairea-alvar-aalto.

The Aaltos’ Human Kind of Modernism.” Abitare. Last modified April 18, 2016. http://www.abitare.it/en/research/studies/2016/04/18/alvar-aalto-modernity/.

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WA LT E R G R O P I U S

Fig. 1: F52 - Perspective View. Battuvshin, Nemuulen. 2018. [Computer-generated Model using Revit 2018].

Fig. 2: F52 - Side View (Form derived from Bauhaus Floor Plan). Battuvshin, Nemuulen. 2018.

[Computer-generated Model using Revit 2018].

Fig. 3: F52 - View of Frame. Battuvshin, Nemuulen. 2018. [Computer-generated Model using Revit 2018]..

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Nemuulen Battuvshin

INTRODUCTION

NEW TECHNOLOGY

Architecture is a complex practice of design which aims to celebrate innovative creations of various movements in history. The Modern Movement, which emerged in the first half of the 20th century, dominated traditional forms of design and techniques by dramatically shifting away from styles common in the Victorian Era (Pennsylvania Architectural Field Guide, 2015). The definition of design began to change as the core intent was to find beauty and strength in minimalistic and simple forms as opposed to cluttered and ornamental structures – with efforts to explore new technology, materials, and executions of design, the Modern Movement strived to give meaning to architecture in a completely different sense, and that signified cutting ties with the past and ending reference to historical precedents for ideas (Curtis, 1996, 21). Walter Gropius was

As the Modern Movement further emerged, new techniques, materiality, and use of technology developed. A previous movement known as the Arts and Crafts Movement embraced hand craftsmanship to be the leading production technique (Pile, 2005, 227). On the contrary, Gropius’s philosophy for the Bauhaus promoted, “the machine to be the modern medium of design” and sought to come to terms with it (Wingler, 1969, 21). The integration of repetitive, rhythmic units and uniformity were not to be achieved by craftsmanship as it would be rather expensive to produce the same forms reiteratively (Wingler, 1969, 20). Buildings began to become practical. For example, the Dammerstock Housing Estate by Walter Gropius was a prototype for linear block housing developments. The desire for conformity and organization led

one of the most influential architects and designers of the 20th century. Founder of the Bauhaus, a school of architecture and design in Weimar, Germany (1919), and a leading advocate of the Modern Movement, he was a socialist who believed in variety (Curtis, 1996, 21). Thus, the architect altered the perception of design by declaring that form follows function, introducing new techniques and technology, and contributing to the elimination of hierarchy in the realm of design as well as society.

to the fundamental concept of creating a non-hierarchical arrangement of individual units, thus, resulting in a series of repetitive forms (Meyer, 2001, 40). The sizes of all the windows, doors, and roofs were fixed and achieved a cohesive state. This type of structure used the method of prefabrication and mass production – hence, it made it possible to have an infinite number of variations by differing combinations of the standard elements (Naylor,1968, 30). In addition, arrived the use of the same building components and materials for group housing; this facilitated mass production which achieved low-cost effects as well as time efficiency (The Gale Group, 2004). By eliminating the craftsmen, greater industrial rationalization developed; juxtaposing to unessentially created aesthetical forms that serve a bare purpose, creating clear and open spatial arrangements with appropriate applications of reliable materials and techniques was what Gropius believed to be the future of design (Naylor,1968, 30). In terms of materiality, Gropius used glass and steel as no architect had ever used it previously the Fagus Factory (1911), designed specifically for the 1914 Werkbund Exhibition, consisted of an extraordinary façade made of a curtain of glass supported by narrow steel mullions; the corners of the building had no supports, thus using the joinery of its glass components to emphasize the transparency of the structure (Naylor,1968, 30).

More exposure to the interior details could also be detected at the main administration block staircases as they are enclosed in circular glass towers. This method was a complete innovation of the time. Hence, whereas in the previous movements majority of products were manufactured by hand, the Modern Movement had an impact on today’s design execution with a mere portion of design being produced by hand and majority being produced by mechanical devices to achieve efficiency in labour and time (The Gale Group, 2004).

FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION Links to the past were difficult to break for many architects, however, Walter Gropius believed that they should; in his book, The New Architecture and the Bauhaus (1935), he indicates his founding of his own style – he states that the academic stylization of classical “Orders” were prevalent on the conception of architecture and education (Naylor, 1968, 29). Gropius eventually discovered his own ideas and began to understand the true nature of what structural creations should be, which were the products constructed through the use of ‘unprecedented forms’ (Naylor, 1968, 29).

Consequently, the end results of Gropius’s projects were dependant on minimalistic and simple, geometrical forms which concentrated primarily on function. The state of comfortability was calculated first beforehand the aesthetical elements. The ideology in this was to consider the users’ comfortability and adjustability of the product (Pennsylvania Architectural Field Guide, 2015). This practicality is associated with majority of his projects with the Bauhaus Building being one of the most crucial examples. The building was a four-story high structure with glass curtain walls and plain white walls with no ornamentation; projecting elements can be seen on the dormitory balconies and subtle curved forms are detected on railings (Tashchen, 1990, 121-122).

The form of the building was interestingly derived from its floor plan (Naylor, 1968, 30). A consistency in style is noticed in other projects of Gropius; majority had flat roofs, a combination of horizonal and vertical linear components, and heavy box-like, rectangular forms balanced by lightweight structures. There were strictly no diagonal units, or other aesthetically driven designs that gave no sense to functionalism (Meyer, 2001, 28). Gropius was one who was more involved in the International Style of the Modern Movement; nevertheless, De Stijl principles influenced his work in response to Cubism of modern art which developed in Europe (Pile, 2005, 336). The idea was to organize the forms into a number of interpenetrating blocks to achieve an artistically uniform style. Although the use of box-like forms was perceived to be overly minimalized, it was solidly based on functionalism in terms of providing what the people needed (Wingler, 1969, 20). Hence, the concept, as an entirely new feature which drove away from traditionalism, became valued and embraced.

E L I M I N AT I N G H I E R A R C H Y Gropius sought to transcend from the 19th century Romanticism and create a new profession to serve a new kind of society; following that, he aimed to redefine the role of art and technology through the language of the Bauhaus – “Let us create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions which raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist” (Naylor, 1968, 9). Gropius believed in the avoidance of hierarchy. In terms of design, the objective of the Bauhaus institution was to aim for a future which unifies architecture with art and sculpture and painting (Naylor, 1968, 9). Gropius was inspired by William Morris; he established the Bauhaus to create art for the people, art to the limit of functionalism - to create an aesthetic boundary for the products (Clayton, 2012). A compromise was needed to broaden the design spectrum as well as the mindsets of the people. Why must creations be appreciated in separation rather than a unity? Gropius found beauty in the fusion of arts and crafts; he comprehended well the entirety of work created side by side in opposition to parts of 10

it being admired and parts of it being rejected; the part of society that were attached to the past tended to reject the prototypes newly introduced in the modern era (Wingler, 1969, 49). Gropius’s Office in the Weimar Bauhaus Building (1923) was an Art Deco structure by Henry van de Velde and it exhibited new spatial concepts and creative abilities of the Bauhaus studios. This office was an expression of design with the unity of the arts and crafts. The spatial qualities such as partitioning to form perfect cubes and the use of harmonious colours with brightly coloured upholstered armchairs achieved the concept of unity (Meyer, 2001, 20). All elements were designed to particularly fit the space and if a single unit was to be moved, the entire idea of gesamtkunstwerk (unity of art forms) were to be interrupted (Meyer, 2001, 20). Therefore, the core intent was to combine the creative with the practical – in no way should one be diminished and/or undermined, instead the goal was to form great collaboration between the artist, the craftsman, the expert and the patron, and allow them to gradually understand their distinct ways of working (Wingler, 1969, 49). The objective was to remain clear, it was a responsibility for the Bauhaus to educate the people in recognizing the nature of the society that they lived in.

CHAIR DESIGN: F52 The initial consideration to designing a product is functionality; therefore, the primary factors which informed the chair design for Walter Gropius were ergonomics and comfortability – thus, material selections, sizing, and spacing had to be carefully coordinated. One method used on the Bauhaus Building by Gropius himself was that the form of the building was derived from its floor plan; similarly, the base of the chair design was informed by the famous Bauhaus floor plan.

Moreover, the technique of applying the same forms in different variations was used on furniture design. Rectangular (Cubism inspired) forms were applied with no exaggeration of decorations, diagonal cuts or additional incorporations for mere aesthetic purposes. One of the most famous creations of Walter Gropius, the F51 chair, is an extravagantly modern design with a minimalistic style and a bold and seamless finish. It encompasses two materials – either stuffed fabric or leather, and wood, usually solid ash, walnut, or oak (Meyer, 2001, 20). The use of `durable materials for framing corresponded well with the box-like, soft seating surfaces. In addition to these, other techniques and contemporary materials commonly used in Gropius’s buildings were incorporated into the chair design, such as the use of steel, combinations of linear horizontal and vertical elements, elimination of hierarchy in a different sense, symmetry, and protrusions.

The chair has three interlocking rectangular cushions to emphasize comfortability and versatility; the seating surface is physically and visibly comfortable as it is composed of stuffed upholstery which does not limit the posture of seating. The upholstery is not only integrated on the seating surface and back support, but it also runs along the armrest. However, there is spacing between the seating surface and the armrest to provide a thigh gap for fluent movement when seated as well as spacing behind the armrest for a similar purpose. Cushions are integrated only where necessary. It is an aesthetically pleasing design as three different materials are used harmoniously; fabric for the cushions, steel for a lightweight and sturdy framing, and thin slats of oak are used as a joinery mechanism for attaching the frames to the cushions. In terms of appearance, there is no hierarchy when viewed from different angles - all around, the composition consists of a well-balanced use of the three materials to create a simple, but aesthetically pleasing form. The front and the back are symmetrical, and protrusions were applied outwards on the armrest so as not to interfere with the body when seated, as well as the back of the headrest. The intent of the use of the chair is to be quite 11

flexible: it is an appropriate design for offices (designated lounge areas), residential spaces, schools, cafes, etc. – therefore, emitting hierarchy in terms of usability. Walter Gropius’s design fundamentals are greatly implemented into the process of the design and it is created to fit primarily in the modern world today.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, Walter Gropius prevailed through the Modern Movement by establishing a different perception to design as he was one not to one to abstain from making drastic changes. By driving away from eclecticism and the common cluttered and ornamental design practices, he approached design with functionalism and user comfort as priority and believed that form should cohere with them. By incorporating simple, geometrical forms based solidly on function could solemnly achieve the needs of the people while also providing an aesthetically appealing quality. Without the need for decorative elements arrived mass production and prefabrication as Gropius promoted the machine to be the modern technology for production; variations of rhythmic and repetitive forms became mandatory for housing units as well as furniture products for maximum organization and efficiency in terms of cost and duration.

Finally, Gropius endeavored to eliminate the barrier between arts and crafts; he avoided hierarchy in the realm of social classes as well as design by acknowledging arts and crafts to be perceived as an equal. With these practices, Walter Gropius altered the world of design; the methodology and the ideology that rose from the Bauhaus are key manners of how we, today, approach and produce design.

REFERENCES Clayton, Steve. “Culture Reviews: ‘Bauhaus’, ‘Attila’. The Socialist Party of Great Britain.

2012. Accessed March 02, 2018. https://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/socialist-

standard/2010s/2012/no-1296-august-2012/culture-reviews-bauhaus-attila.

Curtis, William. Modern Architecture Since 1900 (Third Edition). London, England: Phaidon

Press Limited, 1996.

Meyer, Ulf. Bauhaus Architecture 1919-1933. Munich, Germany: Prestel Verlag, 2001. 20-80.

Naylor, Gillian. The Bauhaus. London, England: Studio Vista Limited, 1968. 7-30.

Pennsylvania Architectural Field Guide. “Modern Movement 1925-1950”. Pennsylvania

Historical and Museum Commission. 2015. Accessed March 02, 2018.

http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/portal/communities/architecture/styles/modern movements.html.

Pile, John F. A History of Interior Design, Fourth Edition. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley &

Sons, Inc., 2005. 227-337.

Taschen, Benedict. Bauhaus 1919-1933. Berlin: Bauhaus-Archiv Museum fur Gestaltung,

Klingelhoferstr, 1990. 115-123.

The Gale Group. “Walter Gropius”. Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2004. Accessed March

02, 2018. https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/architecture-

biographies/walter-gropius.

Wingler, Hans M. The Bauhaus. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1969. 20-49.

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Fig. 1: The Osaka Dining Chair. Binnun, 2018.

Fig. 2: Plan View. Binnun, 2018.

Fig. 3: Front View. Binnun, 2018.

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Oren Binnun

An exploration of materiality, function, and form as displayed through Tadao Ando’s works, allow each person who enters one of his designed spaces to interact with light and shadow in a way that goes beyond the sense of sight. Through an analysis of Ando’s key structural characteristics and his traditional Japanese influences, his use of concrete as a primary building material, and his integration of light and shadow as a driving force of emotion in a space, portray the ideas behind the uneducated architect who has transformed the realm of modern design. Exploring these ideas has led to a chair design that is informed by Ando’s design principles and beliefs.

Born in 1941 in Osaka, Japan, Tadao Ando grew up in a neighbourhood filled with artisan workshops, woodworkers, and craftspeople (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). It was here that the first sense of design was imprinted into his young

and application of Japanese culture into his projects. This is evident through his manipulation of solids and voids and their interaction with the natural light (Pile & Gura, 2014).

While Tadao Ando was not the first to use concrete as both structure and as surface, he is famous for displaying its architectural beauty through both its mirrorsmooth finish and its detail (Bognár, 2008). It is not Ando’s concrete ingredients that distinguish his work from the rest, but his process, in which painstaking detail and precision is utilized throughout the entire project (Bosker, 2017). These processes differ much from typical concrete work and include using special wooden molds that are coated in plastic which remove the wood grain that is typically embedded into the concrete as it cures (Bosker, 2017). In addition, the blue cones that hold together the

mind, however, unlike most notable architects, he did not pursue architecture or design; rather he followed in his twin brother’s footsteps and became a professional boxer by the age of 17 (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). It is through competing in tournaments abroad in Bangkok, Thailand, that Ando first began observing the built world around him, fascinating himself with the design of Buddhist temples he visited (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). This prompted his abandonment from boxing and led him on a path of travel throughout Japan, Europe, and eventually to the United States (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). By 1965, Ando had traveled to visit the Pantheon in Rome, and it is with the impression given by the expansive space and its shining light that made him determined to become an architect (Binet, Casati, Oechslin, Ando, & Deutsches Architekturmuseum, 2002).

While receiving no formal architectural training, Ando began studying and reading on his own; reading the architecture student’s entire four-year booklist in one year (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). Another roadblock for him came in the form of not being able to apprentice with other architects – due to his “stubbornness and temper” he was frequently fired (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). As another barrier in his path, Ando decided to establish an office in his hometown of Osaka, rather than in Tokyo, which was seen then as a necessity to succeed (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). Fighting through these obstacles, in the year 1969, Ando started his own practice at the age of 28 (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004).

An in-depth analysis of Ando’s famous structures allows for a breakdown of his design thinking and influences for his architectural works. With its completion in 1976, the Rowhouse in Sumiyoshi (Azuma House) is Ando’s first awarded design, receiving the Architectural Institute of Japan’s annual award, and launched forward his radical design career with his use of the only material equally as stubborn as he was, concrete (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). This small house in Osaka, Japan emphasized his use of concrete, large glazing systems, and uncluttered interiors; all of which are key elements of Ando’s designs today (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). Measuring only three meters wide, the structure and layout of the Rowhouse determined the function of space and dictate the lifestyle of its user. The structure stands as three separate cubes: the first cube containing the living room with the master bedroom above, the second cube in the center standing as an open-air courtyard, and the third cube housing the kitchen, dining, and bathroom with the children’s bedroom above (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). The inconvenience of passing through an exterior courtyard to move throughout the house acts as an awareness of the user’s place in the world and allows for them to inhabit a “tranquil space which is still open to the sun, wind, and clouds,” separated from the sounds and sights of the city around them (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004). This type of intrusive design practice is a common theme in most of Ando’s work as he poses to define what space means to its occupants. Ando also became known for his integration of Zen philosophy

form ties during the pour are a signature of Ando’s work as they create the iconic holes in his concrete panels (Bosker, 2017).

A second project that explores the characteristics of Ando’s design is the Church of the Light, finished in 1989 in Ibaraki, just north of Osaka, Japan. It is in this project that light, negative space, and the concept of ‘nothingness’ is prevalent; and it is one of Ando’s most famous pieces of work to date (Baek, 2009). As Rob Gregory mentions, in most urban projects, Ando would construct his walls by “imposing geometries to create dynamically lit spaces” (Gregory, 2011). The concrete walled chapel space is defined by the use of light entering through a floor-ceiling, and wall-wall cross made from glass embedded into the negative space of the concrete wall. As Ando explains in his essay written for The Secret of the Shadow: Light and Shadow in Architecture, “If there is any consistent theme in my works, it is no doubt the pursuit of ‘light’. I persist in using concrete as a material because, to me, the architectural space of concrete seems to be the best method to attain the bare space which can be reduced into a mere flood of light and air.” (Binet et al., 2002). It is through his Japanese influences here that lead Ando to explore the nature of light as defining space; contrasting the way that light is dimmed and diffused as it enters traditional Japanese homes (Binet et al., 2002). The stark contrast of light and shadow entering the space create a deep spiritual connection with its users. It is also the sense of ‘nothingness’ in the space that allows the empty form and quality of materials to speak for itself rather than in ornamentation (Baek, 2009).

Additionally, the contrast of the light and dark are just as important in Ando’s design language as circulation in his spaces (Pfeifer, Liebers & Brauneck, 2005).

The Osaka Dining Chair I have designed for Tadao Ando is based on key components of his architecture that he uses throughout his projects, including materiality, form, and function. This dining chair is designed in Ando’s common material of choice, concrete. The trapezoidal pyramid base is constructed with poured concrete and contains the iconic details found in Ando’s projects including the seams between concrete panels and the holes in each panel created by the plastic cones. The form of the base was informed by Ando’s deliberate use of angles in his designs, through the intersecting walls found in the Church of the Light, and in the Vitra Conference Pavilion, as well as his use of triangles in his design for the University of Monterrey in Northern Mexico, and The Teatrino of Palazzo Gassi in Venice, Italy.

The seat of the Osaka Dining Chair I have designed is similarly based on Ando’s angles he frequently uses in his designs. The seat is made from concrete as well and is accompanied by a wool seat pad that follows the geometry of the seat. This pad serves as a functional piece added for comfort as well as relating the natural wool fabric to Ando’s use of relating his designs within the natural site context. Its light grey colour also allows it to blend into the concrete surrounding it as not to add contrast and overpower.

The seat back is also constructed from poured concrete with glass embedded into the negative space allowing the arm rests to float in space and allowing shadow 14

and light to penetrate the chair’s geometry. This provides a ‘lightening’ of the chair as Ando seemingly makes the concrete walls float in space in the Church of the Light.

The seat also sharply angles upwards to form the back in a way that is similar to how Ando raises his structures from their nestled laying grounds in the earth. The central spine where the back forms its peak is also made from glass to represent the open aired courtyard found prominently in most of Ando’s designs, primarily as the central cube in his Rowhouse design.

The final design feature of the Osaka Dining Chair is its name. The name of this chair is the Osaka Dining Chair because of the role Osaka had on his career as an architect. His decision to stay in Osaka rather than starting his firm in Tokyo, like all other architects in the 1960s did, allowed Ando to be audacious and more experimental in his designs, allowing him to gain fame and respect over time. As a practicing architect with no formal education, I believe his hometown of Osaka was the greatest advantage he had in growing a promising career.

Each of Ando’s architectural masterpieces displays a sense of how his lack of architectural training enabled him to be able to execute his designs, and allowed a new voice to be heard. His voice was primarily characterized through his use of materials and his exploration of light and shadows. Each piece of art built on the concepts of the previous, and as Ando explains, “I am still continuing to pursue the light of architecture. I am searching for my ideal space of light” (Binet et al., 2002). It is through his designs and studies of light in architecture that Ando has explored and continues to explore its power and true meaning in design.

15

REFERENCES A-HSN, “Azuma House by Tadao Ando” 2010. Courtyard House Designs. Accessed March 11, 2018. http:// courtyard-house.blogspot.ca/ Baek, Jin. Nothingness: Tadao Ando’s Christian Sacred Space. London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2009.

Binet, Hélène., Casati, Roberto, Oechslin, Werner, Ando, Tadao, and Deutsches Architekturmuseum. Das Geheimnis Des Schattens: Licht Und Schatten in Der Architektur = The Secret of the Shadow: Light and Shadow in Architecture. Tübingen, New York: E. Wasmuth; D.A.P., 2002.

Bognár, Botond. Beyond the Bubble: The New Japanese Architecture. London; New York: Phaidon Press, 2008.

Bosker, Bianca. “Haute Concrete.” The Atlantic. March 14, 2017. Accessed March 12, 2018. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/04/haute-concrete/517803/.

Gregory, Rob. 2011. “213: Pringiers house.” Architectural Review 229, no. 1369: 50-55. Art Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost (accessed March 10, 2018).

Hughes, Dana Tomic. “Totally Terrific Triangles in Architecture and Interiors.” August 22, 2014. Yellowtrace. Accessed March 10, 2018. https://www.yellowtrace.com.au/triangles-in-architecture/ Kroll, Andrew. “AD Classics: Church of the Light / Tadao Ando Architect & Associates” 06 Jan 2011. ArchDaily.

Accessed March 11, 2018. https://www.archdaily.com/101260/ad-classics-church-of-the-light-tadao-ando/ Kyodo, “Ando-designed university building completed in Mexico” 2013. The Japan Times. Accessed March 11, 2018. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/04/26/national/ando-designed-university-building-completed-in-mexico/#.Wqa8kujwZPY Pfeifer, Günter, Liebers, Antje M, and Brauneck, Per. Exposed Concrete: Technology and Design. Basel; Boston: Birkhäuser, 2005.

Pile, John F., Gura, Judith. A History of Interior Design. Hoboken: Wiley, 2014.

“Tadao Ando.” In Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., 17-19. Vol. 18. Detroit: Gale, 2004. Gale Virtual Reference Library (accessed March 10, 2018). http://link.galegroup.com.uml.idm.oclc.org/apps/doc/ CX3404707101/GVRL?u=univmanitoba&sid=GVRL&xid=7f4dbb1b.

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T H E G R E E N E B R OT H E R S

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

17

Stephanie Champagne

The Greene brothers, Charles and Henry, were born in Ohio and spent a vast majority of their childhood in West Virginia. The brothers grew fond of the raw condition of natural elements within their environment and the possibilities of what could be produced. The two were fast learners and quickly moved through a ‘manual training school’ to an ‘architectural school’, with ease, as few years later the brothers set up shop in Pasadena, California and were a duo at their own architectural firm, ‘Greene and Greene’ (Sheid, 2017). The firms success was brought about not only by various sentiments of architectural work, but also through their furniture and craftsmanship style. Their style of work helped to bring the likes of the British Arts and Crafts Movement to America, being renamed the Craftsman Movement. Many of these works showed Scandinavian and Japanese influences (Figure 1). The natural quality of this

who chose to focus more of his designs towards the scale of furniture. Instead of solely focusing on one or the other the two incorporated a multidisciplinary aspect with their works in architecture, interior design and furniture design (Mackinson, 1979, p. 12). The vast majority of their furniture designs were solely made of wood, with their go-to’s in ‘red tones woods’; mahogany, teak, ebony and maple. Not to take away from the natural element of the wood and its grain pattern the use of polishing and natural oils accentuated the beauty of the material. The quality of their handwork was something that made Greene and Greene designs so highly desired in this era (Pile & Gura, 2005, p. 286). Some of their very first works being highly influenced by Morris and Stickley focused on heavy timber, thick dimensions, linear and oriental decoration and its honest construction were dead giveaways to who their influences were. With

movement brought many new possibilities to the Greene’s furnishing designs that helped them flourish over the years. Their techniques became advanced and highly appreciated in residential design, with intricate details and new joinery styles (Pile & Gura, 2005, p. 273). The Greene brothers introduced a new and innovative way of thinking into the American architectural vocabulary with their naive and avant-guard design approach. Together they achieved a total of 137 projects of which 78 could still be seen as of 1974. As well, their more accomplished residential designs like the Gamble and the Blacker house have been turned into museums for public viewings (Makinson, 1974, p. 9-30).

The Arts and Crafts Movement, also known as the Aesthetic Movement took place during the Victorian era. An era that brought arise to the middle class and allowed for a higher availability of products in their price range. The movement was a rebellion to historical design and was a push forward to prevailing designs (Pile & Gura, 2005, p. 273). Charles and Henry Greene were inspired by the works of one of the most influential Arts and Crafts figures, William Morris. The notion that Morris identified with the design of practical, everyday objects grew on the brothers and persuaded them to bring these concepts over to America to see if they would be as widely accepted. Thus the beginning of the Craftsman Movement in America (Makinson, 1979, p. 12-30).

When first starting out in the design world, Charles and Henry were still trying to find their style. They quickly drew from inspiration of designers such as, Morris or Gustav Stickley. Eventually, after experimenting with bits and pieces from other designers, they formed a style unlike any other, which made them stand out in design history. With newfound inspiration, the brothers grew interested in the entirety of the design and not only the exterior development. Stemming from form and function their designs, inside and out, were meticulously crafted down to the joining details. Charles and Henry were dedicated to the craftsmanship of the design and used many naturally finished woods to produce their high quality work (Makinson, 1979, p. 12-30). It is evident to see the interpretation of oriental design through uses of inlays and lanterns, particularly in the Blacker House. By reaching and grasping from other cultures their designs became unique and talked about long after their time. Through the many different elements that define the Craftsman Movement, we can determine that the Greene brothers were a staple of this time. Their ability to move from a historical era into a brand new concept, which may have seemed raw at the time, was a brave new understanding for designers. Though the brothers, at the beginning, may have been experimenting with different techniques and concepts, they eventually reached an understanding that made it important to define an object through its use and quality of craft. This made them one of the most popular duos of their time (Bosley & Mallek, 2008, p. 11-13,133-143).

Greene and Greene furniture was an key aspect of Charles and Henry Greene’s design career. As previously mentioned, the men were influenced by William Morris,

this vocabulary of work, the brothers were able to adapt their own furniture style when they started to develop more interiors for residential houses. Their interest in full spectrum residential design enticed the brothers to produce virtually every aspect of the house and its interior elements. With the help of the craftsman friends Peter and John Hall who owned their own woodworking shop, they collaborated on many designs together and were able to product many furniture pieces over the years (Bosley & Mallek, 2008, p. 111-129). Their furniture pieces changed and adapted to new uses and new technology. First being heavy and bold statement pieces, to thinner, more delicate without ornamentation, to curvilinear designs with some evidence of Japanese influence and ornamentation. With ranges of influences and also some original work. They wanted to be able to produce products fast but be able to have a strong quality with the materials and tools they had. Some but not all included hand crafted wardrobes, chairs, tables, cabinetry, desks and even some lighting fixtures. Many of these items were appreciated at the time and then forgotten, due to the fact that they were built for residential units and not accessible to the public. However, in the 1970’s when design became re-fascinated with the honest value of raw, natural products the Greene and Greene furniture was once again a showcase. The Gamble and the Blacker house, two of the Greene’s more popular residential projects in California, were turned into museums. The public, for the first time, was able to view and study the works of the brothers and it was at this point where they became highly recognized for their furniture work in design. The high quality craft and their high end joinery approaches were just a few of the things that stood out in Greene and Greene furniture (Strand, 1972, p. 4-32). This is evident since, many if not all of the scholarly articles written about the brothers and their company are dated after 1970. Their techniques and craftsman styles were and still can be seen in many efforts and inspirations throughout history.

The furniture style established by Charles and Henry Greene by the early 1900’s, was independent of any one particular design influence. It was now the Greene brothers who were signified as influencer. Their broad range of talents and what they could do with natural materials was exceptional and highly demanded in the residential houses for those that could afford it. One key characteristic of Greene furniture was the joinery techniques. They may have looked seemingly simple, but were much more than meets the eye. With some of its decorative components including mortise and tennon joints, pegging joints and ebony spline joinery techniques (Figure 2), it became the brothers philosophy in their architectural and furniture design practice. In the beginning many of the joinery aspects involved hiding the placement, or being able to hide the material by using the same material for joining. Hence the pegging techniques, where the joinery consisted of the same material that the furniture piece was made of.

In the latter years of their designs, specifically Charles, got into the material usage of steel. Where he began to use it as an aesthetic element in many of his designs in joinery, 18

through the use of hinges or purposely showing the inserts instead of countersinking them. In many chair designs, a joining technique that both brothers used and is seen in a variety of their works is spline joints. A way to add decorative element by using an ebony spline to connect the two ends of a piece of furniture, held in by inset screw and ebony pegs (Makinson, 1979, p. 19-70). This way they could hide what they wanted to hide of the joinery and show just the accentuating aesthetic features of the furniture design (Popular Woodworking, 2013). They joinery designs and techniques became so popular for the fact that they were new and exciting. They embellished a new way of showcasing connections that was relevant at the time and with the products they had readily available (Makinson, 1979, p. 19-25).

The ‘Foyer Chair’ displayed in figure three and four are renditions displaying different aspects of the Greene’s work and their distinct abilities and designs. The chair is designed with different types of joinery detail. Thought the techniques used may be from different time frames in the Greene brothers work, it displays their vast use of older to newer concepts (Makinson, 1974, p. 9-17). The use of ebony splines to hold parts of the furniture together was a staple in the Greene and Greene furniture as it was a sturdy, appealing way to hold together pieces of wood. The pegging technique also has the same affect, though it may not be as strong, the technique is less time consuming (American Woodworking Editors, 2009). The choice of oak plays part in showing the honesty of material used. Sanding and polishing with natural oils allow the wood grains to become accentuated for aesthetic purposes. This is something the Greene’s would have done for a residential piece of furniture depending on the woods used for the interior setting (Pile & Gura, 2005, p. 273). This chair integrated a functional aspect that the Greene brothers appreciated in design. They believed that a design should look as naturally appealing as possibly while being able to hold a function (Makinson, 1979, p. 19-30). The particular chair shown is to be used in a residential foyer setting. It incorporates a ‘pull out’ foot stool that gives guests and/or residents the opportunity to be seated while taking off their shoe, as well as allows them to not have to bend down as far to remove them. The chair also incorporated decorated aspects of oriental influences with the etched out floral patterns and the curvature details of the back. All of these components that make up the chair show a wide variety of what the Charles and Henry Greene had accomplished throughout their years of design (Bosley & Mallek, 2008, p. 133-143). Although they may have started out experimenting with different design, their furniture styles in the end showed great improvement and originality.

Charles and Henry Greene had a great deal of influence on latter design after the Craftsman Movement or Arts and Crafts movement had subsided. They showed the purpose of experimenting with design that allowed designers to find their own style and develop high quality products. They were truly inspirational for their efforts of moving past what was once a highly focused historical design era and showed other designers that is was possible to make a modern move forward in design with time and practice.

Their residential designs were highly sought after in their era, though their furniture thrived after the fact. With many of their pieces being seen in years to come, since their residential designs were a majority of private residents. The pieces that did go into the houses were specifically designed for that residence, allowing a certain sense of high end value to them. Their designs though stemming from other influences eventually moved to more original efforts from Greene and Greene. The techniques of adding to joinery and material selection was crucial to any Greene and Greene furniture item.

These aspects usually added a sense of decoration and quality of hand detail to the pieces. Not only that, but through their inspirations from Oriental and Scandinavian forms it allowed them to become more intricate with detailing and creating curvilinear designs. Designers are able to look at the works of Greene and Greene and notice it for 19

its skilled efforts in craft and its raw natural aspects and appreciate the time and effort that went into it. The brothers and few others that brought over the Arts and Crafts movement evidently put a drive forward into the modern and functional aspects of design and where we are now in history.

REFERENCES American Woodworking Editors. “Inside Greene and Greene Furniture.” Popular Woodworking Magazine. February 24, 2015. Accessed March 06, 2018. https://www.popularwoodworking.com/projects/inside-greene-andgreene-furniture.

Bosley, Edward R., and Anne E. Mallek. A new and native beauty: the art and craft of Greene & Greene ;. London: Merrell, 2008.

Makinson, Randell L. A guide to the work of Greene and Greene. Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith, 1974.

Makinson, Randell L. Greene and Greene: furniture and related designs. Santa Barbara: Peregrine Smith, 1979.

Pile, John F., and Judith Gura. History of interior design. Hoboken: Wiley, 2014.

Popular Woodworking. “Greene & Greene Joinery Details, Part 1: Greene & Greene Breadboards.” YouTube.

March 25, 2013. Accessed March 05, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mbY1OSSYZw4.

Scheid, Ann. “Greene & Greene.” Gamblehouse.org. 2017. Accessed March 09, 2018. http://gamblehouse.org/ greene-greene/.

Strand, Janann, and Gregory Cloud. A Greene and Greene guide. Pasadena, CA: Strand, 1974.

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Fig. 1: Oasis Chair, design inspired from Tadao Ando’s principles. Designed by Paula Combate (2018).

Fig. 2: Oasis Chair, Side Elevation View. Designed by Paula Combate (2018).

Fig. 3: Oasis Chair, Back ISO View. Designed by Paula Combate (2018).

