Year 3/Issue 03/November–December 2017
The World After 5th Extinction
Wildlife Corridor Designing for Conservation in India
Featuring Asian Biodiversity
Using Computational Aspects: A Preliminary Interaction Model (Part – I)
Asiatic Lion… Human-Lion Interaction in Kathiawar
Why Tigers become Man Eaters
Monthly Newsletter of
Your God is not Green
Ethereal Bikaner: The Land of Raptors Cover Photo : Tanmoy Das
Year 3/Issue 03/November–December 2017
“The mouse says: I dig a hole without a hoe; the snake says: climb a tree without arms.” ~ Ancient African Hearsay
Copper Headed Trinket; Photography by Sauvik Basu
Year 3/Issue 03/November–December 2017
The Holocene is the geological epoch that began after the Pleistocene at approximately 11,700 years BP and continues to the present. As Earth warmed after the Ice Age, the human population increased and early man began to change the planet forever. For Exploring Nature, our newsletter Holocene is our platform to convey our concerns on human threat to biodiversity. We will use our newsletter as a media to highlight the current local and global issues which could impact biodiversity of Mother Nature and promote awareness of biodiversity in alignment with our group’s mission of promoting awareness of different aspects of Mother Nature among people. In this newsletter our readers will get information and periodic updates on. Recent significant discussions on biodiversity, going on across the world. Major recent research and studies on biodiversity. Biodiversity explorations planned and conducted by national and international groups as well as Exploring Nature. Information and interesting readings on wildlife photography and biodiversity modelling etc. Holocene Year 3/Issue 03/November–December 2017 © Exploring Nature Cover, Design and Illustration © Exploring Nature All rights reserved. No part of this publication can be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without proper prior permission in writing from Exploring Nature. Editorial Board Editor in Chief : Co–Editors :
Content: Cover Story Ethereal Bikaner: The Land of Raptors by Sandipan Ghosh 3|Page Editorial Illegal Wildlife Trade… 10|Page Experts’ Voice Wildlife Corridor Designing for Conservation in India usin Computational Aspects, A Preliminary Interaction Model (Part–I) by Saurabh Shanu & Sudeepto Bhattacharya 12|Page Exploration Camp The Asiatic Lion Human-Lion Interaction in Kathiawar by Dwaipayan Ghosh 17|Page Cohabitation Why Tigers become Man Eaters by Vrushav Borkar 19|Page Voice of Nature Your God is Not Green by Arnab Basu 23|Page Theme Poster Female Giant Wood Spider by Ashim Talukdar 30|Page
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Year 3/Issue 03/November–December 2017
Sandipan Ghosh
Asst. Professor, Dpt. Of Geography, Chandrapur College Burdwan, West Bengal The term ‘raptor’, used for all birds of prey, is derived from the Latin word raptare meaning ‘to seize and carry away’. The most significant characteristic, which differentiates raptors from other birds, is that they hunt or take live prey and become apex of many food chains. For that reason it makes them ideal indicators of ecosystem health. The question rising nowadays is that, if raptors in wild are threatened or endangered, then other fauna in the ecosystem also are at risk. Recent study of raptors conservation and management alleges, rapid deforestation, pollution of natural life supporting system, intensification of agricultural practices and urbanization leading to the degradation of various habitat types, have been the prime reasons for the accelerated decline of raptors in India. These phenomena compel many species of raptors and other birds in the boundary of extinction. Many species are now recognized as red-list categories by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature): near-threaten or vulnerable or engendered species. As a bird lover, I have deep affection and interest on the birds of prey since my consciousness and I love to watch behavioral patterns of birds in their natural conditions. So to quench my thirst and to see the largest winter agglomeration of raptors, I selected a place of many Historic occurrences, Bikaner and its surroundings. The birding trip started on 18th October, 2017 and ended on 23rd October, 2017. Apart from other birds, in this essay, I have concentrated only on the geographical description of habitat and the important information regarding the raptors which were photographed during the trip. Before 1486, Bikaner (a central city of Bikaner district, Rajasthan) was a barren wilderness in western part of Indian “Thar” Desert. The city was founded by Rao Bika, a scion of the Rathore clan of Rajputs, in 1486. Though it was in the harsh desert, Bikaner was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast. Junagarh fort was built at the heart of city and Maharaja Karan Singh started to rule that region since 1631. Bikaner is located 330 km north-west of the State capital Jaipur of Rajasthan. Bikaner is well connected with highways and is directly linked to New Delhi, Jaipur, Agra, Jodhpur etc. National Highways 11, 15 and 89 intersect at Bikaner. A train, named 12457 Delhi Bikaner Super Fast Express, departs from Delhi Sarai Rohila station at 11.30 3|Page
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p.m. to reach Bikaner station near about 7 a.m. Raptors are important species in these bio-geographical zones of semi-arid and desert dunes. The Thar Desert bio-geographically is an extension of the eastern fringe of the Sahara-Arabian desert zone extending through Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan eastwards to the Indo-Pakistan border. In Rajasthan, the Desert National Park and Tal Chapar Wildlife Sanctuary are important destinations for wildlife lovers. Primarily for raptors many bird watchers come to Bikaner which is situated in the middle of the Thar dunes and has a hot and dry semi-arid tropical climate with very scanty rainfall and extreme temperatures. During summer the mercury soars through 450 C and during winter drops below freezing. The mean annual rainfall varies from 260 mm to 440 mm. During the trip, the day time temperature was near about 350 C and at night it reduced to 180 C. In general the region has very low humidity (42 to 61 percent), showing extreme dryness. In spite of extreme climates, human population is still increasing in that region and present population density of Bikaner has reached up to 4,200 persons per km2. According to 2011 Census, the total population of Bikaner city is 144,406 which have increased about 21.7 percent compared to the census of 2001. The development of Indira Gandhi Nahar Project has resulted in large scale ecological changes during the last two decades. Additionally the high human density and continuous encroachment of wild habitat are exerting tremendous pressure on the fragile Thar ecosystem. The changed habitat (plantations and seepage wetlands) now attracts increasing numbers of woodland and wetland birds. The number of raptors species (especially vultures) is decreasing due to introduction of toxic Diclofenac drug in the domestic animals, mainly cows. When the raptors feed on the