Holocene year 1 issue 7

Year – 1/Issue – 7/Mar – Apr’16

World after 5th Extinction Featured Topic : We are at….

WAR RISK (Part – 5) Editorial : Everybody's company will help in everybody's growth Story Room : A Quest for African Lion Theme Poster : Happy Valentin’s Day from Africa

Arnab Basu

Five to Ten Years after the War - Medium-Range Legacy of Warfare: A Decade and Beyond.

The environmental legacy of warfare and mass violence has recently emerged as a recognized dimension of environmental history. Military historians have routinely written about the significance of terrain and weather for the planning and management of campaigns. Moreover, they have frequently traced military planners' concern for manipulation of the natural resources that are essential (or at least valuable) for their strategic purposes, and even the use of natural processes (such as fire) as weapons. But their interest lies almost exclusively with the human drama; they almost never go beyond that to consider the resulting transformations of ecosystems. They see Nature as context, but not as consequence, of mass violence.

From reading a variety of war and environment case studies as well as recent writing in military history, we have noticed characteristic periods in the interaction of environment and war, as follows: 1. The Run Up to War 2. The War Itself 3. The Immediate Aftermath 1|Page

4. Five to Ten Years after the War 5. The Long Term, a Century or more after the War To assess and understand the impact of war on environment, we would focus on fourth period of the war and specifically discuss Five to Ten Years after the War - in this edition of Holocene.

This thumbnail discussion will be based on work of Greg Bankoff, “Of Beasts and Men: Animals and the Cold War in Eastern Asia,” in J. R. McNeill and Corinna R. Unger, Environmental Histories of the Cold War (Cambridge University Press, 2010). pp. 203-26.

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Environmental historians of warfare’s aftermath have done more work on the years immediately following 1945 than any other war, as a reflection of considerable interest in the early Cold War years. In this essay Bankoff, who has published extensively on Southeast Asia, presents a global overview of warfare’s impact on animals, primarily wildlife over the forty years of the Cold War. The aftermath of World War II played out in complex and locally varying ways, including locations of continuing or revived conflict. This essay has a focus on the wars in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan. His approach is to integrate political and military narratives with material on wildlife, in an orbit that includes Jeffrey McNeely and other tropical zoologists.

Data are inevitably fragmentary for this dimension of environmental change. Bankoff draws upon surveys done by wildlife biologists in some locations; following them, he highlights the fates of rare and endangered species. But field work in settings of violence is always risky, and numbers of indicative species are problematical.

Wildlife has been decimated in war zones, its numbers recovering slowly after the end of mass violence. Both soldiers and civilians (though there may have been only a vague distinction between the two) shot tigers and other trophy animals in the chaotic conditions of conflict zones of Vietnam and Afghanistan. Bankoff adds a perceptive reminder of the role of refugees: hunting and trapping in uprooted desperation, they often place heavy pressure on wildlife, shooting or capturing meat to supplement meager protein in their diets or animals to sell as a source of cash.

In contrast, he also explores the fact that where human pressure on natural systems is reduced, many species of flora and fauna thrive. Truce lines (the most important is the Demilitarized Zone in central Korea) and transition zones where opposing warriors keep each other out, become demilitarized areas, official or de facto, where wild species thrive. And in the medium run, even where military operations have scarred the land, some animal species increase, as with fish and mosquitos in the bomb craters of Vietnam, and vermin species such as rats in many degraded settings.

In the interface between wildlands and human societies, consideration of this timeframe might include the following comparative questions: Did the refugee camps slowly become permanent, thereby significantly changing the environment around them? Were depopulated areas repopulated? What were the effects on the plants, animals and general ecology that had occupied the abandoned lands? What about hunting and killing large animals perceived as a threat to agriculture or the human population? Was agriculture so altered by the war that it did not return to its pre-war patterns, thereby altering ecological niches and opportunities for plants and animals? Was there a shift between stall-fed and rough pasture-fed husbandry, which had environmental effects? Did the post-war government commit to “development” as a means of garnering support from its people?

What were the environmental effects of this process, such as the expansion of agriculture into fragile areas, more mining and resource extraction, more commercial fishing? Did remaining militias militarily oppose these “development” efforts and what were the environmental effects of these drawn-out conflicts?

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“Climate change is real, and it’s happening right now. It is the most urgent threat facing our entire species, and we need to work collectively together and stop procrastinating. We need to support leaders around the world who do not speak for the big polluters or the big corporations, but who speak for all of humanity, for the indigenous people of the world…and for those people out there whose voices have been drowned out by the politics of greed.”