21

Paula Alyanna Combate

In the present time, we are consistently taught to value and practice efficient solutions for design purposes. With the rise of innovative materials since the Industrial revolution period, our society has transcended from eclectic, heavy ornamentations to pre-fabricated materials and standardized solutions for design. Although this notion has encouraged and educated majority of society with the rules of design, overtime, this has slowly neglected intangible elements such as culture and history; prioritizing inclination to the trends of design. Amidst the trends of simplistic and standardized design, Tadao Ando has risen as one of the well-known minimalist and contemporary designers to date to defy and retrieve the value of intangibility. Tadao Ando’s design is well-recognized as he encompasses an ensemble of interlinkage between nature and space, feeding the space with an enriching emptiness that exudes tranquility. Using

aesthetic that makes a lasting impression; a form evoked from absolute concentration— it creates an aura (Blaser/Ando, 2001, pg. 19). This notion of Ando’s design is most evident in his church designs. One of the best examples is the Church on Water in Hokkaido, Japan. Allocated on a plain in the Yubari mountains, the church consists of two overlapping square forms. An L-shaped wall extends along one side of the lake and serves as a separation between the church and the nearby hotel establishment (Megan Sveiven, Church on Water, 2010). The church’s design is prominent in nature as it delivers the occupants to a holistic experience, enveloping them in a darkened stairway to be emerged into the rear side of the chapel and be welcomed into an enclosed space fully resonated by nature. The wall behind the altar of the church is fully glazed providing a panoramic view of the lake where a large crucifix stands on the

simple gestures, with concrete materiality as a medium, he delivers a sanctuary-like dwelling providing a sensational Zen-like experience which exudes a strong linkage between space, nature, and man. Through Tadao Ando’s practice, he breaks down traditional approach in ways that do not neglect contemporary exploration (Blaser, 2001, pg. 19).

Tadao Ando’s influence in design is sophisticated as he establishes a strong language and signature throughout his works. Mainly influenced by his Japanese origins, Ando mimics a “haiku effect”, emphasizing the nothingness and emptiness of a space to evoke the beauty of simplicity. (Best Interior Designers, August 2015).

Through this notion, Ando’s design stimulates the occupants to simultaneously input their own dialogue in relation to space and their surroundings. This is evident in his design for the Teahouses in both Soseikan and Oyodo, Japan. Through wellpolished and precisely allocated materials, the Soseikan Teahouse space evokes an immediate infinite expansion whilst retaining spatial tension (Tadao Ando, 1989, pg.

119). With its minimal dimensions within the enclosed structure, the room serves to isolate the occupants from their daily spatial consciousness. By implementing these designs, Ando removes all tangible elements of daily reality and drives the occupants’ focus solely within the void space. Similarly, Ando implements the same notion to the Oyodo Teahouse. Ando accentuates the enclosed space with suspended ceiling vaults in a one-sixth of a cylinder dome and defines the space using columns and beams in a Lindenwood finish. (Tadao Ando, 1989, pg. 124). In both Teahouses, Ando implements a simplistic expression using minimum materiality. By using fewer materials, he executes a juxtaposition; uplifting a sense of infinity within bordered spaces. Capitalizing on the emptiness of the Teahouses, Ando sought to perpetuate the spirit and special quality of the traditional teahouse in able to resurrect those qualities to the present time (Tadao Ando, 1989, pg. 119-120). By creating a bordered emptiness, Ando uses interior spaces as a tool to transcend the history of the traditional teahouses and translate it to an understandable language in the contemporary world; an intangible element that was gradually dissipating due to the standardized methods of language in design. Through Ando’s design approach with the teahouses, he created depths within enclosed rooms and emphasized a void space as a pivotal element in shrouding an occupants’ being to be engulfed in sanctuary. His design creates a blank canvas of nothingness, alleviating a platform of opportunity for people to realize and reflect— the spiritual connection between people and nature –through their own presence within the space.

Apart from Ando’s haiku strategy of composition, his influence in design is significant as he uses “architecture as an instrument to speak to the nature of man” (Blaser/Ando, 2001, pg. 19). Ando’s design drives a focus on the physical experience; delivering a phenomenon that stimulates emotional and spiritual relations within the presence of humans. Ando uses simplistic forms and gestures that achieves a unique

surface of the water, while the surrounding walls are made up of reinforced concrete to enclose the sanctuary (Masao Furuyama, 1993, pg. 136). Ando’s implementation of full glazing application upon the chapel is crucially powerful as it contributes significantly to the ritualistic and sacred experience within the space. According to Werner Blaser, the architectural gesture used is essentially moving as the design choice for the church strongly demonstrates that “nature is neither alienated nor [should be] render[ed] artificially]” (Blaser/Ando, 2001, pg. 19). Through the fully glazed wall, Ando creates a seamless dialogue between the natural world and the occupants of the space. He summons a virtual reality that can be experienced physically and spatially (Knabe, Noennig, 1999, pg. 120). Uniting humans and nature, he delivers a spiritual contentment to the occupants’ well-being and creates a place of reflectance. Ando especially values these rooms of interlinkages as he sees architecture to be necessary “not only to serve human being[s] for practical and physical needs, but also serves to enrich their spiritual existence. (Knabe, Noennig, 1999, pg. 122). Ando’s focus on delivering a physical experience to the Church on Water also strongly conveys a message of realization. Living in the contemporary world, it is important to acknowledge what the “living conditions are within our virtual reality” (Knabe, Noennig, 1999, pg. 120).

Hence, it is pivotal to know and be capable of clearly identifying what and where our role stands in response to our present environment” (Knabe, Noennig, 1999, pg. 120). Ando intricately alleviates a place of reflectance, a psychological effect to its occupants that trigger occupants a “returned view of themselves, playing a role within the establishment” (Taylor, Mark, and Preston, 2011, pg. 55). With these reflecting sensations that his space evokes, Ando emphasizes the importance of spatial and experiential phenomenon as these factors are not momentary sensations, but a legacy that lives and transcends both past and present practices to people and design.

Through the Church on Water, Ando executes his high respect for nature; following his design suits to address the pre-existing surrounding conditions of his buildings.

Ando’s inclination towards the intangible elements of architecture is extremely valuable as these significantly influence the desired atmosphere within the design. Despite the simplicity of his architectural decisions, Ando manifests a design that uplifts a monumental experience—interrelating nature, spirit, and men—without disregarding aesthetic and contextual satisfaction.

Although most areas of design view a “concrete jungle” expression in connotation with “ugliness”, Ando defies the stereotype. Ando uses concrete material with architectural passion. (Blaser and Ando, 2001, pg. 52). Ando’s designs are mostly constructed with concrete. Despite the heaviness associated with the material, he uses concrete with a sense of cleanliness and weightlessness. He uses the material to accentuate and emphasize the dialogue between space, nature, and men. Through concrete, Ando generates a constructive, organized and relative potent to represent an aesthetic sensation overall. (Best Interior Designers, 2015). One of the best design 22

examples evidence of this is the Church of the Light in Ibaraki, Osaka, Japan. This church stands as an epitome of Ando’s architectural works as it demonstrates a strong embracive approach to his “philosophical framework between nature and architecture in which light defines new spatial perceptions” (Andrew Kroll, Church of Light, 2011).

The use of concrete upon the structure of the church creates a blank canvas; removing any distinction of any pre-established Christian motifs and aesthetics to space. The concrete hugely contributes to the entire sacredness of the space as it adds darkness into the dwelling; exuberating a “more humble and meditative place of worship” (Andrew Kroll, Church of Light, 2011). Ando intricately uses concrete as an instrument to materialize and dematerialize natural lighting within the space. The concrete construction is poured in a systematic way that allows the material to encompass a

validate that if known intention for design is integrated, a multiplicity of materials is not necessary to heed and communicate to the occupants of the space.

Consequently, my chair design deems to encompass Ando’s focus in interior design to delivering a sanctuary experience, a comfort to the spiritual being of its user in context to the present contemporary year. Using Ando’s focus on simple gestures and lines, I created a chair that strives to provide comfort and a dwelling to provide meditative elements to the busy mind. The chair is designed in close reference to Ando’s “Dream Chair” design intent which strives to provide a “furniture piece that invites a relaxed reflection” (Carl Hansen & Son, 2013). The Oasis Chair uses a three-dimensional veneer which pushes and utilizes the material’s size and curvature capacity—enabling it to be mended extensively to follow the desired characteristic of

luminous quality when exposed to natural lighting. On the east side of the structure where a cross void fenestration—the only distinction of Catholicism on the structure— is integrated on the church’s façade, during early mornings, the concrete reacts with a dematerializing effect and resonates light into the dark volume, turning the space into an illuminated box (Andrew Kroll, 2011) further elevating the uplifting spatial experience within the dwelling. Ando’s treatment with the materiality of concrete is extremely significant as he establishes a monumental practice that perceptually changes the shape of the elements from one to another: material into immaterial, dark into light, and light into space (Kroll, 2011). Ando’s practice of using concrete not only utilized the singularity of the material but also exemplified a signifying work that defies standardized methods in relation to materiality. He uses the material extensively, enabling him to shape and mold the temple of the spiritual beings of the occupants in a non-adamant way. Through concrete, he designed spaces that are flexible in nature despite the solidarity and the permanence of their form.

Many of Ando’s designs focus on engulfing and capturing occupants’ beings by bringing an inner peace to their spirits—creating grounds of emptiness for the meditation, a Zen garden within the mind. Through some of his design principles in emphasizing physical experience, emptiness and intricate use of singular materiality, he successfully structures a design that marks a lasting memory to the occupants; a legacy in nature. A phenomenal experience as it is a language that is understood solely within the space; an “experience that cannot be expressed with words” (Knabe, Noennig, 1999, pg. 118). Ando’s design centralizes a focus to address the relationship of the occupants to space; to translate and experience an understanding of the cultivating and contributing factors that exist underneath the forms of design. The most crucial element of Ando’s design is the notion to address the sensitivity and the fragility of the elements—culture, nature, spiritual beings—that have been neglected due to the focus of innovative design. Ando’s spatial design embodies an architectural language that informs succeeding designs about the importance to deliver contextual basis of a space. He does not mirror or mimic the design of modernism. Instead, he follows “traditions of modernist compositions and formal methodologies” (Tadao Ando, 1993, pg. 21) of the past and interprets them in his own perspective. By using these elements as a spine for the spatial and experiential depths he would like to engage people to, Ando hugely influences design in a renaissance-like way; bringing emphasis back to the spiritual health of the occupants. By retrieving emphasis on the spiritual well-being of occupants, designing dwellings—whether it be a church or a house—should have no difference “as the house serves as the locus of the mind in equivalence to the mind serving as the locus of god” (Best Interior Designers, 2015). Ando’s designs further

the chair. Using similar methods as Ando, I used simple stroke gestures to drive the form of the chair. The back of the chair is curved to address the natural spinal curvature of the human anatomy. It is also lengthened in height to provide some protection from acoustic white noise audible in close range. The chair is ideal for a relaxed seating, and for lounge use where individuals are encouraged to separate themselves momentarily from the chaos of daily reality. Using Ando’s methods, I wanted to create a design that would provide a momentary peace to its users—specific for the present time wherein every element is constantly in a busy and rapid movement. A chair that may translate a momentary peace to individuals working in a busy office. Although this chair may not provide the equivalent substantial intricacies as Ando’s creations do, this chair translates Ando’s emphasis on uplifting a sanctuary-like experience to the user in correlation to the present time.

23

REFERENCES “AD Classics: Church of the Light / Tadao Ando Architect & Associates.” ArchDaily. Last modified January 6, 2011. https://www.archdaily.com/101260/ad-classics-church-of-the-light-tadao-ando?ad_medium=widget&ad_ name=more-from-office-article-show.

Ando, Tadao, and Blaser, Werner. “Architecture of Silence”. Germany: Birkhauser, 2001.

Ando, Tadao. “House in Sri Lanka/ House in Monterrey”. Residential Masterpieces 12. Japan: EDITA Tokyo Co. Ltd, 2012.

Ando, Tadao. “Rokko Housing”. Italy: Electa/Architectural Press, 1989.

Ando, Tadao. “The Yale Studio & Current Works”. Spain: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1989.

Best Interior Designer Europe. “Top Architects | Tadao Ando – Best Interior Designers.” Best Interior Designers – is an Ongoing Lecture Series Featuring Designers of Distinction from Around the World. Last modified August 28, 2015. http://www.bestinteriordesigners.eu/top-architects-tadao-ando/.

Carl Hansen & Son Passionate Carftmanship. “Dream Chair by Tadao Ando - TA001 - Carl Hansen & Søn.”

Danish Design Classics Since 1908 - Carl Hansen & Søn. Last modified 2013. https://www.carlhansen.com/ products/lounge-chairs/ta001/.

Caroline, Sally. “Tadao Ando.” Sally Caroline | Interior Design Melbourne. Last modifiedmFebruary 18, 2016. http://www.sallycaroline.com/blog/architecture/tadao-ando-master-of-concrete/.

Clements, Jessica, Elizabeth Angeli, Karen Schiller, S. C. Gooch, Laurie Pinkert, Allen Brizee, and Vanessa Iacocca.

2017. “General Format.” The Purdue OWL. Last edited February 16, 2018. https://owl.english.purdue.edu/ owl/resource/717/02.

Furuyama, Masao. “Tadao Ando”. Zurich, Germany: Artemis Verlags-AG, 1993.

KMP Furniture. “Tadao Ando | Modern Architecture and Interior Design - Fire Collection.” KMP Furniture - Modern Furniture Store. Last modified 2018. https://www.kmpfurniture.com/designer-news/architecture-isa-frozen-music-a-melody-that-stretches-long-into-the-sky_77.html.

Knabe, Christopher, and Noennig, Joerg Rainer. “Shaking the Foundations”. Japanese Architects in Dialogue. New York: Prestel Verlag, 1999.

Kroll, Andrew. “AD Classics: Church of the Light / Tadao Ando Architect & Associates.” ArchDaily. Last modified January 6, 2011. https://www.archdaily.com/101260/ad-classics-church-of-the-light-tadao-ando.

Marsh, CNN, Jenni. “From Boxer to Architect: Celebrating Tadao Ando, Japan’s King of Concrete.” CNN Style.

Last modified November 6, 2017. https://www.cnn.com/style/article/tadao-ando-exhibition/index.html.

McGuickin, Gerard. “Tadao Ando: The Self-Educated Architect.” Decoist. Last modified February 10, 2016. https://www.decoist.com/tadao-ando-works-architecture/.

“Minimalist Architect Tadao Ando The Minimalist Architect Who Brought.” Deavita.net Interior Design and Architecture Magazine. Last modified August 10, 2017. https://deavita.net/minimalist-architect-tadao-ando. html.

Rybczynski, Witold. “Tadao Ando and the Dream of the Perfect Chair.” Architect: Journal of the American Institute of Architects. Last modified March 19, 2014. http://www.architectmagazine.com/design/tadao-ando-andthe-dream-of-the-perfect-chair_o.

Sveiven, Megan. “AD Classics: Church on the Water / Tadao Ando Architect & Associates.” ArchDaily. Last modified December 20, 2010. https://www.archdaily.com/97455/ad-classics-church-on-the-water-tadao-ando.

Taylor, Mark, and Julieanna Preston. “Thick Edge: Architectural Boundaries and Spatial Flows.” In Intimus Interior Design Theory Reader, 49-55. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2011.

“The New Wave of Japanese Architecture”. Catalogue no. 10. N.d, The Institute for Architecture and Urban Studies: September 25 – November 14, 1978.

24

E I L E E N G R AY

Fig. 1: 1. 2143 Chair: Arms Up

Fig. 2: 1. 2143 Chair: Arms Down

25

Melinda Dao

INTRODUCTION Throughout history there have been a number of important and influential interior designers that have left a lasting impact within the field of design and on the outside world. Among these designers is Eileen Gray. Eileen Gray is critically important to the field of interior design because unlike many of the other Modern designers of her time, she pioneered thought and integrated nuances that considered human connection and facilitated bodily interaction within the environments and furniture pieces that she designed. This essay will provide a brief background on Eileen Gray and analyze how her furniture and architectural designs have worked to engage the senses of the human body beyond those of her peers during the Modern Movement.

BEGINNING OF CAREER Eileen Gray was born in Ireland in 1878 to a distinguished family (Pile 2013, 358).

After moving to Paris, France, she started her formal education in 1901 at the Slade School of Fine Arts, where she explored numerous design mediums (Constant 2000, 11). In 1906 she furthered her education in design by training under Seizo Sugawara, a master in Japanese lacquer techniques (Constant 2000, 11). The subsequent works that she created extended to a plethora of furniture items including lacquered screens and dishes which brought forth her first high profile client, Jacques Doucet (Adam 2000, 369). Her formal education did not last long and her ventures into architecture, interior design, and furniture design were largely self-taught and guided by those around her (Constant 2000, 13).

Gray opened her own store named Jean Desert in 1922 in order to sell her furniture and textiles under a male pseudonym, but this was not lucrative and only lasted for a period of seven years (Constant 2000, 6). Although her design work originally began with furniture that fell under the category of the luxurious French decorative arts, Gray soon rejected the associated elitism (Constant 2000, 87) and undertook changes to her work that transitioned into sensuous, innovative furniture and architectural designs that contributed to the Modern Movement (Constant 2000, 1). The works that she created while designing during the Modern Movement according to Constant sought to “overcome the dehumanizing qualities often associated with abstraction” by incorporating and considering the notion of human experience (Constant 2000, 7).

Her works from this time are often described as having simplicity in form, engaging of the human senses, logical, adaptable, and witty (Constant 2000, 1).

R U E D E L OTA Eileen Gray’s first major work is a prime introduction to the way in which she takes into account how her clients lifestyle will interact with the created surrounding environment. This project was commissioned by Madame Mathieu-Levy in 1918 and it was for the renovation of her apartment, the Rue de Lota (Constant 2000, 37).

Within this renovation, Gray chose the colour scheme of muted tones with highlights of silver and gold for the apartment based on their “emotional appeal” and their ability to create an air of mystery and seduction for her client (Constant 2000, 38). She utilized extensive lacquer work, reflective surfaces, and exotic materials throughout the space, inspired by her client’s collection of ancient and tribal art pieces (Constant 2000, 38). This work also demonstrates Gray’s inclination towards exploring the potentials

of a variety of materials which we will see carry on throughout the course of her career (Constant 2000, 38).

FURNITURE DESIGN Within her furniture designs, Gray utilized the flexibility of tubular steel and experimented with both synthetic and natural materials such as aluminum, cork, celluloid, exotic woods, and slate (Constant 2000, 130). One of the main reasons why she chose to utilize materials such as tubular steel was so that her furniture could be adapted easily and reproduced for sale in an inexpensive manner (Adam 2000, 206). One of her most prominent furniture designs, the Transat armchair, was inspired by the folding chairs used on ocean liners (Garner 2006, 6). The Transat armchair featured a geometrical wooden frame that was complimented by a curved area for the body to ergonomically rest and contained no additional decoration (Garner 2006, 6), quite unlike the pieces that she had created in the beginning of her career. This chair in particular set forth Gray’s alignment with the Modern Movement aesthetic in combination with her own ideas about the application of human scale.

A majority of her furniture designs also displayed her light-hearted wit. For example, the Bibendum chair that she designed was inspired by the Michelin man with its overstuffed stacked tire-like appearance and in its Latin translation means, “Now it is time to drink.” (Constant 2000, 118). Another one of her designs, the NonConformist chair was named due to it not conforming to a typical armchair standard in that it featured only one padded arm rest to allow for flexible movement (Garner 2006, 31). Much of the furniture that Gray designed, especially for her domestic interiors were adaptable, allowing the inhabitant to have control of their surrounding environment (Constant 2000, 73). Due to the nature of these furniture pieces, one can see how appealing and straightforward the designs of Eileen Gray were conceived to be through the integration of whimsy and focus on form.

LEISURE Hand-in-hand with her penchant for designing with the human body in mind, Gray had a fascination with the theme of leisure which is reflected in her designs through references to things such as the folding deck chair and the ocean liner (Garner 2006, 6). Gray hypothesized a number of architectural projects pertaining to this theme such as the idealistic Vacation and Leisure Centre that she proposed in response to political change in France during the late 1930’s that enabled various workers to enjoy paid vacation days (Constant 2000, 165). This vacation centre incorporated communal living spaces, private hotel rooms and cabins, theatres, a restaurant, and recreational facilities - all situated with views to the sea (Constant 2000, 176). The fact that Gray designed not just this facility, but numerous imagined buildings relating to the theme of leisure, although never realized, speaks to her invariable focus on the overall intention of providing spiritual and physical well-being to all through design.

E. 1027 The most significant of Eileen Gray’s designs is the E. 1027 house of 1926, built with her partner at the time, Jean Badovici (Constant 2000, 5). This collaborative period with Badovici lasted six years and was highly influential in her following independent career within architecture (Constant 2000, 5). The building that they created together is significant because it allowed Gray to respond to the Modern Movement in her own way which can be seen through her derivation of elements from the Movement with 26

her own focus on how the inhabitants will interact with them. E. 1027 specifically references Le Corbusier’s “5 Points of New Architecture” in that it is standing on pilotis, has an accessible roof, open floor plan, horizontal ribbon windows, and an open façade (Adam 2000, 193), but Gray responds to Corbusier’s theory that a house is a machine for living in saying this, “A house is not a machine to live in. It is the shell of a man, his extension, his release, his spiritual emanation.” (Constant 2000, 118). This quote sums up the main goal of Gray’s work, to incorporate the realities and needs of humankind into abstract modernism (Constant 2000, 94). Although her work was considered to be a part of the Modern Movement, Gray’s central focus when designing always came back to how her work would interact with the human sensibilities.

Built for a hot, Mediterranean climate, Gray took into account the overall well-being of the inhabitant of E. 1027 and studied the geometry of the sun and wind in order to provide adequate shading and relief from the exterior climate (Ryan 2010, 343). According to Constant, E. 1027 was meant to serve as “a sanctuary from contemporary urban life” (Constant 2000, 106). The interior of E. 1027 is logical in plan and according to Gray, the interior of the building informed the exterior of the building and not the other way around, for she believed that a home should be built to the human scale (Adam 2000, 198). The small home is characterized by built-in, adaptable furniture, her signature screens, references to ship and maritime styles with railings and deck chairs, and humane, witty details akin to Gray herself (Adam 2000, 204).

The name of the building, E. 1027, in itself was a cipher – E standing for Eileen, 10 for J (Jean), 2 for B (Badovici), and 7 for G (Gray), the fusing together of the pair’s initials (Constant 2000, 11). Gray thought of things that nobody else did – for instance, she took care to include adjustable, bendable elements within all of her furniture, she placed cupboards at eye level, located cool surfaces in the bathrooms to give the body relief from the exterior heat, and even did things like cover trolleys in cork so they could move silently and not wake up anybody that was sleeping (Adam 2000, 205). The aforementioned consideration and innate detailing of the ways in which the body would interact with the environment work to prove Gray’s overarching goal within her works – to consider the human body and the senses in tandem with the environment.

I. 2143 Taking into account the concepts mentioned above that are akin to Eileen Gray, a chair was designed as a result of these beliefs and theories. The chair, named I. 2143 and priced at $140, features a semicircular base that is reminiscent and characteristic of Gray’s famous Bibendum chair which is also featured as a base for the Adjustable Table that she created for E. 1027 (Garner 2006, 31). The shape of the chair seat is derived from this semicircular shape and is padded to provide a comfortable place to sit. Tubular steel is utilized, such as Gray used for the majority of her Modern furniture, for the base and support elements in order to exhibit its flexibility and inexpensive reproduction. The steel tubes that support the chair reference the look of a folding chair, hinting to a leisurely theme that Gray pursued within her works (Garner 2006, 6). The chair would be covered in vinyl in order to provide an affordable alternative to a leather look.

Inspired by the Non-Comformist chair and the adaptability of Gray’s furniture pieces (Garner 2006, 31), the I. 2143 chair features two arm rests that can fold up into the back of the padded chair. The user of the chair can choose to it without arm rests for flexible movement (see figure 1), one arm rest – similar to that of the Non-Comformist chair, or two arms rests like that of a typical arm chair (see figure 2). The name of the 27

chair, I. 2143, is inspired by Gray’s cipher for E. 1027. I stands for Inspired, 2 for B (Bibendum), 14 for N (Non), and 3 for C (Conformist) because of the humorous pieces in which the chair gains its inspiration.

CONCLUSION Although Eileen Gray’s principles and designs are well-known now, this was not always so, especially not during the main timeframe in which she was practising design. Often times throughout the Modern Movement, the decorative arts and designs pertaining to the domestic interior were overlooked (Constant 2000, 16). In combination with this, Gray as a person was a bit of a recluse and tended not to socialize with other formally trained designers of her time (Constant 2000, 8). She was also a woman practising architecture, thus not taken as seriously nor given the same opportunities as the men practising during her time (Constant 2000, 8).

Gray only became a household name within the last few years of her life after architect Joseph Rykwert produced writing pieces appreciating her architecture in 1968 (Adam 2000, 369). Within one of his articles, entitled, “Eileen Gray: Pioneer of Design”, Rykwert details Gray’s design work throughout the course of her life and praises her work, deeming it innovative and visionary for its time (Rykwert 2014).

This coupled with the sale of the items from Jacques Doucet’s flat in 1972, her first aforementioned high profile client, throttled Eileen Gray’s name into prestige and her furniture items into the ranks of rare collector’s items (Adam 2000, 369).

It is of great worth and due diligence that Eileen Gray’s works and concepts were finally noticed and made available to the world, even though it took nearly her entire life for them to be noticed. Gray was an exceptional designer and contributed much to the world of interior design, especially when it came to the consideration and near obsession of the integration of the human spirit, senses, and physicality within the environments that she designed. All designers can take away something useful from the dialogues and designs that Eileen Gray has afforded, she understood that if we are not designing our environments for the ease of human use, then we are designing for nothing at all.

REFERENCES Adam, Peter. Eileen Gray : Architect/designer : A Biography. Rev. ed. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2000.

Constant, Caroline. Eileen Gray. London: Phaidon, 2000.

Garner, Philippe., and Gray, Eileen. Eileen Gray : Design and Architecture, 1878-1976. Hong Kong ; Los Angeles: Taschen, 2006.

Pile, John F., Gura, Judith, and EBSCOhost. A History of Interior Design. Fourth ed. 2013.

Ryan, Daniel J. “Sunshine and Shade in the Architecture of Eileen Gray.” Architectural Science Review 53, no.

(2010): 340-47.

Rykwert, Joseph. “Eileen Gray: Pioneer of Design, December 1972.” Architectural Review. Last modified March 4, 2014. https://www.architectural-review.com/rethink/eileen-gray-pioneer-of-design-december-1972/8659684. article.

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J U N I C H I R O TA N I Z A K I

Fig. 1: Figure sitting cross-legged in zaisu chair.

Fig. 2: The zaisu chair is meant to be used on the floor since it does not have legs. It can be used as a reading or lounge chair.

29

Clarissa Diaz

INTRODUCTION Junichiro Tanizaki is a Japanese writer of the twentieth century. An underlying theme in all his works is the pursuit of personal and cultural identity, representing his own search for self-identity in a rapidly evolving Japan (Keene 2013, 13). The significance of Tanizaki’s literary works as they relate to interior design lies within their cultural context; his literature reflects on how someone navigates within Japanese society, within the family, and resultantly, within the home. As a commentator and critic of Japanese society, Tanizaki’s later work touches on the ideals of the average Japanese citizen; his explorations on Japanese culture is consequently a commentary on Japanese values in beauty, aesthetics, and design (Keene 2013, 15). Tanizaki’s works focus on the domestic life of his characters, effectively transcending a period-specific context and delving into the human psyche (B.H. 2017). His writing accurately captures the emotion and dynamism of the human mind, specifically as humans react to political change, deal with inner turmoil, and operate within social norms. In the late 1920s and 1930s, Tanizaki’s focus shifted from writing about crime fiction, erotica, and perverse obsessions to writing classical Japanese literature on topics of traditional Japanese culture, architecture, and tastes (Long 2002, 431). It is notable to point out that early in his writing career, Tanizaki was infatuated with Western culture: he was envious of its intensity and grandeur, both in arts and politics, in comparison to Japan’s traditional quiet subtlety (Keene 2013, 10). Tanizaki’s writings are timeless; In Praise of Shadows, an essay on aesthetics, allows readers a glimpse into the nuanced beauty of the Japanese interior and the Japanese consciousness behind it (Tanizaki 1977, 20-23). Not only is Japanese interior aesthetics eloquently discussed, but its integral role in Japanese culture and daily routine is pointedly emphasized.

This essay examines Tanizaki’s reflections on the social and cultural changes in Japan that came with the advent of Western Modernism. Successively, Japanese aesthetics, its ties with cultural values, and the use of light and shadow as a design tool will be analyzed in reference to Tanizaki’s In Praise of Shadows. Following, the essay will conclude with a chair design and description that exemplifies traditional Japanese principles regarding light, shadow, material choice, and functionality.

REFLECTIONS ON A CHANGING SOCIETY Junichiro Tanizaki’s distinguishably erotic, abnormal, and perverse works of literature were published in 1912 to 1926, known as the Taisho period (Suzuki 1996, 23). The end of the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 saw an increase in national patriotism, a new archetype for masculinity, and the gendered coding of the home as a reflection of the contemporary nation. The urban middle class was privileged enough to partake in the newfound social model which starkly contrasted the traditional lifestyle of the past, with women assuming more liberal and independent roles in society (Wong 2012, 125). Interest in the arts at this time came as a result of middle class ‘boredom,’ i.e. the Westernized mobo (modern boy) and moga (modern girl) became interested in the arts (Suzuki 1996, 29). Ero guro nansensu, or ‘eroticism, grotesquerie, nonsense,’ which is a defining aspect of Taisho culturalism became widely accepted; Tanizaki’s literary works involved themes of deviant fantasy and eccentricity, and was acceptably made famous at this time (Hoffman 2012). Urban middle class ‘boredom’ made it possible for Westernized literary works to gain popularity and accessibility; it is in Tanizaki’s works like The Tattooer and The Children, among others, where themes of sadomasochism and the femme fatale character are present (Suzuki 1996, 29). The novel A Fool’s Love (1924), or widely known by the title Naomi, is representational of the conflict between an aristocratic traditional Japanese society and the inevitably

permeative influence of Western technology and ideologies (Hoffman 2012). Women of the modern era were progressive and had more opportunities of freedom from categorized gender roles, creating discord between the new age female and the older traditional female (Hoffman 2012). Tanizaki’s stories operate under taboo thematic frameworks to reflect movement toward Western Modernism in twentieth century Japanese culture, values, and politics.

Beginning in the late 1920s, Tanizaki’s writings highlighted Japanese tradition, aesthetics, and beauty ideals. A progression from his previous works of eroticism and themes of social change, Some Prefer Nettles (1929) very clearly discusses the East versus the West, but as the story progresses both are perceived as fantasies in which the protagonist cannot root himself or find favour over the other (Keene 2013, 14).

The serialized novel The Makioka Sisters (1943-48) is set in interwar time Japan contemporary to when he was writing, contributing to the well crafted sense of reality that the story successfully achieves (Keene 2013, 14). The novel details the collapse of cultural values within a middle class family of four daughters. The characters attempt to preserve connections to their cultural past. Each consecutive sister is less traditionallymannered than the last, with the oldest strictly conforming to traditional Japanese etiquette and gender roles, and the youngest exhibiting characteristics of a liberal modern girl (Suzuki 1996, 30). Tanizaki’s literary works are a portrayal of Japanese culture and society; his works purposely illustrate the cultural shifts, confusion, and individual emotion that an everyday Japanese person may have felt. In his writing, readers are able to discern what life was like living in early twentieth century Japan.

The system of ideas and behaviours of the West was a stark contrast against the rigid time-honoured systems of the East. Junichiro Tanizaki’s works offer a glimpse at Japanese culture; accordingly, his renowned literature is also a commentary and observation of Japanese values in not only relations with others, but with built spaces and environments. The following section will examine Japanese culture in relation to aesthetics, spatial design, and Japanese ideas of beauty.

A E S T H E T I C S & C U LT U R E The built environment has influence on a person’s well-being; it affects and evokes emotion, facilitates comfort, and provides a sense of belonging (Perolini 2011, 164).

A space or building has meaning and significance that goes beyond its mere physicality.

Cultural symbolism, personal attachment, and time- or place-bound histories are or become embedded within a space (Perolini 2011, 164). Humans interact with a space, therefore meaning can be extracted from experience and place; built design, aesthetics, and spatial quality all have the potential to convey and supplement cultural values (Perolini 2011, 164). In this way, aesthetics and culture work interdependently. Much like built structure is necessary to a space, so is aesthetic quality (Perolini 2011, 164).

Aesthetic quality, which involves material, colour, light, and arrangement choices, is reflective of the inhabitant(s) of the space, their routine, and their cultural context. This section investigates the ability that aesthetics, and all its constituents and any related disciplines, has in reinforcing spatial experiences and cultural values.

IN PRAISE OF SHADOWS Junichiro Tanizaki writes about shadow in a manner that implies its function as a component of design; wall fenestrations, material use, and interior layout are carefully designed to create a specific atmosphere (Tanizaki 1977, 18). This writing presents an underlying appreciation for nature in its subtlety and nuanced patterns, as Tanizaki discusses the meticulous calculation in choice of materials and colour to enhance and 30

play with light and shadow (Tanizaki 1977, 19-20). In discussing light as a constituent of design, Tanizaki contrasts the simplistic Japanese interior and the ornamental Western interior (Tanizaki 1977, 18). He considers the beauty of the Japanese room as a balance of light, colour, material, and antiquity (in objects); all these work together to create a nuanced quality of atmosphere (Tanizaki 1977, 18). Tanizaki goes on to discuss how the neutral colour and fine-grain sand texture of the wall of a sitting room pairs well with the indirect light of the exterior garden (Tanizaki 1977, 18). He reveals that the understated pairing of diffuse light and textured wall is the charm of the room, as it produces a faint glow in the room (Tanizaki 1977, 18). He further discusses the use of flowers to intensify shadows and how the look of a hanging scroll creates just the right balance of antiquity and darkness, successfully producing the enigmatic atmosphere

treated in this way, Ashihara likens a Japanese city to a “bed town,” where building types act like different spaces within a single house (or city) (Ashihara 1989, 45).