animal carcasses, the deadly drug penetrates into their bodies malfunctioning kidneys of the raptors. The highest population density of raptors is predominant in Jorbeer (12 km south-east from Bikaner city). Here as many as 20 - 35 carcasses are dumped per day by the municipality board, though this region is protected as vulture conservation centre. In this territory (least amount of water, least thickness of soils and high percentage of sands and salts), the main vegetation is thorny and scrub bushes like trees, viz., Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oleoids, Zizipus mummularia, Lasiuruss indicus, Panicum antidotale etc. The major part of this region is Map of Jorbeer; Source: Internet occupied either by large dunes and dry open grasslands or by shrubs interspaced with trees and thorny bushes. Here it is observed that the main living preys for raptors are Indian Spiny-tailed Lizard (Saara hardwickii) and Indian Desert Jird (Meriones hurrianae). Seven types of vultures are found in this region. These are Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnoptenus), Indian White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Indian Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus), Eurasian Griffon (Gyps fulvus), Cinereous Vulture (Aegypies monachus) and Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus). Vultures, throughout India, were once a symbol of commensalism with man, are now critically endangered and remain understudied and the recent decline warrants immediate attention. During our trip, only Egyptian and Eurasian Griffon vultures were observed in the surrounding region of Bikaner. Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnoptenus) is the smallest (length 54–66 cm, wingspan 146–175 cm) among the Indian vultures and it is now categorized worldwide as an endangered species by IUCN. 4|Page
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Neophron percnoptenus ginginianus is the Indian counterpart of Egyptian vultures. Though identical in general appearances, the Egyptian subspecies is slightly larger with the curved bill tip dark brown as opposed to yellow in the Indian species. Fully grown vultures are distinctive, overall creamy-white with prominent blackish primary and secondary. Juveniles in both the species are similar, entirely dark to blackish-brown with paler wing-coverts and rump. In Bikaner they are plenty in numbers and in perfect commensality with humans, scavenging on available carrions. Egyptian Vulture (Juvenile) It feeds on variety of mammal, amphibian and Photography: Sandipan Ghosh reptile remains, and any organic rubbish such as rotten vegetable matters. But collisions with power lines, hunting, intentional poisoning, lead accumulation afteringesting carcasses with gunshot wounds and pesticide accumulation are some serious threats to vulture population. Eurasian Griffon (Gyps fulvus) is one of star species in Jorbeer area and it is still indentified as Least Concern by IUCN. The length of the Griffon varies from 93 to 110 cm, having wingspan of 234 – 269 cm. The head and neck of fully grown Griffons are covered with dense white-down feathers. They have hair-like plums form, a prominent cream-buff to yellowwhite fluffs. Flight feathers are dark brown, having outer primary blackish and secondary browner with blackish tail. Griffons are extralimital winter migrants from Baluchistan to the plains of India. During winter months, a Eurasian Griffon few hundreds of Eurasian Griffons can be Photography: Sandipan Ghosh sighted in the dumping ground of Jorbeer. Like other vultures, they scavenge, feeding mostly from carcasses of dead animals which they find soaring over open areas, often moving in flocks. Apart from vultures I caught glimpses o many other raptors, like Tawny Eagle, Steppe Eagle, Greater Spotted Eagle, Eastern Imperial Eagle, Long-legged Buzzard, Common Buzzard, Common Kestrel, Pallid Harrier, Montagu’s Harrier, Black Kite, Black-eared Kite and Shikra in the Jorbeer area and its surroundings. Tawny Eagle (Aquila rapax) and Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) were formerly treated as same species, but the Tawny is now considered as a separate species and resident bird (IUCN Least Concern). Recent mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA studies shows that the Tawny Eagle is a sister species of the Imperial Eagle. Its length varies from 60 to 72 cm, having wingspan of 157 – 190 cm. Dark morph adults are uniformly solid dark brown to blackish-brown above and below. The nape is dark with feathers after tipped paler. The underwings are also dark brown. Except dark morph, other adults have grey-brown or rufous-tawny underparts; while some individuals can show uniformly coloured brown to pale buff brown underparts. A wide range of prey consists of small to large reptiles 5|Page
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(Spiny-tailed Lizard), small mammals (Bandicoots, Jird) and birds (Common Coots, Ducks, Common Crane). Apart from the available prey, Tawny Eagles are known for scavenging also. To witness the large winter association of Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), every birder should visit this region. Since 2015 it is recognized as endangered species by IUCN. Steppe Eagle is a winter visitor in India, migrating from Romania, Southern Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. The length varies from 60 to 81 cm, having wingspan of 165 to Tawny Eagle 214 cm. Adults are overall uniformly dark Photography: Sandipan Ghosh brown, often showing dull orange-yellow nape restricted to crown. Juvenile is paler than adult, having whitish bands on upper and underwings. Steppe eagles are opportunistic scavengers, which may expose them to the risk of diclofenac poisoning. The research found the same signs of kidney failure as seen in the Gyps vulture killed due to diclofenac. One of the rarest winter visitors in India is Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) and it is presumably a rare breeder in north-west India. It breeds in Austria, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Macedonia, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Turkey and Ukraine. The length of Imperial Eagle varies from 68 to 84 cm, having wingspan of 176 – 216 cm. The term heliaca was derived from the Greek word “heliakos” meaning ‘of the sun’; in reference to yellowish nape-patch of this species. The species is indentified as vulnerable by IUCN since 2013. The crown, neck and hind neck is covered with pale tawny-buff to buffish-cream feathers with black-brown shaft streaks, forming pale path. The Eastern Imperial Eagle feeds mainly on hares, hamsters and pheasants as well as a variety of other birds and mammals. This species has a small global population, and is likely to be undergoing continuing declines, primarily as a result of habitat loss and degradation, adult mortality through persecution and collision with power lines, nest Eastern Imperial Eagle robbing and prey depletion. Apart from carrion, Photography: Sandipan Ghosh it devours rodents and reptiles, even poisonous snakes. Greater Spotted Eagle (Clanga clanga) is a medium sized (length 59 – 71 cm, wingspan of 157 – 179 cm) and dark brown to blackish eagle with distinct purplish glaze in fresh plumage. Prominent white patch is observed at back of outer primaries and greater primary coverts (light crescent on the primary remiges) often obvious on the above and below. Fulvescens morph exhibits a great contrast above and below. It is a winter migratory raptor in India and it breeds in northern Europe eastwards across Eurasia, and winters in south-eastern Europe, north-eastern Africa, the Middle East and the Indian Subcontinent. As of 2000, the world population of this eagle was estimated at less than 4,000 breeding pairs and since 2013 it is considered as vulnerable by IUCN. It can be confused with adult 6|Page
