ACADEMIC PREP KIT 6th Regional Selection Conference of EYP Czech Republic Ostrava 2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS TOPICS 3 FOREIGN AFFAIRS 4 CULTURE AND EDUCATION 10 HUMAN RIGHTS 16 EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS 21 EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS 26 CIVIL LIBERTIES, JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS 30 REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT I 35 REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT II 41 NOTES 45
TOPICS Committee on Foreign Affairs (AFET) Bearing in mind their status of potential candidates for EU accession, how can the EU ensure political and social stability in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the Republic of Kosovo, while safeguarding the cultural independence of all ethnic and religious groups? Committee on Culture and Education (CULT) With globalisation making transnational communications ever more important, how can the EU and Member States promote inclusive societies through enriching plurilingual and pluricultural education, while safeguarding minority languages to maintain the diversity of the European continent? Committee on Human Rights (DROI) With acts of violence against members of the LGBT+ community rising in numbers in recent years, how can the EU and Member States protect their citizens against attacks based on sexual orientation or gender identity? Committee on Employment and Social Affairs I (EMPL I) With the fertility rate in the EU averaging 1.6 births per woman, and a record high old-age dependency ratio in 2018, how can the EU and Member States reform the labour market to provide a wellfunctioning pension system?
Committee on Employment and Social Affairs II (EMPL II) With growing certainty that greater inclusion of artificial intelligence (AI) will have a considerable impact on the labour market, how can the EU maintain a high employment rate while incorporating this technology? Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE) With an estimated 570,000 stateless people living in Europe today, how should the EU assist Member States in safeguarding the fundamental rights of stateless people and providing them with access to public services and opportunities? Committee on Regional Development I (REGI I) With old industrial sites in European cities being decommissioned, how can the EU, Member States, and local authorities use these spaces to promote social cohesion on the urban level? Committee on Regional Development II (REGI II) With migration becoming an integral aspect of modern European cities, how can local stakeholders prevent cultural division in urban planning and best account for cultural diversity within urban societies?
Before you dive into this booklet and Ostrava, it is important to deepen your understanding of how does the EU function and what are its competences. For this reason we recommend that you visit these two helpful pages: • EU institutions • EU competences
COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS Bearing in mind their status of potential candidates for EU accession, how can the EU ensure political and social stability in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the Republic of Kosovo, while safeguarding the cultural independence of all ethnic and religious groups? by Nik Smerkolj and Filip Choděra 1. Relevance of the topic With the submitted application of Bosnia and Herzegovina to join the European Union on 15 February 2016,1 and the implementation of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement (SAA) in Kosovo on 1 April 2016,2 the two countries are taking steps towards fulfilling all the necessary criteria in order to join the European Union. Bearing in mind the fact that Western Balkan countries (Serbia, Montenegro, F.Y.R. Macedonia, Kosovo, Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina) have a population of around 18 million consumers and that their largest trading partner is currently the EU, with € 43 billion of total trade between them,3 it is clear that a future accession of Western Balkan states to the EU is in the best interest of all parties. Among these states, Montenegro and Serbia have the status of candidate countries to EU accession, while Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Kosovo have a status of potential candidate only. A candidate country has already begun negotiations with the EU to determine its ability to apply EU legislation, while potential candidate countries have a clear prospect of joining the EU in the future, but have not reached the stage of candidate country.4 Bosnia and Herzegovina was officially recognised as a potential candidate at the Thessaloniki European Council summit in 2003.¹ In June 2015, the Stabilisation and Association Agreement came into force with the main goal of identifying common political and economic policies and encouraging regional cooperation in the country. Such an agreement also provides far-reaching access to the EU’s internal market and it even introduced a free trade area between the two entities.³ 1 European Commission: Neighbourhood enlargement - Bosnia and Herzegovina (latest update November 2018) 2 European Commission: Neighbourhood enlargement - Kosovo (latest update November 2018) 3 European Commission: A credible enlargement perspective for and enhanced EU engagement with the Western Balkans (latest update November 2018) 4 European Commission: Candidate countries and potential candidates (latest update November 2018)