The Japanese aesthetic is minimal, subtle, and nuanced; it is based on an understanding of the transience and inevitability of changes in life (Richie 2007, 3738). The Japanese aesthetic is integral to everyday Japanese life, not solely as a means to view the world, but as a means to react to one’s surroundings. Able to adapt and progress as a whole, Japanese cities and cultures have the ability to move forward as a single entity, ensuring all constituents are able to progress and adapt to change.

Tanizaki attributes the Japanese appreciation of shadows to their ancestors who learned to appreciate the darkness in times when sunlight and moonlight was the only available source of light (Tanizaki 1977, 18). Similarly, objects that showed signs of wear or

of a room alcove (Tanizaki 1977, 19). Tanizaki presents light and shadow as a design tool to create atmosphere and experience in a room; in doing so, he also suggests an appreciation for subtlety, for the natural, and simplicity (Tanizaki 1977, 20-23). He showcases a mindfulness in design choices that transcends into a thoughtful gratitude and recognition for beauty in what is natural. Even in discussing the use of gold leaf in the interior, Tanizaki highlights the practicality of gold as more than just a lavish material, but a natural reflector, reflecting glints of light into a darkened room or area (Tanizaki 1977, 23).

patina were preferred over the shine of new materials (Tanizaki 1977, 22-23). Where the significance of shadows lies in its enigmatic continuity, value of a material is found not in its novelty, but in its use, history, and antiquity.

J A P A N E S E A E S T H E T I C S : N U A N C E D S P AT I A L D E S I G N Japanese aesthetics and the Japanese conscience is highly informed by the Buddhist belief of “emptiness” and “nothingness” (Inoue 1985, 136). This is not to say that nothing exists, but it implies that human modes of understanding limit the ability to grasp ideas, spirituality, phenomenon, etc. (Inoue 1985, 136). “Emptiness” in this case, is not an absolute truth or phenomenon, rather it can be understood as a continuity, seamless and transient (Ashihara 1989, 43). The Japanese understanding and adoption of Buddhist “nothingness” and “emptiness” is manifest in a diminished attachment to material goods; interior design focuses on spatial and experiential quality more than it focuses on the collection and display/layout of materials such as furniture and decor (Inoue 1985, 136). Yoshinobu Ashihara (1989, 36) attributes the Euro-American relentless hunt for ‘light,’ or science, technology, and competitive progress to a dualistic view of ‘light’ and ‘shadow,’ where ‘shadow’ is nuanced design, an appreciation for subtle beauty and charm, and spiritual fulfilment. Ashihara (1989, 42) attributes the significance of shadow in a Japanese interior to its implicit ‘hidden order.’ He explains with an analogy of the Ryoanji rock garden, pointing out the relationship between the large rocks and the surrounding pebbles. The protruding rocks are part of a rock foundation underneath the pebbles, so if the pebbles were not present, then the rock garden’s appearance would not be the same, and resulting human interaction with the space would be altered (Ashihara 1989, 42). The rock protrusions are seemingly independent of each other, but upon closer inspection, there is a continuity in their placements (Ashihara 1989, 42). Similarly to shadows, harmony lies in its balance with light (Ashihara 1989, 34).

The Japanese house relies on the floor for much of its activity, either as a place to sit, a place to eat, or a place to do work (Ashihara 1989, 44). Because the floor serves the purpose of a seating place and a horizontal work surface, chairs and tables are not necessary; this declutters the home and allows for a large surface area to be dedicated for many house activities (Ashihara 1989, 44). Shoes are removed at the entrance to maintain the cleanliness of the work surface floor. Inhabitants of the home are able to freely move through the interior without effort (Ashihara 1989, 44). As interiors are 31

ZAISU CHAIR DESIGN The zaisu chair is a Japanese chair that does not have legs, and is often used in rooms with tatami mat flooring. A formal seiza sitting style is traditionally used when sitting on a zaisu chair, where the legs are tucked underneath the body. This design merges the traditional zaisu chair with a contemporary use, therefore it can be used as a reading or writing chair or lounge chair. The chair has a function in the traditional Japanese home interior, while its shape is indicative of its context in the twenty-first century. It is built of wood frame and upholstered with fabric in a heather grey. The soft texture of the fabric in combination with the colour will allow the seat to blend into a diffuse lit Japanese room.

REFERENCES Ashihara, Yoshinobu. The Hidden Order: Tokyo through the Twentieth Century. Translated by Lynne E. Riggs.

New York: Kodansha International, 1989.

B.H. “Junichiro Tanizaki, Chronicler of Change.” The Economist. 15 June 2017. Accessed 7 March 2018. https:// www.economist.com/blogs/prospero/2017/06/war-and-words.

Hoffman, Michael. “The Taisho Era: When Modernity Ruled Japan’s Masses.” Japan Times. 29 July 2012. Accessed 10 March 2018. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2012/07/29/general/the-taisho-era-when-modernityruled-japans-masses/#.WqaNe5PwYWo. Inoue, Mitsuo. Space in Japanese Architecture. Translated by Hiroshi Watanabe. New York: Weatherhill, 1985.

Keene, Donald. Five Modern Japanese Novelists. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.

Long, Margherita. “Tanizaki and the Enjoyment of Japanese Culturalism.” Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 10, no. 2 (2002): pp. 431-469.

Perolini, Petra. “Interior Spaces and the Layers of Meaning.” Design Principles & Practices - An international Journal 5, no. 6 (2011): pp. 163-173.

Richie, Donald. A Tractate on Japanese Aesthetics. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press, 2007.

Suzuki, Sadami. “Tanizaki Jun’ichiro as Cultural Critic.” Japan Review, no. 7 (1996): pp. 23-32.

Tanizaki, Junichiro. In Praise of Shadows. Translated by Thomas J. Harper and Edward G. Seidensticker. Stoney Creek: Leete’s Island Books, Inc., 1977.

Wong, Aida Yuen. Visualizing Beauty: Gender and Ideology in Modern East Asia. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2012.

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REM KOOLHAAS

Fig. 1: Splay Chair. (Dyson, Maria. Splay Chair. 2018)

Fig. 2: Splay Chair as Bench. (Dyson, Maria. Splay Chair. 2018)

33

Maria Dyson

INTRODUCTION Deconstructed and contorted façades, mechanized spaces, engineered furniture, evolved design to suit the contemporary and futuristic; these are all characterizations of Rem Koolhaas’ designs. Born in Rotterdam, 1944, Rem Koolhaas is a visionary architect also known as “an iconoclastic writer and explorer of social issues (Pile, 2005, p431).

Koolhaas combines several elements of deconstructivist, post-modernist, humanist and urbanist design philosophies along with an advanced level of technological fusion into his projects (Pile, 2005, p431). These combined elements create forward thinking design which looks to embrace the upcoming changes in populations’ way of living and functioning. He has affirmed his importance in the design world by configuring buildings at a scale which is focused on the experiences necessary for his architecture, interiors and furniture designs to succeed using modern technologies and thought provoking stances on form and future growth. Koolhaas uses his interdisciplinary knowledge of these design aspects to create innovative, controversial design which responds to a human scale with textures, light, materials and experiences which is imperative to the development of interior design.

CONTEMPORARY DECONSTRUCTIVISM Koolhaas has been described as an architect who does not follow a singular aesthetic; rather he can be categorized as a “conceptual artist with an endless reservoir of ideas,” (Ouroussoff, 2012). This is an advantage; he is a revolutionary thinker – always looking forward to the next big idea. In a discipline which can be classified in terms of eras and design movements, an architect who is undefined has the creative ability to explore architecture, to transcend movements, as he wishes without sticking to a singular “style”. In architecture and interiors this is important in order to stay current and to be a consistent driving force in the design world. Koolhaas’ forms are innovative; they fragment what would be a rectangular building, twist them, and create convex and concave shapes which the eye flows over. These buildings however, have been scrutinized and praised a like because of the unique qualities, his designs do not follow the conventional rules of architecture and is “progressively provocative in form,” (Pile, 2005, p431). Koolhaas has been described as a deconstructivist due to these non conventional forms which his designs explore (Pile, 2005, p428). Deconstructivism is a style of architecture which emerged in the 1980s, it is an “elision of deconstruction, the theoretical [and, or] critical practice of breaking down information or meaning to build interpretation,” (Thames & Hudson, 2003). Koolhaas’ China Central Television Headquarters (CCTV) tower in Chaoyang Qu, China is an example of the futuristic deconstructivist architecture which embodies Koolhaas’ principles regarding change and evolving technology. The CCTV tower has been described as an “anti - tower” by some, because of the chaotic, and imbalanced qualities of the double cantilevered tower (Hill, 2013). The double cantilever puts the passer-by in a state of unease, however from the interior it is a comfortable and well programmed space (Hill, 2013). In an interview with Zumtobel, Koolhaas describes his interior programming as “organizing [the] sequence in which certain things happen inside a building,” (Zumtobel, 2015).

Koolhaas’ considered the human scale of the workers and the actions which take place within the center, and began to segment and twist the building to create an interesting and unique form for the exterior. Here, form follows function in a non conventional manner. This is a repetitive quality of Koolhaas’ work which does not cease to amaze, confuse and inspire. This “anti – tower” performs as necessary while questioning the necessary structure of a building – a tower is not strictly defined to a single vertical climb in Koolhaas’ vision. The structural architecture of the building relays to the

interior where heavy steel beams pierce through the levels of the tower. The interior spaces are fragmented as a volume, like the exterior is fragmented in façade. The interior becomes a dynamic obstacle course of sorts – users innately weaving through the intricate spaces. The tower’s envelope design emanates the structural stresses and tensions of the exterior – wherever the building is under a high stress load the steel beams converge in a tight cluster, sculpture and structure as one, and where the load is lessened the beams return to conventional spacing (Frearson, 2012). For Koolhaas, form is not found through object inspiration, it is the ability to create “random” form, for the sake of itself, rather than an expression of something (Zumtobel, 2015).

These philosophies began to form the basis for the Splay chair design (Figure 1&2). The Splay chair is a deconstructed and skewed version of a typical chair which can be manipulated into a small bench. Splay takes inspiration from the CCTV tower in that it expresses the tensions and stresses of the active load through the exposed metal bars and excess of bars in the tension riddled zones. Constructed from metal and acrylic, Splay explores the notion of transparency and evolving design. With a swift motion the chair can transform into a bench depending on the users current needs.

Koolhaas explored furniture design when he partnered with Knoll to create an eleven piece performative furniture set “Tools for Life.” Tools for Life explored the functional and physical adaptations necessary in furniture to achieve high function in an evolving environment (Barry, 2013).

E V O LV I N G TO H U M A N S C A L E Tools for Life is Koolhaas’ response to evolving interiors in the fast paced modern world. Through this line Koolhaas has recognized that technology is altering interiors, he stated in an interview with Times Colonist that “furniture needs to be more versatile. Any activity can happen anywhere. Furniture has to now behave in more than one kind of predictable way,” (Barry, 2013). The furniture Koolhaas designed can be transformed from a counter to a bench, tables move effortlessly between various functional heights and the chairs follow suit. The technologies used in the pieces are not digital, but futuristic in the materiality and engineered mechanical abilities. Joints and hardware is exposed – connecting the user to the functional qualities of the piece in a cohesive manner. Materials include wood, leather, acrylic and glass – a subtle blend of cold and warm materials to create a whole. The combination of the mechanical and material aspects creates furniture that appears very futuristic and modern, with an illusion to mechanical craftsmanship. Koolhaas’ intentions with these pieces was to “animate a room,” to explore the multidimensional facets of a modern interior and its corresponding furnishings (Barry, 2013). Tools for Life explores an interior and its inhabitants needs, it is changing the convention of furniture; this elaborates on Koolhaas’ philosophy in which he uses “change to strengthen the original identity,” (Ourousoff, 2012).

Another defining characteristic of the visionary architect’s work comes from his exploration into urbanism. Koolhaas is extremely consistent with his appeal to the human scale in architecture, interior and furniture design, as well as in the case of urbanism. Here, Koolhaas steps back and considers how future technologies meld with the sense, experiences and day to day effects on populations in a large, city scale.

For example, Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA), Koolhaas’ office founded in 1975, recently unveiled their design for a New York City apartment development (Frearson, 2012). The building is nestled in between two existing builds and transforms from the classic grid like architecture of the two, to a contemporary fragmented and faceted building at the corner (Dezeen, 2017). Koolhaas and his OMA team were inspired by the evolution and context of the city and its inhabitants while catering 34

the interiors and the aesthetic elements to the wide range of diverse buyers (Dezeen, 2017). The prism-like exterior reflects the consideration of the surrounding parks and views which are maximized with the glass perimeter (Dezeen, 2017). The team does not wish to shut out the surrounding context with this build; instead they are embracing the unique attractions of the city and making them a focal point for the interior inhabitants. Koolhaas finds inspiration in the dysfunctional qualities of a design, and searches to find the potential functionalities within it (ZeitgeistMinds, 2016). What some architects may think of as a challenge to position a contemporary building between two existing, Koolhaas found a solution to transform the concept of a residential high rise in the context. This build is a facet of Koolhaas’ work which explores the function of a building – the residential space – and looks to transform the form to something unique and atypical. The result is a fragmented high rise, which is welcoming and intriguing; it maximizes views, and considers the textural qualities of light passing into the interior through these fragments.

TOTA L D E S I G N Koolhaas is an architect who considers total design – he searches beyond the exterior envelope to explore the urban context, the humanistic scale and sensory implications, the interior play of space, light and shadow, and the creative solutions to the functional requirements within the space. These are all aspects of Koolhaas’ work which inspired Splay. The chair is constructed from steel and acrylic because the transparency of the piece emulates the materiality which Koolhaas uses in various projects, such as CCTV, Seattle Public Library and the New York apartment building. This transparency allows the users to interact with the piece on an intellectual level – they can recognize and understand the possible functions of the piece from the initial interaction. Additionally, these specific materials were chosen because of the play of light and shadow they will create. The acrylic will allow light to penetrate and skip off of the metal structure inside.

This will create shadows and depth in a dimension separate from the chair itself. In the Seattle Public Library, Koolhaas explored the use of shadow, light and colour to improve the interior volume’s quality and depth (Pile, 2005, p464). Koolhaas’ and his team designed the library to extend and surpass the typical assumptions of a library – he worked with these elements to bring focus into the space, and considered the users experience, versus the object on display (Pile, 2005, p464).

A self proclaimed collaborator, Koolhaas is an architect who combines his intelligence from different domains of the field (Zumtobel, 2015). He is searching for the combinations of interactions which can be created through space – the promotion of coexistence within a space and the context of the surrounding situation (ZeitgeistMinds, 2016). A chair can be a chair – or it can have the adaptability to be a bench or a sculpture. The mechanical qualities of Splay juxtapose the comfort qualities typically assigned to a seat. The contortion and abstraction of the separate chair pieces is a nod to Koolhaas’ deconstructivist background. Splay is more than a conventional chair – it challenges the ideals of proportion, forms and density. The shadows and depth, materials and innovations, engineered and mechanical components and transformative spatial solutions of Splay are all qualities which are inspired by the innovative work of Rem Koolhaas. Koolhaas stated in an interview that he envisions design which moves away from boxes and typical form, he is searching to create designs which emanate values other than practicality – he searches for the touching and the interesting (ZeitgeistMinds, 2016). Splay is a piece which performs and questions – it is more than the typical and less than the extreme. Splay explores what a furniture piece “could be” while still performing as it is meant to be.

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CONCLUSION Koolhaas’ architecture and interiors reflect his intention to create total design – design which responds to the human scale of architecture on a sensitive, contextual level in a deconstructed expression. Koolhaas’ portfolio is filled with works which create controversy and attract attention because of his radical mind and attitude towards design. Through form, Koolhaas explores the abstract possibilities of future design.

A tower does not always need to be a tower, growing smaller as it reaches its peak – perhaps it is twisted and cantilevers off its base. A library can open to light, play with texture and colour, and explore the shift of focus to user rather than object. A furniture set can explore the evolutionary qualities of an interior – the fast paced life style, shifting and responding to the necessary environments. The qualities of Koolhaas’ innovative works all stem from his philosophy – “what could be,” (Timmer, 2012).

Koolhaas focuses on exploring the future and the supporting technologies which create this future. His designs cannot be readily defined because they are based on a unique exploration of ideas and imaginations. Through process, multi disciplinary research, observing and quantifying, Rem Koolhaas creates memorable, controversial design to embrace the growth of populations, space, and design.

REFERENCES Barry, Colleen. “Dutch architect Koolhaas embraces design with 11 pieces for Knoll at Milan furniture show.”

Times Colonist (2013). http://www.timescolonist.com/business/dutch-architect-koolhaas-embraces-designwith-11-pieces-for-knoll-at-milan-furniture-show-1.106265 Frearson, Amy. “CCTV Headquarters by OMA.” Dezeen (2012). https://www.dezeen.com/2012/05/16/cctvheadquarters-by-oma/ Hill, John. “Deconstructivist Architecture, 25 Years Later.” World Architects Magazine (2013) https://www.worldarchitects.com/en/pages/insight/deconstructivist-architecture-25 Koolhaas, Rem (discusses OMA’s first New York apartment building). By Dezeen. February 24, 2017.

Koolhaas, Rem (The Future of The Way We Live, Love and Work). By ZeitgeistMinds. May 23, 2016.

Koolhaas, Rem (Rem Koolhaas on form and light in architecture). By Zumtobel. July 15, 2015.

Ourousoff, Nicolai. “Why is Rem Koolhaas the World’s Most Controversial Architect?” Smithsonian Magazine (2012).

Thames and Hudson. The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of Art Terms. London: Thames & Hudson, 2003.

Timmer, Sjors. “Rem Koolhaas – designing the design process.” [PDF document]. February 7, 2017.

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REM KOOLHAAS

Fig. # 1: Rem-inified Perspective View. Danna Dawn Faina.

Fig. #: Rem-inified Front View. Danna Dawn Faina

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Danna Dawn Faina

INTRODUCTION The emergence of modernism has paved way to a new approach in architecture and interior design, which until now, is being used as a foundation to contemporary and late modernism innovation. The late modernism which is set to today’s age in society has been debunking traditions and setting new innovative standards to produce design works at its best – and going out of its comfort zone. One of the key players in the age of late modernism is Rem Koolhaas. As a designer, Rem Koolhaas does not only establish complexities and innovation into the realms of structural design, but his philosophy and design visions has also influenced interior design in today’s modern age.

BIOGRAPHY Rem Koolhaas, is a Dutch architect popular for his pioneering style of revolutionary design in architecture. Not only Koolhaas is an architect, but he is also a theorist, a writer, a Harvard professor and an author. Koolhaas was born in November of 1944 in Rotterdam, Netherlands during the World War II days. Koolhaas grew up in a welleducated family, and at a young age, he was able to travel to Asia which influenced his cultural and social awareness. Originally, Koolhaas was a journalist who has written several papers and scripts for films; however, architecture has always been a dream for Koolhaas and so he decided to move to London and study in an architecture school.

Coming from a well-educated family of writers and architects and having been able to experience living outside Europe, Koolhaas has developed a way of thinking which is very different from his contemporaries. Due to his revolutionary ideas, he was given scholarships to study in prestigious architecture schools and was also given privileges to meet notable person in the design field such as Peter Eisenman and O.M. Ungers.

Due to his opinionated approach in social issues and design, at an early age of 30, his popularity rose higher than what everyone has achieved in process. As a writer and a person who is socially aware in the society’s changes, Koolhaas wrote the “Manifesto for Manhattan”. The Manifesto critics that population growth in an urban city which also tackles the issue of urban sprawl and “the culture of congestion”. His revolutionary ideas has led him to build his own design company together with his architect wife and two other friends. The OMA, or the the Office for Modern Architecture is one of today’s well-known design companies in the world.

PHILOSOPHY & VISION Rem Koolhaas, tagged as the “bad boy” of his industry believes that modern architecture can continuously innovate and his optimism about this vision is by far portrayed in his architectural projects and written papers. With similarities with Le Corbusier, Rem Koolhaas’ projects undying love for design and his radical thinking about contemporary ideas.

Sure, there are other game changer architects and designer out there who are passionate to change the design industry to cope with the future such as Frank Gehry and the late Zaha Hadid, to name a few. However, according to Martin Filler’s book of Makers of Modern Architecture, Rem Koolhaas “sheer conceptual audacity and original thinking about the latent possibilities of the building art” is far different from the rest. The argument of Martin is indeed true as most of Rem’s projects are not only functional but also caters to the problems of the modern design which is the problem of excessiveness, boldness, and expensive curation of materials used.

Another popular vision of Koolhaas is complexity and eccentricity. As what is seen from Koolhaas famous projects, complex and unconventional design is his ideal

visions. However, according to an interview done by Hanno Rauterberg in his book, Talking Architecture, Koolhaas is not building for structures without meaning because his complexity is together with functionality. In the said interview he also mentioned how iconic buildings are sometimes only built to please the media and the market. He also further explained how modernism offers us the freedom and technology which is something that is important to today’s generation. He also further explained that good architecture is both rational and very irrational which explains well how his design projects are projected from the outside and inside.

DESIGN PROJECTS & INFLUENCE IN INTERIOR DESIGN Koolhaas has been assigned to do many projects which are many to mention. This paper will focus on discussing the two popular projects of Rem Koolhaas that did not only make him popular but also influenced radical changes in modernism in interior design.

The two projects that made Koolhaas even popular in the interior design industry is the Maison Bordeaux project. The Maison Bordeaux is a project for a client with a physical disability. The client was said to be tired of roaming around his house and that the client feels enclosed in his own dwelling. Rem’s approach was to design a lift that connects to the three floors of the client’s house. The lift also connects to a book shelving in which the client could get access to.

The Maison Bordeaux highlights important aspects of interior design consideration. One of the aspects that was used by Koolhaas is the programming part of the project. Considering the client’s physical disability and answering the problem by providing solution is part of interior design programming. Rem even went beyond resolving the issue and provided an additional way of leisure to access the books.

Innovation is one of the key concepts of the design project. Before, it was very seldom to incorporate hi-tech application in design because most of the people favour traditional approach. The design application of Koolhaas to the Maison Bordeaux is an important change and design approach in modernizing interior homes. Koolhaas radical. In relation to radical changes, an interior showroom was also designed by Koolhaas for the brand Prada. In this interior design, he integrated floors that move upwards and changes levels to portray surprising effects to the visitors – which is yet again debunking the traditional interior design.

Another popular project built by Koolhaas is the Seattle Public Library in Seattle, United States of America which was built in 2004. The Seattle project of Rem Koolhaas is yet another masterpiece from a modernist architect. The Seattle project is built with curtain walls acting as the exterior walls of the building. The outside structure of the building is shaped in diagonal forms almost similar to Frank Gehry’s postmodern architectural deconstructivist projects. However, this project is functional and even more innovative in its purpose. The structural mesh grid of the library is applied in order to control thermal and visual comfort. The interior of the building is also unconventional as it is similar from the outside. The design is very descriptive of Koolhaas and application of color in the space is also portrayed in the partitions of the inside. The building’s interior is designed through colour sorting in order to distinguish different parts of the spaces inside in which colours such as bright yellow was used.

CHAIR DESIGN DESCRIPTION The chair design is a combination of inspirations from Rem Koolhaas’ design projects most specifically his attention to simple but innovative approach. The chair is composed of rectangular and distorted detailed shapes in one of the rectangular legs of the chair.

This design intent was inspired specifically from his Seattle project. The application of 38

glazed curtain walls in correlation to various shapes combining the building is a design approach mostly applied in most of his building projects. The chair, as it is shown, portrays simplicity and functionality. The chair is designed simple but in accordance to the simplest function of a chair, to get someone to sit on it. The elongated arm rest which is only located on the right side of the chair is not only for functionality purposes but also for aesthetic purpose. Koolhaas design is known to be very aesthetically pleasing behind its simplicity which is the intention to the integration of the arm rest.

The complexity of the chair is designed in accordance to Rem Koolhaas’s philosophy and vision in design. In an interview that was done by Hanno Rauterberg, he explained how complexity is paired with functionality which speaks in most of his projects. The chair designed is a combination of both unconventional design and functionality. The colors was inspired from the contrasting colors applied in the interior of the Seattle Public Library. The material for the chair is intended to use the integration of wood, metal and glass to showcase the modernism style of the design. As a designer, Rem also involved himself in designing furniture and one of the designs curated by Koolhaas is a seating with 3 wood cantilevers joined together - the simplicity but functionality of the furniture was very impressive and is a game changer in furniture design as well CONCLUSION The unconventional and complexity of Rem Koolhaas design is an approach to the ever changing modernism in design. The hunger for innovation being inspired by Surrealism is an integrated learning to compose visually pleasing, but practical design.

Koolhaas background coming from a family of designers and writers who influenced his social awareness and radical approach in design has brought him to his game changing building projects. Innovation is one of the influences Rem Koolhaas contributed in the interior design field. His philosophy and vision which is fairly new in the traditional interior design is very popular now a days in the modern age . Many are using hi-tech systems in order to provide accessibility into the interiors of the home which brings joy and comfort in each dwellings. As a designer, Rem Koolhaus has contributed to the modern design in many ways possible in order to expect what is in store for the design industry in the future.

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REFERENCES Filler, Martin. Makers of Modern Architecture: Volume 2 From Le Corbusier to Rem Koolhaas. New York: The New York Review of Books, 2013.

Koolhaas, Rem and Bruce Mau. S,M,L,XL. United States: Monacelli Press, 1995.

Koolhaas, Rem. Delirious New York. Oxford University Press, 1978.

Koolhaas, Rem, Hans-Ulrich Obrist, Kayoko Ota, and James Westcott. Project Japan: Metabolism Talks. Köln: TASCHEN, 2011.

Koolhaas, Rem. OMA/Rem Koolhaas, Generic City. Japan: TN Probe, 1996.

Lacayo, Richard. “Rem Koolhaas.” Time Magazine, May 12, 2008.

Lifson, Edward. The Pritzker Architecture Prize: Rem Koolhaas 2000 Lureate, Biography.

Ouroussoff, Nicolai. “Why is Rem Koolhaas the World’s Most Controversial Architect?.”

Smithsonian Magazine, September, 2012.

Pile, John. A History of Interior Design. United States of America: John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2009.

Quirk, Vanessa. “Rem Koolhaas: A Reluctant Architect.” ArchDaily. Last modified November 17, 2012. https:// www.archdaily.com/294970/rem-koolhaas-a-reluctant-architect.

Rauterberg, Hanno. Talking Architecture: Interviews with Architects. New York: Prestel Publishing Ltd.,2008 The Encyclopedia of World Biography. “Rem Koolhaas Biography - Life, Family, Children, Wife, School, Young, Book, Old, Information, Born.” Notable Biographies. Accessed March 1, 2018. http://www.notablebiographies.com/news/Ge-La/Koolhaas-Rem.html.

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ELSIE DE WOLFE

Fig. 1: Back of Lounge

Fig. 2: Front of Lounge

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Tiana Friesen

INTRODUCTION Elsie de Wolfe altered the very path of interior design as the “first successful professional decorator” (Pile, 2000, 302). She brought forth a new lightness to heavy Victorianism in ways that showcased her femininity and validity as a professional. Elsie de Wolfe created interiors that were meant to be lived in and enjoyed, while portraying a sophisticated lifestyle. These interiors were in-tune with what women of the nineteenth and eighteenth century desired: to be recognized as members of society on a personal level. De Wolfe’s obsession with beauty created enchanting and intimate interiors that challenged an architecturally driven world of emerging modernism. These ideas were important at the time in relating design to the average woman, and still today as the legitimacy of interior design struggles to be recognized. The way in which de Wolfe was able to understand both client and environment allowed her works to emanate the personality of both employer and herself while maintaining a feminine livability.

B AC K G RO U N D & I N F L U E N C E S Elsie de Wolfe, born in New York City in 1865, valued appearance and beauty above all else in life, seen in her many portraits. This was evident in her first job choice as amateur actress; a job chosen not for financial reasons, rather social position (Sparke, 2005, 15). De Wolfe strived to place herself in the most upstanding circles by any means necessary, in which she was extremely successful. She associated with many elite socialites, both in New York and throughout Europe, particularly France, using her connections later as clients (Sparke, 2005, 14). She soon became a professional actress to earn more money, despite this downward class move. This allowed her more freedom in experimenting with set design and costuming, as the director she favoured gave her full authority on her costumes, ordered from renowned designers in France (Sparke, 2005, 14). While performing for the Frohman Empire Theatre Stock Company, de Wolfe created many sets and advised on costuming for many historical plays. She eventually started her own small company, which was not successful. Her keen eye and desire for perfection was seen throughout her set pieces, as she strived to maintain historical accuracy in every aspect of furniture and clothing (Sparke, 2005, 16). This led to a natural transition to interiors as she already knew “how to construct an expressive, emotional relationship between environment and inhabitants” (Sparke, 2005, 16) that was extremely beneficial in communicating her designs with clients as well as contractors. This theatre experience related quite literally to her own life as every interior she designed was a stage, one where clients played out their lives, reinventing themselves as who they thought they should become. De Wolfe’s decorating “draws on theatrical illusion and material reality” (Sparke, 2005, 20) that emanates beauty through colour choices, her classic floral chintz, and mirrored reflections.

Parallel de Wolfe’s professional decorating career, Otto Wagner, Peter Behrens, and Henri Van de Velde were beginning their practices, of which modernism was born and a rejection of history continued (Sparke, 2005, 12). De Wolfe desired to create a ‘feminine model of modernity’ (Sparke, 2005, 12) that was accessible to a larger audience than merely select male elite. While the male founders of modernism went to extremes trying to eradicate historical precedent, de Wolfe chose a more restrained shift from gloomy Victorianism to lofty interiors that used warm materials instead of metal and glass. The direction that these Modernists took favoured design that was completely sterile in comparison to the previous era, or de Wolfe’s work. Even though these founders sought design with ‘purpose’, the purpose was not of enjoyable use (Pile, 2000, 236). De Wolfe was careful in her diluted interpretation of the new ‘modern’ interior that, most importantly, was beautiful and comfortable. There was not a need

to create simply for the sake of fighting against the past; de Wolfe truly desired to create spaces that clients could fully be themselves in the most convenient way possible.

Two figures that immensely influenced de Wolfe in style and philosophy were Edith Wharton and Ogden Codman Jr., whose joint book, The Decoration of Houses, was published in 1897 (Sparke, 2005, 19). The book clearly relates in many ways to de Wolfe’s design, impressing upon her the ideas of contemporary interior decorating.

The authors discuss the differences between male and female desires when dealing with the interior, analyzing that men do not care as much as women because they are not swayed by their wants of others (Codman & Wharton, 2007, 17). Wharton and Codman identify that individual tastes need to be met before the wants of fitting in, in the sense that the client comes first and their needs will be different than the latest trend-setting style (Codman & Wharton, 2007, 18). The book centers upon an idea that is clear throughout de Wolfe’s interpretations—the idea of livableness and its dependence on furniture arrangement, window and fireplace placement, privacy needs, and an ‘absence of the superfluous’ (Codman & Wharton, 2007, 18). One major difference that de Wolfe sought in her practice was to make interior decoration more applicable to the average home maker, whereas Codman and Wharton catered to the elite that could afford lofty priced pieces Sparke, 2005, 19). The book conveys the need to strive towards a modernity that does not forget the past, yet sees flexibility in relating past design to future endeavours Codman & Wharton, 2007, 18).

De Wolfe also drew inspiration from the Louis XVI style of the eighteenthcentury France, drawn from her immense love of France. This era was characterized by its desire to look past the loose morals and outrageous style of the Rococo and focus on what antiquity could offer a new age (Bayard, 2012, 175). Straight lines were favoured over the swooping arabesques and exaggerated forms that served little functionality Bayard, 2012, 175). It has been said that Madame Pompadour began to hint at this historicism return, something de Wolfe appreciated as a female decorator (Bayard, 2012, 156). De Wolfe’s devotion to her Villa Trianon in Versailles was the epitome of her obsession with Parisian culture and design. She developed a sense of the architecture and furniture of the eighteenth century and utilized this in her individual style (Franklin, 2004, 142). De Wolfe valued the traditional beauty conventions that this time brought, leaning into forms that were aesthetically pleasing and suitable for life, such as the fauteuil and small ornate tables. Looking to antiquity, evolved traces can be seen throughout de Wolfe’s aesthetic in wall panel proportions, plaster detailing in molding and hearths, and the repetitious use of mirrors to reflect light. Looking back into previous eras was essentially what Louis XVI style did, reviving aspects of Regency and Rococo in “greater reserve in the whimsy and frivolity of decoration and finery” (Bayard, 2012, 156). De Wolfe’s dependence on the past contributed in creating interiors that were historically sensitive, yet distinctly unique simultaneously.