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Indian Spotted Eagle and dark adult Steppe Eagle from a distance. It is commonly seen around the water bodies but few are found in the Jorbeer area. It feeds mainly on frog, fish, lizard and other water birds. also it scavenges in the dumping ground. Laggar Falcon (Falco jugger) is a medium sized bird of prey (length 38 – 46 cm, wingspan 305 – 370 mm) and since 2012 it is identified as near-threatened species by IUCN. The main threats to this species are trapping and pesticide. During 1970s, a total population of 10,000-25,000 pairs was estimated; the numbers have now slightly increased. The habitats of Laggar Falcon are spread across south-east Iran, south-east Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and north-west Myanmar. Forehead of adult has lore and prominent eyebrow (to the nape) Laggar Falcon off white, tinged rufous. The upperparts are Photography: Sandipan Ghosh grey-brown, feathers edged paler, appearing scale like on mantle, back and upperwing-coverts. Flight feathers below are pale grey, barred white on inner webs and narrowly tipped white, with paler secondaries. It breeds in the Tal Chhapar Wildlife Sanctuary of Rajasthan. In semi-arid zone usually it is seen perched on the poles or tree-tops and typically it hunts from an exposed perch in a swift, low, level attack. It loves to eat Spiny-tailed Lizard. Buzzard is derived from the Latin root through Old French busard and Old English; Buteo in Latin denotes ‘a kind of hawk’ or ‘falcon’. In this region two types of Buzzards are found – (1) Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) and (2) Long-legged Buzzard (Buteo rufinus), both are winter migrants in India, coming from Europe and Russia. Common Buzzard has two races – (1) Buteo buteo vulpinus (also called as Steppe Buzzard) and (2) Buteo buteo Japonicus. In general the length varies from 40 to 57 cm, having wingspan of 109 – 136 cm. Upperparts of vulpinus are warm brown, having feathers of crown and upperparts usually show dark brown centres and broad rufous fringes. Flight feathers are brown, varyingly whitish on inner webs and barred dark brown. Adult Buzzard is larger, more uniformly plumaged and less rufous It is paler, especially on underparts, streaked brown on buffishwhite ground colour; brown tailed lightly barred. Buzzards have dark morph and pale morph also. Long-legged Buzzard (Buteo rufinus) is the largest species of Buteo (length 43 – 62 cm, wingspan 136 – 163 cm) and it is extremely variable in plumage, having four main plumage types – pale, intermediate, rufous and dark. The commonest (mostly found in the Thar Desert, perching tree tops and poles), characteristic pale morph has head and upper breast creamywhite, contrasting strongly with dark rufous belly, things and vent. Pale birds usually have more pronounced moustache and dark eyestripe. Some plumages are almost similar to those of the Steppe Buzzard (Buteo buteo vulpinus). It feasts on small mammals, rodents such as Jird and Gerbil, Hares, Spiny-tailed 7|Page
Long Legged Buzzard Photography: Sandipan Ghosh
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Lizard, Rock Agama and other birds also. It hunts by pouncing on unwary prey from a variety of available lookout perches, or from hovering or active flight. It inhabits in dry open plains of northern Africa, southeastern Europe, west and central Asia east to China, and across central India. Two types of Harrier are found here – (1) Pallid Harrier (Circus macrourus) and (2) Montagu’s Harrier (Circus pygargus). The word harrier is derived from the Old English hergian – ‘to harass by hostile attacks’. Pallid Harrier breeds in southern parts of Eastern Europe and central Asia (such as Iran) and during winter mainly in India and Southeast Asia. Its length varies from 40 to 50 cm, having wingspan of 310 to 356 mm. Adult male is pale ashy-grey above, except for narrow black, wedgeshaped panel is found in outer primaries. Forehead, eyebrows and sides of face is white and the face is thus paler than rest of body. Adult female is brown to grey-brown on upper-parts with pale buff patagial patch on median and lesser coverts. It perches normally on ground where horizontal posture is adopted like other harriers. Pallid has longer legs than Montagu’s. In its breeding range it is primarily threatened by the destruction and degradation of steppe grasslands through conversion to arable agriculture, burning of vegetation, intensive grazing of wet pastures and the clearance of shrubs and tall weeds. The global population is estimated at 9,000-15,000 pairs. Since 2004 it Montagi’s Harrier is recognized as near-threatened species by Photography: Sandipan Ghosh IUCN. Montagu’s Harrier (Circus pygargus) is another long distance winter migratory raptor (least concern species by IUCN) and it is found in a middle-latitude band of predominantly temperate climates, but also in Mediterranean, and boreal zones. The length varies from 39 to 49 cm, having wingspan of 342 – 395 mm. Adult male is ashy-grey above, darker than Hen and Pallid; darker bluish-grey crown, cheeks, back and inner upperwing-coverts, contrast with paler, silvery-grey primary-coverts, inner primaries and outer secondaries. Adult female is overall dark greybrown above, crown and nape feathers edged rufous-white on centre of nape. Eye stripe is very faint and does not continue behind the eye and it lacks whitish collar of female Pallid. It will consume whatever prey is available in the area where it nests. Prey is caught while flying along fixed routes at low heights and constant low speeds (speed of 30 km/h), as it is typical of harriers. Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) is a widespread winter visitor in India and it has three distinct subspecies in India. Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus is commonly found in this region. Adult male has forehead cream and crown, nape, hindneck and side of neck is blue-grey (washed rufous mostly) with black shaft-streaks. The length varies from 31 to 36 cm, having wingspan of 69 – 80 cm. Unlike most raptors, they display sexual colour dimorphism with the male having fewer black spots and streaks, as well as a blue-grey cap and tail. The common kestrel readily adapts to human settlement, as long as sufficient swathes of vegetation are available, and may even be found in wetlands, moorlands and arid savanna. It survives mainly on insects, rodents, frogs and reptiles.