-Leonardo DiCaprio

Year – 1/Issue – 7/Mar – Apr’16

We will continue this discussion on long term environmental impact of war and in next edition we will specifically focus on the Long Environmental Legacy, a Century after Conflict.

The discussion will be based on Joseph P. Hupy and Randall J. Schaetzl, “Soil Development on the WWI Battlefield of Verdun, France,” Geoderma 145: 1-2 (May 2008), 37-49, and Hupy’s influential companion article, “The Environmental Footprint of War,” Environment and History (2008), pp. 405-21.

Till then keep reading Holocene.

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Year – 1/Issue – 7/Mar – Apr’16

3. To exempt coal mining from public hearing and to allow irrigation project without clearance.

Editors’ Desk :

Everybody's company will help in everybody's growth A popular government has come into power in the country in 2014 with a popular slogan “सबका साथ, सबका िवकास” (Everybody's company will help in everybody's growth). What has been actually happening since then is a separate issue of concern. We are here emphasising neither on the actual GDP growth in this regime nor on whether the Governor of Reserve Bank is sceptical about the newly opted GDP Calculation Process. Presently we are concerned about the environmental policy of the Government and the effect of so called “िवकास” (growth) in our environment.

As proclaimed in the election manifesto of the party in power, the process of environmental clearance would be simplified for setting up heavy industries and other infrastructure development projects. We are not here to discuss about the development statistics after that but to discuss the changes that authorities have made in environmental policies. At the very beginning of this regime, a proposal was moved to make Asiatic Lion as the National Animal of the country instead of Bengal Tiger. We are not lobbying for any of these two amazingly beautiful big cats and both are of equal importance for us. India has shown a very determined approach to conserve these two in past decades and obviously succeeded to a great extent. But if we consider the natural history, tiger is of an Indian origin and that was the reason to entitle it as the National Animal of India. The question here is why the proposal was moved out of nothing. Was it to withdraw the reservation and protection provided to the Tiger reserves in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra so that mining could be possible in that region? The intention here is under doubt. The proposal hasn’t been accepted as of now, but we are afraid of the intention.

Many can say that this kind of derivation of intention is quite hypothetical and baseless. But if we talk about the intention behind the initiative taken to reduce the “No-go” forest areas in various parts of the country, that can’t be considered as that much baseless. A total of 60,000 sq.km area of Western Ghats across six Indian states was declared, covered under “No-Go” forest area in the year 2013. But with the power shift, the new government started reducing it since 2015 for mining and power and already approximately 10% of the previously declared “NoGo” area (approximately 6,000 sq.km) has been allowed for Mining and Power industries.

If we have a look into the process, how the government wants to simplify the Environmental clearance procedure to promote industrial and infrastructure developments, we will find seven crucial changes that has been targeted.

1. To take away the right of tribal village council to oppose an industrial project provided in the Forest Rights Act 2006.

2. To reconfigure National Board of Wildlife to reduce the authority of independent experts.

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4. To lift the moratorium on new industries in critically polluted areas.

5. To dilute forest norms allowing industries to creep closer to national parks.

6. To dilute the scope of National Green Tribunal.

7. To set up new environmental committee to review laws further.

With these changes, government is actually trying to weaken the Environment Conservation policy as if they declare war against the environment for the sake of industrialisation and development.

Various provincial governments also have taken decisions aligning with the unfolded environmental strategy of Union Government.

Government of Gujarat has already reduced the “No-Go” of Gir Forest National Park from 2km to 1km. Instead of protecting the last legacy of Asiatic Lion, government is promoting irresponsible ecotourism constructions there.

The Maharashtra Forest and Environment Departments seem to have forgotten the reasons for their existence.

Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve is being destroyed by unprecedented undermining for coal and they are happily keeping mum. Chhattisgarh Government has withdrawn the right of scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers over forests to encourage mining there.

Even in Jharkhand, despite of several protest from forest department, irrigation projects are being carried out surrounding Dalma Elephant Sanctuary.

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Year – 1/Issue – 7/Mar – Apr’16

We can’t predict, how much we grow with this kind of dilution, but this “िवकास” is not for all and certainly not includes “सबका” participation. Exploring Nature has always been advocating for the sustainable development of human being and stands with the concept of cohabitation. We hope the Government will listen to the voice of nature and start walking on the correct path of sustainable development very soon.

Story Room :

of the greatest and most exciting phenomena of nature in next 36 hours.

On 16th February, the morning safari started at 6:00 o’clock.

Two safari jeeps started their journey towards north direction. After one hour of journey and as usual spotting of herds of impala, baboons, few giraffes and zebras, both the jeeps had to stop.