I M P O R TA N C E TO I N T E R I O R D E S I G N One of de Wolfe’s greatest contributions to interior design is her book, A House in Good Taste, published in 1913 (Pile, 2000, 302). The book, ghost written by Ruby Ross Wood, covers a multitude of topics including theories of mirrors, colour, artificial light, staircases, door and window placement, and chintz. The book is de Wolfe’s guide to interior decorating, one that shares her personal opinions of the home and its place in feminine society, seen even in the script chosen for her title page. She holds the home to the highest standards, and “certainly not those of the useless, overcharged house of the average American millionaire, who builds and furnishes his home with a hopeless disregard of tradition” (de Wolfe, 1913, 3). She despises unaware decisions made in the home, as its occupants are the ones it should please, not to suit tastes of the day’s 42

culture. De Wolfe discusses the need for simplicity and stability in interiors, as that is what makes spaces beautiful (de Wolfe, 1913, 4). This book made design accessible to the multitudes through mass publication, assisted by magazine publications. As de Wolfe already had a following and exceptional reputation by the early 1900’s, this led to a grand movement that revolutionized the way homes were used, designed, and thought of. De Wolfe utilized her unique stance on beauty and functional interrelation to form the home into something that was thought-provoking, yet undeniably comfortable to the feminine taste. She claims that the goal is “a house that is like the life that goes on within it, a house that gives us beauty as we understand it” (de Wolfe, 1913, 9).

The Colony Club in New York solidified de Wolfe’s position as professional decorator, with such a large project assigned to her as ‘interior coordinator’ through her connection to Elisabeth Marbury (Sparke, 2005, 39). Finished in 1908, under the architectural direction of Stanford White, de Wolfe furnished the entire six-floor women’s club, which was to be used for leisure, socializing, and lodging (Sparke, 2005, 38). The ‘strangers’ dining room, for members to bring guests, was filled with de Wolfe flavour: white furniture, detailed panelled walls, and practical seating. Charlie Scheips explains how this commission launched de Wolfe’s American career, expert in fashion, style, and entertainment, as the Club reached a wider audience of average and educated women (Scheips, 2014, 7). The lavish lifestyle led by de Wolfe was perfectly suited for the women’s club, as her contacts helped in creating awareness of this ground-breaking project. The lobby had a warmth that invited visitors into the space through use of multiple comfortable seating forms, soothing green carpet, bright chintz, and wooden furniture pieces (Sparke, 2005, 41). The famous ‘Trellis Room’ veranda provided members with glorious exterior views filled with natural light, and the illusion of being outdoors as vines crept along its walls, columns, friezes, and moldings which were all covered in trelliswork (Sparke, 2005, 41). De Wolfe’s consistent use of greenery inside created spaces that refreshed those who occupied them both physically and mentally, still seen today in design that considers the implications of biophilia. Every room was carefully thought out and ornamented first to be gorgeous, then usable for its female members. De Wolfe implemented the smallest details, creating a complete interior that was cohesive and entirely suitable for its occupants.

De Wolfe’s influence could be seen imitated by many early interior designers, such as Dorothy Draper, Ruby Ross Wood, Frances Elkins, and Lady Duff Gordon in their light-coloured walls, striped patterns, chintz, and white painted furniture (Sparke, 2005, 22) (Safer, 2011, 104). Some treatises written by de Wolfe in her book remain applicable to today’s world, specifically apartment living and how to make a home with little space. Practical steps are laid out that preserve a sense of elegant design while remaining accessible to the average homeowner. The House in Good Taste’s relevance proves the worth and longevity of de Wolfe’s designs, as its many reprinting’s have suggested (Franklin, 2004, 142).

CHAIR DESIGN This lounge, largely based on the French style fauteuil, is perfect for one of de Wolfe’s glamorous portraits (Figure 1). Elegant in length and gesture, the lounge provides privacy, while still allowing for conversation if preferred. The detailing is simpler than that of the French, evolving in style as de Wolfe pares away excess throughout her career. Its comfort comes after the prominent navy chintz, a modern take on the familiar print. The dark mahogany, paired with light upholstery and bronze fasteners creates a beautiful and simple place to rest that showcases de Wolfe’s high-end taste.

An attached adjustable marble table provides functionality, either for a writing surface or drink holder. The chair is undeniably feminine and would fit seamlessly into Villa 43

Trianon today, pointed towards the endless gardens, or enjoying tea at the Colony Club. Part of de Wolfe’s characteristic style was using small pieces in ways that were new at the time, such as chairs beside beds, mirrors everywhere, and small tables for tea or writing (Sparke, 2005, 21). Continuting her innovation, the table is attached for convenience and ease of use, seen in Figure 2.

CONCLUSION Elsie de Wolfe, first interior decorator, put women on the map and at the table of design. Her interiors are not only beautiful aesthetically, yet practical and immensely personal, which gives her spaces much merit in regard to her insight. The ways de Wolfe related her interiors to history was revolutionary at the time, paring down cluttered Victorianism while continuing in a modern fashion that warmed the cold exteriors of modernist beginnings. De Wolfe was an extremely driven woman with no technical training who altered how modern society views the home. Her ability to understand suitability, beauty, and clients’ needs proved the creative master de Wolfe became throughout her career. Elsie de Wolfe’s “name [she created] remains permanently engraved in the history of interior decoration—a profession she helped create” (Scheips, 2014, 112), forever altering interior design.

REFERENCES Bayard, Emile. The ABC of Styles. New York: Parkstone International, 2012.

De Wolfe, Elsie. The House in Good Taste. US: Century Company, 1913.

Franklin, Ruth. “A Life in Good Taste.” New Yorker 80, no. 28 (2004): 142.

Pile, John F. A History of Interior Design. New York: John Wiley, 2000.

Safer, Samantha Erin. “Designing Lucile Ltd: couture and the modern interior 1900-1920s.” In

Performance, Fashion and the Modern Interior: From the Victorians to Today, edited by Fiona Fisher, Trevor Keeble, Patricia Lara-Betacourt, Brenda Martin, 97-109. London: Berg, 2011.

Scheips, Charlie. Elsie De Wolfe’s Paris: Frivolity Before the Storm. New York: Abrams, 2014.

Sparke, Penny. Elsie De Wolfe: The Birth of Modern Interior Decoration. New York: Acanthus Press, 2005.

Wharton, Edith and Codman Jr., Ogden. The Decoration of Houses. New York: B.T. Batsford, 2007.

44

GERRIT RIETVELD

Fig. 1: Julie A. Hince, The “H” Chair. 2018. Painted plywood. Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Fig. 2: Julie A. Hince, The “H” Chair. 2018. Front View. Painted plywood.

Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Fig. 3: Julie A. Hince, The “H” Chair. 2018. Painted plywood. Winnipeg, Manitoba.

45

Julie A. Hince

Gerrit Thomas Rietveld is a Dutch architect and furniture designer whose aspirations, achievements and influences are notably significant in interior design because we still seek to emulate his architectural insight as well as his humanitarian, forward-thinking vision regarding spatial environment, and this, within the realm of free spirited, artistic expression. Born June 24, 1888, in Utrecht, Netherlands (MoMa, n.d.), the former cabinet-maker is an epitome of avant-garde by its real definition, and not merely by the over usage of the term that can be criticized as cliché. His audacity in doing things differently expended into a shift in design in relation to space, form, materiality, color and accessibility that engendered the development of modernisation. The Red-Blue Chair and the Schröder House, two of Rietveld’s internationally acclaimed masterpieces, denoted traits of “modernity” in their respective timeframes (Overy, 1988, page 13).

influence of De Stijl, that the Red-Blue chair was painted. Correspondingly, it is the design and embodiment of this chair that became the “archetype of the movement” (Friedman, 1988, page 7). De Stijl’s objectives were to follow absolute abstraction, restriction of expression to the straight line and right angle, the usage of only the threeprimary chromatic colours (blue, red and yellow), and the three-primary chromatic non-colours (black, grey and white) (Jaffé, 1961, page 5). The notions Gerrit Rietveld passed on through his chair greatly contributed to the principles adopted by the collective group, De Stijl. The Red-Blue was the first three-dimensional object that displayed the De Stijl colours which derive from van Doesburg’s and Mondrian’s painting, also known as Neoplasticism (Friedman, 1988, page 7). “In a recent study devoted to Rietveld’s furniture, Daniele Baroni has maintained that the Red/Blue Chair

They are iconic because they staged the idealism and fantasy predilection associated with the early development of modernism (Overy, 1988, page 13). Rietveld, “notable for his application of the tenets of the de Stijl movement” (Britannica, 2018), helped guide the foundation for the 20th century International architecture. It is imperative to recognize the following architectural language to appreciate his influence on the evolution of design as well as on the current practices of interior design: his design methods did not imitate the criteria expected in his time; his architectural benevolence inspired outlooks on social uniformity; and lastly, his motivations were thresholds for his successors.

Gerrit Rietveld’s furniture designs simplified craftsmanship. He justified depleting ornamentation by considering it as an “expression of an artist’s spiritual poverty” (Plantenga, 1977, page 2). He understood the time and costs savings accrued by eliminating this laborious task and by using cheaper, common materials readily available to him. Unlike his predecessors and the loyal eclecticism counterparts, he thought that “[…] furniture should be democratic – that is, it should be simple, clean and functional, not ostentation, not dripping with status” (Watson, 2015). He also was pragmatic in thinking each piece of furniture had its purpose. “Rietveld thought sitting was an active occupation; resting should be done in bed”, and that is why “But for a few exceptions, his chairs are hard, which many people still find very uncomfortable” (Plantenga, 1977, page 1). Nevertheless, he set out with a new mind set, one of practicality with an aspiration for mass production. In doing so, “in his enthusiastic search for new shapes and applications he ignored the established ideas.” (Plantenga, 1977, page 1).

The fabrication of his most renown chairs are testimonials adhering to some of his personal convictions at the root of his pioneering nature. Manifestations of this nature had already taken shape in the creation of a chair he fabricated a decade before he gained recognition for his Red-Blue Chair. He wasn’t the author of the KISS motto, but the “keep it simple silly” idealism surely resonated in his approach. Of this time, we know “Rietveld starts reducing the carving and ornamentation of style-furniture which results in a plain wooden chair (1908) with leather seat and back. The treatment of the material and the clean construction foreshadow already the famous red-blue chair of a decade later” (Szénássy, 1971).

The Red-Blue Chair (1918), is well known for its Neoplasticism colours and abstract form. Gerrit Rietveld designed the chair prior to his admittance in the De Stijl group. Originally, the chair was unpainted, exposing the raw materials of birch wood. It is through supplementary architectural technical assistance from architects, P. Houtzagers and P.J. Klaarhamer, that Rietveld became acquainted to the painter, Bart van der Leck, and the architect, Robert van’t Hoff, both members of De Stijl group (Buffinga, 1971, page 12). Rietveld joined De Stijl in 1919, two years after it had been founded by Theo van Doesburg (Friedman, 1988, page 7). It is through the

(…) was entirely without precedent, thereby dismissing the probable influence on its formal configuration of earlier chairs by H.P. Berlage, Frank Lloyd Wright and P.J. C. Klaarhamer” (Friedman, 1988, page 8).

The Berlin Chair confirms Rietveld’s progressing stronghold as an important figure in design because of his innovative makings. When speaking about Rietveld’s Berlin Chair (1923), currently displayed in Canberra’s National Gallery of Australia, Bronwyn Watson (2015) states, it is “an unconventional, asymmetric design. Composed purely of interrelated flat surfaces, it is painted in monochromatic grey, black and white.” The Berlin Chair follows the values of De Stijl and is respectively “considered a high point of international design” (Watson, 2015). It also reiterated Rietveld’s notions in relation to furniture design in that it “was made to the end of showing that a thing of beauty, e.g. a spatial object, could be made of nothing but straight machined materials” (Plantenga, 1977, page 2).

The Zig-Zag Chair (1934), holds a strong concept in relation to space. It had been reconstructed multiple times to achieve structural strength. It started out from a piece of fiber with a steel frame. It was reconstructed using two iron strips. At last, it ended up being constructed out of four boards with support blocks (Plantenga, 1977, page 25). Rietveld viewed space as a quintessential principal in design. His furniture pieces “enhance the sensation of space, and by their presence seem to make the space perceptible” (Friedman, 1988, page 16). In other words, Rietveld worked with colour and the manipulation of horizontal and vertical lines to achieve an art piece.

Rietveld’s fascination with the ideals set forth by the collective forces empowering the De Stijl and his drive to exemplify these in physical form through his architectural foresight could not have been more furthered than by the influence of Mrs. Schröder.

It is through his commission with Mrs Schröder that he gained his first experience in carrying out a complete residential, architectural plan. In this project, the dream takes shape. Rietveld works in collaboration with Mrs Schröder and according to Szénássy (1971), “to the end of achieving an individualized mode of modern living”.

All the notions are forwarded in the construction of the Schröder House. According to Plantenga (1977), “The house embodies the Stijl-architecture – which has so far only consisted of plans and models – and the ideas about a balanced combination of architecture, painting and furnishing”. Paul Overy (1988) summarizes the characteristics of Schröder House as “the intimate domestic scale, the flexible open plan of the first floor which could be either open or closed according to the needs of wishes of the occupants, the employment of colour and form to create a space related to human dimensions and living requirements”. It was once stated by Rietveld that, “The aim is to preserve a free, light and unbroken space, that gives clarity to our lives and contributes to a new sense of life.” (Talley, 2017). This is also achieved with De Stijl’s objective on colour usage - to differentiate volumes, to create a visual independence of architectural parts (Serra, Garçía, Torres, Llopis, 2012). Even if this plan was met with 46

some apprehension and some criticism at first, it did gain notoriety, especially after the Second World War. According to Overy, “The Rietveld Schröder House has probably been more reproduced and more influential than any other domestic building of the early modern period, including the villas of Le Corbusier.” (Overy, 1988, page 13) With this merit, Rietveld continued to collaborate with other Dutch and foreign architects and to explore notions of building functionalities, social backgrounds, and the integration of new materials such as concrete, glass and steel (Plantenga, 1977, page 6). He moved on to design other homes, and as Szénássy (1971) proclaims, his aspirations led to design prefabrication of homes, comprising the central part of a house into a unit that includes the staircase, the kitchen and the washroom. Plantenga (1977) specifies of this standardized plan: “the core of which forms a separate part, which can be mass produced. The core contains the entrance hall, staircase, toilet and bathroom, and after installation of this core the living quarters can be built around it in different sizes”.

These accomplishments warranted Rietveld larger scale commissions up until his death and formed “the ultimate recognition of his ideas” (Plantenga, 1977, page 6). In 1964, he was presented with an honorary degree at the Delft Institute of Technology.

He died shortly thereafter.

Of the life goals that Rietveld had set for himself, those that he did not achieve on his own were carried out by interested parties. His original furniture designs and pieces are still currently being sold in various shops (Plantenga, 1977, page 1). Platenga states, “The present Rietveld-furniture is manufactured by the works of Cassina near Milan, who bought the right from the heirs in 1971” (Plantenga, 1977, page 1). Rietveld carried ambitions for mass production of his furniture that would make it available for a large audience. He had gained international acclaim with certain projects, such as his cratefurniture, and it is proclaimed that he made the “first self-assembly chair in furniture history”, making him “appear to have been a forerunner of the Ikea concept of flatpacked furniture” (Ribbens, 2013). Ikea, founded in 1943 and opening its first store in 1958, sells self-assembly furniture at a low cost (Ikea, n.d.). “Rietveld also believed furniture should be cheap to make and should be so simple to assemble that ordinary people could do it.” (Watson, 2015). It is inevitable to make the connection between Rietveld’s vision and Ikea’s establishment. Rietveld’s designs made use of raw materials, and wood pieces at their standardized size (Friedman, 1988, page 8). It is observed in current designs with the application of inexpensive materials and fast labour. For example, in our modern homes, we encounter the usage of bare cinderblocks, or the simplicity in dismissed mitering of casings and baseboards.

“The “h” Chair” (Figure 1-3) is designed to encompass Gerrit Rietveld’s ideas, theories and design methods. It is intended to respect certain aspects of De Stijl and of Rietveld’s personal ideas. This construct is practical in that its assembly is one of convenience and is aimed for a large audience. The chair is very simple, made up of nonornamental plywood, a cheap standardized material, to represent Rietveld’s beginnings and where the materials available to him were limited. He also used these materials, without the application of ornamentation as a strategy towards mass productions. This chair’s design reflects straightforwardness in construction and purpose, as the pieces are all rectangles encouraging less waste. It is painted in recognition of De Stijl colours, suggesting one of the most influential parts of Rietveld’s design successes. The form is derived from the importance of the right angle, and straight lines. All pieces are rectangles and use joinery systems, such as dovetail, that were explored in Rietveld’s Zig-Zag chair.

Ultimately, Gerrit Rietveld was a major contributor to design because of the architectural insights that he demonstrated, such as the use of space and the 47

introduction of new methods of interior design. He stands out as a prominent participant in design, both in relation to leading modernism and with his forwardthinking accomplishments, mostly the Schröder House. His exposure through the De Stijl movement was significant as he collaborated in bringing to life the group’s objectives in three dimension. He proves himself as one of the greatest Dutch architects and designers of the twentieth century (Oku, 2009, page 12). Which junior architect wouldn’t want to share his breath and zest for original, creative endeavors and sincere purposefulness?

REFERENCES Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Gerrit Thomas Rietveld.” Encyclopædia Britannica. February 15, 2018.

Accessed March 10, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gerrit-Thomas-Rietveld.

“Gerrit Rietveld | MoMA.” The Museum of Modern Art. Accessed March 07, 2018. https://www.moma.org/ artists/4922.

“Gerrit Thomas Rietveld (1888-1964), ‘Berlin’ Chair, Designed 1923.” , ‘Berlin’ Chair, Designed 1923 | Christie’s.

Accessed March 07, 2018. https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/Lot/gerrit-thomas-rietveld-1888-1964-berlinchair-5674477-details.aspx.

“Newsroom.” History - IKEA. Accessed March 07, 2018. http://www.ikea.com/ms/en_AU/about_ikea/the_ikea_ way/history/.

Oku, Kaya., Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas, Zwarts, Kim, and Küper, Marijke. The Architecture of Gerrit Th. Rietveld.

Tokyo, Japan: Toto, 2009.

Overy, Paul. The Rietveld Schroder House. 1st English ed. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press], 1988.

“Red and Blue Chair.” Wikipedia. February 28, 2018. Accessed March 10, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Red_and_Blue_Chair.

Ribbens, Arjen. “Ikea avant la lettre.” NRC. May 10, 2013. Accessed March 10, 2018. https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2013/05/11/ikea-avant-la-lettre-12655510-a856524.

Rietveld, Gerrit. “Gerrit Rietveld. Red Blue Chair. 1918–1923 | MoMA.” The Museum of Modern Art. Accessed March 07, 2018. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/4044.

Rietveld, Gerrit. “Gerrit Rietveld. Zig-Zag Chair. 1934 | MoMA.” The Museum of Modern Art. Accessed March 07, 2018. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/3477.

Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas, Barry Friedman Ltd, Struve Gallery, and Dayton Art Institute. Gerrit Rietveld: A Centenary Exhibition: Craftsman and Visionary : Barry Friedman Ltd., New York, October 3, 1988 to November 12, 1988, Struve Gallery, Chicago, December 9, 1988 to January 16, 1988 [sic], Dayton Art Institute, February 3, 1989 to March 6, 1989. New York, NY: Barry Friedman, 1988.

Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas, and Buffinga, A. G. Th. Rietveld. Art and Architecture in the Netherlands. Amsterdam: Meulenhoff, 1971.

Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas, and Plantenga, Haro. Rietveld. New York: Jaap Rietman, 1977.

Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas, Szénássy, István L., Amsterdam. Stedelijk Museum, and Hayward Gallery. G. Rietveld, Architect. Cat. Nr. (Amsterdam (Netherlands). Stedelijk Museum); No.516. Amsterdam: [s.n.], 1971.

“Schröder, Gropius, and Modernism.” Anna Talley. Accessed March 07, 2018.https://annatalleydesign.com/ blog/2017/11/13/schrder-gropius-and-modernism.

Watson, Bronwyn. “Gerrit Rietveld’s Berlin Chair symbolises simple functionality”. The Australian. January 10, 2015. Accessed March 7, 2018. https://www.theaustralian.com.au/arts/review/gerrit-rietvelds-berlin-chairsymbolises-simple-functionality/news-story/1fc69cf350bad4c81071ae9788f29247

48

E I L E E N G R AY

Figure 1: Marlena Jankowski, 2018, E.26, Digital image, Front View.

Figure 2: Marlena Jankowski, 2018, E.26, Digital image, Profile.

Figure 3: Marlena Jankowski, 2018, E.26, Digital image, A chair in homage to Eileen Gray.

49

Marlena Jankowski

For most of her career, Eileen Gray’s contributions to the fields of furniture design, interior design, and architecture went unrecognized. As a woman during the dawn of modernism, her work was often attributed to her male collaborator’s and contemporaries, such as Jean Badovici and Le Corbusier, instead (Walker, 2003, pg.

92). Despite this, Eileen never let her gender discourage her from continuing to design.

As a designer, she drew inspiration from many movements, including the Arts and Crafts, and De Stijl. Though considered a modernist, her work never fully conformed to the definitions of ‘Modern’ or ‘Art Deco’. Like Charles Rennie Mackintosh before her, Eileen’s designs show a certain personal touch which make her works unique in design history.

Eileen was known for working closely with artisans and collaborators when

as a whole” (1987, pg.48). The apartment on Rue de Lotta which she redecorated with her original furniture is an example of a project where she explores the relationship between the interior and furniture. She designed the Dragon armchair and Pirogue daybed for this “suite of exotic furniture” owned by Madame Mathieu-Lévy (McBrinn, 2015, pg.112). The Dragons armchair was completed in 1919 and was fashioned in an organic style with over stuffed leather upholstery reminiscent of Victorian muscle furniture. As precursors to her more famous works, both pieces begin to demonstrate Eileen’s philosophy that a space must “ensuring the comfort of the individual (Diamond, 1989, pg.149). This concept is also demonstrated in another piece given to Lévy a decade later. The Bibendum chair, one of Eileen’s most iconic works, begins to move away from lacquer and introduces chrome plating into her material palette.

designing. She had an appreciation for working by hand, and her early works show an Arts and Crafts influence. Born in Ireland in 1878 and educated in England, her preference for simpler lines can be attributed to this movement (Adams, 1987, pg.48).

Eileen was educated at the Slade School of Fine Art, at the University of London, and later moved to Paris where she developed an interest in design. She was self taught in design and architecture with no formal education except from that of mentors and artisans. Her early work appears in the form of lacquer pieces that range from bowls, plates, tables, chairs, and screens. She worked closely with the Japanese craftsmen Seizo Sugawara and Inagaki to learn the “urushi lacquer technique” (Griffith, Delidow, and McGlinchey, 2012) and soon earned her place as “one of the greatest lacquer artists in history”(Adams, 1987, pg.50) Though her early work such as the Siren Chair and Lotus table were much different than her work to come, she never lost her appreciation of “different materials in both their structural capabilities and in their surfaces”(Diamond, 1989, pg.149). This can also be observed in her lacquer screen work. Early pieces depict paintings, while her later screens, such as those created for Mme. Mathieu-Lévy for her apartment at Rue de Lotta begin to emphasize form and structure. Eileen also developed an interest in rug making early in her career and traveled to North Africa to learn the craft. She spent time learning the process of weaving and dying wool by working with Arab women in Morocco (Adams, 1987, pg.62). Again, one can see her appreciation for craft which she brought back with her to Paris. Her rug designs contained abstract geometrical shapes, and bright colours which begin to move away from the “organic Art Nouveau forms” (Adams, 1987, pg.62) seen in her early work.

Her “craftsman like approach”(Adams, 1987, pg.53) to design sets her work apart from other modernists during the early 20th century.

Eileen was always inspired by those around her, and her work shows influence from other designers and artisans. She worked closely with the Japanese craftsmen Sugawara and Inagaki, and because of this a Japanese influence can be observed in her lacquer work. Minimalism can be observed in her where she began to pay closer attention to light, surfaces, and materials. Like the Cubists, she was inspired

by African work, particularly in the geometric designs of her rugs. The weaving and dying techniques which she learned and brought back to Paris make her rugs unique in this sense. She was inspired by the De Stijl architect JJP Oud to create her De Stijl Table, which appears as a 3D rendered form of Neoplasticism (Safran, 1989, pg. 156).

In her architecture, for example E.1027 we can see influence from the International Modernism of Le Corbusier. A white façade like that of Villa Savoye, pilotis, and a roof top terrace all hint at this inspiration. Her furniture was inspired by modern materials of the time such as tubular steel, and chrome plating. Eileen drew inspiration from a variety of sources throughout her career.

Though Eileen was not afraid to absorb the influences of other designers, as her work matured, Adams states that Eileen always saw “architecture and furniture design

The chair contains curves, but in a more geometric way than its organic predecessors.

Designed for the apartment on the Boulevard Suchet, it sits in contrast to the Dragons armchair which was also introduced to this space. Gray was known to bring decorative and handmade elements to her spaces to add a humanizing touch to otherwise modern interiors. In the late 20’s and 1930’s she developed an interest in architecture and constructed two houses in the south of France. E.1027 and Tempe à Pailla both “display a preoccupation with well being and a strong interest in geometry” (Daniel, 2010, pg.

347). Though both are radically contemporary examples of International Modernism during their time, Eileen never shied away from using interior design to add a human touch to these spaces. She believed “the interior must answer to the needs…and the demands of individual lives” (Diamond, 1989, 149). E.1027 does this in several ways, in particular through furnishings such as rugs, tables, and chairs, all designed by Gray for this specific house. She specifically designed the E.1027 table to “indulge her sister’s love of eating breakfast in bed”. (Watson-Smyth). This simple glass and chrome table is fully height adjustable and speaks to her ergonomic philosophy. In E.1027 one can see a shift in Gray’s work from lacquer and wood, to glass and steel, and from static to adjustable. This house designed for Jean Badovici, an architect who also assisted Eileen in its design, was admired by architects such as Le Corbusier for its grasp of Modern design (Adams, 1987, pg.149).

In E.1027 she brings a multi-functional element to her furniture, as well as an innovative approach in her design. Like her contemporaries, her work follows the modernist ideologies such as a belief in “hygiene, purity, and machine thinking” (Adams, 1987, pg. 210). However, for Eileen, a piece of furniture also had to be “practical and comfortable and never a mere carrier of an idea or an aesthetic” (Adams, 1987, pg. 210). Eileen was also known for bringing a sense of humor into her work, which can be seen in wall inscriptions in E.1027 such as “Defense de Rire” which translates to “No laughing”. This humor can also can be seen in her Bibendum and Nonconformist chairs, also included in E.1027. The Bibendum chair was named after the Michelin Man (also known as “Bidendum”) due to its “tire-like rolls” (Goodhart).

The Nonconformist on the other hand, was named due to its one-armed nature, hence not conforming to the expectation of two or no armrests. Eileen not only designed for the comfort of others such as Jean Badovici and Mme. Mathieu-Lévy, she also designed a dwelling of her own. Tempe à Pailla was a house designed for Eileen Gray by Eileen Gray. Like E.1027, Eileen designed inventive and imaginative furniture. Examples include furniture which serves multiple functions, such as a chair which can be folded into a ladder (Figure 9). She also designed furniture which could be adjusted or folded to create space, as is the case for the S-bend (Figure 10) and Terrace chairs. Eileen truly created in her own words “dwellings for people” (Diamond, 1989, pg.149).

Eileen’s work contains a combination of elements that make her work unique.

She follows the modernist ideas of purity and simplicity of form, machine thinking, 50

and functionality. She also follows her own philosophies which include attention to the comfort of an individual, practicality, inventiveness, an appreciation for materials and surfaces, and a sense of humor. These elements inspired the design of a chair in homage to Eileen. The E.26 chair (Figures 11 and 12) has a ‘Z’ shaped profile and its name pays homage to Gray’s sense of humor and wit. Like the naming of E.1027, the numbers correspond to letters so the meaning is not obvious at first; E for Eileen and 26 for the 26th letter of the alphabet-‘Z’. The chair is designed with a leather padded low back for optimal comfort of the individual. The left arm is angled downwards to allow for more user flexibility. This arm also creates a less formal chair and allows the user to lean in more naturally to conversations, like the Nonconformist. The design uses chrome piping and leather, both practical and durable materials which Eileen used in her furniture for E.1027 and Tempe à Pailla. A padded backing is reminiscent of the Bibendum chair, while the curved base alludes to her E.1027 table. The design is practical and only uses padding where it is needed, on the seat and backing. This chair is an amalgamation of the key characteristics of Eileen’s work.

Gray’s work never remained static during her career and was constantly worked and reworked up until the time of her death in 1976. As her style evolved, she took inspiration from many influences during her time until she developed her own unique design vocabulary. Her use of design as a means to comfort runs in contrast to the desire of Modernism to remain purely functional and “machine-like.” Her sense of imagination and inventiveness make her designs refreshing and still sought after to this day. Though her early work hints at an Art Deco aesthetic, she never considered herself as such, nor was she ever accepted as a “true” modernist during her time (Adams, 1987, pg. 108). Sociological factors such as the fact that she was a woman with no formal design education, may have kept her out of the “charmed modernist circle” (Walker, 2003, pg. 108). Regardless of the reasons, today she is celebrated as a pioneer in Modernism and a unique figure in design history.

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REFERENCES Adams, Peter. Eileen Gray: Architect/Designer. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.,1987.

Adam, Peter. “Eileen Gray and Le Corbusier,” in 9H: On Rigor, ed. Richard Burdett and Wilfried Wang. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1989.

Diamond, Rosamond. “Eileen Gray: An Introduction,” in 9H: On Rigor, ed. Richard Burdett and Wilfried Wang.

Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1989.

Daniel, Ryan J. “Sunshine and Shade in the Architecture of Eileen Gray.” Architectural Science Review 53, no. 3 (August 1, 2010): 340–47. doi:10.3763/asre.2010.0028 Goodhart, Maud. (2015, Jun 06). “Bibendum chair: Design Classic”. Financial Times. Retrieved from: http:// uml.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search-proquest.com.uml.idm.oclc.org/docview/1694052556?account id=14569 Griffith, Roger, Margo Delidow, and Chris McGlinchey. “Peeling Back the Layers: Eileen Gray’s Brick Screens.”

Studies in Conservation 57, no. sup1 (July 31, 2012): S130–37. doi:10.1179/2047058412Y.0000000032 McBrinn, Joseph. “Eileen Gray.” Home Cultures 12, no. 1 (March 1, 2015): 111–13. doi:10.2752/17517421 5X14171915160371 Rayon, Jean Paul. “Eileen Gray: The North Star and the South Star,” in 9H: On Rigor, ed. Richard Burdett and Wilfried Wang. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1989.

Safran, Yehuda. “La Pelle,” in 9H: On Rigor, ed. Richard Burdett and Wilfried Wang. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1989.

Walker, Lynne. “Architecture and reputation: Eileen Gray, gender, and Modernism,” in Women’s Places: Architecture and Design 1860-1960, ed. Brenda Martin and Penny Sparke. London: Routledge, 2003.

Watson-Smyth, K. (2013, Mar 16). “Eileen Gray’s E1027 table”. Financial Times. Retrieved from http://uml.idm. oclc.org/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.uml.idm.oclc.org/docview/1317163413?accountid=14569

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LE CORBUSIER

Fig. #1: Kyle Kartzmark: LC 20 – Chaise Reste in an upright, relaxed and horizontal position (left to right).

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Kyle Kartzmark

THE MODERN MAN

LIGHT & STRUCTURE

As a boy, Charles Édouard Jeanneret-Gris was extraordinarily independent, selfsufficient and resourceful (Junceau, 2009). While he was always close to his family, he continually escaped the provincialism of his home town La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland, by travelling through Europe months at a time (Framption, 2001, pg. 8).

It was Charles L’Éplattenier’s influence – a teacher at the school of art in La Chauxde-Fonds – who persuaded Édouard to turn towards architecture in 1902 (Framption, 2001, pg. 8). Throughout his teens, young adulthood and travel experiences, Édouard flaunted an artistic ability that possessed a dichotomous character between painting and architecture (Framption, 2001, pg. 8).

Charles Édouard Jeanneret-Gris, best known as Le Corbusier, created many

The experience of varied forms of light would become an integral part of building construction as not to sacrifice structural integrity. As one of Le Corbusier’s five principles of architecture, the use of pilotis allowed for new possibilities in the interior.

This innovation is what allowed modernist buildings to have free flowing spatial arrangements, as walls were separate from the structural steel frame allowing them to be non-load-bearing (Curtis, 1986, pg.97). This simple element facilitates the easy flow of the spatial experience as well as facilitate the movement of people from interior rooms to garden areas making the transition between the two more transparent. It also allowed for any number of horizontal windows to be cut into the façade. From an architectural perspective, cutting into the façade to form a band of windows enhanced the regulating

architectural works. However, he also developed a number of furniture designs including an arm chair, adjustable chaise and a group of upholstery designs in which loose cushions are held together in a cage structure of chrome-plated steel (Pile and Gura, 2001, pg. 345). By the late, 1920s Le Corbusier’s practice was developing considerably in its volume and complexity (Brenton, 1990, pg. 105). He had abandoned the iconography of Purism, in which objects were represented as basic forms stripped of detail, and began to explore the earthy, organic forms of Surrealism (Brenton, 1990, pg. 105). The resulting designs embody an aesthetic of refinement that rejects excess and seeks visual clarification and purification. It demonstrated the “new architecture” which utilized the practicality of “regulating lines” as a system of geometric devices (Pile and Gura, 2001, pg. 342). These ideas and many more became widely known through Le Corbusier’s book Towards a New Architecture (Pile and Gura, 2001, pg. 345) in which he describes abstraction as the spiritualizing medium applied to architecture (Corbusier, 1986). Le Corbusier’s perspective on functionalism, structural innovation and colour theories from the modernist era remain pivotal elements used in interior environments today.

lines of modernism and defines the bounding surfaces as stretched planes, not gravity bound supporting walls (Samuel, 2007, pg. 75). The pilotis gave the structure a lightness, however, its significance to interior design is much greater. The use of large planes of glass most often in the form of floor-to-ceiling panes, integrates the interior and exterior spaces by providing unencumbered panoramic views of the surrounding landscape while flooding rooms with variable light throughout the course of the day.

