BIOD 151 Module 1 Study Set

BIOD 151 Module 1 Study Set Anatomy - ✔The study of body structure 6 levels of organization - ✔Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism Physiology - ✔The study of body function Epithelial tissue - ✔Covers the body surface and lines the cavities. Is used for secretion and absorption; cells are constantly dividing to replace dead ones Muscle tissue - ✔A body tissue that contracts or shortens, making body parts move. 3 types: cardiac, skeletal and smooth Cardiac muscle tissue - ✔Striated and involuntary Skeletal muscle tissue - ✔Striated and voluntary Smooth muscle tissue - ✔Non-striated and involuntary Connective tissue - ✔Supports and protects body organs (e.g. bones, tendons, blood, + ligaments). Bind tissues and play supportive role Nervous tissue - ✔Communication between the cells of the body by forming a system of electrical impulses Integumentary system - ✔Layers that make up the skin (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis). Produces vitamin D and contains the pain and pressure receptors Epidermis - ✔Outer layer of skin Dermis - ✔Middle layer of skin Hypodermis - ✔Inner layer (aka subcutaneous tissue layer). Mostly fat and anchors the dermis to the fat cells (aka adipocytes) which help insulate and regulate body temperature Skeletal system - ✔Framework for muscular system and supports body organs.

Protection for internal organs, houses blood cells, and stores minerals Muscular system - ✔Allows body to move - muscles attach to bones to bring movement to the skeletal system

Nervous system - ✔Provides internal communication. Uses electrical impulses to communicate within the body and allows body to respond to internal and external environments Digestive system - ✔Breaks down food into small molecules which then enter the bloodstream through the small intestine and supply the body with nutrients Endocrine system - ✔Made of glands which make hormones to regulate the reproductive system and metabolism of the body Metabolism - ✔All of the chemical reactions that take place in the body that enable us to function Catabolism - ✔Breakdown of substances into their simpler building blocks Anabolism - ✔Synthesizing of more complex structures from simpler ones ATP - ✔Energy rich molecule that powers the cellular activities allowing cells to have the energy needed to carry out their functions Cardiovascular system - ✔Made of blood vessels which move blood, oxygen, and nutrients through the body Lymphatic system - ✔Part of the circulatory system. Responsible for immunity and fighting off disease. Has complex network of vessels and nodes that allow for the excess fluid to drain back to the heart Respiratory system - ✔Involved in excretion of waste CO2 and keeps blood supplied with O2 Urinary system - ✔Excretion of waste from body and regulates water and electrolyte balance in blood Systems which move nutrients and waste through the body - ✔Cardiovascular, digestive, and urinary systems Systems which remove waste from the body (excretion) - ✔Digestive, urinary, and respiratory systems Reproductive system - ✔Controlled by hormones from the endocrine system Superior (cranial) - ✔Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above

Inferior (caudal) - ✔Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below Ventral (anterior) - ✔Toward or at the front of the body; in front of Dorsal (posterior) - ✔Toward or at the back of the body; behind Medial - ✔Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of Lateral - ✔Away from the midline; on the outer side of Intermediate - ✔Between a more medial and a more lateral structure Proximal - ✔Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Distal - ✔Farther from the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Superficial (external) - ✔Toward or at the body surface Deep (internal) - ✔Away form the body surface; more internal Flexion - ✔Closing of a joint; bending Extension - ✔Opening of a joint; straightening Abduction - ✔Movement away from the midline Adduction - ✔Movement towards the midline Dorsiflection - ✔Flexion superiorly occurring at subtalar (ankle) joint; toes up Plantarflexion - ✔Flexion inferiorly occurring at the subtalar (ankle) joint; toes down Radial deviation - ✔Lateral movement of the wrist towards the radius Ulnar deviation - ✔Medial movement of wrist towards the ulna Pronation - ✔Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces posteriorly or rotation of the ankle so the sole of the foot faces laterally