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Due to the long-lasting effects of the Yugoslav wars (1991-2001), Bosnia and Herzegovina has internal issues based on ethnic conflicts and territorial disputes. The European Council has stated in a declaration on Bosnia and Herzegovina in a press release that it “expresses its full confidence in the Co-chairmen of the Steering Committee of the International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia and encourages them to pursue their efforts to promote a fair and viable settlement acceptable to all three constituent peoples of Bosnia-Herzegovina. It will not accept a territorial solution dictated by Serbs and Croats at the expense of the Bosnian Muslims.”5 The International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia (ICFY) was established in 1992 by the United Nations and the European Community in order to ensure peaceful negotiations among the countries of former Yugoslavia. The Bosnian war was only ended with the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995 which divided the country into two territories – the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska. The Dayton agreement also brought many changes in the governance of the country. The Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina is formed of three members, each representing an ethnic group (Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats). To ensure equality, the presidency rotates every eight months, while together they serve a four-year term. This system of governance is a complex one, which may prevent an efficient legislature and executive power.6 Kosovo*7 unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. In December of that year, the European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX) was introduced with the main goal of assisting Kosovar authorities in establishing sustainable and independent rule of law institutions.8 Since Kosovo’s independence, the EU has tried to establish a dialogue between Serbia and Kosovo with the aim of settling their disputes. Even EU Member States do not have a unified stance regarding the recognition of Kosovo, as several members (Spain, Slovakia, Greece, Cyprus, and Romania) oppose it for varying reasons. The main opponent of the sovereignty of Kosovo is Serbia, due to historical, political and ethnic reasons. As former German Foreign Minister Sigmar Gabriel said during the joint press conference with Kosovo’s Prime Minister Ramush Haradinaj in early 2018, “If Serbia wants to move toward the European Union, the building of the rule of law is a primary condition, but naturally also the acceptance of Kosovo’s independence”9. Although Kosovo is not a member of the Eurozone, it adopted the Euro unilaterally in 2002 and uses it as their de facto currency. Euro is not legal tender there but is treated as such by the population.10 As most of the Western Balkans countries, Kosovo faces many ethnic and religious problems. The majority of people living in Kosovo are ethnic Albanians, followed by ethnic Serbs, Bosniaks (Bosnian Mu5 European Commission: Press Release Database (latest update February 2018) 6 European Parliamentary Research Service Blog: Bosnia 2013 Census (latest update November 2018) 7 With the so-called Asterisk agreement Kosovo is officially allowed to represent itself as Kosovo*. *This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSC 1244 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo Declaration of Independence. 8 European Union Rule of Law Mission Kosovo: About EULEX (latest update November 2018) 9 Reuters: Serbia must accept Kosovo independence to join EU: German foreign minister (February 2018) 10 European Central Bank: The euro outside of Europe (latest update November 2018)
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slims), Turks and Romani people. Many main disputes have their roots in historical background, different religion and different views and opinions on politics among the aforementioned ethnic groups. The Kosovo conflict in 1998 led to the deep ethnic hatred that is still present today. The European Union has set six flagship initiatives11 to help Kosovo and other Western Balkan states achieve stability, development, unity and integration of all minorities.
2. Key Terms The six flagship initiatives to support the transformation of the Western Balkans represent the EU’s steps towards establishing stability and transformation in the Western Balkan states. These initiatives include strengthening the rule of law, socio-economic development, good neighbourly relations and an initiative to increase connectivity. The Stabilisation and Association Process (SAP) is the European Union's policy towards the Western Balkans, established with the aim of eventual EU membership. Such policy allows the EU to establish stability in the region as well as a free-trade area. Bilateral agreements, the Stabilisation and Association Agreements (SAA), are signed in order to ensure the implementation of the SAP.12 The European Union Rule of Law Mission Kosovo (EULEX Kosovo) was launched in 2008 with the main goal of assisting Kosovar authorities in establishing sustainable and independent rule of law institutions and to eventually help it join the EU. EULEX is supported by all EU Member States, Canada, Turkey, Switzerland, Norway, and the United States of America.