Common Krestel Photography: Sandipan Ghosh
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When hunting the common kestrel characteristically hovers about 10–20 m above the ground, searching for prey, either by flying into the wind or by soaring using ridge lift. In this region Black Kite (Milvus migrans) and Black-eared Kite (Milvus migrans lineatus) are frequently observed scavenging in the dumping ground in plenty of numbers. Black-eared Kite (length 61 – 66 cm, wingspan 150 – 155 cm) is larger than Black Kite (length 55 – 61 cm, wingspan 130 – 150 cm), having ground colour of head brown, not whitish; more prominent and extensive white patches at base of primaries below, more markedly streaked head and neck and pale brown underparts. Bikaner and its surrounding region is still considered a safe haven for the raptors (especially vultures), and in winter many varieties of raptors are found in one place at a glance. But the crucial fact is that many of the species are red-listed by IUCN and there is no substantial increase of their population. A major concern of the study is the widespread availability of Diclofenac for veterinary uses in India, even after its ban in June, 2006. Another threat is the widespread attacks of feral dogs in the Jorbeer area. I wonder why the forest department would not rehabilitate stray dogs in the area, and let the birds scavenge in peace. Black-Eared Kite Photography: Sandipan Ghosh
Typical Prey of Raptors of Bikaner Photography: Sandipan Ghosh
Indian Desert Jird
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Spiny Tailed Lizard
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Editorial
Illegal Wildlife Trade Wildlife crime is a big business. Run by dangerous international networks, wildlife and animal parts are trafficked much like illegal drugs and arms. By its very nature, it is almost impossible to obtain reliable figures for the value of illegal wildlife trade. Experts at TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network, estimate that Wildlife crime is a $20bn a year illegal business-it is the 4th largest illegal trade in the world. Wildlife crimes are causing irreversible harm to biodiversity and the very fabric of human society. Almost all states have laws prohibiting wildlife crimes, as well as money laundering, tax evasion and corruption. Entire species are being hunted to extinction, as part of an illegal trade that benefits organized criminals and armed gangs. It’s not just a crime against wildlife, 1000 rangers have been killed in last 10 years, which is 2 per week, every week. As human populations have grown, so has the demand for wildlife. People in many countries are accustomed to a lifestyle which fuels demand for wildlife. They expect access to a variety of seafood, leather goods, timbers, medicinal ingredients and textiles. At the other end, extreme poverty means some people see wildlife as valuable barter for trade. Local wildlife is considered an important resource by many communities, often the poorest, in the developing world. Some rural households depend on wild animals for protein, trees for fuel, and both wild animals and plants for natural cures. Rhino horn, elephant ivory and tiger products continue to command high prices among consumers, especially in Asia. In Vietnam, the recent myth that rhino horn can cure cancer has led to massive poaching in South Africa and pushed the price of rhino horn to rival gold. Countless other species are similarly overexploited, from marine turtles to timber trees. By International standards, not all wildlife trade is illegal. Wild plants and animals from tens of thousands of species are caught or harvested from the wild and then sold legitimately as food, pets, ornamental plants, leather, tourist ornaments and medicine. But Wildlife trade escalates into a crisis when an increasing proportion is illegal and unsustainable—directly threatening the survival of many species in the wild. While the trade is a global one, with routes extending to every continent, there are certain places in the world where wildlife trade is particularly threatening. These areas are called “wildlife trade hotspots.” They include China's international borders, trade hubs in East/Southern Africa and Southeast Asia, the eastern borders of the European Union, some markets in Mexico, parts of the Caribbean, parts of Indonesia and New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. Weak law enforcement; border controls; and the perception of high profit and low risk contribute to large-scale commercial wildlife trafficking. A great amount of work to stop illegal wildlife trade is done by TRAFFIC, a wildlife trade monitoring network and a joint programme of WWF, the global conservation organization and IUCN, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, established in 1976, working closely with the National and the State Governments and various agencies to help study, monitor and influence action to curb illegal wildlife trade and bring wildlife trade within sustainable levels. Notable trade hubs of the wildlife trade include Suvarnabhumi International Airport in Bangkok, which offers smugglers direct jet service to Europe, the Middle East, North America and Africa. The Chatuchak weekend market in Bangkok is a known center of illicit wildlife trade, and the sale of lizards, primates, and other endangered species has been widely documented. Trade routes connecting in Southeast Asia link Madagascar to the United States (for the sale of turtles, lemurs, and other primates), Cambodia to Japan (for the sale of Slow Lorises as pets), and the sale of many 10 | P a g e
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species to China. Morocco has been identified as a transit country for wildlife moving from Africa to Europe due to its porous borders with Spain. With the current levels of poaching devastating wildlife population at rates never before witnessed, engagement with the private sector and in particular the transport industry, is crucial to break the trade chains between source and customer. Launched in December 2014, “The United for Wildlife Transport Taskforce” was established to facilitate the transport sector examining its role in the illegal wildlife trade with the aim of subsequently identifying means by which the sector can break these trade nexus. In India, Illegal Wildlife Trade includes diverse products including mongoose hair; snake skins; Rhino horn; Tiger and Leopard claws, bones, skins, whiskers; Elephant tusks; deer antlers; shahtoosh shawl; turtle shells; musk pods; bear bile; medicinal plants; timber and caged birds such as parakeets, mynas, munias etc. A large part of this trade is meant for the international market and has no direct demand in India. India has a strong legal and policy framework to regulate and restrict wildlife trade. Trade in over 1800 species of wild animals, plants and their derivative is prohibited under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. India is also a member of the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora) since 1976. CITES is an international agreement between governments that aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species listed on Appendices to certain controls. In India like many other countries, the problem is not of the laws but that these may be poorly communicated and just as poorly implemented and enforced. Often, positive efforts to address wildlife trade concerns are undermined by lack of political will and governance failures. Without political backing, disincentives for over-exploitation and illegal trade, such as penalties for legal infringements, are all too often weak. There is an urgent need for knowledge and action to bring legal wildlife trade within sustainable levels and stop all illegal wildlife trade that has threatened and even pushed many species towards extinction. Our Team “Exploring Nature” condemns the basic concept of Wildlife Trade, in a similar manner human slavery and trafficking is prohibited by International laws. We all are born-free, have equal rights in the realm of Mother Nature. Enslaving or endangering any Wildlife is a heinous crime and the perpetrators should be brought to justice. One of the most powerful tools for addressing illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade is persuading consumers to make informed choices. This includes the people buying the end product as well as shop-keepers, suppliers and manufacturers. The greed of human race is wreaking havoc on this planet, and the false pride that we live in, “owing” the world, taking a toll on our very existence. If we do not stop murdering species on the verge of extinction, it will lead to our own termination. In Nature, it is all about balance and if the tune is distorted, the consequences will be out of the world. The short-sighted human race is too ignorant to look beyond. Today’s profiteering is tomorrow’s loss and the loss will be irreparable. So let’s take a pledge to preserve our environment and all the living beings on our planet. Let’s not trade our future as it’s priceless.