Supination - ✔Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces anteriorly or rotation of the ankle so the sole of the foot faces medially; used in anatomical position Elevation - ✔Upward movement of a structure Depression - ✔Downward movement of a structure Retraction - ✔Movement of a structure to be drawn in the posterior direction; drawn backward Protraction - ✔Movement of a structure to be drawn in the anterior direction; drawn forward Anatomical postition - ✔Reference point; hands are in supination so ulna and radius are uncrossed; directional terms refer to the body in this position Axial division - ✔Axis of the body; includes head, neck, and trunk Appendicular body parts - ✔Appendages/limbs, pelvic and pectoral (shoulder) girdles (point of attachment) Sagittal plane - ✔A plane that divides the body into right and left sections. If it's at the midline, it's called median plane or midsagittal plane Frontal plane - ✔Vertical plain that divides body into anterior and posterior sections; also called coronal plane Transverse plane - ✔Horizontal plane that divides body into superior and inferior parts; sections are called cross sections Oblique sections - ✔Cuts made diagonally between horizontal and vertical planes Dorsal cavity - ✔Protects nervous system organs; includes cranial and spinal cavities which are continuous with no separation Cranial cavity - ✔Sits in skull and houses the brain Spinal cavity - ✔Runs within the bony vertebral column and encases the spinal cord; also called the vertebral cavity Ventral cavity - ✔Anterior and larger than the dorsal cavity; houses the visceral organs and includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities which are divided by the diaphragm

Thoracic cavity - ✔Protected by ribs and chest muscles. Divided into lateral pleural cavities (each containing a lung) and pericardial cavity Pleurisy - ✔Inflammation of the pleura Pericardial cavity - ✔Surrounds the heart and encloses the thoracic organs (esophagus and trachea) and contains mediastinum Abdominopelivic cavity - ✔Consists of abdominal and pelvic cavities. Abdominal houses stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver; is vulnerable since no bones for protection. Pelvic houses bladder, reproductive organs and rectum; bony pelvis provides protection Serosa - ✔Double layered membrane that covers the outer surfaces of the organs and the body cavities; reduces friction between organs as they slide around. Inflamed membrane = rough and organs stick together = pain Abdominopelvic regions - ✔Divided into right and left upper and lower quadrants - then divided into 9 planes Iliac region - ✔To the right and left of the hypogastric region, near the groin; houses the pelvis Oral cavity - ✔Contains mouth, teeth and tongue. Continuous with digestive cavity and extends to the anus Nasal cavity - ✔Located within and posterior to the nose; part of the respiratory tract Orbital cavities - ✔In the skull and house the eyes Middle ear cavities - ✔In the skull and lie medial to eardrums. Contains bones (malleus, incus, and stapes) that transmit sound vibrations to hearing receptors in the inner ear Synovial cavities - ✔Joint cavities; enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely movable joints Synovial fluid - ✔Line the joints to reduce friction Organelles - ✔Parts within a cell; used for energy conversion and for synthesis of needed compounds Active metabolizing cells - ✔Need to be small because as the cell expands, the amount of surface area relative to the volume decreases. Larger surface area relative to the volume allows the metabolic processes to occur faster

3 differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells - ✔1. Prokaryotic cells are typically smaller and need a light microscope to see 2. DNA in a prokaryotic cell is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane 3. Prokaryotic cells don't contain many of the internal membrane-bound organelles of eukaryotic cells Cell theory - ✔Cells are the basic unit of life Plasma membrane - ✔Surrounds cells and has specialized "pumps" and "gates" that regulate the passage of materials into and out of the cell Prokaryotic cells - ✔Basic type of cell; no DNA in the nuclear membrane; does not have many of the organelles eukaryotic cells have Eukaryotic cells - ✔Complex and larger than prokaryotic cells; have a nuclear membrane and contain many membrane-bound organelles Nucleus - ✔Most prominent, contains DNA and is the control center of the cell Nuclear membrane - ✔Envelope which surrounds the nucleus Chromosomes - ✔Organized/"packaged" form of DNA inside a cell Genes - ✔Determine what proteins are synthesized in ribosomes RNA - ✔Take the coded amino acid sequence from the nucleus to the ribosome for protein synthesis Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) - ✔Transfers info from the DNA to the ribosomes Nucleolus - ✔Region of the nucleus where the rRNA (RNA found in the ribosomes) is synthesized Ribosomes - ✔Tiny manufacturing plants that make proteins; each type of cell makes a unique combination of proteins; composed of RNA Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - ✔An extension of the outer membrane of the nucleus; modifies and transports proteins Rough ER (RER) - ✔Contains ribosomes; modifies and transports proteins derived from the ribosomes Smooth ER - ✔Has no ribosomes; synthesizes lipids