Their path was blocked by few of the most majestic creatures of the earth – a full pride of African lion – siting on the road, enjoying the softness and warmth of the first sunlight of the day.

Arnab Basu

The quest for African Lion started at 4:30 PM of the Valentine ’s Day. Jeep started towards east direction from the main gate of Kruger National Park and after 30-45 minutes of journey three lionesses were spotted at the right hand side of the direction of driving. They were busy in eating their morning kill – a huge African Buffalo.

When plenty of food is available lions generally gorge themselves into near immobility. At these times, on average, males swallow around 15% of their body weight.

Food is shared grudgingly. The smallest and weakest lions often lose out altogether and hungry mothers will not even share with their own offspring.

Lions usually start feeding by opening the abdomen and eating the entrails. Most lions will eat the heart, liver and kidneys, but it unusual for lions to open up the skull.

In the evening of 14th February, at Kruger national Park, the Lionesses were spotted from approximately 200 mt distance, and explorer wished if he had a closer look.

Although, the flesh from the opened abdomen of the buffalo were quite visible from that distance, but he didn’t know, that he would also witness one 4|Page

The basic units of lion social organization are resident prides occupying hunting territories of a size that can sustain the pride during times of scarcity. Lion densities, home territory size and social group size vary in parallel with habitat suitability and prey abundance, generally larger in moist grasslands where game is plentiful and smaller in drier bush with fewer prey animals. Prides can attain 40 members, however the average pride, both in Kruger NP and the Serengeti, consists of 13 members. In Kruger, the average composition of 14 prides totalling 181 lions was 1.7 adult males, 4.5 adult females, 3.8 sub-adults, and 2.8 cubs (including yearlings).

Females outnumber males by a substantial margin, despite a near 50% male/female birth ratio. This is probably due to the tendency of males to be nomads, take on more dangerous game, and be killed in pride takeover attempts.

The pride, which explorer and his team bumped into, consisted of 9 members – 6 females and 3 males. All the members were busy in hugging and cuddling with each other.

The pride leader was clearly enjoying his happy moment E-mail: natural_destination@yahoo.com Website : www.exploringnature.org.in

Year – 1/Issue – 7/Mar – Apr’16

with his fellow members and company of her queens. He was found romancing with a big lioness of the pride under the shade of a tree.

I n larger prides it is rare for the whole pride to be together, but individuals or small groups, typically of three – five members will scatter throughout the prides territory for days or weeks at a time, especially in arid environments or times of prey scarcity.

There is no hierarchy between females, and no particular bonding between any pride members. A pair of females will be found together no more than 25 – 50% of the time.

Presence within a pride’s territory is not a sign of membership as many lions are transient or “squatters”.

Membership of a pride can only be distinguished by an amicable greeting ceremony performed between pride members.

Any member without the confidence to perform the ceremony will be treated as outsider.

After noticing human presence, the pride leader came out form the shade and urinates at the edge of the road to mark his territory. A strong message was silently conveyed – stay away from this point.

Typically, home territories range from 20km2 in the most suitable habitats to more than 500km2. The average area of nine Serengeti prides was c. 200km2. Pride ranges and territories may overlap but each pride maintains a core area where most activities are undertaken with little interaction with other lion groups. Territories are stable except in periods of hardship.

If an area becomes devoid of lions (as a result of disease for example) this will be followed by an influx of competing lions to claim the territory. Lions will defend their territory against lions of the same gender, but most encounters do not result in fighting; usually one pride will skulk off under the watchful gaze of the other.

In the morning of 16th February, at Kruger National Park, explorer and his team were alerted by Mike – their safari guide- as all of a sudden the biggest lioness of the pride stood up and started moving slowly towards further north. Whole pride started following her in same slow and silent pace. She stopped, the whole pride stopped. She moved tip of her tail – from left to right and then from right to left. The pride members dispersed in different directions.

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Mike whispered, “She is in a mission”.

Everybody was excited to know that they were going to witness “hunting by lion” – the most well strategized predatory behavior of animal kingdom.

Whole forest became silent with anticipation of action. Presence of a huge African buffalo bull was noticed deep inside the bushes – he was grazing – his huge horns were visible.

The buffalo raised its head; he had realized that he was getting surrounded. He decided to come out from the bushes and at the same time with a signal from the lioness – the leader of hunting party – the pride leader charged at the buffalo. The buffalo charged back violently and the pride leader had to retreat. The buffalo escaped.

But the hunting movement was not over. She – the hunt leader – continued her movement. The whole exploring team was surprised to see, that one more male and female lion joined the hunting party from the other side of the forest and were waiting for instruction from the hunt leader lioness. The whole party started moving again slowly. Two safari jeeps followed them.