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Experts’ Voice
Saurabh Shanu
Depertment of Virtualisation School of Computer Science and Engineering University of Petroleum and Energy Studies Dehradoon, Uttarakhand
Sudipto Bhattacharya
Depertment of Mathematics School of Natural Science Shiv Nadar University Gautam Budh Nagar, Uttarpradesh
For the purpose of the present work, we assume that the tiger habitat patches in the landscape complex constitute the vertices and the collection of connections within this complex that connect any two of the habitats constitute the edges, comprising the focal landscape complex as a graph Γ(V, E, Ψr). The existence of an edge between any two vertices represents some ecological flux, such as animal movement, between the adjacent vertices. In consonance with the objective of estimating the presence of a CTH network across the focal landscape complex, the modelling considers only the topology of the network between the different CTHs. Hence, we do not factor information about the spatial aspects and habitat quality of these CTHs into the model, and consider a graph with unweighted vertices to represent the CTH network. We thus assume that the flux between any two connected habitat patches would be symmetric on the network. In Fig. 1, the landscape is represented by a rectangular frame, while the darkened vertices represent habitats for tiger; with the connections between the habitats represented by the lines. The hashed pattern in the figure represents the matrix, a component of the landscape that is neither patch nor corridor in the landscape (Chetkiewicz et al. 2006). The objective for the tiger is to compute a path joining the different habitat patches, which would minimize the risk of its passage through the intervening landscape matrix. 12 | P a g e
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Fig. 1 Hypothetical Landscape showing tiger habitat patches (dark elliptic shapes), corridor between the patches (curves joining shapes) and the matrix (hashed pattern).
The model is based on the following map depicted in Fig. 4 of the Central India - Eastern Ghats landscape complex, spread over its constituent states (Jhala et al. 2008):
Fig. 2 map showing extent and location of tiger habitat in the central India-eastern Ghats Landscape Compplex
To model the possible paths to serve as passage for tigers from a source habitat patch to a destination habitat patch within the landscape complex, we first identify a set of four landscape factors, which may be anthropogenic or natural, and each of which may either promote or constrain the passage of the tiger through the landscape matrix to various degrees, and hence become the major determinants 13 | P a g e
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in the structural connections becoming a corridor. The landscape features that we take into consideration are presence of railway tracks (being industrially important, a large number of rail tracks crisscross this region), presence of highways that run through the complex (a good number of major national highways serve the area), presence of forest covers and the absence of forest covers, across the present structural connections between any two tiger populations as given in the map of Fig. 2. We assume that tiger population in the landscape (R1) and the set of above mentioned anthropogenic actions and the natural features of the landscape (R2) constitute the two rational agents that play a two-person Prisoner’s Dilemma game G iterated over a number of generations. The players may use a number of strategies in the game in order to optimize their payoff. These payoffs are the costs incurred by the tiger population (called tiger henceforth in the paper) in using the landscape matrix for movement between habitats. Next we code the different tiger habitats included in the focal landscape complex, as shown in Fig. 2, by the following table: Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Tiger Habitat Sariska Ranthambhore Kuno–Shivpur–Madhav Raisen Indore–Dewas Satpura Melghat Bor Tadoba Shayadri Srisailam Adilabad Nagzira Baranwapara Satkosia Simlipal Achanakmar Palamou Sanjay–Dubri–Guru Ghashidas Bandhavgarh Kanha Panna Pench
Code 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Table. 1 Coding for Tiger Habitats in the Complex
Table 1 and the map in Fig. 2 lead to an adjacency matrix A=[ aij ], i=1, 2, …., 23; j=1, 2, …, 23 for tiger habitat patches. The matrix is given in Fig. 3 below. The rows, labeled by the index i denote the source habitat Hi , while the columns labeled by the index j denote the destination habitats Hj for the tiger. In this paper, since the graph Γ is dense and since it is desired to obtain a look-up list to check if there exists a connection (edge) between two tiger habitat patches (vertices), it would be of advantage to compute an adjacency matrix as above. The matrix A stores the presently existing corridor (available contagious forest stretches) between any pair of the twenty three different tiger habitats across the focal landscape, as informed by the map, defined by aij=1 if the two vertices are connected and aij=0 otherwise. It may be noted that the storing is effected in A with a time complexity O(|V|2). 14 | P a g e
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0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Fig. 3 Adjacency matrix
=[
] for tiger habitats in the Central India-Eastern Ghats landscape complex
Fig. 4 The habitat connectivity graph obtained from the adjacency matrix A
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Thus, the adjacency matrix A describes a landscape corridor network within our focal Central India– Eastern Ghats complex, which constitutes a look-up list to know which all habitats are connected with one another through the existing landscape corridors, thereby describing a planar connected graph for the focal complex. Matrix A in Fig 4 below, describes a landscape connectivity network within the Central India - Eastern Ghats landscape complex through the existing landscape linkages, thereby describing a connected graph for the complex. The graph Γ may then be represented pictorially from the adjacency matrix A, describing the existing connectivity between the various tiger populations as coded in Table 1: To be Contenued…
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Exploration Camp
Dwaipayan Ghosh
As mentioned in previous chapter, lions were restricted into 1649 sq.km, distributed in five (5) Protected Areas (Gir National Park, Gir Sanctuary, Pania Sanctuary, Mitiyala Sanctuary and Girnar Sanctuary). More than the area of PAs covering satellite areas and their corridors, additional spaces have been proposed for notification as an Ecological Sensitive Zone (ESZ) in 2007, which is pending with the Government of India for final declaration (source: Gujarat Forest Department). In this area including 5 PAs and corridors, proposed as ESZ, only 258.71 square kilometres was notified as a National park under the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 (Casimir, 2001), where no human activity is allowed. Whereas the surrounding sanctuary permits human consumption and movement. Moreover, the visiting area of lions may be three times the total area of PAs and ESZ connecting them, spreading in over 1475 villages of the four districts (Junagarh, Gir–Somnath, Amreli and Bhavnagar). Therefore intense interactions between human and lion are inevitable here with the increasing number of lions. Most human activity within the sanctuary comes from the Maldharis, a traditional pastoralist community that originally came from Rajasthan to Gir to graze their cattle and has lived in Gir for more than 125 years (Casimir, 2001). The Maldharis are livestock keepers whose livelihood is solely reliant on the sale of milk and its by-products. After the establishment of the Gir Wildlife Sanctuary in 1965, 588 Maldhari families resettled outside the Sanctuary. But in 2009 also, nearly 800 families with 15,000 cattle lived in 54 informal settlements within the forest. Lion counts, along with other animals such as leopards and wild ungulates, have steadily increased in Gir, depicting sincere efforts from the forest department towards conservation. It also points to the tolerant and respectful attitude of the Maldharis and local villagers toward wildlife that has allowed for the synergistic relationship between humans and animals in Gujarat. However, as population levels of both wildlife and humans grow, there is an imminent possibility of exceeding the carrying capacity of Gir. Lions and leopards have already dispersed outside the sanctuary area, indicating the need for more forest spaces. 17 | P a g e