For Le Corbusier, light served a number of important practical and symbolic purposes to which its choreography was subject to endless refinement (Samuel, 2007, pg. 73).

This process led to the creation of shadow and enchantment of planes in space to create a dynamic interior. Windows provide ventilation and bring the outside context into the interior employing important physical and psychological benefits for the user, such as improved air quality. It was a goal of Le Corbusier to develop a standardized two-and-a-half-meter unit where any kind of opening or fixed form could be adopted, whether it pivoted on a central point, was mounted on the side, slid horizontally or fixed (Samuel, 2007, pg. 76). In Towards a New Architecture, Le Corbusier describes windows that can disappear below ground via a handle and roll shutters that could be lowered gradually to keep light out at will (Samuel, 2007, pg. 76). Here, he looks towards a future where technology and mechanization work together to create an autonomous home that adjusts to the needs of the user. Although the materiality of Le Corbusier’s work was limited, daylight allowed for true rendering of hard textures such as concrete and soft textiles such as leather, creating an indoor haven. Such lack of ornamentation presented an honesty to the most popular materials – steel, concrete and glass, which were the most commonly used in the modernist era. The idea of honesty meant that the structure should be expressed rather than hidden, to show what it was intended to do.

COLOUR THEORY Colour was used symbolically by Le Corbusier to influence mood and to diminish or assert the presence of particular architectural elements (Samuel, 2007, pg. 64).

Therefore, colour was used as a mediator between the individual and the architectural spaces they inhabited. Much of Corbusier’s knowledge demonstrated an understanding between light, the application of color and its effects. Interior designers use his principles today to enhance the perception of depth or weight, to create inviting atmospheres, and to create unity. Corbusier’s colour theory revolves around three concepts. The first concept creates atmosphere or ambiance using color; second, that contrast is achieved by applying synthetic pigments; and third, transparent synthetic pigments are used to alter surfaces without affecting how the eye perceives the space (Serra et al., 2012).

Interior designers use these principles to reflect the client’s psychological needs and task at hand. For instance, accent walls might seem cliché in interior design today, but for Corbusier, they were dynamic planes that created the back bone to a design, providing the appropriate amount of contrast. This concept introduces tension into the “spatial box” transforming inner spaces by strengthening and emphasizing the geometry of the volumes (Serra et al., 2012). Therefore, it is important that a surface is flat, otherwise the effect would simply be colourful and the impression of multi-directional tensions would be lost (Serra et al., 2012).

FUNCTIONALISM Le Corbusier’s admiration of functionality and integrity of machines and engineering is celebrated in his book Towards a New Architecture. Pictures of factories, grain elevators, ocean liners, and automobiles create the standardized machine image in this book (Pile and Gura, 2001, pg. 342). One of Le Corbusier’s most famous sayings is “the house is a machine for living.” (Corbusier, 1986). This statement does not simply translate into aesthetic values; rather the design should be as well suited to its purpose as was a machine (Curtis, 1986, pg.98). Therefore, the modern machine is the absolute ideal of functionalism, where something could only be beautiful if it is proved useful (Curtis, 1986, pg.98). In simple terms, the form of a design is driven by the purpose, mandated by the popular modernist axiom coined by Louis Sullivan, “form follows function” (Pile and Gura, 2001, pg. 330). Instead of using the word furniture, Le Corbusier replaced it with the word equipment, which described the necessary 54

elements needed to support domestic living (Brenton, 1990, pg. 111). This concept came to fruition in a one-hundred square metre apartment exhibition at the Salon d’Automne, Paris in 1929 developed by Atelier 35 S – one of Le Corbusier’s studios (Brenton, 1990, pg. 116). Here, a demountable, moveable, light-weight storage wall made up of a series of casiers (units, or cupboards) was installed (Brenton, 1990, pg.

116). This wall, aside from being a space divider was also modular, modifiable, and interchangeable. These units were hypothetically capable of being constructed in such a way to meet the storage needs of any dwelling. The functionality creates clarity, efficiency and a high level of fitness for the user (Griffin, 1966, pg. 6). It is as though Le Corbusier was looking towards the future knowing the needs of people today would be different from those in the past. Therefore, his studios made sure that functionalism was a core value of the equipment designed so that it could age gracefully with its users.

LC 20 - CHAISE RESTE Using the above as a guide to inform a chair design, the LC 20 - Chaise Reste aims to utilize colour, structural innovation and functionality as its core principles. The seat is an off white to provide a softness to an otherwise geometric chair. Le Corbusier’s choice of leather for his designed equipment is mirrored in the seat cushion of the LC 20 - Chaise Reste. The sides are black which help to anchor it in space as well as allude to its structural rigidity. The arms are also wide enough to rest a book or cup adding to the Chaise Reste’s functionality. Simple joinery techniques such as welding would allow the Chaise Reste to be massed produced, a common trait of modernist furniture. The chrome frame creates a degree of design honesty, simply allowing the frame to display it’s intended function. The chrome application reflects the light of the room drawing one towards it. The seat is adjustable to support an upright position so that proper communication and attention can be given to another subject, a slightly relaxed posture and a horizontal position so the user can lay down as seen in figure 2. The straight and slanted lines that form the chair as seen in figure 3, reflect that of a body in a relaxed position giving emphasis to its function utilizing the popular saying, “form follows function”. Le Corbusier would approve of this design because Chaise Reste’s form and composition are informed clearly and directly by its function. When this occurs, the design becomes timeless, remaining useful over many generations.

Le Corbusier is arguably one of the most influential designers of the twentieth century. His principles, guidelines and theories remain significant to interior designers through the use of colour theories, structural innovations to maximize light, and functionalism. By utilizing Le Corbusier’s colour theories interior designers today can create dynamic atmospheres and enhance spatial geometries. To Corbusier, light was the source of life and joy in a home both symbolically and physically (Brenton, 1990, pg. 116). He made sure to pay particular attention to structural innovations that allowed a building’s fenestration to be architecturally maximized. Functionality was at the core of Corbusier’s design. Forms, space and equipment were only seen as beautiful if they were functional. These elements created a machine image were the integrity and engineering of factories, grain elevators, ocean liners, and automobiles were examples of functionality, fulfilling their respective purposes.

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REFERENCES Benton, Charlotte. “Le Corbusier: Furniture and the Interior.” Journal of Design History 3, no. 2 (1990): 103-124. https://academic.oup.com/jdh/article-abstract/3/2-3/103/498419 Curtis, William J. R. Le Corbusier : Ideas and Forms. New York: Rizzoli, 1986.

Framption, Kenneth. “The Formative Years 1887 - 1916.” In Le Corbusier, 8. New York, NY: Thames Hudson Inc., 2001.

Griffin, David. A Study of Functionalist Theories In Architecture. Master’s thesis, Rice University, 1966. 6.

Juceau, Brandt. “Le Corbusier a Life, Le Corbusier Le Grand.” The Brooklyn Rail, February 4, 2009.

Le Corbusier. Towards A New Architecture. 13th ed. New York, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1986.

Pile, John, and Judith Gura. “The Emergence of Modernism.” In A History of Interior Design, p.345. 4th ed.

Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Sons, Inc., 2000.

Samuel, Flora. “Light and Dark.” In Le Corbusier In Detail, 76-77. 1st ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier Limited / Architectural Press, 2007.

Serra, Juan, Ángela García, Ana Torres, and Jorge Llopis. 2012. “Color Composition Features in Modern Architecture.” Color Research & Application 37 (2): 126-133.

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GERRIT RIETVELD

Fig. 1: Chair Design Front. Levin, Lauren. 2018. Digital Image.

Fig. 2: Chair Design Back. Levin, Lauren. 2018. Digital Image.

57

Lauren Levin

INTRODUCTION Gerrit Rietveld was a Dutch Architect and furniture designer who grew up in Utrecht, Netherlands where he practiced most of his life (Friedman, 1988, 6). Gerrit Rietveld played an influential role in the De Stijl movement (Oku 2009, 12). De Stijl is a Dutch word meaning the style (Friedman, 1988, 6). This movement was founded in 1917 and was an artistic movement that proposed a theory called Neoplasticism (Pile and Gura 2013, 333). Neoplasticism used abstract forms and primary colours, which were seen as superior to natural forms (Pile and Gura 2013, 333). The De Stijl movement was mainly associated with painting and sculptors before Gerrit Rietveld joined (Pile and Gura 2013, 333). Two key influencers of the movement were Theo Van Doesburg, the leader and Dutch artist who experimented in architecture, and Piet Mondrian, an abstract painter (Pile and Gura 2013, 333). Although Theo Van Doesburg was the leader, none of his architectural projects were as well revered as Gerrit Rietveld’s (Pile and Gura 2013, 333). Theo Van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian created the De Stijl movement in confidence that simplistic abstracted forms in art and architecture would create harmony and balance and idealistically would create a utopian society (Friedman, 1988, 6). Gerrit Rietveld joined this movement in 1919 and through this movement his ideas influenced interior design (Friedman, 1988, 7). The movement lasted till 1931, when Theo Van Doesburg passed away (Padovan 2002, 1). Gerrit Rietveld’s design contribution to the De Stijl movement has shaped interior design today through the innovative ideas, concepts and theories he developed during this movement. This paper will prove how Gerrit Rietveld added constructed forms to the De Stijl movement through the creation of furniture such as the Red Blue chair and the Schroder house. He is significant to interior design due to architectural accomplishments that embody the De Stijl movement that still push the boundaries of modern interiors today.

THE RED BLUE CHAIR The Red Blue chair was one of Gerrit Rietveld’s most famous works. Through his craftsmanship background he gave tangibility and dimension to the De Stijl movement (Friedman, 1988, 6). He was a furniture maker before he became an architect, therefore he had the skill set to design built forms on a human scale (Friedman, 1988, 6).

At the young age of eleven he apprenticed under his father, a furniture maker, and from this experience he learned to work with his hands and started to understand the fundamentals of good design (Friedman, 1988, 6). Gerrit Rietveld continued to work as a furniture maker into his adulthood that aided in his success when he became an architect (Troy 1988, 8). This gave him a pragmatic viewpoint on design and the influence of the De Stijl movement aided in his belief of reducing forms to fundamental elements that exhibited an abstract aesthetic (Friedman, 1988, 6). Gerrit Rietveld designed the original Red Blue chair in 1918 before he had joined the movement but was still aware of the movement’s beliefs (Troy 1988, 8). It was the first three dimensional object to take on the theories of the De Stijl movement (Friedman, 1988, 7). When he had joined the movement he was prompted to apply the De Stijl color theories to his designs (Friedman, 1988, 24). The color theory of De Stijl comes from Piet Mondrian’s paintings (Friedman, 1988, 7). He used three primary colors and three values of white, black and grey (Friedman, 1988, 7). His brush strokes on his paintings were also restricted to two primary directions, vertical and horizontal (Szenassy 1971, 7). These guidelines were how the De Stijl movement was expressed and Gerrit Rietveld embodies these rules in his design work. By adding the colour theories to his chair, he was able to blur the lines between the arts and built form, which ultimately enhanced

the aesthetic of the chair. This is how his original chair became a symbol of the De Stijl movement that influenced interior design.

The Red Blue chair’s abstract design was also very functional and surprisingly comfortable (Pile and Gura 2013, 334). Gerrit Rietveld adjusted the vertical plane of the backrest and horizontal plane of the seat that was typical of De Stijl inspired designs in order to provide comfort for the user. The chair also has an airy look to it which gives it a lightweight, sleek and modern feel. Gerrit Rietveld’s designs ultimately impacted interior design through the use of simple and truthful construction techniques in conjunction with his choice of materials. The Red Blue chair used honest construction techniques like the Cartesian joint (Küper and Reitsma 2011, 79).

The Cartesian joint is a joint where a vertical post is crossed with horizontal posts that extend past the vertical post. Dowels are inserted into these posts and create a strong connection (Küper and Reitsma 2011, 79). These overlapping posts bring attention to the connections points, which highlights this innovative construction technique of this time period. These dowels inside the posts are also hidden in the Red Blue chair to bring attention to the geometric and abstract form of the chair. This chair was placed in the Schroder house and aided in the children’s education because although the chair is one whole, each piece of the chair is individually articulated allowing one to understand the make up of the chair (Kras 1988, 13).

THE SCHRODER HOUSE The Schroder house, built in 1924 is also a prime example of one of Gerrit Rietveld’s designs where the interior embodies the theories and concepts of the De Stijl movement in an architectural form (Oku 2009, 12). The Schroder house represented a radical break from a traditional interior, which makes it stand out from the conventional houses of this period. Primary colours are used to bring attention to details, and white, black, and grey are used to emphasize the use of primary colours. The interior of the house follows the vertical and horizontal planes creating a linear aesthetic.

Some pieces the furniture like tables and shelving are integrated into the walls to add continuity to the interior (Buffinga 1971, 8). To further this idea of continuity, Gerrit Rietveld designed a corner window that when opened gives an uninterrupted view of the outdoors (Buffinga 1971, 7). The corner window is located in the living area of the first floor with a desk located beside the view. Gerrit Rietveld’s designs allowed his clients to experience a realization of their spatial surroundings and through this he believed he was creating the best possible surroundings for his clients (Buffinga 1971, 9).

Corners are the most vulnerable points in constructed environments and usually have a structural component when two walls meet (Buffinga 1971, 7). This uninterrupted view of the outdoors was Gerrit Rietveld’s innovative way to break away from traditional interior design concepts. The Schroder house from the exterior following through to the interior looks like an exploded diagram of abstracted horizontal and vertical rectilinear shapes. His matter-of-fact approach to design aided him in understanding that in order to create these abstract forms in the interior of the Schroder house a form of delimitation was necessary to create this aesthetic (Padovan 2002, 17). He understood that vertical and horizontal planes in an interior could create spatial continuity as well as spatial boundaries and implemented this knowledge into his designs (Buffinga 1971, 7). These characteristics were beliefs of the De Stijl movement.

Gerrit Rietveld also gave practicality to the De Stijl movement that can be exhibited through the Schroder house. The De Stijl movement was a radical break from a tradition that believed in total abstraction (Padovan 2002, 17). Gerrit Rietveld 58

understood how to take these ideas and turn them into practical building solutions. It was his pragmatic design intuition that allowed his ideas to manifest into reality. Gerrit Rietveld designed with a purpose whether it would be for a client or for personal use he took his experiences to create meaningful interiors (Troy 1988, 9).

The Schroder house was built for Mrs. T. Schroder and her three children (Overly 1988, 17). Mrs. T. Schroder was an interior designer who sought elegant austerity in her home (Overly 1988, 17). The house was a backdrop for her family life and was to grow with the family’s needs (Overly 1988, 17). Gerrit Rietveld worked with Mrs. T. Schroder to create a home that her family would enjoy. The Schroder house was the first open concept house plan (Overly 1988, 13). This not only changed the way people looked at interior floor plans but also changed the way people lived. To give rooms more privacy the Schroder house used movable walls on the first floor to create a flexible interior (Buffinga 1971, 9). The movable walls were integrated into the interior that further enhanced the continuity and function of the house. The flexibility of these movable walls allowed the interior to grow with the family and allowed Mrs. Schroder to live there till the day she passed (Overly 1988, 16).

Gerrit Rietveld’s design for the Schroder house used honest and simple construction techniques and materials that represented modernism and ultimately impacted interior design during this time. The aesthetic of the Cartesian joint can be seen in the construction of the Schroder house in the hand railing and tubular lamp hanging from the living room ceiling. The rest of the house’s construction is integrated giving the interior simple and clean lines. The materials used in the Schroder house were concrete, aluminum, steel, glass and wood (Pile and Gura 2013, 334).

The wood was painted with the colours from the De Stijl colour palette, giving it a modernist feel. The materials and construction methods Gerrit Rietveld used looked handcrafted which gave the modern house a charm differentiating it from most modern houses (Overly 1988, 22). Gerrit Rietveld changed the way interiors were built and conceptualized and ultimately challenged conventional design methods to encourage interior design to thrive and move forward with our ever-changing society.

MY CHAIR DESIGN The chair that I designed was based off of Gerrit Rietveld’s design style influenced by the De Stijl movement. The chair is multifunctional and has been reduced to its fundamental components. The design of the chair was influenced by the Red Blue chair and the Schroder house which exhibit practicality and simple construction techniques.

Abstracted forms and De Stijl colour theory also influenced my chair design. By creating my chair from these concepts it gave the chair an artistic aesthetic. The chair follows vertical and horizontal planes while the seat back is an exception to provide comfort for the user. The seat is painted yellow while the backrest is painted blue.

The thicker legs of the chair are painted red while the edges of the planes are painted white. The rest of the chair is painted in black to highlight the primary colors. The chair embodies the De Stijl movement through colour and form while revealing Gerrit Rietveld’s craftsman charm. Gerrit Rietveld also gave function to abstracted forms and my chair design reflects this. The chair is minimal in size and can be easily accessible as it has no armrests. Therefore it can be used as a dining room chair, a desk chair or an extra chair for company.

Lastly simple construction techniques were used for my chair design. Wood was chosen for the chair because it is a malleable material that is easy to work with. Since Gerrit Rietveld was a furniture maker, he was a knowledgeable wood worker therefore a lot of his furniture was created from wood. A simple construction technique like the Cartesian joint is also a feature used in my chair. The Cartesian joint provides a 59

reliable amount of strength to the chair and brings attention to its structure. The three intersecting posts are articulated as individual abstracted pieces while the connection provides a harmony to the chair. The painted wood and objective construction techniques allow the chair to embody the aesthetic of the De Stijl movement, which ultimately allowed his designs to radically break from traditional interior design.

CONCLUSION Gerrit Rietveld broke from tradition and paved a new way to design for human scale.

His most memorable designs were the Red Blue chair and the Schroder house. His personality propelled him to seek total design order where he was able to push and challenge boundaries and experiment with design even when he was looked down upon. His interest in the De Stijl movement forwarded his innovative concepts and through this he was able to give abstracted forms a place in interior design. He was able to give function to abstracted forms through the use of honest materials and construction techniques which ultimately led him to create innovative interiors and furniture designs. His attitude and approach to interior design is what furthers this profession and influences many to strive and continue to push boundaries and always question conventions.

REFERENCES “Catalogue of Exhibition.” In Gerrit Rietveld : A Centenary Exhibition : Craftsman and Visionary, ed. Barry Friedman Ltd, 18-31. New York, NY: Barry Friedman, 1988.

“Introduction,” In Gerrit Rietveld : A Centenary Exhibition : Craftsman and Visionary, ed. Barry Friedman Ltd, 8-10.

New York, NY: Barry Friedman, 1988.

Kras, Reyer. “Gerrit Thomas Rietveld 1888-1964 Furniture Maker and Architect.” In Gerrit Rietveld : A Centenary Exhibition : Craftsman and Visionary, ed. Barry Friedman Ltd, 11-17. New York, NY: Barry Friedman, 1988.

Küper, Marijke., and Reitsma, Lex. De Stoel Van Rietveld Rietveld’s Chair. Rotterdam : New York : London: NAi Uitgevers/Publishers ; Available in North, South and Central America through D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers ; Available in the United Kingdom and Ireland through Art Data, 2011.

Levin, Lauren. “Chair Design.” Digital Image. 2018 Oku, Kaya., Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas, Zwarts, Kim, and Küper, Marijke. The Architecture of Gerrit Th. Rietveld.

Tokyo, Japan: TOTO Publishing, 2009.

Overy, Paul. “Introduction.” The Rietveld Schroder House. 1st English ed, 13-41. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1988.

Padovan, Richard. Towards Universality : Le Corbusier, Mies, and De Stijl. London ; New York: Routledge, 2002.

Pile, John F., Gura, Judith, and EBSCOhost. A History of Interior Design. Fourth ed. 2013.

Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas, and Buffinga, A. G. Th. Rietveld. Art and Architecture in the Netherlands. Amsterdam: Meulenhoff, 1971.

Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas, Szénássy, István L., Amsterdam . Stedelijk Museum, and Hayward Gallery. G. Rietveld, Architect. Cat. Nr. (Amsterdam (Netherlands). Stedelijk Museum) ; No.516. Amsterdam: [s.n.], 1971.

Troy, Nancy. “Riedveld’s Modernism.” In Gerrit Rietveld : A Centenary Exhibition : Craftsman and Visionary, ed.

Barry Friedman Ltd, 8-10. New York, NY: Barry Friedman, 1988.

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THOMAS JECKYLL

Fig. 1: Wheelchair Perspective. Mueller, Kaila 2018.

Fig. 2: Profile. Mueller, Kaila 2018.

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Kaila Mueller

INTRODUCTION Thomas Jeckyll can be considered as a trend-setter and a man of pop culture during the Aesthetic Movement in England. His designs were not particularly innovative in technique or material, but he partnered with those who would produce the finest quality for his pieces (Aslin 1969, 94; Soros, Weber, Arbuthnott, 2003, p. 207). Without any formal design education (Soros et al. 2003, 169), he could have trained himself easily with the unlimited number of precedents being produced from other designers such as E.W. Godwin and William Morris. Also, he could have picked up drawing and painting techniques from his Paris Gang friends. Although he had lower status, he associated with these artists to get exclusive access to exciting new imports from Asia. He also used popular symbols like the sunflower to attract people to his work and repeated wave and scale motifs in many variations. The success of his pieces came from an eclectic combination of styles that he was exposed to every day in a way that was new and exciting to the public.

C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S O F T H E A E S T H E T I C M OV E M E N T Domestic work was a major part of the Aesthetic Movement, which had no specific origin and was at its height from the mid-1860s to the mid-1880s (Spencer 1972, 7; Soros et al. 2003, 43). The enthusiasm for new Japanese imports was at its peak and iconic symbols were the sunflower and the peacock feather (Spencer 1972, 70). The movement was a rare point in history where it could be enjoyed by the middle class to the Prince of Wales (Spencer 1972, 7). Historic references were less important to design and little attention was given to an object’s form (Aslin 1969, 16). New inventions such as the telephone, electric lighting, and faster transportation were beginning to have effects on interior design (Aslin 1969, 35), but mass production and industrialism only produced cheap, unoriginal designs (Aslin 1969, 15 & 82).

Among the popular choices in colour during the Aesthetic Movement were subdued greens (Aslin 1969, 63), and wallpapers in these colours would be produced by names such as Lewis F. Day, B. J. Talbert, and William Morris (Aslin 1969, 63).

Henry Cole was an influential figure behind the 1851 Great Exhibition, and advocated the use of naturalistic ornament, such as grapes on wine pitchers (Aslin 1969, 15 & 16). Other items in vogue were Japanese leather paper (Aslin 1969, 64) and painted furniture, or “Art Furniture” (Spencer 1972, 60; Aslin 1969, 13, 52, 61), where women were beginning to be involved with the making of these pieces alongside traditional crafts such as embroidery (Aslin 1969, 35). Morris was the leader of the Arts and Crafts Movement at the same time, which was not influenced by the new Japanese style (Spencer 1972, 51). He did however create a fashion for ebonized wood and rush-seat chairs, which were stained in dark blues, greens and black (Aslin 1969, 62 & 63). Also, amateur works were afforded almost equal attention to those designed by professionals (Aslin 1969, 35), which would have helped in Jeckyll’s case. Instead of the heavily carved furniture of the Victorian era, the new styles of Queen Anne and Anglo-Japanese were much lighter in form (Aslin 1969, 36, 63, 64). Thin grooves and parallel lines were incised into dark woods, and could be gilt to emphasize the subtle yet effective detail (Aslin 1969, 62).

ARCHITECTURE AND THE ORIENT Trade with Japan started in 1853, and steady imports began around 1858 (Aslin 1969, 80). At the 1862 Great London Exhibition, Sir Rutherford Alcock was of the first to reveal these treasures to the public (Aslin 1969, 79). Afterwards, exhibition items were sold to the first collectors, including members of the Paris Gang (Aslin 1969, p. 82).

Later, a shop named Liberty opened in 1875 and the public could now easily purchase Japanese and other Oriental arts (Aslin 1969, 80 & 81). Affordable items included fans, peacock feathers, blue-and-white porcelain, and pottery which adorned almost every household’s mantel (Aslin 1969, 79). These items grew in popularity until the 1880s when knock-offs and low quality reproductions were being sold to keep up with demand (Aslin 1969, 15 & 82). This unfortunately may have decreased the value of some of the authentic artists (Spencer 1972, 76).

Architecture was not impacted much by Japanism during the Aesthetic Movement (Aslin 1969, 93), however there were many architects who appreciated and collected Japanese art. For example William Burges, an architect of medieval Gothic revivalism, was surprisingly among the first collectors fascinated by the Orient (Spencer 1972, 54; Aslin 1969, 80 & 81). E.W. Godwin who worked with Burges studying medieval architecture also became a collector and advocate of Japanese arts himself (Spencer 1972, 54; Aslin 1969, 83). Richard Norman Shaw and William Eden Nesfield worked in the Queen Anne style; a new architecture style practiced mostly in England and America (Aslin 1969, 47 & 81). Even these architects saw value and collected these treasures (Spencer 1972, 43), although their goal was to create picturesque structures that predominantly featured red bricks, white trim, and sunflowers (Aslin 1969, 45 & 47).

T H O M A S J E C K Y L L’ S E A R LY C A R E E R Thomas Jeckyll was born in Wymondham, Norfolk in 1827 to Maria Ann Balduck and George Jeckell (Soros et al. 2003, 22). He had no formal design education, and Soros et al. suggest he may have learned drafting from his father (Soros et al. 2003, 24). Like Godwin and Burges, Jeckyll began his career as a Gothic Revival architect in 1850 and had completed many farmhouse buildings and church restorations before pursuing Japanese decoration (Aslin 1969, 93). He also had his first interactions with the metal work company Barnard, Bishop, and Barnards in the 1850s, designing agriculture fencing and iron windows (Soros et al. 2003, 29).

JECKYLL JOINS THE MOVEMENT In 1854 Jeckyll moved to Norwich where he became good friends with George du Maurier (who later became an illustrator and cartoonist for the popular periodical, Punch (Soros et al. 2003, 30). Du Maurier introduced him to a group of artists known as the Paris Gang (Soros et al. 2003, 30), who had first access to imports coming in from Japan and China (Aslin 1969, 82). He would have been introduced to James McNeil Whistler, as well as the pre-Raphaelite painters Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Frederick Sandys, with whom he closely associated with (Soros et al. 2003, 13 & 30).

The group took an early interest in collecting prints and blue-and-white porcelain in the late 1850s (Soros et al. 2003, 173), which helped drive the beginnings of the Aesthetic Movement. Through these friends, Jeckyll gained important clients in the late 1860s and early 1870s (Soros et al. 2003, 47). Due to his lower status and constant debt, he may have had insecurities while associating with these animated characters (Soros et al. 2003, 30). He tried to hide his status by wearing strange outfits just like his contemporaries, and because of his loyal qualities he often loaned money to his friends even though he had little to spare (Soros et al. 2003, 33 & 37). Despite this, Whistler and Jeckyll were good friends and admirers of each other’s work until 1876 (Spencer 1972, 68 ;Soros et al. 2003, 46 & 47). In 1857 Jeckyll moved to London and

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retired from his firm in 1863 (Soros et al. 2003, 36), to turn his focus towards domestic projects (Soros et al. 2003, 38).

WORKS OF THOMAS JECKYLL Thomas Jeckyll started his career as a designer by working on custom pews, alters, and sideboards for the interiors of his early churches (Soros et al. 2003, 169-171). He completed three significant interiors in his short career which included Chinese and Japanese themes in their designs and showed signs of breaking the barrier between gendered spaces, with lighter furniture in traditionally heavy masculine dining rooms (Soros et al. 2003, 171). Jeckyll can also be credited as one of the only designers to incorporate Japanese motifs in metal and was very successful in the new Anglo-Japanese style work (Soros et al. 2003, 235).

H E AT H O L D H A L L Jeckyll restored and designed furniture for Edward and Mary Green at Heath Old Hall, Wakefield (Soros et al. 2003, 171). This house displays the transition Jeckyll took from designing in the Old-English style. From 1866 to 1876 he incorporated Elizabethan, Jacobean, Queen Anne, and Asian styles into the house (Soros et al. 2003, 171 & 173).

The Oak Parlour was one of the earliest rooms to be furnished, with pieces ranging from approximately 1866 to 1868 (Soros et al. 2003, 173-177). These pieces are fairly traditional, but their carvings have oriental motifs when looked at more closely (Soros et al. 2003, 173-177). The dining room came later, around 1875 to 1876, where the dining chairs have carved legs and stiles in Elizabethan style (Soros et al. 2003, 180).

The dining table itself is very plain in shape, much different from the Oak Parlour (Soros et al. 2003, 180). It is rectangular with squared post legs incised with delicate carvings (Soros et al. 2003, 179 & 180). A walnut writing table from 1876 particularly shows distinct Elizabethan legs and a Chinese cloud motif on the apron (Soros et al.

2003, 181). The two styles are very different, yet Jeckyll pairs the two elements well.

1 H O L L A N D PA R K Another of Jeckyll’s interiors was 1 Holland Park, London from 1870-1872 for Alexander Ionides (Soros et al. 2003, 183). The billiard room used the Japanese style, with few references to English style. Japanese themes painted on silk covered the walls, with a grid of oak framing overtop (Soros et al. 2003, 183 & 185). The dado was also oak, with red lacquer panels set into it (Soros et al. 2003, 185). In the morning room, an over-mantel made of a scaffolding system of bamboo was intended to display a collection of blue-and-white porcelain (Soros et al. 2003, 184). In 1875, the house was passed down to Ionides’ son and Jeckyll was commissioned to create a bedroom suite (Soros et al. 2003, 187). This suite included a wardrobe, dressing table, medicine cabinet, and bedside commode (Soros et al. 2003, 187). The set is simple and very elegant in form. There are no curves, and flat planes with Japanese grid-like sections are outlined with dark ebonized wood (Soros et al. 2003, 188). It is made from an orangey burled walnut and linear grooves are around the edges (Soros et al. 2003, 187 & 188).

His works in this house responded to the habit of collecting, which was grandfathered in from the Victorian period. He created the pieces in the new Japanese style, but to also suit the English way of living.

M E TA L W O R K Jeckyll revived the use of wrought iron in the 1870s (Soros et al. 2003, 201) and his designs were manufactured with the highest quality craftsmanship (Aslin, 1969, p.

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94, Soros et al. 2003, 207). At the time, it was common for designs to be registered under the manufacturer, but it was Jeckyll’s belief that a designer’s work should not be pirated (Soros et al. 2003, 42). Gates, stoves and fireplace accessories like ash-pans, grates, and jardinières were among his most popular designs primarily manufactured

by Barnard, Bishop, and Barnards (Soros et al. 2003, ch. 6). An early design of his were the Norwich Gates from 1859 to 1862, which were showcased at the 1862 London International Exhibition and later purchased by the Prince of Wales (Soros et al. 2003, 205-207). His designs included elements of nature and his accuracy and attention to detail was admired (Soros et al. 2003, 205-207). The Pavilion at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition was advertised as a garden structure (Soros et al. 2003, 223 & 227) with the upper railing in a distinct Japanese style and the lower railing made of large sunflowers (Soros et al. 2003, 224 & 225). These sunflowers and a pattern of scales became frequent motifs, adapted into andirons, his stoves, and fireplace accessories (Soros et al. 2003, 229 & 230). These pieces would have been great focal points against the dull green wallpapers and dark ebonized furniture that were in vogue at the time (Aslin 1969, 63). Few designers could accomplish such high quality design for an affordable price and Jeckyll’s designs accomplished both, allowing the middle class access to good design (Soros et al. 2003, 169, 201, 220).

T H E P E AC KO C K RO O M The last interior Jeckyll worked on before his death was the Peacock Room at 49 Prince’s Gate, Kensington, London from 1875 to 1876 for Frederick Richards Leyland (Soros et al. 2003, 190). Although beautiful, it is not one of Jeckyll’s greatest success stories.

It was intended to display a collection of blue-and-white porcelain and Whistler’s painting entitled Princesse du pays de la Porcelaine above the fireplace (Soros et al.

2003, 191). As Jeckyll’s last interior, this room displays some of the motifs and materials Jeckyll favoured in his career. A grid system similar to the one used in the over-mantel at 1 Holland Park covers the walls, made of walnut with delicate grooves incised in it (Soros et al. 2003, 194). The fireplace featured Jeckyll’s detailed iron sunflower firedogs seen at the Philadelphia Exposition (Aslin 1969, 94). 300 year old embossed leather was imported to cover the walls from his home region of Norfolk (Freer Gallery of Art 1951, 2), so there may have been an underlying sentiment to this piece. The ceiling has a Tudor-inspired grid with eight gas lamps integrated into the system as pendants (Soros et al. 2003, 191). Whistler was consulted to paint the room but became obsessed with the project. Dramatic changes were made, as he painted over every surface of the room including all of the prized leather wall covering (Freer Gallery of Art 1951, 7 & 10). He used a scheme of blue and gold; painting large murals of peacocks over the doors, shutters, and sideboard opposite the fireplace (Freer Gallery of Art 1951, 1 & 6). A few years previous in 1873, Jeckyll was unfortunately already succumbing to an illness believed to be bipolar or manic depression (Soros et al. 2003, 14). It is rumoured that Jeckyll was quite upset to see his work overturned once he saw the room after Whistler’s contribution (Freer Gallery of Art 1951, 9 & 10). After this point, he never recovered and the only people who tried to get him the credit he deserved were his brother, Henry, and long-time friend, Frederick Sandys (Soros et al. 2003, 44, 45, 197).