The next half an hour was great display of strategy, leadership and obedience. None of the members of hunting party moved without further signal from their leader.

Another African buffalo bull was spotted from distance on an open ground. Everybody understood the objective of the mission. With every movement of tail and neck of the lioness, the other members of hunting party kept changing their direction and movement. The idea was getting closer and closer to target and surround it from all sides to block its all possible escape routes.

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Year – 1/Issue – 7/Mar – Apr’16

The pride leader took the charge of being at front and started moving towards the buffalo.

There was a herd of impala, which noticed this movement of a big hunting party and started running towards deep forest and gave away the presence of lions.

The Buffalo had noticed what was going on and starting getting further away from the hunting party. Lioness realized, that was not the time to attack. More time needed to be invested on their prey. Two lionesses and one sub male lion who were moving together, sat on ground and kept close watch on their pray. They kept waiting their patiently while the male lions started roaming casually at least 200 meters away from the buffalo, without showing any indication of attack. The strategy was to give buffalo a false sense of security and get him in oblivion about the situation. The strategy was to wait for the right moment and strike so hard that there would be no opportunity to counter attack.

With relatively small hearts and lungs lions are not fast runners; a maximum speed of 60kph, nor do they have the stamina to keep this pace for more than a 100 – 200m. As such, lions rely on stalking their prey and seldom charge until they are within 30m, unless the prey is facing away and cannot see the charge.

Lions stalk their prey, although ambush behavior has been observed. This happens mainly during daylight when stalking prey is more difficult.

Females do the majority of the hunting, and males who tag along with the hunt usually stays back until a kill is made.

Lions hunting in pairs and groups have a success rate of c. 30%. Lions hunting singly by daylight have a success rate of 17 - 19%, but are the equal of groups at night reopening the debate as to why lions became the only sociable cat; maybe it is to control exclusive hunting grounds.

Most successful hunts are on dark nights in dense cover against a single prey animal. One reason for lions’ relatively low hunting success rate is that lions do not take into account wind direction when hunting; they often approach prey from an upwind direction thereby alerting the prey and ending the hunt. Secondly, the lion’s charge is generally launched directly at its quarry and it rarely alters the path of attack, as do other cats.

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Generally speaking, if a lion misses its target on the first run it usually abandons the chase.

Hunts of impala and mediumsized prey are significantly more likely to be successful when the lions do not stalk their prey but rather chase them immediately upon detection. The opposite is true for small-sized prey species.

However, lions are more likely to stalk impala and medium-sized species, whereas they are less likely to stalk small-sized prey. Females are significantly more likely to stalk anything.

Cooperative hunting brings a greater probability of success in lion hunts, but a question exists on whether pre-planned cooperation is taking place or that lions are making use of opportunities brought about by the presence of other lions.

Studies of the tactics of group hunting by lions give a similar basic plan of the hunting process. When the group spots the prey a hunt is often initiated by a single lion looking at it, to which the other lions respond by looking in the same direction – the only clear form of “communication” evidenced in the hunting process. The group fans out, with certain lions stalking at a greater distance to encircle the prey. The encircling lions launch the attack, seemingly to drive the prey towards the others who ambush from their cover position.

It is suggested that lions often, but not exclusively, followed the same hunting patterns and divided lions into stalking roles; left, centre & right wing positions. Lions hunting in their preferred roles increased the success of the group by 9%.

Once within range of smaller prey, lions use their paw to slap the rear of the animal at its legs or haunch to knock it off balance or drag it down. A bite

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Year – 1/Issue – 7/Mar – Apr’16

to the neck or throat quickly kills the animal.

With larger prey lions approach the animal at an angle, jumping on top and using their own weight to wrestle the animal to the ground, biting at the vertebrae in an attempt to sever the spinal cord as they do so.

Once downed they bite the throat or over the nose and mouth of the prey to suffocate it, a position that keeps them out of the way of horns that could injure the lion.

Explorer does not know what happened eventually in the hunting movement of 11 lions and lionesses led by their queen in the morning of 16th February, 2016 at the North West part of Kruger National Park.

For Team Exploring Nature Editors’ Desk : Dwaipayan Ghosh Arnab Basu Title & Logo Design : Arijit Das Majumder Saitak Chakraborty Newsletter Design : Dwaipayan Ghosh

But he knows, “Strategic, gregarious, territorial, matriarchal society, communal care, male coalitions” Lions are the only truly Social Cat.

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Theme Poster

:: Happy Valentine’s Day from Africa – Drawing by Priyanka Susan Vinson : 8|Page

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