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With the increase in numbers and scarcity of space in Protected Areas, lions are coming out more and more from the PAs. Lions are roaming in nearby villages, crop fields and even lion prides are found walking on Highways at night and in the streets of the city Junagarh frequently these days. But, living with lions has not hindered the human population in Kathiawar. Humans and lions of Saurashtra have set a great example of cohabitation for the world. Kathiawar Lions regularly kill cattle of Maldharis, other tribes and local villagers in Saurashtra Peninsula within the PAs, ESZ interconnecting PAs and in over 1475 villages of the four districts (Junagarh, Gir–Somnath, Amreli and Bhavnagar) and actually feed on cattle a lot. They sometimes, though rare, attack human fatally. But, we never have heard of any serious Human-Lion conflict in this region. Saurashtra, especially Kathiawar has shown a great respect to its lions. When we go through history of conservation of lions in Kathiawar, we find prominent contribution of people there. For centuries, like other parts of the world, Gir Forest was also a happy (or morbid!!) hunting ground for feudal rulers which continued in Colonial Era. The territory used to be the recreation hunting reserve for Nawab Family of Junagarh and their colonial masters. Md. Mahabat Khan Ji III, the then Nawab of the State of Junagarh, for the first time in 1920, completely banned lion hunting in Gir Forest, where his ancestors loved to hunt lions, to showcase their courage and pedigree. The embargo on lion hunting initiated the story of one of the greatest conservation efforts in the whole world. The journey from mere 20 to over 500 lions was not a smooth sailing one. Both people and lions have shown patience during this period. We can understand the cohabitation scenario from a simple statistics. Though, lions killed cattle very often, but attack on human was very rare. The Gir protected area, where men and beasts have lived peacefully for centuries, has witnessed a disturbing trend in 2016. Over the last 23 years there have been only 18 instances of lions killing humans in Gir and its adjoining areas. But the alarm started ticking in 2016, when six incidents were reported in the first five months alone. Three killings — a 4-year-old boy, a woman aged around 50 and a 61-year-old man — were mauled to death by the felines in April and May. After investigating 18 individuals, an adult male, who was kept in a cage at Sakkarbaug zoo on the outskirts of Junagarh, was held responsible along with two other sub-adult females, who only consumed some leftover human body parts. The man eating sub-adults have been kept locked up in forest department rescue centre afterwards. We must not ignore this shifting scenario. Only a proper rehabilitation plan can preserve these lions outside the Sub Saharan Africa. The forbidden king is resurrecting and reclaiming its once territory. If we can’t take part in this process right now, one of the greatest story of conservation of ecology in modern era will end with a melancholy note. We have only one earth and merely one chance to save it. Mother Nature needs our help. Let’s Join Hand to Conserve Asiatic Lion.
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Cohabitation
Vrushabh Borkar
Author is a Student of Biology and Nature & Wildlife Activist from Maharashtra. There are reasons for Tigers being Man-eater, the reasons are as follows: Not Enough to Eat: Reason: Excessive hunting and poaching of herbivores in certain areas lead to decline prey base of tigers. Hunting Disability: Reason: This is usually due to a tiger being incapacitated in fight with another tiger, broken canine, a gunshot wound or porcupine quills, or some other factors, such as health issues and disabilities. Geographical Nature of Area: Reason: For e.g. Sundarbans are located in coastal areas, the water is relatively salty. It is rumoured that the saltiness of the water in that area has put them in a state of constant discomfort, leading them to become extremely aggressive. Co-incident Attack: Reason: If humans come too close and surprise a sleeping or a feeding tiger (particularly if it is a female tiger with her cubs), the tiger may attack and kill humans. Tigers also attack humans in case of “mistaken identity” especially when humans enter forest to extract timber or tendu leaves or crouch to answer “call of nature”. 19 | P a g e
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Habitual by Mother: Reason: If mother tiger is a man eater, her cubs may become man eaters. Owing to habits developed from young age. Fragmented Forest Habitats: Reasons: When tiger populations spill over, then due to lack of contiguous forest patch as well as prey, a stray tiger might get close to human habitat and attack humans. Tiger attacks are extreme forms of human–wildlife conflicts which occur for various reasons and have claimed more human lives than attacks by any other big cats. The most comprehensive study of deaths due to tiger attacks estimates that at least 373,000 people died due to tiger attacks between 1800 and 2009, the majority of these attacks occurring in South and Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia, attacks gradually declined after peaking in the nineteenth century, but attacks in South Asia have remained high, particularly in the Sundarbans. Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans The Bengal tigers of the Sundarbans (translation: 'beautiful forest'), bordering India and Bangladesh, used to regularly attack fifty or sixty people a year, fatally. This was a strange case, given that the tigers were usually in prime condition and had adequate prey available. Approximately 100 tigers live in this region, possibly the largest single population anywhere in the world. The kill rate has dropped significantly due to better management techniques and now only about three people lose their lives each year. Despite the notoriety associated with this area, humans are only a supplement to the tigers' diet; they do not provide a primary food source. Tigers and locations known for attacks The Champawat Tiger The Champawat Tiger was a man-eating female which supposedly killed some 200 men and women before being driven out of Nepal. She moved to Champawat district in the state of Uttarakhand in North India, and continued het deadly hunts, bringing her total human kills up to 436. She was finally tracked down and killed in 1907. She was known to enter villages, even during daylight, roaring and causing people to flee in panic to their huts. The Champawat Tiger was found and killed by Jim Corbett after he followed the trail of blood the tiger left behind after killing her last victim, a 16-year-old girl. Later examination of the tiger showed the upper and lower canine teeth on the right side of her mouth broken, the upper one in half, the lower one right down to the bone. This permanent injury, Corbett claimed, "had prevented her from killing her natural prey, and had been the cause of her becoming a man-eater." The Tiger of Segur The Tiger of Segur was a young man-eating male Bengal tiger who killed five people in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu state in South India. Though originating in the District of Malabar District and Wayanad District below the south-western face of the Blue Mountains, the tiger would later shift its hunting grounds to Gudalur and between the Sigur Plateau and Anaikatty in Coimbatore district. It was killed by Kenneth Anderson on the banks of the Segur River, circa 1954. Anderson later wrote that the tiger had a disability preventing it from hunting its natural prey. Tigers of Chowgarh The Tigers of Chowgarh were a pair of man-eating Bengal tigers, consisting of an old female and her sub-adult cub, which for over a five-year period killed a reported 64 people in eastern Kumaon 20 | P a g e