J E C K Y L L’ S N A M E D I E S W I T H H I M Because Jeckyll’s mind was unstable, his creativity was questioned as unhealthy near the end of his life (Soros et al. 2003, 21). One source accounts that The Peacock Room was poorly constructed and flimsy, as seasonal changes in atmosphere also caused damage (Freer Gallery of Art 1951, 2 & 4). This however may have been the room’s saving

grace, as it was able to be dismantled and reconstructed four times (Freer Gallery of Art 1951, 14). In 1876 he returned to Norwich and was placed in an institution until he passed in 1881 (Soros et al. 2003, 52 & 53). Barnard, Bishop, and Barnards continued to mass produce his works for a few years to come (Soros et al. 2003, 53 & 169), though his name for the most part disappeared with his death.

CONCLUSION AND DESIGN Jeckyll was the only designer who successfully applied Japanese motifs to metal work and also made them affordable for the middle class. This was quite an accomplishment, and because he did not have any formal training or status, it was also impressive that he was able to grasp what was popular and make a name for himself among the Paris Gang. The design of this wheelchair is for Jeckyll himself, as his last years were spent struggling with his illness. This chair celebrates his metal work in the 1870s, and also comments on what was fashionable in the Aesthetic Movement. The design uses a black iron frame to highlight his ornate metal work. The arm rest is a quarter section of his enormously successful sunflower which was adapted into many of his designs and was a key popular element in the aesthetic movement. A simple squared back (Fig. 2) would be of black lacquer wood with the incised scale pattern that he often used to add texture and interest. A piece of blue-and-white porcelain or red lacquer would be inset in the back (Fig. 1) to allow one’s collection to be shown in their travels. The seat would be of fine leather and would not be painted by Whistler of course. The footrests would be the leaves of the sunflower to complete the decoration of the chair. vv

REFERENCES Aslin, Elizabeth. The Aesthetic Movement; Prelude to Art Nouveau. New York: Praeger, 1969.

Freer Gallery of Art. The Whistler Peacock Room. Publication (Smithsonian Institution); 4024. Washington, 1951.

Soros, Susan Weber., and Arbuthnott, Catherine. Thomas Jeckyll : Architect and Designer, 1827-1881. 1st ed.

New Haven: Published for the Bard Graduate Center for Studies in the Decorative Arts, Design, and Culture, New York, by Yale University Press, 2003.

Spencer, Robin. The Aesthetic Movement: Theory and Practice. Studio Vista-Dutton Pictureback. London: Studio Vista, 1972.

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PETRA BLAISSE

Fig. 1: Perspective View of Interlink. (Muggridge, 2018).

Fig. 2: Left Elevation. (Muggridge, 2018).

Fig. 3: Detail of Woven Cloth. (Muggridge, 2018).

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Robyn Muggridge

Petra Blaisse is a Dutch designer and owner of the firm Inside Outside located in Amsterdam (DeBuren, 2013). Her firm focuses their work on both landscape and textile design as well as designing exhibitions (DeBuren, 2013). She plays with the use of materiality and allows the materials to influence the design of her drapes (Weinthal, 2008). The concept of inside and outside is not unique, especially since the emergence of Modernism (Blaisse, 2009), however, instead of her designs being solely focused on the architecture, she translates this concept through her landscape designs, and through a unique medium indoors, drapes. Rather than focusing on apertures to the outdoors which is a common way in International style to bridge the gap between indoors and outdoor, Blaisse take this a step further and infuses touch, smell, sight and sound to her designs. Petra Blaisse is significant to interior design because she has pushed the boundaries of design with the concept of inside and outside through the use of other mediums rather than solely static architecture, as well as her experimentation with materiality.

IDEOLOGIES Blaisse aims to blur the line between interior and exterior in landscape design and architecture through the use of textiles and drapes (Weinthal, 2008). Blaisse’s fascination with the outdoors stems from her childhood, when she would spend countless hours outside exploring nature and all its properties (Blaisse, 2009). This enchantment with the smells, sounds, colours, and movements of nature has carried over to her work in interiors where she aims to merge these two interests (Blaisse, 2009). Her goal with her designs is to create an effect that accentuates the existing structure. “Architecture here is not understood as pure materiality, or a pure surface that is made empty, free of meanings. Architecture is understood as an effect. Only in this effect does the material become architectural.” (Heuvel, 2008). Blaisse’s design process begins by evaluating the program of the space that she is designing for. She then develops requirements for the design of the drapes, such as lighting, acoustics, movement, and apertures (DeBuren, 2013). To attain these design requirements, extensive material exploration and testing is endured to find the textures and components that can best create the desired effect for the space (Heuvel, 2008). The desired effect is determined based on the existing structure’s qualities such as scale, fenestration, volume, and views (Heuvel, 2008). The basis of her designs is to create an effect within the space, to do this she focuses on three aspects; light, air and movement; seam, hem, and fold; and texture and pattern (Heuvel, 2008).

The drape allows one to control the views within a space; in many of Blaisse’s designs, the drapes are designed to curate selected views (Heuvel, 2008). When creating their designs, Inside Outside typically produces drapes using techniques such as weaving, knotting, knitting, tearing, cutting, melting, burning, shrinking, sewing, laser-cutting, lining, pleating, folding, adjusting, layering, quilting, stitching, gluing, ironing, and starching (Weinthal, 2008).

Blaisse uses both micro and macro scales in her designs. All of the details of the design should have a purpose and will impact the overall effect; there is not one component that is more crucial than the others (Weinthal, 2008).

The manipulation of cloth is a concept that is used frequently in both fashion design and designing drapes; however, in drape design, the cloth is not surrounding a form like in fashion. Drape design is primarily focused on how the cloth reacts to its surroundings when being suspended from above; the interaction with humans and environment as well as the movement it creates in the space juxtaposed to the stationary architecture (Weinthal, 2008).

INFLUENCES Many of Blaisse’s philosophies about design and materiality relate to those of Adolf Loos, one of the predecessors of Modernism (Pile, 2014). Loos was an Austrian architect and designer who was most well known for his writings about his strong distaste for unnecessary ornamentation (Pile, 2014). He believed that “functional objects need no ornamentation”and that all objects should have a purpose and function; to some, he was known as a early functionalist (Tournikiotis, 1994).

Loos constructed a Loosian system of composition that consists of four points: the visible surface which the materials that reveal the spaces image; the material structure which is the technical structure of the design; the space-volume that is the scale of the form created by the structure; and lastly, finality, the functional and psychological intent for the design (Tournikiotis, 1994). Blaisse’s process and ideologies in her designs relate closely to the Loosian system of composition; she is very cognizant of visual perception in regards to her choice of materials. Blaisse also considers material structure in combination with her colour choices and textures as well as the scale of the spaces she is working with to play with micro and macro scales. In Loos’ residential design, there is a very strong connection of indoors to outdoors (Heuvel, 2008). He was a designer on the Werkbundsiedlung in Vienna which was a multi family housing complex that stressed the importance of public green space and its relation to the indoors (Close, 2018). Like design styles in previous eras, the link to nature is a prevalent theme, and Blaisse continues her fascination with the outdoors in her designs. She uses the concept of biophilia to bring the outdoors inside with her drape designs through the use of visual textile pattern, smell, and colour.

THE CHAIR This chair, Interlink, was designed based on Blaisse’s design process and the key features she focuses on in her projects. The goal was to merge the inside and outside through the use of pattern and textures light, air and movement, seams, hems, and folds. I wanted to design a chair with fabric, not as the typical use of upholstery, however to be used in a unique way that would create depth in a pattern that is not only printed on the cloth.

This was achieved by weaving the cloth in a box stitch pattern to create a thicker weave that is able to hold its three-dimensional form and create a cushion (Figure 2). The use of this weaving method also touches on Blaisse’s interest in the detail of construction with the material; this stitch allows the weave to have very few seams which create continuity in the cloth and mimics a sense of movement in the fabric. For the type of cloth, I chose something that resembled grass to symbolize the outdoors and bring it onto an indoor chair. The material is a wool blend which from afar looks like grass due to the colour variation in the fabric, and when up close still shows the color variation and has a rough texture.

The form of the chair was based on other indoor chairs of the Modernist movement, but with materiality that influenced the form. The woven cloth can relatively hold its form, but requires a brace to keep shape entirely. The base of the chair follows the shape of an acrylic curved seat (Figure 3). This is the only connection point with the fabric due to the nature of the weave and flexibility of the cloth. The back of the chair is woven together with the arms and with no solid back support, this allows movement and flex when the user sits, but still provides support when in tension similar to a hammock.

The base of the chair is constructed of acrylic like the seat in a curved organic but structured form (Figure 1). The shape is to mimic that of the seat and to create a base that is not so static, but rather has a sense of movement. The choice of acrylic as 66

a material was based on the lightness of the material to allow it to be transported from space to space dependent on the program, because her curtain designs typically serve as a shift in function. As well, it keeps the chair more transparent and allows one to see the intricacy of the weave and the properties of the fabric. The acrylic also has a special interaction with light. Like glass, it is transparent and allows light to pass through, but can also reflect the light in interesting patterns.

Petra Blaisse has been very significant in the field of interior design since the time she began her career in 1978 to the present (Blaisse, n.d.); she continues to push the boundaries of materiality and to rethink the experiences of interior spaces through the use of her drapes. Unlike other designers during the emergence of modernism, she uses mediums other than the structure itself to portray her desired vision for the space.

The way Blaisse considers a variety of approaches to her designs, similar to the Loosian system of composition, shows her unique take on theories from the Art Deco era which other architects seem not to consider as strongly, and the application of these ideas to her current work. In Modern design, the focus has been placed on the structure itself and Blaisse has taken a different approach that has aimed to bring light to the art of drapes and their function and aesthetic within a space that can be seen as stark and white; her innovation and exploration has propelled her into the field of interior design and made her a significant influence in the field.

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REFERENCES Blaisse, Petra. Inside Outside. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2007.

Blaisse, Petra. “The Instinctive Sense of Space and Boundary.” Architectural Design 79, no. 3 (2009): 84-87.

Interlink, Winnipeg. Personal design by author. March 8, 2018.

“Petra Blaisse.” Inside Outside. Accessed March 3, 2018. http://www.insideoutside.nl/Petra-Blaisse.

Pile, John F., and Judith Gura. History of interior design. 4th ed. Hoboken: Wiley, 2014.

Professor, Close, Susan. “Interior Design History and Theory 2.” Lecture, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 2018.

Tournikiotis, Panayotis. Adolf Loos. 1st ed. New York, N.Y.: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994.

Van den Heuvel, Dirk. “INSIDE OUTSIDE On the Work of Petra Blaisse and the Architecture of the Drape.”Oase Journal 75:285-99. https://www.oasejournal.nl/en/.../OASE%2075%20-%20285%20Inside%20Outside.pdf Weinthal, Lois, and Preston, Julieanna. “Bridging the Threshold of Interior and Landscape: An Interview with Petra Blaisse.” Architectural Design 78, no. 3 (2008): 64-71 Yumpu.com. “Biography Petra Blaisse / Inside Outside - deBuren.” Yumpu.com. Accessed March 5, 2018. https:// www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/6797754/biography-petra-blaisse-inside-outside-deburen.

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L A S Z L O M O H O L Y- N A G Y

Fig. 1: Chair Perspective. Designed by Charles Padilla (2018)

Fig. 3: Worm’s Eye View. Designed by Charles Padilla (2018)

Fig. 2: Bird’s Eye View. Designed by Charles Padilla (2018)

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Charles Padilla

C H A I R F O R L A S Z L O M O H O L Y- N A G Y Laszlo Moholy-Nagy is a Hungarian designer, painter, photographer, filmmaker, typographer, sculptor, educator and theoretician. He was born in Borsod, Hungary in 1895 and died in Chicago, Illinois in 1946 at the age of 51 (Iconofgraphics, n.d.).

Moholy-Nagy was influential across several fields of art education, he was a modern jack of all trades and was well-known for his time as an instructor within the Bauhaus in 1923. A modernist with a great passion for experimentation and innovation, his interests lingered around the ideas of space, time and light which is evident throughout his career (The Art Story, n.d.). Moholy-Nagy’s importance to interior design can be attributed to his belief of creating art in different ways using modern technologies available. The primary example of this is his interest in photography as the art form of the future (MacCarthy 2006). His greatest contribution to interior design is the way he displays a contemporary perspective through the means of art, design and experimentation.

The way Moholy-Nagy’s life played out can almost be described as eclectic because he was proficient in different fields of study. It was clear from the beginning that he was well-advanced in his creations for his time. Before he got into the arts, he studied law in Budapest in 1913. He was drafted to join the Austro-Hungarian army in 1916 (The Art Story, n.d.).During this time he was wounded and while in recovery he started to draw daily about the life of a soldier (The Art Story, n.d.). While he finished his law degree after the war, he had also discovered a passion for drawing and he decided to become a painter (The Art Story, n.d.). In the early years of 1918-1919, his paintings would show a variety of styles. Most notably is the way he painted technological subjects in a Cubist style. He would soon leave for Vienna, which was a sophisticated city with an avant-garde art scene (The Art Story, n.d.). His works shifted from figurative drawings to geometric shapes and lines that created relationship with one another. Interestingly the elegance of the city of Vienna caused him to move to Berlin.

While in Berlin, he joined the Dadaist movement and he started painting using abstract ideas. His influences during this time include Dadaism, Suprematism, and Constructivism (The Art Story, n.d.). Moholy-Nagy started developing a technique called photomontage where cut out pictures are put together to create a single image.

His direct influence for this was Dada, however he did not share their same sense of sarcasm. Instead he opted for a more serious approach using letters as compositional devices (The Art Story, n.d.). He was intrigued by works of Kazimir Malevich, who was a suprematist painter (The Art Story, n.d.). His main influence became the Constructivists, most notably El Lissitzky and he was fascinated by the way art merges together with new technology (The Art Story, n.d.). He began experimenting with colour and transparency using geometric shapes that he overlapped in order to study their relationship. Constructivism for him embraced a return to the fundamentals in terms of colour, shape, and position. According to MacCarthy and as said by MoholyNagy “Constructivism expressed the pure forms of nature: the direct colour, the spatial rhythm, and the equilibrium of form” (MacCarthy 2006). He was also fascinated with the ideas of dynamic progress, the mechanisation of the industrial world, and the endless possibilities of new materials available. Moholy-Nagy describes it best as he wrote in an avant-garde magazine “Everyone is equal before the machine, I can use it; so can you. It can crush me; the same can happen to you” (MacCarthy 2006). In their current time this may sound contradicting and absurd, however he created a set of paintings called the “Telephone Paintings” to show the world how art and technology can blend together. The Telephone Paintings were ordered from a commercial sign factory by Moholy-Nagy through the telephone, he was instructing orders to a factory foreman by means of graph paper and the standard colour chart (MacCarthy 2006).

The compositional result was intriguing yet simple with the geometric bars and cross forms created by the painting. He was most prominently a painter during this time, but he also started to take interest into photography when he met his first wife, Lucia Schulz.

In his time with Lucia Schulz, he started to develop a technique that required camera-less photographs. They were called “photograms” which is light sensitive paper that is exposed directly to light (Iconofgraphics, n.d.). Studying photograms allowed Moholy-Nagy to explore the relationships between light, transparency, form and shadows. In this sense Moholy-Nagy used light as a medium and the space as his canvas. He began to study forms using positive and negative space. As put in Moholy-Nagy’s words “the photogram opens up perspectives of a hitherto wholly unknown morphosis governed by optical laws peculiar to itself ” (Kostelanetz 1970, 50). The different perspectives offered by this style of photography is unmatched even by the human eye. Photography allows us to see further than what was possible. He sees the potential of photography as a new art form. Photography offers an improved performance almost as if it were an extension of the human eye. According to MoholyNagy “photography, imparts a heightened or increased, power of sight in terms of time and space” (Kostelanetz 1970, 52). His firm belief in the power of photography is evidently seen in his works with the way he manipulates perspective. He often challenged the way we perceived the world around us by creating images in a worm’s eye view, bird’s eye view and fish eye view (Kostelanetz 1970, 52). He was also fond of dynamic photos that captured images in an angle or in a peculiar manner. One benefit of photography is that it allows the photographer to freeze time as an art form. It can be reproduced easily and this displays the merge between art and technology that Moholy-Nagy firmly supports.

In 1923, Moholy-Nagy received an invitation from Walter Gropius to teach at the Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany (The Art Story, n.d.). The Bauhaus was undergoing a shift in emphasis from arts and crafts into a more refined union of design and technology (Iconofgraphics, n.d.). Moholy-Nagy came at the right time, as his personal beliefs and theories came in line with the new curriculum at the Bauhaus.

He taught the principles of form, materials and construction which is quite fitting for him because he likes to experiment with new technology. He also ran the metal workshop that created sculptures out of industrial materials. The metal workshop was very successful in the Bauhaus, due to Moholy-Nagy’s innovations and teachings that prompted the artists to embrace being a designer (MacCarthy 2006). This promoted the vision of art as a means of mass production that embodies the Bauhaus principles (MacCarthy 2006). Moholy-Nagy taught at the Bauhaus from 1923-1928, and his most valuable contribution to the school is the language of typography (Iconofgraphics, n.d.). He created a concept of typo-photo of which is a mixture of typography and photography (Iconofgraphics, n.d.). On the website Iconofgraphics typography was described as “ideas that included asymmetrical composition, sans serif type, preference of the lowercase, the use of photography, grids, geometrical forms and the absence of decoration” (Iconofgraphics, n.d.). This became the medium and basis of graphic design for the Bauhaus. Moholy-Nagy along with Walter Gropius developed and published a series of fourteen Bauhaus books that acted as the manifesto of the school (The Art Story, n.d.). Among the fourteen books Moholy-Nagy wrote at least two of them one of which was called “The New Vision” describing Moholy-Nagy’s vision for the future of art and design (Rawsthorn 2009). The book became a summary of the things he taught at the Bauhaus and how the world should learn to embrace modern technology as a designer. Moholy-Nagy resigned from the Bauhaus in the late 1920s due to political pressure (The Art Story, n.d.). This was around the time he began to 70

work as a freelance designer and doing things, such as filmmaking, sculpting, and set design. He continued to develop a prop machine called “Light Space Modulator” which helped him study the aspects of light and motion (Rawsthorn 2009). In 1937, he was recommended by Walter Gropius to become the director of the New Bauhaus in Chicago (The Art Story, n.d.). He was not as successful as the director of the New Bauhaus as it went bankrupt after its first year (The Art Story, n.d.). He later reopened the school as the School of Design or most commonly known as the Institute of Design (The Art Story, n.d.). In his final years he continued to work on developing and experimenting with different ways to conceive art and industrial technology. He wrote a book that outlines his manifesto and knowledge in “Vision in Motion”. Moholy-Nagy sums up the meaning of vision in motion in the following quotation:

with the light effects it created. The sculpture was rotated a couple of times to create different patterns.

The images were then transferred into Photoshop and overlaid on top of each other to create a conceptual “photogram” using modern technology. Using the collaged image, the process continued by extracting geometric forms and making a painting out of it.

The final resulting image was used to conceptualize the design of the chair.

During this process several key factors of Moholy-Nagy’s theories were applied in order to understand his methods. The use of light as a medium and the creation of a sculpture helped create a sense of perception of space. The layering of the images and the creation of a painting provided insight on experimentation.

“Vision in motion is simultaneous grasp. Simultaneous grasp is creative performance-seeing, feeling and thinking in relationship and not as a series of isolated phenomena. Vision in motion is a synonym for simultaneity and space-time; a means to comprehend the new dimension. Vision in motion is seeing while moving. Vision in motion is seeing moving objects either in reality or in forms of visual representation as in cubism and futurism. Vision in motion also signifies planning, the projective dynamics of our visionary faculties.” (Moholy-Nagy 1947, 12) “Vision in Motion” is a continuation of his other book “The New Vision” and acts as a guideline of his teachings in the School of Design at Chicago. Moholy-Nagy emphasized the problem of the current generations being “to bring the intellectual and emotional, the social, and technological components into balanced play; to learn to see and feel them in relationship” (Moholy-Nagy 1947, 12). The main point being made is that there should be a harmony in the interactions between man and machine. The ideas present the fast moving technology and trying to keep it within grasp in order for the world to comprehend its advantages.

Laszlo Moholy-Nagy is a man of many talents, but one that is overshadowed by many prominent figures that offered a more narrow contribution in their field of specialty. Moholy-Nagy encouraged the ideas of photography, graphic design, and industrial design and pioneered in the fields of typography and photomontage. He believed in a world where art and technology coexist and an idea that photography would take over as an art form. His contributions to interior design spans a wide scope of practice from photography, film, texture, light studies, graphic design and even Photoshop, due to ideas of photomontage. His ideas of experimentation promote a certain creativity that boasts the main practice of interior design. His intellectual use of modern materials and technology impressed plenty of his colleagues and students.

The most valuable of his teachings is the exploration of space, time and form in the means of design. Moholy-Nagy’s style was always up to date and he was the modern man who kept up with the trends of their time.

The final chair design was informed by these steps and the result is the abstract realization of the chair. The forms are created from basic geometric elements. The materials for the chair were made out of plexiglass hand rests, a metal back rest and white acrylic plastic seating. The reason for this is to display the transparency of the object while using modern materials. The chair speaks to the unity of art and technology as visualized by Laszlo Moholy-Nagy.

P R O C E S S A N D E X P E R I M E N T AT I O N The process of designing a chair for Laszlo Moholy-Nagy involved several steps before achieving the final product. It was important to apply the different techniques he employed and the theories that he believed in, for me to fully capture the essence of his work. The first step of the process was to gather materials of which a sculpture would be made out of. In this case a couple of triangle rulers were used, due to its transparency and capacity to reflect light. The second step was to photograph the sculpture along

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REFERENCES Bigman, Alex. 2015. Laszlo Moholy-Nagy: Pioneer of Graphic Design. Accessed March 09, 2018. https://99designs. ca/blog/creative-inspiration/laszlo-moholy-nagy-pioneer-graphic-design/.

Kostelanetz, Richard. Moholy-nagy. New York: Praeger Publishers, Inc., 1970.

Laszlo Moholy-Nagy. Iconofgraphics. Accessed March 01, 2018. http://www.iconofgraphics.com/laszlo-moholynagy/.

Laszlo Moholy-Nagy. The Art Story. Accessed March 02, 2018. http://www.theartstory.org/artist-moholy-nagylaszlo.htm.

MacCarthy, Fiona. 2006. The Fiery Stimulator. March 6. Accessed March 08, 2018. https://www.theguardian. com/artanddesign/2006/mar/18/art.modernism.

Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo. Painting Photography Film. Translated by Janet Seligman. London: Lund Humphries, 1969.

Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo. The New Vision and Abstract of an Artist. Translated by Daphne M. Hoffman. New York: Wittenborn, Schultz, Inc., 1947.

Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo. Vision in Motion. Edited by Paul Theobald. Chicago: Wisconsin Cuneo Press, 1947.

Rawsthorn, Alice. 2009. A Life of Light and Shadow. October 18. Accessed March 08, 2018. http://www.nytimes. com/2009/10/19/arts/design/19iht-design19.html?pagewanted=all.

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M I E S VA N D E R R O H E

Fig. 1: Front perspective of Carbon Cantilever 1 Chair. Patterson, Roslyn V. Carbon Cantilever 1 Chair . March 8, 2018. Winnipeg..

Fig. 3: Side elevation of Carbon Cantilever 1 Chair. Patterson, Roslyn V. Carbon Cantilever 1 Chair . March 8, 2018.

Winnipeg..

Fig. 2: Back perspective of Carbon Cantilever 1 Chair. Patterson, Roslyn V. Carbon Cantilever 1 Chair .

March 8, 2018. Winnipeg..

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Roslyn Patterson

Mies van der Rohe was born in Germany in 1886 into a family of stonemasons, where the work done by his father is what initially sparked his interest in architecture (Puente, 2008, p. 51). When Mies became a teenager, he did not complete a typical high school education, and rather he spent his time working alongside Bruno Paul (Dachs, Muge, & Hintze, 2010, p. 10). Mies continued his work in Europe where architects such as Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Peter Behrens and Hendrick Petrus Berlage influenced him (Eckardt, n.d.). Specifically, Schinkel who Mies believed to be the most important architect in Berlin whose buildings were a successful example of Classicism due to his “wonderful constructions, excellent proportions, and good detailing” (Puente, 2008, p. 31). Later in his career he became a director at the Bauhaus, but three years later in 1933 the Nazis closed the school (Eckardt, n.d.). He continued to design

plaster was removed and the true brickwork was unveiled, he recognized the beauty in the structure of the building itself, rather than its decoration Puente, 2008, p. 51).

This is a significant and telling reminiscence due to the fact that it embodies that which Mies is passionate about; good structural solutions (Puente, 2008, p. 67). Mies was not necessarily interested in creating individual and unique forms, but rather finding structural solutions that could provide a solid foundation for the future of architecture.

He was creating not only architecture but an architectural language as well (Puente, 2008, p. 56).

In regards to technology, Mies describes that his architectural philosophy stemmed from the concept that architecture depends on the epoch in which it is being designed (Puente, 2008, p. 55). Therefore, this is why technology is one of the

in Europe, yet many of his designs were never carried out due to the fact that his alternate perspective on design was far beyond acceptable norms (Blaser, 1994, p.12).

Subsequently, he relocated to Chicago in 1937 (Pile, & Gura, 2013, p. 340). His modern way of thinking was one of the many reasons he has been associated with The International Style. The International Style was prominent in both Europe and America, specifically towards the end of the 1920s and the beginning of the 1930s (The Editors of Encylopaediea Britannica, n.d.). The primary and most noticeable design features of the International Style included but was not limited to open interior spaces, rectilinear forms with minimal to no ornamentation and decoration, cantilever roofs, as well as the use of glass and steel (The Editors of Encylopaediea Britannica, n.d.).

These elements were prominent in the designs of Mies van der Rohe as seen in The Barcelona House and Tugendhat House (Pile, & Gura, 2013, p. 340). For example, within The Tugendhat House, glass and steel are prominent features which can be seen in floor-to-ceiling windows as well as exposed steel columns (Pile, & Gura, 2013, p.

340). In addition, steel is also a prominent component within the Barcelona House due to the fact that it uses eight steel columns to support the flat slab roof, allowing there to be little to no interior walls creating that open concept desire of The International Style (Pile, & Gura, 2013, p. 340). Furthermore, his furniture designs also expressed the ideals of The International Style. In both The Barcelona chairs as well as the MR chairs, cantilever seats and lack of ornamentation are notable aspects of these pieces (Dachs, Muge, & Hintze, 2010, p. 26 & 72).

The cantilever seat was a famous design element of Mies van der Rohe and was achieved by the design of a continuous frames primarily made in steel such as those seen in the MR chairs well as simple joinery, which can be seen in the legs of The Barcelona chair (Lange, 2006, p. 174). Mies van der Rohe describes these pieces of furniture as “skeleton structure chairs,” (Puente, 2008, p. 70) where the honesty of the material and functionality of the chair become the focus, rather than the form or ornamentation.

Mies van der Rohe was truly focused on finding good architectural solutions that can be used for the future of design rather than designing interesting forms (Puente, 2008, p. 56). This minimalistic and structural approach can be seen in both the buildings and furniture designed by Mies van der Rohe, where it is evident that his intent was to portray the concept of “less is more” (Pile, & Gura, 2013, p. 337), allowing the technology, structure, and materials to become the main focus of his designs.

One of the most intriguing aspects in regards to Mies van der Rohe was his interest in the honesty of materials and the technology behind how they can be used in construction and structure, rather than simply focusing on the idea of designing new forms. In the book Conversations with Mies van der Rohe, edited by Moisés Puente, Mies shares a story about what had peaked his initial interest in architecture.

In addition to working with his father, there was a cathedral in his hometown that was initially covered in decorated plaster (Puente, 2008, p. 51). At one point when the

driving factors for the future of architecture and design, due to the fact that it allows new structural techniques and materials to be discovered (Puente, 2008, p. 67). Mies believed that architecture and technology must grow together and stated “that someday the one will be the expression of the other” (Puente, 2008, p. 10). This concept is very intriguing as it puts his designs and ways of thinking into perspective. It allows the reasons as to why he was considered one of the most important architects in the 20th century (Dachs, Muge, & Hintze, 2010, p. 9) to be noticed due to the fact that he pushed the boundaries of technology and structure.

Given that Mies van der Rohe has created a strong foundation in modern design in terms of the honesty of structure and materials, the question that we might ask is: how would he adapt his designs when presented with our current day technologies? His designs have been synonymous with simplicity, a trend that continues in our present culture, thus demonstrating he has succeeded in his goal of creating a solid foundation for structural solutions. Therefore, one of the possibilities that could take place in order to adapt his designs would be the use of innovative materials. Exploring the idea of how Mies himself would change or adapt his designs in today’s technology-driven world is important for the very reason that he believed that “it is not possible to move forward while looking back.” (Dachs, Muge, & Hintze, 2010, p. 10) Therefore, he would be constantly intrigued by the notion of new possibilities in terms of design. Keeping in mind the materials chosen by Mies van der Rohe, specifically tubular steel in the MR10 chair, it is important to understand the reasons as to why this material selection was made. Tubular steel is known for its strength and lightness (RISD Museum, n.d.).

Additionally, the strength and materiality of tubular steel allowed Mies to create a continuous frame as well as his famously recognized cantilever seat. This is clearly seen in his still largely recognized and used Barcelona chair, as well as the MR chairs.

Therefore, in order to maintain the essence of the designs of Mies van der Rohe, it is important to understand these techniques and the way he successfully incorporated them in so many of his designs. In order to move forward and not look back as Mies would say, as designers, we must ask ourselves what are the current technologies of today, and why are they so successful?

Carbon Fiber has been used since 1879 however, it was not until 1963 that in a British research center when the true strength of carbon fiber was unveiled (Innovative Composite Engineering, n.d.). Carbon fiber is known for its ratio between its high strength and stiffness in comparison to its lightweight attributes (Innovative Composite Engineering, n.d.). Carbon fiber has the ability to be colored as well as bent and creased in order to create continuous structures; similar to the way Mies used tubular steel.

Due to its unique strength and weight, carbon fiber is used in a wide variety of design applications such as automotive, recreational, sporting goods, and furniture (Innovative Composite Engineering, n.d.). Architect and researcher Achim Menges describes it as being one of architecture’s biggest untapped resources, where the possibilities of its 74

technology are endless (Aouf, 2016) Many architects and designers today have already been intrigued by the unique qualities of carbon fiber. For example, Studio Bertjan Pot designed the Carbon chair where hand coiled carbon allows the chair to be completely free of metal however, maintain the equivalent strength (Studio Nerjan Pot, n.d.).

Inspired by both the Barcelona chair as well as the MR chairs, The Carbon Cantilever 1 chair seen in Figure 1, features the integration of new technology and old structural techniques to embody the architectural philosophy of Mies van der Rohe.

The famous “scissor” form seen in the Barcelona chair, (Figure 3) which represents movement and flexibility, (Dachs, Muge, & Hintze, 2010, p. 72) inspires the bottom base of the frame for The Carbon Cantilever 1 chair. However, the simple joinery between the two crossing legs allows the structure to become rigid (Dachs, Muge, & Hintze, 2010, p. 72). This same structural joinery is also seen in The Carbon Cantilever 1 chair. In addition, the frame of The Carbon Cantilever 1 chair seen in Figure 2, contains a continuous arm extending into the leg, which is seen in the MR20 armchair.

Similar to both MR chairs as well as many other furniture pieces designed by Mies van der Rohe such as floor lamps and bed frames, (Lange, 2006, p. 168) the frame of The Carbon Cantilever 1 chair is a tubular structure, but rather than steel, it has been updated with today’s leading technology of carbon fiber. The use of carbon fiber in this chair, allows for the aesthetic as well as structure of a classic Mies van der Rohe chair to remain whilst incorporating new technology. Therefore allowing the new material to provide a stronger, lighter, innovative solution. In addition, the use of this material allows the chair to be manufactured in a chrome finish resembling those of Mies van der Rohe. The seat and back of The Carbon Cantilever 1 chair is made out of leather, referencing the seat of the Barcelona chair (Lange, 2006, p. 174). In addition, the seat is cantilevered past the front legs which can be seen in Figure 3, giving the chair the signature design element of Mies van der Rohe. The Carbon Cantilever 1 chair represents the clear skeleton structure characteristic of Mies van der Rohes work where the honesty of the structure is the main focus rather than ornamentation. Furthermore, it uses modern technology for its frame thus allowing it to be a chair based on its time, honoring the design philosophy of Mies van der Rohe (Puente, 2008, p. 55). The Carbon Cantilever 1 chair is based on the structural foundation that Mies van der Rohe created which was integral to his designs. He was less concerned with creating new and interesting forms; rather, he was interested in creating a structure that could be used by everyone. In summary, by updating the structural material to represent modern-day technology, yet maintaining the structural integrity of the designs of Mies van der Rohe, The Carbon Cantilever 1 chair creates a modern-day interpretation for his timeless structural designs.