Cytoplasm (cytosol) - ✔Fluid portion of the cell and all organelles outside the nucleus Endospore - ✔Dormant, extremely durable cell produced by the bacteria clostridium botulinum which can lead to botulism Golgi complex (apparatus) - ✔Organelle made of stacked flattened sacs (called cisternae). Receives lipids and proteins synthesized by the ER, alters their structures and ships them to other part of the cell Lyosomes - ✔Sacs of digestive enzymes which break down biomacromolecules to be recycled into new ones Mitochondria - ✔Converts the chemical energy found in food into ATP. Have a double membrane (space between the inner and outer membranes is the intermembrane space). Inner membrane has folds to increase surface area = room for chemical reactions and enzymes used to make ATP Cytoskeleton - ✔Network of protein fibers to provide structural support and movement in cell; eg microtubules and microfilaments Microtubules - ✔Hollow cylinders which help chromosomes move during cell division; need to be anchored at sites called microtubule-organizing centers (MTOC's) Microfilaments - ✔Flexible, solid fiber; helps the cell with movement Cell coat - ✔Surrounds most eukaryotic cells; made of side chains that allow cells to recognize one another, make contact, and sometimes adhere (form tissues) Extracellular matrix - ✔Many eukaryotic cells secrete it; contains tough protein fibers called collagen Cell wall - ✔Multiple layers of cellulose fiber = mechanical strength and structural support for plants; not in animal and human cells Peptidoglycan - ✔In bacteria cell walls instead of cellulose; cell wall is the protection for bacteria (antibiotics interfere with wall = no cell protection) Light microscope - ✔Most common, aka compound microscope; light must pass through specimen so only thin objects can be observed Electron microscope - ✔Focuses a beam of electrons to magnify objects Transmission electron microscope - ✔Specimen is cut into extremely thin sections, each section is passed under electron beam which forms an image

Scanning electron microscope - ✔Produces a 3-D image of the object's surface; object is coated thinly with gold or other metal and the electrons strike the object Cell membrane - ✔Mostly made of lipids and proteins Fluid-mosaic model - ✔Proposed the membrane is a phospholipid bi-layer where proteins are partially or entirely embedded; positions of the proteins and phospholipids are fluid Lipids - ✔Most in membrane are amphipathic phospholipids; arranged into a bi-layer with polar (hydrophilic) heads comprising inner and outer faces of the membrane and their non-polar (hydrophobic) tails facing each other to form membrane core; tails are in constant fluid motion allowing for protein movement within membrane structure Cholesterol - ✔Steroid lipid and hydrophobic; stabilizer against heat and cold Integral proteins - ✔Typically span across lipid bi-layer Peripheral proteins - ✔Located only on inner or outer surfaces of membrane; can attach to exposed regions of integral proteins Selective permeability - ✔Caused by the arrangement of lipids and proteins; allows certain materials to pass in 1 direction (nutrients into the cell and waste out of the cell) Diffusion - ✔Molecules moving from an area of higher concentration on 1 side of membrane to an area of lower concentration on the other side; continues until equally distributed; occurs naturally so cell doesn't need to expend energy Osmosis - ✔Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane Isotonic - ✔Equal amount of solute on either side of the membrane Hypertonic - ✔Solution contains more solute particles than the cell and has a lower water concentration; ex. drinking salt water - pulls the water out of our cells which dehydrates us Hypotonic - ✔Solute particles outside the cell are less concentrated and water concentration is greater on the outside = water goes into the cell which swells (possibly bursts) Facilitated diffusion - ✔Diffusion of lipid-insoluble molecules; integral carrier protein binds to a specific molecule and releases it on the other side

Active transport - ✔Molecules go from the lower concentration area to a higher concentrated area; not natural = carrier proteins and additional energy are needed Specialized method: exocytosis - ✔A biomacromolecule (too big for carrier proteins) is enclosed inside the membrane of a vesicle which fuses with cell membrane, ejecting the biomacromolecule from the cell Specialized method: endocytosis - ✔Biomacromolecule outside of the cell is enclosed in an invagination of the cell membrane forming a vesicle inside the cell (3 methods) Phagocytosis - ✔For extremely large objects (eg. other cells); once cell is enclosed in vesicle it fuses with lysosomes inside cell and is digested (ex. white blood cells use this to destroy bad bacteria) Receptor-mediated endocytosis - ✔Receptor proteins (integral) in cell membrane bind with signaling molecule sent from another cell (called ligand - usually a hormone) Pinocytosis - ✔For tiny droplets of fluids; like phagocytosis but cell membrane "pinches" inward without needing to extend pseudopods to ingest material