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Division of Uttarakhand in Northern India over an area spanning 1,500 square miles (3,900 km2). The figures however are uncertain, as the natives of the areas the tigers frequented, claimed double that number, and those do not take into account victims who survived direct attacks but died subsequently. Both tigers were killed by Jim Corbett. Thak man-eater The Thak man-eater was a female from Eastern Kumaon division, who killed only four human victims, but was the last hunt of the hunter, conservationist and author Jim Corbett. Corbett called on her and killed her during late twilight, after he lost all other means to track her down. Postmortem revealed that this tigress had two old gunshot wounds, one of which had become septic. This, according to Corbett, forced her to turn from a normal predator hunting natural prey to a man-eater. Tiger of Mundachipallam The Tiger of Mundachipallam was a male Bengal tiger, which in the 1950s killed seven people in the vicinity of the village of Pennagram, four miles (6 km) from the Hogenakkal Falls in Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu, Unlike the Champawat man-eater, the Mundachipallam tiger had no known infirmities preventing it from hunting its natural prey. Its first three victims were killed in unprovoked attacks, while the subsequent victims were devoured. The Mundachipallam tiger was later killed by Kenneth Anderson. Man-eater of Bhimashankar A story was discovered by Pune-based author Sureshchandra Warghade when he ran into an old villager in the Bhimashankar forest which lies near Pune. The villager explained to the author how a man-eating tiger terrorized the entire Bhimashakar area during a span of two years in the 1940s. He was a police constable in that area and he had been responsible for dealing with the formalities surrounding the deaths (missing person reports and death certificates) and other jobs such as helping the hunting parties. During this time the tiger supposedly killed more than 100 people, but it was apparently very careful to avoid discovery; only 2 bodies were ever found. Several hunting parties were organized but the only one to succeed was an Ambegaon-based hunter named Ismail. During his first attempt, Ismail had a direct confrontation with the tiger and was almost killed. He later called Kenneth Anderson. They returned and eliminated the man-eater. The tiger predominately killed the villagers who slept outside the huts. The authenticity of the story told by the villager was confirmed when Warghade examined official reports, including a certificate given by the British authorities for killing the man-eating tiger. Tara of the Dudhwa National Park While the Sundarbans are particularly well known for tiger attacks, Dudhwa National Park also had several man-eaters in the late 1970s. The first death was on 2 March 1978, closely followed by 3 further kills. The population demanded action from authorities. The locals wanted the man-eater shot or poisoned. The killings continued, each one making headlines. Officials soon started to believe that the likely culprit was a female tiger called Tara. Conservationist Billy Arjan Singh had taken the British-born cat from Twycross Zoo and raised her in India, with the goal of releasing her back into the wild. His experiments had also been carried out on leopards with some success. Experts felt that Tara would not have the required skills and correct hunting techniques to survive in the wild and controversy surrounded the project. She also associated men with providing food and comfort, which increased the likelihood that she would approach villages. 21 | P a g e
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Officials later became convinced that Tara had taken to easier prey and become a man-eater. A total of 24 people were killed before the tigress was shot. Singh also joined the hunt with the intent of identifying the man-eater, but firm confirmation of the identity of the tiger was never found. The debate over the tiger's identity has continued in the years since the attacks. Singh's supporters continue to claim that the tiger was not Tara, and the conservationist has produced evidence to that effect. However, officials maintain that the tiger was definitely Tara. Other man-eaters from Dudhwa National Park have existed, but this tiger was potentially the first captive-bred tiger to be trained and released into the wild. This controversy cast doubt on the success of Singh's rewilding projects. Problems at Dudhwa have been minor in the past few years. Occasional tiger attacks still occur, but these are no higher than at other wildlife reserves. On an average, two villagers are attacked at Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve each year. These attacks generally occur during the monsoon season when the locals enter the reserve to collect grass. Tigress of Moradabad In February 2014, reports emerged that a female tiger had killed 7 people near the Jim Corbett National Park. The female was later called the man-eater of Moradabad, because it was hunting in the Bijnor and Moradabad region. The female could not be traced by about 50 camera traps and an unmanned aerial vehicle. In August 2014, it was reported that she had stopped killing humans. Her last victim was killed in February, with a total of 7 victims. The animal remained untraced. Measures to prevent tiger attacks Various measures are taken to prevent and reduce the number of tiger attacks with limited success. For example, since tigers almost always attack from the rear, masks with human faces were worn on the back of the head by the villagers since 1986 in the Sundarbans, on the theory that tigers usually do not attack if seen by their prey. This had temporarily decreased the number of attacks, but only for a short while before the tigers figured out it was not the front of the human being. The villagers no longer wore them for protection. All other means to prevent tiger attacks, such as providing the tigers with more prey by releasing captive bred pigs to the reserve's buffer zones, or placing electrified human dummies to teach tigers to associate attacking people with electric shock, did not work as well and tiger attacks continue. Many measures were thus discontinued due to lack of success.
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Voice of Nature
Arnab Basu
20th October, 2017, woke up at 5:00 AM to get ready for my fighting class, which I was resuming after a gap of three weeks as I was busy in exploring Scottish Highland in those days. Around 6:30 AM when I reached in the locality of my gym, noticed couple of new stray dogs there - absolutely scared and running here and there and surprisingly strays of that locality were not around to chase them out. When came out after workout found few dead birds in nearby drains, also an unusual sight. After reaching my residence I saw few more dead birds lying beneath a big banyan tree within my community. Later in the morning after a nice warm shower, when I went to balcony, I was quite annoyed to see some dead moths – alas just couple of weeks back I got the pest control done. But wait a minute, are all these correlated? Oh yes! Why not, the previous day was a day of a grand Indian festival – festival of lights- festival of noise and smoke – the festival which used to be a nightmare in my childhood and whatever I saw in that morning were casualties of previous night's great celebration - gift of religion to the rest of the animal kingdom.... Hindu festivals are considered incomplete without blaring loudspeakers, a cacophony of voices and songs from Bollywood films, and fireworks that can easily turn one mad, if not deaf. After the revelry of Deepawali, cities like Delhi breathe poison due to the blanket of smog created by the fireworks. Waters of lakes close to urban centres are polluted by the immersion of hundreds of idols after Durga Puja or Ganpati Utsav. Fireworks worth several crore rupees are exploded on an occasion that was earlier celebrated by greeting people and distributing sweets. In Delhi, which is already reeling under severe vehicular air pollution, the festival of Deepawali is an assured nightmare, more so for those suffering from respiratory problems. 23 | P a g e
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Source : India Today
Studies by the CPCB show that the levels of air pollutants like sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, suspended particulate matter and carbon monoxide rise substantially during Deepawali, further deteriorating the ambient air quality. And, as if the nose and the lungs are not enough, the after-effects of the fireworks can also be felt resoundingly through the ears. A potential health hazard, noise pollution levels also register a substantial increase during Deepawali. More common sources of noise pollution - also linked mostly to religious occasions - are the blaring loudspeakers that are put up on several religious festivals, in particular during Durga Puja and Navaratra.