The honesty and clear structure of both the furniture and architecture of Mies van der Rohe is why his designs are currently just as famous and intriguing as they were when they were first invented. As designers, we are able to appreciate his commitment to looking forward into the future of design rather than imitating past forms and methods. His belief in the idea that science and technology were a much greater influence in future designs than the past is what set him apart during his time and what made him so recognizable within the International Style. The architecture and furniture of Mies van der Rohe were significant to the world of design due to the fact that he allowed the materials to speak for themselves, allowing full floor-to-ceiling glass walls, minimalistic furniture, and open concept interior floor plans to become the norm of what design is today. Thus, Mies van der Rohe succeeded in his aspiration to create an architectural language simply through the use of materials in their honest structural form. Mies van der Rohe’s interest in technology allows his designs to be used today as well as reinterpreted with modern technologies. To understand the thought 75

process as to why Mies van der Rohe designed the way he did, is rewarding due to the fact that it can continue to be used in future designs. In conclusion, the design of The Carbon Cantilever 1 chair achieved with the incorporation of new technology, clearly representing the strength of the underlying tenet of Mies van der Rohe that of “less is more”.

REFERENCES Aouf, Rima Sabina. “Zaha Hadid’s folded Kuki chair redesigned using carbon fibre.” Dezeen. June 16, 2016.

Accessed March 9, 2018. https://www.dezeen.com/2016/06/16/zaha-hadid-kuki-chair-carbon-fibre-hypetexlaunch-design-miami-basel-2016/.

Blaser, Werner, and Mies Van Der Rohe, Ludwig. Mies Van Der Rohe : The Art of Structure. New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1994.

Eckardt, Wolf Von. “Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed March 7, 2018. https://www. britannica.com/biography/Ludwig-Mies-van-der-Rohe.

Innovative Composite Engineering . “What is Carbon Fiber.” Innovative Composite Engineering. Accessed March 10, 2018. http://www.innovativecomposite.com/what-is-carbon-fiber/.

Lange, Christiane, Mies Van Der Rohe, Ludwig, Reich, Lilly, and Museum Haus Lange Krefeld. Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe & Lilly Reich : Furniture and Interiors. Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2006.

Mies Van Der Rohe, Ludwig, Dachs, Sandra, Muga, Patricia De, and Hintze, Laura García. Mies Van Der Rohe.

Objects and Furniture Design by Architects. Barcelona : New York: Ediciones Polígrafa ; [Distributed In] USA and Canada [by] D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, 2010.

Mies Van Der Rohe, Ludwig, and Puente, Moisés. Conversations with Mies Van Der Rohe. 1st Ed., English ed.

Conversations with Students. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2008.

Pile, John F., Gura, Judith, and EBSCOhost. A History of Interior Design. Fourth ed. 2013.

RISD Museum. “MR 10 Chair.” RISD Museum. Accessed March 9, 2018. https://risdmuseum.org/art_design/ objects/1083_mr_10_chair.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “International Style.” Encyclopædia

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PETRA BLAISSE

Fig. 1: Chair design showing varying states of transparency. Illustration by Jessie Procyshyn.

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Fig. 2: Side view of chair design. Illustration by Jessie Procyshyn.

Jessie Procyshyn

Petra Blaisse is a Dutch designer who specializes in a variety of creative fields, including landscape, textile, and exhibition design and interior architecture (Lally 2009, 98).

Blaisse has gained international recognition for her freelance exhibition work and for her collaboration on various architectural projects with the Office of Metropolitan Architecture (OMA) (“Biography Petra Blaisse/Inside Outside” 2006). In 1991, she founded the design studio Inside Outside in Amsterdam to unite her interests in landscape design, and the application of light, textiles, and finishes in interior spaces (Lally 2009, 98). The multidisciplinary studio works internationally on projects of various scale including urban parks and gardens, textile installations, exhibition designs, and landscape master plans (“Biography Petra Blaisse/Inside Outside” 2006).

The aim of this paper is to present Blaisse’s significance to interior design and to design

effect on the interior is substantial. As the sun reflects off the gold circles silk-screened onto the surface, glimmers of light are cast onto the glass and into the space beyond giving the pavilion a dynamic quality (Blaisse 2007, 30-2). Reflective coatings and mirrored finishes are also used by Blaisse to create dimension in interior spaces by altering perception and making elements appear weightless. One such example of this is the mirrored floors she designed for the House Sonneveld museum in Rotterdam. The mirrored floors are installed wall-to-wall in every room, creating a seamless connection of space and blurring the line between where one surface ends and another begins.

Blaisse states, “as rooms, objects and visitors are viewed bottom-up and inside-out and daylight hits back onto each surface in every direction, beginnings and endings merge and all seems to weightlessly float” (“Huis Sonneveld2 Rotterdam” 2016).

a chair that embodies the theories and ideas that inform her work. Her choices of texture, pattern, color, and scale in combination with the effects of light has given a new dimension to how interiors are experienced and designed. Drawing on modernist concepts of transparency and the open relationship between the interior and exterior, the chair was designed to embody the notion of light, movement, and weightlessness evident in her designs.

Inside Outside is a multidisciplinary design studio that focuses on the connection between the interior and exterior design through the blending of architecture and landscape (“About” 2016). The studio designs their projects with the intention to create a cohesive architectural language by visually complimenting the landscape, while also solving functional needs such as acoustic control, thermal comfort, shading, and spatial requirements (“Biography Petra Blaisse/Inside Outside” 2006). The projects are intended to reflect the impact of time and materiality on architectural space by using color, light, and pattern to connect the urban landscape to the building program (“Biography Petra Blaisse/Inside Outside” 2006). By blending the two practices, Inside Outside creates visually compelling designs that combine function and context with architecture. Her contribution to the design of the Seattle Central Library illustrates how Blaisse employs these concepts in her work. Throughout the main floor of the library magnified images of plants are woven onto the surface of the carpet. The carpets act as a mirror image of the gardens outside, seamlessly blending the interior to the exterior and erasing the boundary between them (Weinthal and Preston 2008, 69).

In an interview for the article “The Instinctive Sense of Space and Boundary”, Blaisse states that her interest has always been in the connection between the interior and the exterior environment (Blaisse and Lally 2009, 84). She states that her work is based around an essential facet of modernist architecture which is “continuous space and seamless connection” (Blaisse and Lally 2009, 84). Blaisse’s design practice is informed by the relationship between the interior and exterior exhibited in International Modernism by designers such as Le Corbusier (Pile 2013, 344). The Farnsworth House, designed by Mies van der Rohe (1945-1950), is also known to be influential to Blaisse’s work (Dercon 2007, 47). The house applies the modernist concept of transparency to the extreme, however, the addition of a light curtain along the façade makes the house appear more humane by giving it a soft, translucent quality. Blaisse achieves the same sensuousness in her work through spatial divisions and coverings in the form of textiles (Dercon 2007, 48). However, she takes it a step further than the work of Mies van der Rohe by purposely contradicting the architectural grid with organic forms such as curves and circles (Dercon 2007, 48). In addition to forms that are inspired by nature, Blaisse uses thin veils with varying degrees of transparency and weave to mimic the effect of reflection, such as the ultra violet screening curtains designed for the Glass Pavilion at the Toledo Museum of Art (Blaisse 2007, 30). The thin tulle curtains are subtle, and have an almost invisible presence in the space, however, their

To design a chair for Petra Blaisse is to take her ideas, theories, and techniques and mold them into one. Her fascination with textiles and her ideas of the integration of nature, the erasing of boundaries, and the power of light, reflection, and weightlessness were all considered in the design of the chair. In its simplest form, the chair is suggestive of the drape of fabric or the deep folds of a curtain hanging from a track. The form is intended to imitate Blaisse’s tendency to inject curving, botanical forms into the architectural grid. The undulating curve of the seat and back is supported by a fixed metal frame, which represents her practice of challenging architectural boundaries by combining stark opposites (“Forbo Archidea” 2016, 5). The chair has a simplicity and a crispness to it that is reminiscent of the work of Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe, two architects who informed International Modernism, a period that has been influential to Blaisse. The chair applies the modernist concept of transparency through its materiality and alludes to the concept of continuous space by allowing one to see through it. This gives the chair what Blaisse refers to as an “invisible presence” (Blaisse 2007, 18). Similar to some of her textile work, such as the curtains designed for The Glass Pavilion, the chair is meant to supplement the context in which it is placed, not overpower. A subtle glisten in the light, or a reflection on the surface reminds one of its presence and gives the static, functional object movement. In the article “Bridging the Threshold of Interior and Landscape: An Interview with Petra Blaisse” written by Lois Weinthal and Julianna Preston, Blaisse speaks about the importance of macro and micro scales in her designs. She states, All objects are made with the objective of taking both the front and back sides as equally important; there is no hierarchy between near and far away. Each object or environment needs to catch the eye and trigger the senses from every perspective and position; screened or unscreened; preferably in every circumstance, time of day or night. (Weinthal and Preston 2008, 66)

This statement, along her tendency to employ reflective surfaces in her designs, informed another aspect of the materiality chosen for the chair. The glass has a reflective coating on the back and underside of the seat becoming what is essentially a oneway mirror. Depending on atmospheric conditions, where the chair is placed, and the lighting at the time, the transparency of the chair will change. The chair creates different experiences depending on the angle from which it is viewed. This alters one’s perception as to what is near or far away, alluding to Blaisse’s concept of macro and micro scales in design (Weinthal and Preston 2008, 66). For instance, if the chair is placed with its back towards a window, the reflective coating will act as a mirror, reflecting the view outside into the interior. Additionally, the glass is given a slight texture, like the weave of a textile. The slight impressions give the piece a tint unique to its surroundings by allowing light to bounce off in all directions and reflect the colors

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of the space around it. This allows the chair to take on the context in which it is placed, embodying Blaisse’s idea of a seamless connection of objects and spaces.

Drawing on modernist concepts of transparency and the open relationship between the interior and exterior, Petra Blaisse has given a new dimension to how interiors can be experienced and designed. Her choices of texture, pattern, color, and scale, in combination with the effects of light, movement, and transparency, challenge the conventions of design and the static nature of architecture. Blaisse’s use of textiles in architectural spaces provide a sharp contrast to the rigidity of the built structure.

The fluidity of the curtains she employs in her work create a sense of movement and reconfigure the interior architecture from permanent to dynamic. Her work has also had an influence on architecture, especially in the work of Rem Koolhaas and her collaborations with OMA, by helping to develop ideas about movement, transparency, variability, and metamorphosis. This can be seen in her contributions to the Seattle Central Library (2004), the Casa da MĂşsica in Porto (2004), and the Kunsthal Exhibition Hall in Rotterdam (1999). Blaisse strives to create flexible spaces by using soft and pliable materials that will create movement and evolve over time. This is done in two directions, by using textiles that degrade and plants that grow (Blaisse and Lally 2009, 85). By blending the practices of interior design and landscape design, Blaisse and her design studio Inside Outside are able to create visually compelling designs that combine function and context with architecture, interiors, and the landscape.

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REFERENCES “About.” Inside Outside. 2016. Accessed March 10, 2018. http://www.insideoutside.nl/About Blaisse, Petra. Inside outside. Rotterdam : New York, NY: NAi Publishers ; D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, 2007.

Blaisse, Petra, and Lally, Sean. “The Instinctive Sense of Space and Boundary.” Architectural Design 79, no. 3 (2009): 84-87.

“Biography Petra Blaisse/Inside Outside.” Deburen. 2006. Accessed March 10, 2018. https://www.deburen.eu/ userfiles/files/2006/Inside%20Outside.pdf Dercon, Chris. “Die Welt ist alles, was der Fall ist – The Limits of the World are also its Limits.” In Inside outside.

Petra Blaisse. Rotterdam : New York, NY: NAi Publishers ; D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, 2007, 46-50.

“Forbo Archidea.” The Architectural Review: Special Edition Interior Architecture 53, (2016): 5.

“Huis Sonneveld2 Rotterdam.” Inside Outside. 2016. Accessed March 10, 2018. http://www.insideoutside.nl/ Interiors/Huis-Sonneveld2-Rotterdam Lally, Sean. “Contributors.” Architectural Design 79, no. 3 (2009): 98.

“Petra Blaisse.” Inside Outside. 2016. Accessed March 10, 2018. http://www.insideoutside.nl/Petra-Blaisse Pile, John F., Gura, Judith, and EBSCOhost. A History of Interior Design. Fourth ed. 2013.

Weinthal, Lois, and Preston, Julieanna. “Bridging the Threshold of Interior and Landscape: An Interview with Petra Blaisse.” Architectural Design 78, no. 3 (2008): 64-71.

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A LVA R A A LTO

Fig. 1: The kaarevuus front perspective.

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Fig. 2: The kaarevuus elevation.

Lissi Ranta

Alvar Aalto (1896-1976) was a Finnish architect and designer (Pile and Gura 2014).

His work started in the Neoclassical style transitioning into Functionalism centered on improving human life (Sato, Pallasmaa and Hanaor 2007, 15). Functionalism is a principle that places functional requirements ahead of aesthetic goals (Pile and Gura 2014). Aalto’s key design concepts included using natural and local materials in new forms of construction; bringing natural light into interior spaces; relating to cultural, historical, and site-specific building context; and, focusing on humanistic priorities.

Although Aalto was an architect, he was concerned with more than just the building envelope. He designed buildings with a holistic approach to design. This means he designed all elements in a space from the furniture down to the plumbing fixtures. In the 1920s and 1930s, there were other designers who took a holistic approach to design,

250). Aalto’s furniture could not only be visually pleasing, but they had to serve a purpose and achieve that purpose.

Aalto would not stop when a design was finished, rather he went back to make sure it was achieving its purpose. This is evident through his furniture design. Aalto created the folk Senna which was beautiful in appearance, but according to Goran Schildt, it had two key flaws (Schildt, Alvar Aalto: The Decisive Years 1986, 38). First, the chair’s back and seat material rendered it uncomfortable and slippery. Aalto acknowledged this flaw and sought to alleviate the issue. He did this through fastening on an upholstered cover. The second flaw was that the piece was handcrafted and expensive. Although the body of the chair was industrial, the wooden legs were handcrafted. Aalto looked to utilize modern technology while still keeping the integrity of his organic design

but their form was purely aesthetic. Those designers were concerned with a holistic style being portrayed visually throughout every aspect of their buildings. In contrast, Aalto’s holistic approach was human centered. Interior design has an emphasis on the human aspects in relation to design (Edwards 2011), and one of Aalto’s core values was the well-being of the users. Aalto’s dream was that one day, architecture would become about more than just recreating the new style, it would be something that was not concerned with style at all (Quantrill 1983, 1-2). He imagined that buildings would be designed based on the needs of its users and the only other determinates would be the site, the availability of materials, and financial considerations (Quantrill 1983, 1-2). Aalto was one of the first designers to have a holistic design approach focused on the wellbeing of the users above stylistic design; this concept parallels what we know as interior design today.

Aalto designed more than just buildings; a significant portion of his career was dedicated to furniture design. Aalto said that “Instead of interior design based entirely on forms and seeking to serve practical uses within the limits they permit, the functionalist working method starts out with the actual needs of life, creating forms only on the basis of those needs.” (Schildt, Alvar Aalto: In His Own Words 1997, 225) This is the method through which he designed his furniture. By designing in the functionalist method, the design is not constrained by preconceived forms and notions of what the form should be. Instead it focuses on the needs of the users and form develops from that. In the functionalist view, a carpet is not just a piece of decoration, but it is a soft play area for children (Schildt, Alvar Aalto: In His Own Words 1997, 225). Many of Aalto’s pieces were designed in relation to a specific building project.

To Aalto, furniture should be a light, inexpensive, easy to clean, and durable object that is accessible to all social classes and focuses on comfort and ease of manufacturing (Schildt, Alvar Aalto: In His Own Words 1997, 225). His furniture embodied all this along with emanating the natural Finnish landscape, utilizing new construction techniques, and being flexible in design use (Quantrill 1983, 248-250).

The Finnish landscape is shown through the curvilinearity of the pieces (Pelkonen 2009, 143). This same curvilinearity can be seen throughout all aspects of Aalto’s designs.

Growing up with a father who was a surveyor, Aalto gained a deeper understanding and connection with the Finnish wilderness (Schildt, Alvar Aalto: Masterworks 1998, 7). Aalto’s furniture utilized laminated bentwood. Laminated bentwood allowed the piece to be molded into any desired shape. By using industrial construction techniques Aalto’s pieces were less expensive, therefore making them more accessible to people of all social classes. Aalto desired freedom through the flexibility of the placement of his furniture. There should be ease of movement if the space needed to be rearranged at some point. Therefore, his furniture was not built into the building (Quantrill 1983,

(Schildt, Alvar Aalto: The Decisive Years 1986, 39). He exchanged the chair legs, which had to be attached to the body by hand and was time consuming and expensive, with tubular steel. Out of these changes came the Hybrid chair. Appearance was not Aalto’s key focus when designing, the users’ needs were a primary focus. After the first chair design was completed he analyzed it, found its flaws, and subsequently corrected them.

In the design of the Paimio Tuberculosis Sanitorium (1929-1933), it can be seen how much thought Aalto put into making the lives of people better (Schildt, Alvar Aalto: In His Own Words 1997, 178). According to Aalto “Since architecture covers the entire field of human life, real functional architecture must be functional mainly from the human point of view.” (Schildt, Alvar Aalto: In His Own Words 1997, 102) When considering this quote from the perspective of designing a hospital it can be argued that being functional from the human point of view is in reference to the patients, as they are the primary users of the space. When designing a space, it can not just be functional in a technical sense, but must also take into account the building users. To be able to design a functional space from the human point of view the designer must get in the mindset of the users of the space. Through this they can discern the needs of the users and provide a well-organized and functional space. At the time of the Sanitorium commission, Aalto himself was sick. Because of this, he had personal knowledge of the irritations associated with being bedridden (Schildt, Alvar Aalto: In His Own Words 1997, 178). Through his experience, he was able to come up with the most minute details that would help provide a peaceful atmosphere for the patients. It became apparent to him that spaces are designed for people who are in a vertical position, and in this space he needed to design for a person who was primarily horizontal or man at his weakest (Schildt, Alvar Aalto: In His Own Words 1997, 178).

In the Paimio Tuberculosis Sanitorium, Aalto designed doorknobs that would not catch peoples clothing, worked with lighting and a colour scheme that would bring the patients comfort. He designed the space and light-fittings so that the patient had the ideal lighting for their activities, and designed the furniture and sanitary equipment to maximize patient comfort (Sato, Pallasmaa and Hanaor 2007, 109).

The door handle was a lever because that is the optimal shape and easier to grasp for people with disabilities (Sato, Pallasmaa and Hanaor 2007, 109). The one drawback of lever door handles is that clothing often gets caught on them. This design allows for the lever, but prevents having things get caught on it according to Shigeru Ban (Sato, Pallasmaa and Hanaor 2007, 109).

The lighting in the space was designed so that someone who is spending the entire day in a horizontal position would not have a light directly in their eyes. Rather, it would reflect off the wall behind them onto their reading surface. The light fixtures in the patient rooms were on a track as to be highly adjustable (Sato, Pallasmaa and Hanaor 2007, 117). Since some patients did not have the ability to go outside, the use

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of natural material and forms within the space brought comfort to them. Balconies were also added on each patient room to provide easy outside access.

A key feature of each patient room was the washbasin Aalto designed. The basin was designed so that the water would exit the faucet and enter the porcelain sink at a steep angle and travel downwards to the drain. This design prevented the water from making sound when it entered the basin to prevent the noise from disturbing the neighboring patient (Schildt, Alvar Aalto: In His Own Words 1997, 178). The focus of the design of the Sanitorium was on patient care. The style of the building and space was less important than ensuring it functioned well and it alleviated some of the suffering of the patients.

An additional way Aalto cared for his users was by bringing in natural light into the interiors. After the introduction of the first roof-light in the Turun Sanomat building, bringing in natural light became central to his design process (Quantrill 1983, xii).

In Finland during the winter months the majority of people’s time is spent indoors. Finland is a northern country, so it only gets few daylight hours during the winter (Quantrill 1983, 75). Since natural light was central to Aalto’s design process he had to find a way to mimic natural lighting in the reduced winter daylight hours.

In the design for the Tallin Art Museum, Aalto augmented the roof-light lenses with a light fitting suspended over the opening to simulate daylight (Quantrill 1983, 76).

Aalto designed many types buildings with completely different functions including commercial, hospitality, and residential. By making natural lighting a central ethos in all of his buildings, he created an equality amongst all of them (Quantrill 1983, 63).

No matter the user or purpose of the building, Aalto’s designs are both functional and enjoyable spaces to be in. This is one way in which Aalto demonstrated his desire for equality among humans.

Interior design has an emphasis on the human aspects of space because it can be easy to focus on other aspects of design, such as decoration, that in the end hurt the wellbeing of the users (Edwards 2011). Aalto was one of the first designers to demonstrate a holistic human centered approach to design. He was against designing something just for appearance or in a certain style. His primary goal when designing was to make the space function well and be comfortable for the users. Although he did not set out to do so, Aalto ended up creating a style that was all his own. Aalto achieved his human centered designs through designing all aspects of the building no matter how small to optimize the user experience. He brought natural light into all his buildings to bring comfort to his users and optimize their performance. Also, he did not leave a design when it could be considered finished. He went back to it multiple times to correct and perfect it (Sato, Pallasmaa and Hanaor 2007, 109). Aalto’s commitment to his users is commendable. In the end, the users were his priority.

THE KAAREVUUS The kaarevuus is a reading chair designed for optimum human comfort (see Figure 1 and 2). The design of this chair looks to the key properties of Alvar Aalto’s works.

Its primary concern is with the wellbeing of its user. It uses bentwood techniques to provide support to the chair. Drawing from natural forms, the curves flow like the Finnish landscape. It uses natural materials that are locally sourced and durable. It is light and easy to carry if the need arises. Its simple form maximizes comfort while being easy to manufacture. The chair back is designed to follow the natural curvature of the human spine. This provides support to the head and lumbar regions. Strong, bentwood

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arms provide support for the cantilevered body. Cushioning is located over the chair back and seat to make the seating softer and to prevent slipping.

REFERENCES Edwards, Clive. 2011. Inteiror Design: A Critical Introduction. Oxford: Berg.

Pelkonen, Eeva-Liisa. 2009. Alvar Aalto: Architecture, Modernity, and Geopolitics. London: Yale University Press.

Pile, John, and Judith Gura. 2014. A History of Interior Design. Vol. 4th Edition. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Quantrill, Malcolm. 1983. Alvar Aalto: A Critical Study. London: Secker & Warburg.

Sato, Tomoko, Juhani Pallasmaa, and Cigalle Hanaor. 2007. Alvar Aalto through the eyes of shigeru ban. London: Black Dog Publishing in association with Barbican Art Gallery.

Schildt, Goran. 1986. Alvar Aalto: The Decisive Years. New York: Rizzoli International Publications.

Schildt, Goran. 1997. Alvar Aalto: In His Own Words. New York: Rizzoli International Publications.

Schldt, Goran. 1998. Alvar Aalto: Masterworks. New York: Universe Publishing.

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LE CORBUSIER

Fig. 1: Blue Chair Perspective. Sehira, Amandeep. Blue Arm Chair. 2018.

Fig. 2: Perspective of framework. Sehira, Amandeep. Framework. 2018.

Fig. 3: Side view showing the cushions. Sehira, Amandeep. Side View. 2018.

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Amandeep Sehira

INTRODUCTION Le Corbusier (1887-1965) was a well-known Swiss-French architect and one of the pioneers of Modernism (Pile and Gura 2013, 329). Until the 1920s Corbusier was formally known as Charles-Edouard Jeanneret. He began his career with an interest in naturalist paintings (Pile and Gura 2013, 329). Throughout Le Corbusier’s career, he published many influential books about the relationship of architecture, decorative arts, and urbanization in design (Marcus 2000, 11). During the time, his work was distinct from other architecture of the international style (Pile and Gura 2013, 341).

Le Corbusier brought design and architecture to the same level of rational through his inspirational work (Fusco 1977, 9). Corbusier’s work influenced many designers of his generation and the upcoming generations to focus more on the fundamentals of the international style.

In order to understand Le Corbusier’s significance to interior design, this paper will analyze his theories and ideas through the correlations of his designs.

The relationships between the key concepts of standardization, human proportions, geometry, and color are further examined in relation to his architecture and furniture design. A chair design is proposed by analysing the theories Le Corbusier implemented in his practice.

S T A N D A R D I Z AT I O N According to Corbusier, in the field of design, standardization suggests the idea of simple, unornamented, and functional aesthetics (Fusco 1977, 17). In Corbusier’s book L’Art Decoratif d’ Aujourd’hui, he defines architecture as something that has no relationship with decoration (Fusco 1977, 9). He further describes them as monuments that have survived over time and allow geometry to be analysed to understand the geometrical relationships (Fusco 1977, 9). This idea of standardization is suggested in his building, Pavilion de I’Esprit Nouveau (1925) as this simple structure is stripped of any ornamentation and implemented new materials such as reinforced-concrete and glass (Marcus 2000, 26). With the ideas of standardization and individualization, many of the upcoming designers began to produce work that was simpler and designed for functional aesthetics with importance to the planning and programming of buildings.

HUMAN PROPORTIONS Corbusier aimed to design products purely by function and research in order to meet the needs of the human bodily proportions (Fusco 1977, 17). He considered these products standard as “the objects are typical because they respond to the typical needs and typical functions” (Fusco 1977, 17). Many designers began to consider ergonomics in their design in order to produce buildings and furniture that could be used by the average human being. These elements of design can be thought of as “artificial limbs” as they are standard needs (Fusco 1977, 17).

The importance of human dimension and the golden-section proportions is demonstrated in many of Corbusier’s works (Pile and Gura 2013, 348). In terms of furniture design, Corbusier defined it as the “extension of our limbs and adapted to human functions” (Smyth 2013, 1). Dimensions of a product were considered very important, as if they did not meet the needs of the users physical dimensions, the product would not be accomplishing its purpose (Smyth 2013, 1).

G O L D E N R AT I O Corbusier defined the golden ratio as rhythms that have a relationship with one another and that the root of human activities were expressed in these very rhythms (Saraf 2013,

6). Corbusier’s Le Modulor is a scale of proportions based on the human body and divided into scale of the golden sections that are subdivided into the golden ratio at particular parts of the body (Saraf 2013, 5).

He aimed to define this standardized system as a concept that could be applied to “…man, mechanics and architecture”(Saraf 2013, 6). The concept of applying the golden ratio in design is implemented in both Corbusiers’ architectural and furniture designs. The geometric forms of the Villa Stein-de Monzie in Garches, Paris are inspired by the golden mean ratio of 1:1.618 (Pile and Gura 2013, 341-43).

The planning grid creates an international style building that results in a cubistic design with geometric elements where the form and placement of elements is suggested by the proportions of the golden rectangle (Pile and Gura 2013, 341-43). The plan of the villa is based on 11:16 rectangle proportions and has a sense of symmetry in certain segments but the interior of the building creates a type of asymmetry, as it focuses beyond the internal functional needs (Pile and Gura 2013, 343). The importance of the ratios are outlined and it is connected to the natural physical form of the human body.

GEOMETRY Corbusier’s architectural buildings often used geometry to define the aesthetic of the space. The work of geometry can be referred to as the functional aesthetics control that forms a “methodical way of bringing order to what might otherwise be entirely arbitrary forms” (Pile and Gura 2013, 341). The geometry created by the ratios are not ordinary forms as the functional aesthetic is used to define and contrast the systems. An example of this idea is implemented in the Paris Studio-house design for Ozenfant (1992-3), where the large steel-framed windows and skylights are inspired by the golden mean ratio (341). The arrangement of the geometric forms create the standardized effect the building gives off by defining its structural elements.

NEW TECHNOLOGY During the rise of modernism, many new materials were introduced through the exhibitions and Corbusier aimed to create a “new way of furnishing rooms” by introducing materials such as steel, cement, and synthetic fibers in his design (Fusco 1977, 18). He believed that the significance of steel in furniture was equivalent to the importance of concrete in architecture (Benton 1990, 115). The new industrialized technology allowed quality production promoting a new furniture age (Fusco 1977, 18). He felt that this would create “a physical environment that would make the house come closer to fulfilling the human needs of the masses” (Fusco 1977, 4).

Corbusier referred to the term equipment as the furnishings that defined a space with the main focus on “conception, simplicity of execution and its effectiveness in use” (Fusco 1977, 12). The equipment at the Paris Salon d’Automne of 1929 focused on standardization by creating multipurpose and functional furniture based on the human bodily dimensions and user needs (Fusco 1977, 4). The concept of mobilier furniture was introduced as individual elements that fit together allowing users to modify them according to their needs. The equipment was constructed of pieces that interlock and were represented as sculptures rather than furniture. (Fusco 1977, 18).

COLOR AND LIGHT Corbusier’s theory on color developed during his practice as a cubist painter making him familiar with the relationship of color and light. Color was used to either emphasize or influence mood with the relationships of the architectural elements (Samuel 2010, 35). The spatial conception of the building became important with the introduction 86

of color in architecture and furniture design (Marcus 2000, 59). The Villa Savoye (1929-31) uses this concept of tubular steel columns that are designed to contrast the white walls and ribbon windows (Pile and Gura 2013, 343).

The exterior and interior of the buildings emphasized certain elements through color. On the exterior, green walls make the structure seem like it is floating with the emphasis on the columns (Fusco 1997, 28). Some of the colors used often used in Corbusier’s designs include “perceptions of yellow, red, blue, violet and green” to signify details of combinations (Fusco 1997, 5).

FURNITURE AS SIGNS The furniture designs were based on the golden mean ratio that aimed to meet the physical needs of the human body. Inspired by Thonet furniture, Corbusier partnered with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret and Charlotte Perriand and began producing functional furniture (Smyth 2013, 1). The furniture style was simple with steel and upholstered elements that create comfort for the needs of the users (Pile and Gura 2013, 342-44). He explored new possibilities by combining organic forms and natural materials with mechanical production and industrialized materials (Benton 1990, 118). All of the ideas formerly stated are implemented in Corbusiers furniture design, particularly the arm chair and adjustable chaise that focus on the model chrome-plated steel cage structures emphasised by the large cushions (Pile and Gura 2013, 345).

The arm chairs by Le Corbusier are referred to as signs by Sergio Bettini as they embody the relationship of geometry and function (Fusco 1997, 28). The construction is linked with horizontal planes that interlink with vertical elements creating a ninety degree angle in some of the designs (Fusco 1997, 31). Semiotics is represented in this part of the design as there are elements that are signifying and signified (Fusco 1997, 31). In terms of furniture design, the signified elements are the internal elements such as the cushion and the external elements function as the supporting framework such as the steel caging (Fusco 1997, 32).

THE BLUE ARM CHAIR This chair design is inspired by the theories and ideas formally analysed in this paper, such as standardization, human proportions, geometry, golden ratio, and color. The basic theories are implemented to design a chair that demonstrates the theories of Le Corbusier (Figure 1). This modern chair lacks ornamentation as the framework of the chair itself represents the detail. As seen in Corbusier’s architecture and furniture design, the structure is often emphasized by columns or framework.

This chair is designed with the idea of elements that are either signifying or signified. The steel framework of this particular chair is based on ergonomics and the golden ratio and represented the signifying element that emphasizes the leather cushions (Figure 2). The large cushions represent the internal element that is signified by the framework making it stand out (Figure 3). The back cushion of the chair has a slight angle based on the human bodily dimensions and ergonomic needs. This blue chair is both aesthetically appealing and functional.

The dimensions of the grid were inspired by the golden rectangle and sectioned according to the ratio creating different sizes for the back cushion, front seat and arm rests. The color of the chair was inspired by Corbusier’s bold use of color in his designs.

This materials of blue leather and steel frame represent the new technology that allowed the production of quality products. Corbusier’s quote “a house is a machine for living” can be interpreted as the idea that each element has a function, especially in design

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(Pile and Gura 2013, 342). This chair acts as a machine for sitting as it focuses on the functional needs through construction and design.

CONCLUSION Le Corbusier’s significance to interior design is represented in the history of design.

Many designers implement Corbusier’s theories in their design as they focuses on both the aesthetic and functional needs of users. The works made of modular systems inspired many upcoming designers as Courbusier’s furniture is still in production today (Pile and Gura 2013, 349). By implementing Corbusier’s theories, upcoming designers can design work that has a purpose from its construction to production. A huge impact in design is seen as many of the building designed after Corbusier implemented his theories by using the “machine age” to create designs that influence and meet both the structural and user needs. He succeeded in introducing a new type of International Style that promoted the functional and aesthetic elements of design through quality of production in machine made products represented in both his architectural and furniture design.

REFERENCES Benton, Charlotte. “Le Corbusier: Furniture and the Interior.” Journal of Design History 3, no. 2-3 (1990): 103-24.

De Fusco, Renato. Le Corbusier, Designer : Furniture, 1929. Woodbury, N.Y.: Barron’s, 1977.

Le Corbusier. Le Corbusier, My Work. London: Architectural Press, 1960.

Marcus, George H., and Le Corbusier. Le Corbusier inside the Machine for Living : Furniture and Interiors. New York: Monacelli Press, 2000.

Pile, John;Gura, Judith. History of Interior Design. Wiley, 2013.

Samuel, Flora. Le Corbusier and the Architectural Promenade. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2010.

Saraf, Sanjay. “The Golden Proportion: Key to the Secret of Beauty.(Report).” The Internet Journal of Plastic Surgery 9, no. 1 (2013): The Internet Journal of Plastic Surgery, Jan 7, 2013, Vol.9(1).

Watson-Smyth, Kate. “The LC4 Chaise Longue.” The Financial Times, September 21, 2013.

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C H A R L E S F. A . V OY S E Y

Fig. 1: The Voysey chair front. Warsza, Emily. Voysey Chair Front. 2018.

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Fig. 2: The Voysey chair back. Warsza, Emily. Voysey Chair Back. 2018.