Source : Times of India
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A week after this year’s Diwali, in the fine morning of 27th October, when I was running around a nearby lake, witnessed hundreds of people mainly women were immersing fruits and flowers in the water of the lake. I suddenly realized after couple of weeks of massive air and noise pollution....it was a great day of river pollution...... The Central Pollution Control Board ( CPCB ), New Delhi, published in 1988 the results of its studies on water pollution in the Ganga due to mass bathing during three Kumbh melas, which are held at intervals of 12 years and six years, at Hardwar and Allahabad from 1980 to 1986. "Mass bathing," written by Paritosh C Tyagi, the then chairperson of the board, "is frequently held in India. On certain occasions, special importance is assigned to it and a very large number of people take bath during a short period in specific stretches of rivers, lakes, tanks and seacoast. 'Kumbh' and 'Ardh-Kumbh' are such occasions when millions take a dip at sacred spots. Water quality is seriously affected by mass bathing. Deterioration of river water quality may injure the health of the people taking the dip and also the population downstream which uses the river as a source of water for drinking and bathing." The CPCB studies showed that during the melas, faecal coliform organism count increased up to 200 times the normal count even at stretches where the water current was very fast. Mass bathing is accompanied by mass defecation. Apart from that, the offerings of a plethora of materials - from ghee to flowers - are made to the river. This contributes high levels of organic matter to the river. As several infections are transmitted through water, and there are good chances that the bathers are infected by viruses and pathogens that cause diseases like typhoid, cholera, bacterial dysentery and jaundice. The CPCB report points out that it is not only the bathing ghats that are severely polluted. The water 10-15 km downstream also becomes unfit for bathing. Studies also show each pilgrim can contribute up to 33 grammes of organic matter each day. The presence of even one million pilgrims a day would contribute up to 33 tonnes of organic matter in a day and during melas, the number runs into several millions. The problem of pollution is also linked to the immersion of idols after puja. With growing urbanisation and increase in population, puja is increasingly becoming an individual affair wherein each family has its own idol, unlike in the past, when festivals like Ganpati Utsav were a social affair with the 25 | P a g e
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community participating as a whole. Earlier, immersing idols was not a problem as the materials used in making the idols were all natural and puja was a community affair. But now, nothing apart from the mud that goes into making an idol is natural - from chromium in paints to turpentine oil, as pointed out by a CPCB study. Whatever be the content of the idols, mother Ganga, quite obviously, has to oblige its 'devotees'. In West Bengal, Hugli, a distributory of the Ganga, turns into a graveyard for thousands of idols. The situation becomes particularly serious on the culmination of the 10-day Durga Puja. A 1993-95 study by the CPCB, entitled Impacts of Dusshera Festival on the River Hugli: A case study , showed that every year at least 15,000 idols of Goddess Durga are immersed in the Hugli, the number increasing all the time. The study further states that this releases 16.8 tonnes of varnish and garjan oil and a whopping 32 tonnes of various colours. Along with other chemicals, colours contain a good dose of various heavy metals like manganese, lead, mercury and chromium. The study also found that during the festival of Dusshera, the oil and grease on the river increased by 0.99 milligrammes per litre (mg/l) and the concentration of heavy metals increased by 0.104 mg/l.
Source : Maharashtra Pollution Control Board
It is not only the rivers that suffer due to immersions. On September 9, 1998, the Mumbai edition of The Indian Express carried a report from Vadodara in Gujarat, pointing out how crude the whole exercise had become. In the Sursagar lake in Vadodara, lack of water made people push the idols with their feet into the water. Worse still, the lack of water in the lake was attributed to human-made pollution, largely from immersion of idols. The report mentioned that several waterbodies were linked to Sursagar earlier and this used to keep 26 | P a g e
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the water resources balanced. But, in due course of time, the linking channels were blocked. The oxygen level in the only surviving lake, Sursagar, plummeted. This resulted in thousands of fish dying. The lakes of Bhopal and Hyderabad also have similar tales to tell. With the thousands of idols that are immersed every year in the lakes, nearly a hundred tonnes of soil is added to the lakes of Bhopal. Here, it is not just the Hindu rituals that are polluting the lake. When Muslims observe the day of Moharram, tazia s (elaborately decorated representations of the tomb of Husain, the grandson of Prophet Muhammed) are immersed in the lakes. This makes the lake abundant with materials like clay, hay, cloth, paper, bamboo, wood, adhesive material and soluble/non-soluble paints containing various chemicals. In addition to the biodegradable material polluting the lakes, heavy metals like cadmium, chromium and zinc have also been detected in the lakebed. S C Gupta, superintending engineer with the public health and engineering department ( phed ), Bhopal, adds lead and arsenic to the list. phed reports blame paints used in tazias and idols for the pollution. The Hussainsagar lake of Hyderabad is also one of favourite places of immersion for devotees, Gupta points out. Yet another festival, the festival of colours which follows the harvest of the rabi crop and the arrival of spring - just as Deepawali celebrates the harvest of the kharif crop - Holi was characterised by natural colours extracted from plants. But today, the colours used include paints and dyes, in addition to a lot of synthetic colours containing a plethora of chemicals, many of them harmful. People often complain that while removing the colours smeared during Holi, the skin virtually comes off. Three key contributions of this particular festival in environmental pollutions are: 1. The use of toxic chemical colours; 2. The use of wood for burning holi fires; and 3. The wasteful use of water during holi Harmful effects of colour used in Holi Colour Black Green Silver Blue
Chemical Lead Oxide Copper Sulphate Aluminium Bromide Prussian Blue
Harmful Effect Renal failure Eye allergy and temporary blindness Carcinogenic Contact dermatitis
Our Environment and Mother Nature is under threats due to primarily ritualistic tradition. Today’s religious and ritualistic society and their religious leaders believe that rituals might remain, but the values might decline, so, who is responsible for this? The government, as usual, or the religious leaders? Or both? Authorities tend to ignore environmental issues linked with religion, fearing that they might hurt the religious sentiments. In the September 1998 incident in Vadodara, the officials and the authorities reportedly shied away from the problem because the issue had to do with religion. 27 | P a g e
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The environmental crisis is fundamentally a crisis of values, and the religions, being a primary source of values in the culture, are thus implicated in the decisions humans make regarding the environment. After all it’s nothing but “opiate of the masses”. Photo curtesy: DNA India, Indian Environmental Portal, Down to Earth, Daily Mail, Times of India
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