Emily Warsza

INTRODUCTION Charles F. A. Voysey’s meticulous attention to detail and nature while keeping his designs simple, defined him in his career as an architect and designer of textiles and furniture. Voysey was born in Yorkshire in 1857; he was an Arts and Crafts architect and designer and had a significant effect on interior design (Hitchmough, 9). Voysey embraced the concepts and ideas of the arts and crafts movement. He believed in the impact of craftsmanship, that the beauty is in the small details, and that there is a relationship between different design mediums (Livingston, 3). His work and his personality was seen by others as linked, with his belief in honesty, simplicity, and detail in all design elements no matter how small. (Hitchmough, 51). The designs were unique and modest which led him not just to be an architect that produced homes but as well a designer of textiles and furniture. These critical characteristics had an impact on interior design and ones that affected the design of the Voysey chair that is meant to be for Charles Voysey.

ARCHITECTURE A common theme in Voysey’s architecture work was simplicity, which he was able to achieve through simple materials, modest design and avoidance of ornamentation (Gebhard, Voysey, 4). Through his attention to detail, Voysey focuses on all aspects of his work from proportions, composition, materials, colour, and ornamentation; these concepts all reflect the totality of the experience of the integration of the interior and exterior (Durant 1992, 11). One of his main inspirations was nature. He believed that one should return to the landscape and that a designer should have the experience of their design reflect the quality of the material (Voysey 1909, 114).

During his career, he built over one hundred and seventeen private homes in England, Ireland, Wales, Austria, America, and Egypt (Hitchmough, 217). Even with having projects in locations around the world, as an architect he never liked to travel but preferred to stay in England. This is important because a common theme in Voysey’s work was the landscape and nature around him (Hitchmough, 217). His want to stay in England explains his need to exhibit traits of English architecture and concepts in his work. Along with the inspiration of nature, he believed that as an English architect he needed to follow the traditions of English Gothic (Gebhard, Voysey, 7). In the R.I.B.A. Journal Voysey stated that “I remain faithful to tradition, but not its slave” (Voysey 1930, 34). For Voysey, the only English architecture tradition was Gothic. Nothing else compared as English Gothic was a style that evolved out of the local conditions and therefore required for the population (Gebhard, Voysey, 7). A Gothic principle is evident in his work but is more noticeable at the beginning and the end of his career as a designer (Simpson, 146). He did not want his designs to resemble those of the English Gothic but wanted his to imbued with the same spirit (Simpson, 146). As Voysey was looking around him for inspiration be created a dislike for the Art Nouveau as he believed it went against his ideals of simplicity as the new movement was madly eccentric (Gebhard, Voysey, 7).

Voysey’s domestic architecture was picturesque with references to native traditions (Durant 1992, 7). His homes reflect a cottage ideal, with whitewashed walls, massive chimneys, sloping buttresses, and nature motifs (Gebhard, Voysey, 21).

The most influential example of Voysey’s elements of nature and colour is in his own house, The Orchard. In the interior of this house, he used unpolished furniture, silk wallpaper, blue-green rugs and carefully selected decorations (Gebhard, Voysey, 22). For the exterior of this house, he created a gable roof and wall that not only ties

together the windows but acts to break up the verticality of the building to create a feeling of closeness at a smaller scale (Gebhard, Voysey, 22).

In all of Voysey’s buildings, he tries to create a feeling of closeness by creating an intimate scale (Gebhard, Voysey, 21). Voysey focused on creating a space that no matter the scale feels close and comfortable for the user. This depicts his ideals of proportions and his attention to detail, to make his interiors feel open but at the same time intimate.

Voysey’s architectural influence in Europe spread by 1897 as his work was published in the journal The Studio, but even with this recognition, he started to design in new mediums (Hitchmough, 219).

TEXTILES Throughout Voysey’s designs architectural and textile designs, there is a parallel. The same coherent ideas, use of lines and concept of simplicity (Hitchmough,142). Even though his work as an architect gave him a reputation, Gebhard notes that his success as a wallpaper and textile designer far outshined his architectural work (Gebhard, Voysey, 12). The majority designs in all his mediums were his wallpapers (Durant 1990, 99).

His career as a two dimensional designer started after befriending Arthur Mackmurdo.

Mackmurdo introduced Voysey to the world of textiles by teaching him how to prepare fabrics and the manufacturing process including introducing him to Jeffery and Co. who accepted his first design (Gebhard, Voysey, 12).

To Voysey, a wallpaper should always be a pattern and one that repeats all over (Durant 1990, 99). To him, it was better to have more substantial and bolder wallpaper compared to small and timid patterns, but if you needed to reduce the effect instead of changing the scale, he would modify the colours (Anon, 232). To create a good textile, he was mindful of the overall experience of the design, he wanted bold patterns, but needed to pay attention to the details for them to work with the colour scheme. Just as in his architecture, Voysey looks to nature for his inspiration, as he wanted to find a way to bring the natural landscape into the interior. In his work, he favours motifs of hearts, birds, flowers, and trees. The use of nature was a reassuring constant during the period that contained political, social and psychological change (Durant 1990, 10). As his reputation gained momentum in his two dimensional designs, he started to expand to bolder designs in scale and colour (Hitchmough, 142). Voysey excelled in his two dimensional work, and it is a notable and influential time in his career that affected the field of interior design.

FURNITURE Voysey was an architect and designer with a range of work, his furniture designs due to their association with proportions and materials can be seen as an extension of his architectural work (Hitchmough, 141). In the early experimental years of Voysey’s career his furniture designs were bulky and inelegant (Simpson, 58). By the year 1898, the recognizable and distinctive features of Voysey’s designs were starting to appear; this laid a solid foundation for his works which can is noticeable for the duration of his career (Simpson, 58).

His furniture designs, just as with his architecture and textile designs, were functional and simply decorated. His primary concern when designing furniture was to make sure that it was made with a high standard of craftsmanship (Simpson, 109).

Voysey would utilize a natural wood finish to have his work reflect nature and showcase the natural grain of the wood. The beauty of his furniture was that it did not need

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excess ornamentation that just the design and the craftsmanship was enough. In all his furniture pieces, he used a standard feature of brass or bronze fittings (Simpson, 56).

Two chairs were commonly used in Voysey’s interiors, both which follow his concepts and inspirations. They are both dining chairs that, like his other products, are made of oak. Both chairs have an exaggerated high back which is attached to the seat frame and the structure is simple with only a curved molding (Simpson, 106).

The difference in each chair is the backrest. One of these chairs uses Voysey’s characteristic heart-shaped motifs for the backrest, while the other uses the simplicity of line with the back formed by five horizontal slats (Simpson, 109). All of Voysey’s furniture designs have common characteristics they are all natural in colour, fixed with bronze tacks and have a clean finish (Simpson, 110). His attention to detail is evident through the commonalities and simplicity of his designs.

C H A I R A N A LY S I S Voysey’s attention to detail and use of balanced designs are two central concepts which have influenced this design. The design utilizes the prominent themes which Voysey used in his works of architecture, textiles and furniture design. This chair which is designed for C.F.A. Voysey is one which reflects his opinions on design as an Arts & Crafts movement architect; it is a symbol of craftsmanship, details, nature motifs and modesty.

The first component of this chair is the material choice. The chair is made from oak and has a natural finish; this was Voysey favorite wood choice for his furniture (Simpson, 109). The use of the natural, local material is not just a reflection of Voysey’s designs but a reference to nature and the landscape. It serves as a way to bring the exterior into the interior. This idea of utilizing materials in the best possible way is a concept which is evident even today. The real material choice is one that Voysey uses in his designs in his furniture. The chair fittings that are used for this chair are the same as Voysey’s furniture pieces which are made of brass. Brass was chosen in allusion to Voysey but as well for the way brass complements the natural look of oak.

To analyze this chair design first will be the legs of the chair, as shown in figure 1 it was decided to have the legs in a rectilinear shape that starts as a square and gradually turns into an octagonal section which was Voysey’s trademark (Simpson, 109). It was essential to add a few characteristics of Voysey’s original furniture designs in this chair.

The stretchers, which are attached to the legs as supports, are plain and rectangular.

Connected to the legs is the seat which utilizes simple straight lines. A unique aspect of this chair which was not seen in Voysey’s furniture designs is a cushion.

This cushion is created with one of his famous wallpaper designs that are meant to symbolize purity. It was produced by Essex & Co and is said to date back to before 1899, but the stylistic design choices are ones that are associated to the late 1880s (Durant 1990, 36). It is a yellow and orange wallpaper which uses two vultures and five lilies as the repeated design. This textile is an example of one of Voysey’s bolder and larger scale wallpapers. This early design of Voysey’s is indicated to symbolize the equilibrium of good and evil (Durant 1990, 36).

The seat frame in the design is a simple form that is slightly curved to help the users back. Shown in figure 2 the back seat of this design is an exaggerated high back that along with the other parts of the chair, realizes the beauty of a simple rectilinear form. The back of the chair is formed with two rectilinear pieces on the sides. The middle of the backrest of the chair is influenced by nature with the use of vines in a vertical direction. This simple chair design is a reflection of Voysey’s furniture with added characteristics of his architecture and textile designs. It has been recognized that all of Voysey’s designs are extensions of one another due to their relating concepts of 91

simplicity, proportions, and remark on nature; to design a chair for Voysey it is crucial to understand the core themes which drove his work.

CONCLUSION Charles F. A. Voysey is an architect and a designer of furniture and textiles. His ideologies of focusing on all details of a project at every scale, his simplicity in design, and his influences of nature and the landscape around him are all characteristics which have made him an influential designer of his time. It is evident in his architecture, furniture and specifically in his textiles that he wanted a refined sense of simplicity in all his work to create harmony and balance (Hitchmough, 7). Voysey was a designer that if he had the chance wanted to design every aspect of a project from the finishes to the exterior. As his vision was to create spaces where everything in it reflects and fits perfectly together to form an impactful experience.

Recurring themes in his work are ones which impacted the chair design. His focus on the use of natural materials and the use of simple lines to create a coherent design.

There are two groups that artists or architects can fall into due to their work; the first is a group that utilizes a wide range of skills, concepts and forms; and secondly those who choose one idea or work and then makes subtle variations on this one theme (Gebhard, Voysey, 9). Voysey was an architect that would fall into the second of the two groups; he had specific ideologies and themes throughout his life that all his work follows. The impact of paying attention to all details in design, the range, and implication of scale, and the beauty of simplicity.

REFERENCES Anon. “An Interview with Mr Charles F. Annesley Voysey, Architect and Designer.” Studio 1 (1893), 236.

Durant, Stuart. Architectural Monographs N0.19 CFA Voysey. Great Britain: Academy Editions, 1992.

Durant, Stuart. The decorative designs of C.F.A. Voysey: from the Drawing collection, the British Architectural Library, the Royal Institute of British Architects. Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 1990.

Gebhard, David, and Charles F. A. Voysey. C.F.A. Voysey, Architect. Los Angeles: Hennessey & Ingalls, 1975.

Hitchmough, Wendy. The Homestead, CFA Voysey. London: Phaidon, 1994.

Livingston, Alan, and Isabella Livingston. Graphic Design and Designers. London: Thames & Hudson, 2012.

Simpson, Duncan. C.F.A. Voysey: an architect of individuality. London: Lund Humphries, 1979.

Voysey, C.F.A. “Architecture and Archeology.” R.I.B.A. Journal 44, 1930, 34.

Voysey, C.F.A. “Ideas in Things.” The Arts Connected with Buildings, 1909, 114.

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REM KOOLHAAS

Figure. 1: Jonathan Wee, The Lean Chair- Front view, March 11, 2018, Winnipeg.

Fig. 3: Jonathan Wee, The Lean Chair- Worm’s eye view, March 11, 2018, Winnipeg.

Fig. 2: Jonathan Wee, The Lean Chair- ¾ view, March 11, 2018, Winnipeg.

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Jonathan Wee

A N A LY S I S O F R E M K O O L H A A S This paper will analyze critical moments in Rem Koolhaas’ life that lead to him being known as a Deconstructivist architect. Specifically, the inspirations, motivations, and essential relationships that were a result of Koolhaas’ interactions with the Situationists and Russian Constructivists. The results from these interactions gave critical factors in the development of the project Exodus, or the Voluntary Prisoners of Architecture. This project acted as a catalyst for the foundation of OMA (The Office for Metropolitan Architecture). The OMA is vital for Koolhaas because not only was it a way for him to gain significant public attention, but for him to develop extensive projects that have influential interior design focuses. Concluding this paper will be a chair design proposed for Rem Koolhaas.

The first significant interaction Koolhaas had was during his early career as a journalist. He started the job in 1963 at the Haagse Post (Lootsma 2007, 3). Three years into his career, he had interviewed Constant Nieuwenhuys who was known for being an artist and architect who was a member of The Situationists (1). They were a group of people known for their critique and their goals in reintroducing adventure and maximizing public spaces in urban centers; they had advocated cultural and political criticism between 1957 and 1972 (1). Constant was an important figure in the Netherlands during the sixties. He had developed a concept over a 20-year period called the New Babylon. It is an idea of a completely separated, modeled, and controlled city that is raised above the ground using columns. The city would be completely enclosed and the environment, which includes anything from lights to the ground, would be controlled entirely by the people. The purpose of this was to give happiness to people because it allowed the inhabitants for complete control (2). This idea was presented to the people of Netherlands and Koolhaas was aware of this idea considering his position as a journalist. The concept of New Babylon would resonate with Koolhaas up until his later life in the Office for Metropolitan Architecture (this will be discussed later in the paper).

Aside from his career as a journalist, Koolhaas had a second career. He was interested in film and was a member of a group called 1,2,3, Groep which mocked anything considered fashionable in the sixties, especially anything that was personal, artistic, idealistic, or intellectual (Heidingsfelder 2008, scene 5:39). Koolhaas’ roles in the group included film production, occasional acting, and writing screenplays. As once said by Koolhaas, “I think that script writing and architecture is very close because for both you have to consider a plot, you have to develop episodes and create a montage that makes it interesting. You have to creates sequences which are the paths and circulation that makes suspense” (scene 9:19). His experience in writing screenplays would help him later in life as it contributed to his designing.

Still looking at the early life of Koolhaas, there are two significant occurrences which play an essential role in the development of Koolhaas. Firstly, in the same year that Koolhaas interviewed Constant (1966), he had gone to Delft for a seminar on cinema and architecture. It was here that Koolhaas met Gerrit Oorthuys, who was known as a professor of history and an expert on constructivism (Gargiani 2008, 3).

Koolhaas and Oorthuys together worked on researching Ivan Leonidov, who was a Russian Constructivist architect who turned out to be an inspiration for Koolhaas (4). When interviewed by Hans Ulrich Obrist in 2006, Koolhaas had explained that at the time he was fascinated with Leonidov and was particularly interested in his drawings (Rem 2006, 11). However, Koolhaas was also interested in Leonidov’s Palace of Culture which is a concept of a linear structure which would divide Moscow into four quadrants (Gargiani 2008, 5). Following his research on Leonidov, Koolhaas registered at the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London in 1968;

it was during this period that he had the opportunity to visit Moscow to look at constructivist works. More importantly, during this period Koolhaas had built a vital relationship with Elia Zenghelis (5).

The second occurrence that had an impact on Koolhaas were the works from Superstudio, specifically, Monumento Continuo (1969). They were an Italian architectural firm the Koolhaas had visited in Florence to give an invitation for them to lecture at his school (5). The concept for the project was to create a grid-like structure that circled the earth for “… [the] recovery of the symbolic, monumentality, and gigantism as operative tools” (Quesada 2014, 26). The use of materials and the size of the structure would have a symbolic force that would lead to utopia (26). Taking this concept into consideration, Koolhaas had written his thesis titled The Berlin Wall as Architecture. Rather than a bounding line, he saw the Berlin Wall as architecture in a sense that the division of Berlin by the wall created “absence [which] can be stronger than presence” (Rem 2006, 84). To Koolhaas, the one long strip of the wall was a representation of how the lack, or gain, in an urban environment, whether it be architecture or people, was able to create several different urban conditions in various locations of Berlin (84-85). Koolhaas’ thesis on the Berlin Wall would serve as a contributing element to the development of the project Exodus, or the Voluntary Prisoners of Architecture. Up until this point, it would be important to note the common themes that Koolhaas has been experiencing which help define who he would become. Specifically, the themes of otherworldliness, speculation of the future, and standing out due to lack of context.

Two years after The Berlin Wall as Architecture, Koolhaas and Zenghelis had worked on Exodus. Parts of this project were done in collaboration with Madelon Vriesendorp and Zoe Zenghelis (Gargiani 2008, 6). Considering Koolhaas’ experiences and interactions through his young adulthood, the concept of Exodus is that it is an ideal city situated in the core of the city of London. There would be two hollow walls parallel to each other which would protect the ‘strip’ in between them; the walls would be constructed using concrete blocks to create a symbolic force, similar to that of the Berlin Wall; the gigantism of the structure shares a similar character to Monumento Continuo; the ‘strip’ would be divided into eight sections which are inspired by Leonidov’s concept for an “ideal linear urban structure” (7). The function and sequence of the eight divisions are based on the idea of a screenplay. Exodus shares a similar utopic characteristic found in Monumento Continuo and New Babylon.

However, unlike New Babylon, the eight divisions act as powerful separate entities which critiques the one city created by New Babylon. The significance of Exodus is not only in how it is a distillation of Koolhaas’ experiences, but also how it strengthened his relationship with Zenghelis and their collaborators.

Three years after the project Exodus (1975), Koolhaas together with Elia and Zoe Zenghelis, and Madelon Vriesendorp founded OMA (May 2014, 5). Over the years, OMA has developed many projects, some built and some not. Through these works, they helped Koolhaas gain public and critical attention. The works that come out of OMA are known to have defined Koolhaas as a Deconstructivist.

The use of the term ‘Deconstructivist’ is commonly associated to a group of seven architects, specifically Rem Koolhaas, Frank Gehry, Daniel Libeskind, Peter Eisenman, Zaha Hadid, Coop Himmelbau, and Bernard Tschumi (Johnson 1988, 8). The term gained popularity because of an exhibition in 1988 by the Museum of Modern Art curated by Mark Wigley and Philip Johnson titled Deconstructivist Architecture (Jenkins 2006, 198). The exhibition catalog characterized deconstructivism as having visual similarity and being informed by Russian Constructivism. However, deconstructivism today can be defined vastly different from that; deconstructivism 94

is the critique of standard conventions and as a major aspect, a rejection of historical styles and traditions which results in the disorientation of the observer by imbalanced, asymmetrical, and irregular design (198). The key principle of deconstructivism is to question and challenge everything. The fundamentals of deconstructivism parallel the many works of Rem Koolhaas.

Some of Koolhaas’ earliest built projects were residential, all of which were based on the idea of the deconstruction, manipulation, and reconstruction of a conventional box, and bringing the inside to outside; this concept was inspired by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s Farnsworth House (Heidingsfelder 2008, at 1:10:00). One of Koolhaas’ first examples was Patio Villa, which was based on the concept of removing the core of a box, then building around the absence of space. In another example, Dutch House made use of the concept of the Farnsworth House, taking two of them and overlapping them at their shortest faces. The joining section allowed for the use of a ramp which was meant to act as the hinge for the two sections. The concept of adjoining two Farnsworth Houses would be known as the ‘Koolhaas Formula.’ This concept was used similarly in Villa dall’Ava, except it was done in a vertical manner creating a folding transition (Heidingsfelder 2008, at 1:13:00). By using multiples of this formula, Koolhaas is able to apply similar concepts to larger buildings such as the well-known Seattle Public Library.

The Koolhaas Formula is very much a focus on interior design. It challenges spatial relationships by interconnecting spaces in a somewhat unorthodox way. Opposed to a typical plan that is based on a grid, Koolhaas focuses more on the program of each space and sees opportunities for reorganizing them which also allow sightlines. There is considerable focus on the floors of each program, a common way Koolhaas connects floors in buildings is through the use of very gradual ramps and dramatic stairs that shift and undulate. Through this process, Koolhaas harks back at his residential works by orientating the floors to bring the inside to outside. Following the interior spaces of the building, Koolhaas brings everything together with an enclosure. However, the enclosure does not give away how the spaces within the enclosure are articulated (Böck 2015, 267-272). Looking at Seattle Public Library, Koolhaas had captured all of his formula and more. The structure actively embodies deconstructivism by paralleling many characteristics, but most importantly, it stands out from the rest of its context.

Interestingly, the structure also seems to echo the characteristics of Koolhaas, by having a labyrinth, and an otherworldliness feeling.

The chair design proposed is a synthesis of the analysis that was done through this paper. The design is called The Lean Chair, as that is what it appears to be doing.

However, the intention from the start of the design was not to make the chair lean.

The overall form of the chair is a result of considerations of the process that Koolhaas takes when approaching a design opportunity, like in the case of the Seattle Public Library. The first step that Koolhaas took for the design of the library was to rethink and reshuffle the program (Böck 2015, 263). Similarly, the ‘normal’ conventions in designing and building a chair were challenged. The person that would be sitting in the chair was looked at as the program. Therefore, the design concept of the chair is to reshuffle the way one would conventionally sit in a chair while giving an impression of a ‘normal’ chair. It was imagined that a person was sitting sideways and reclined in a chair. Therefore, the form of the chair was designed to accommodate this new program. The concept of the Koolhaas Formula was employed in the design of the chair, such as overlapping and folding elements, and shifting volumes. Nevertheless, considering the materiality of the chair, it would be constructed using sheet metal that would be folded and welded at seams and joints. The final product would be powder coated in white. The reason for this is to give the chair weight that it does not appear 95

to have in an attempt to mislead its user. The idea of misleading is meant to imitate some of Koolhaas’ buildings, where their facades do not give away the complexity of their interiors.

In conclusion, through his interactions and experiences with the Situationists and the Russian Constructivists, Koolhaas found his way into architecture. Through this process, he developed relationships with people where they together would be the founders of OMA. Still running strong today, OMA continues to produce impressive projects that are found all around the world.

REFERENCES Bart Lootsma, Koolhaas, Constant and Dutch Culture in 1960’s, Ebook, 1, September 4, 2007, accessed March 5, 2018, http://stichtingconstant.nl/system/files/20070904_koolhaas_constant-architecturaltheory.eu_.pdf.

Böck, Ingrid. Six Canonical Projects by Rem Koolhaas: Essays on the History of Ideas. Berlin: Jovis, 2015.

Gargiani, Roberto. Rem Koolhaas/OMA: The Construction of Merveilles. Essays in Architecture. trans. Stephen Piccolo. Laussane: EPFL Press, 2008.

Heidingsfelder, Markus and Min Tesch, dir. Rem Koolhaas: A Kind of Architect. 2008; Germany: Arthouse Films, 2008. Film.

Jenkins, Barbara. “The Dialectics of Design.” Space and Culture 9, no. 2 (2006): 195-209.

Johnson, Philip and Mark Wigley. Deconstructivist Architecture: The Museum of Modern Art, New York. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1988.

May, Kyle, Hout, Julia van den, and Jacob Reidel. Rem. Brooklyn: CLOG, 2014.

Quesada, Fernando. “Superstudio 1966-1973: From the World Without Objects to the Universal Grid.” Footprint 5, no. 1 (2014): 23-34.

Rem Koolhaas: Hans Ulrich Obrist. Conversation Series (Buchhandlung Walther König) ; 4. Köln: Verlag Der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2006.

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TA D A O A N D O

Fig. 1: No.8 Chair

Fig. 2: Front View

Fig. 3: Side View

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Hanzhi Zhang

Tadao Ando is a famous Japanese architect, born in 1941 at Osaka Japan. He was raised by his grandmother and became a boxer in his early life. Because of matches that were held at Bangkok and other foreign country, he is able to travel to different places. Ando became an architect and opened his company in 1969 at Osaka (Christine, 2007, 7).

Tadao Ando has shown an influence of his Japanese cultural background in his design while also showing specific influences from his experience in Western countries. The unique design style makes him an architect that conform to the international and modern architecture field.

The first part of this paper talks about Tadao Ando’s Dream Chair and what it represents. The second part is about Ando’s combination of his Japanese background with modern style in his design, and the influence to the modern interior design.

out of the interior. This might also relate to his opinion of the social environment of Japan. He thinks that current Japan society lacks a mentality of enjoying the life, but the people live in the urban environment like a machine that keeps producing products (Herbet, 1995, 15). Ando’s design is “a form of resistance-mediating between universal modernization and rooted cultures everywhere.” (Christine, 2007, 14) Ando wanted to combine the Japanese style with the Western design style, a way for him to approach the concept of freedom. In his Christian architecture design of the Mount Rokko Chapel at Osaka, Japan, he integrated a traditional feeling of shadow from Japan with a constantly changing light in the interior from western design style (Alex, 2002, p. 360). Like Tanizaki describes that ‘I understand that in the Gothic cathedral of the West, the roof is thrust up and up so as to place its pinnacle as high

Finally, this article will discuss a chair designed for Tadao Ando regarding his chair design and architecture design character.

Ando’s home country Japan has a unique history of architecture. After the population boom at Edo (1615-1867) period, people in Japan were left with less and less space to build architecture (Alex, 2002, p.349). In Tokyo, the population density today is 12,800 persons per square kilometer (Haruhiko, 2002, p.332) compared to Winnipeg which has 1,430 persons per square kilometer (Winnipeg Census, 2).

This resulting in a popularity of the modern architecture design style of minimalism, simplicity and multifunctional of space. In addition, Japan is located on where four tectonic plates meet causing frequent earthquake (Hasegawa, Nakajima, Zhao, 2016, p339). Because of the vulnerable location, the nation suffered a lot of natural disasters through the history, people passed away so as the architecture. Thus the concept of temporality is rooted in the culture and religion of this country. Because the interior is so humid, large openings are included, which is also used for concentrate on what is happing outside, in case of earthquake or such disasters (Alex, 2002, p.349). Another important background of Japan architecture is the material it uses. Bamboo and wood are the most used material. However, this material that comes from nature is easy to damage, especially at the ancient time when technology isn’t so developed and the conservation method isn’t so advanced. Japanese formed a culture that the architecture is temporary, and eventually will come back to the nature, from the beginning to the vanish is a natural and irresistible process (Alex, 2002, p.349).

Tadao Ando traveled to Europe, America, Africa and India with a sketchbook at his early career, he describes the environment of Japan as boring because people are restricted to pursue their dream while people at the United States is different (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004, 18). Under the influence of Louis Kahn and Le Corbusier, he introduced three principles into his design: material with dignity, pure geometry, and ordered nature (Hiroshi, 1994, p.19). His signature design element is concrete, and his design also includes massive nature elements such as light, wind, temperature. By the contrast to the toughness of concrete, he highlights the warmness and liveness of human inside the building. In addition, the geometry form such as squares, circles and angles can constantly be found in his design. His geometry approach is not merely simple form, but using concrete to create an unpredictable and poetic pattern (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004, 19). Besides the three elements, Ando also values the human factor in his design, he thinks that the people are the one that will eventually endue the meaning to the architecture. His architecture has an imagined picture that will only be completed after someone experience space (Hiroshi, 1994, p.19). The same as the chair, his combination of western style and Japanese style shows a sense of freedom and modernity. Came from a small town in Osaka, Ando’s design is influenced by traditional Japan architecture and Zen gardens, while the users are interacting with the natural elements, he filtered the unban chaotic

in the heavens as possible – and that herein is thought to lie its special beauty. In the temples of Japan, on the other hand, a roof of heavy tiles is first laid out, and in the deep, spacious shadows created by the eaves the rest of the structure is built’ (Alex, 2002, p. 360). The back walls are not fully closed, so that the light can come through the gap between them. Furthermore, traditional the corner should be full of shadow, however, in this chapel, the light fulfills the darkness at the corner beside the cross.

A scared space is created for the prayers (Alex, 2002, p.361). In addition, he used the concept of gold to further decorate the chapel in a traditional way. According to Tanizaki, in a Buddhist temple, the purpose of using gold on the dark floor is to reflect the light. For the Rokko Chapel, the concrete is polished, for the daylight to refract and reflect. With light pouring on the wall’s surface, although the concrete can never become gold, it reminds of the wall with the gold leaf in the Japanese temple (Baek and Ebrary. 2009. p.116). He provides an atmosphere of gold in the darkness without using any real gold. The Rokko Chapel shows how western ideas can be introduced into traditional Japanese architecture.

In contrast to the design of Rokko Chapel, Andao’s design for Fabrica Communication Research Center is another way of combining western design with Japanese style. Tadao Ando designed the Fabrica Communication Research Center in Italy for the clothing and sportswear company Benetton around 2000. This research center has a long history since 1994, every year, people from all over the world come to this research center to communicate information about “design, visual communication, photography, interaction, video, music and journalism” (About Fabric, 1). Since the history of the school and the surrounding landscape are valued by the Benetton, Tadao Ando decided to remain the context of Palladian style architecture of the 17th century on site and arranged the new design to the underground (Clifford, 2001, 10). Ando introduced a concept of stoic, he describes his design as: “The exterior impression is stoic, a dynamic spatial experience is introduced in the interior.” (Hiroshi, 1994, p.17). The underground part has an elliptical, porticoes square surrounded by the curtain wall that people can have a view of the outside landscape, the greenness, wind and sunlight are included in the architecture. He intently to use a different way to approach the Japanese landscape garden of go-around (Kaiyu-Shiki) style, in contrast with a flat movement, a three-dimensional go-around style is used (Hiroshi, 1994, p.17). Eventually, history, nature, people, old and new communicate with each other.

As required by Benetton, this architecture become an “symbol of preserving the past and moving into the future.” (Clifford, 2001, 6).

Dream chair was released in 2013 by Tadao Ando, according to Ando, it is a lounge chair that encourages people to talk about their dream. Tadao Ando worked with the furniture designer from Carl Hansen & Søn and came up with the design: a combination of modern Scandinavia and the curve line of Japanese style. The design is also to contribute to a great furniture designer Hans Wegner as well. (Naomi, 2013, 9) 98

The same as Tadao Ando’s architecture, the chair only uses one single material, instead of concrete, he used plywood. He said that he intended to find a material the same as concrete which can be found all over the world. The chair looks like an artwork or a sculpture, the seating part is separate with the chair’s base, resulting in a feeling of floating, like a chair that will appear in a science movie about future. The chair provides a few additional options: it is available in walnut and oak in lacquer or oil finish, a leather or fabric headrest can be added (Naomi, 2013, 9). It has a modern feeling with simple lines and clean curves. The curve line is also an expression of Tadao Ando’s characteristic in architecture design. The technology Ando used is also very radically, only a few furniture makers can complete his requirement: bending the plywood board like bending a plastic in different axial. Ando worked with Hansen fabrication team, although metal may be a better material to complete the bending design, Ando insists to use plywood, yet he agreed to add four steel pegs. A series of 3D Form-Pressed beech veneers are put together, and then cut out the center opening of the seating part. The base is in C-curved, the same as the curved seat back (Naomi, 2013, 2). The CEO of Carl Hansen said that “Together we challenged, and may be reached, the limits of what is possible with plywood.” (Naomi, 2013, 6). The chair is succeeded in both design and technology.

The Dream chair of Tadao Ando is an expression of what he is pursuing. A combination of his Japanese background and his experience at the Western country.

The No.8 chair designed for Ando wants to express the same approach which is the traditional eastern chair style communication with the minimalism and functionality of modern western style. It is a lounge chair which would be used by students and office workers after work or during the lunch hour. It is about a graceful way of life which is missing in the modern society as Ando concerned (Herbet, 1995, 15). The front view emphasizes the square shape of a traditional Chinese chair (Pile, Gura, 2013. p.89) while the side view shows a combination of square and curve line, especially at the chair’s back part. In addition, the front view and the side view is almost the same in shape, with only a few simple lines. The chair’s base and seating part are separate from each other. This is referring to Ando’s design of the dream chair that he separates the base and seating part and create a floating feeling. Personal items such as bags and clothes can be put into the base.

As one of Ando’s design signature, he used only one commonly used material which is the plywood for the chair. This chair design also wants to use one simple material. Also considering the weight of the chair should not be too heave to carry, the traditional material of Chinese chair such as hardwood (Pile, Gura, 2013. P.89) would not be used. Polycarbonate is very light in weight and is also one of the representative materials that is created after the industrial revolution. To make the weight even lighter, voids are incorporate into the design. However, plastic is not durable and especially the base is assumed to be easily damaged. To prevent this, four rubber base will be added. Translucent plastic created a blurred feeling to the surrounding environment, encourage users to forget their work temporarily and enjoy the life.

Tadao Ando is known as a modern style architect, yet his Japanese influence cannot be ignored. The Rokko Chapel is an example of using shadow and darkness to introduce traditional Japanese style, however intruding daylight reminds the visitor of a modern design style. Fabrica Communication Research Center, on the other hand, is an example of preserving local historical characteristic while applying Japanese Zen culture. The design of the Dream chair is also an expression of modern western style

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meets traditional eastern style. To contribute to Ando’s Dream Chair, the design of the chair is using the same concept as well.

With more advanced technology, people can travel to different countries easier and easier, so as the design styles that could be separated to all over the world rapidly.

When designers are designing in a country with different culture background, the representative local culture context should be respected. However, if it is appropriate, designers could introduce some design element from their own culture. In this case, the design style will contain a foreign character which differs from the original place and provides a unique experience to the users.

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(2016): 339-370 Maruyama, Hiroshi, and Tadao Ando. “Interview with Tadao Ando.” ANY: Architecture New York, no. 6 (1994): 10-19.

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Pearson, Clifford. “Tadao Ando Sculpts the Italian Landscape and Engages in a Dialogue with History at the New FABRICA COMPLEX in Treviso.” Architectural Record 189, no. 1 (2001): 80-87.

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Pollock, Naomi R. “Anatomy of a Dream. (sculptural Wood Chair by Tadao Ando for Carl Hansen & Son).”

Architectural Record 201, no. 12 (2013): 37.

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