3. Key Actors The European Commission adopted a common strategy for engagement with the Western Balkan States (including Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina) in 2017. Among these policies are also the previously mentioned six flagship initiatives and a proposal to increase funding of Pre-Accession Assistance (around €9 billion).13 The European Commission also started the SAP in Kosovo and will prepare an Opinion on Bosnia and Herzegovina’s application. Non-governmental organisations play a vital role in securing cultural independence through many programmes, exchanges and projects. Many NGOs focus on fighting discrimination among diffe11 European Commission: EU - Western Balkans; six flagship initiatives (May 2018) 12 European Commission: Stabilisation and Association Process (latest update November 2018) 13 European Commission: Strategy for the Western Balkans ( February 2018)
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rent ethnic groups, ensuring sex and gender equality, a status of national minorities and freedom of expression. Bigger organisations are also ensuring stability and development in the country, thus enabling it to gradually enter the EU. Such organizations are UNICEF Bosnia and Herzegovina, Trial International14, the Human Rights House of Sarajevo15, the Kosovar Stability Initiative16, Instituti Demokratik i Kosoves17 and the Civil Rights Programme Kosovo. The European Union External Action Service (EEAS) is the European Union’s diplomatic service. It manages relations with the countries outside of the Union and it conducts the European Union’s foreign and security policy. High representative of EEAS is Federica Mogherini. EEAS is responsible for monitoring and enforcing common EU policies towards foreign countries, such as SAP, EULEX and CSDP (Common Security and Defence Policy).18
4. Key Conflicts Kosovo The European Commission's 2008 annual report stated that Kosovo faced several challenges including ensuring the rule of law, the fight against corruption and organised crime, the strengthening of administrative capacity, and the protection of the Serb and other minorities.19 According to the report from 2018,20 these issues have not been addressed yet and Kosovo has to do so before applying as an official candidate country. Bosnia and Herzegovina Currently, one of urgent issues is a delay in answering the European Commission Questionnaires221 in order to enable Bosnia and Herzegovina to receive the status of a candidate country. These Questionnaires are especially essential in order to explain how far or close Bosnian institutions and legislation are from EU standards. What makes Bosnia and Herzegovina a specific case is the fact that it is composed of two autonomous entities (the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska, with a third region, the Brčko District, governed under local government). It has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency including members of each major ethnic group. As a result, the country's integrity may not be as stable as in other Western Balkan states.
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Trial International: Bosnia and Herzegovina (latest update November 2018) Human Rights House Foundation: HRH Sarajevo - Meeting of the Assembly (November 2010) Iniciativa Kosovare per Stabilitet (Kosovar Stability Initiative) (latest update November 2018) Instituti Demokratik i Kosoves (latest update November 2018) European Union External Action Service (latest update November 2018) Stratfor Worldview: Kosovo struggles to create an army (May 2014) European Commission: Kosovo 2018 Report (April 2018) Balkan Insight: Bosnia stalls on Answering EU Questionnaire (December 2017)
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5.
Measures in Place
Kosovo Until 2020, the Republic of Kosovo will receive financial support from the EU under the Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance II (IPA II)12, a funding mechanism for EU candidate countries. It is expected that funding will contribute to the achievement of all the results listed in the following priority sectors: Democracy & governance, Rule of law & fundamental rights, Regional and territorial cooperation, etc. All of these factors are crucial when establishing the country's integrity as well as stability. The United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK)22 was established by the UN Security Council in 1999, in order to achieve an overall objective, namely, to ensure the conditions for a peaceful and normal life for all inhabitants of Kosovo and advance regional stability in the western Balkans. There are several Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)23 operating in Kosovo, whose purpose is to create a sustainable and peaceful environment, for example Civil Rights Program Kosovo, CSO – Civil Society Organizations Database or MAR – Center for Sustainable Development. Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina is currently also receiving financial aid from the EU until 2020, also from the IPA II. Regarding Cross-Border Cooperation, on 1 January 2008, the dialogue between EU and Bosnia began and was finished in 2010 when the visa-free travel decision entered into force. In June 2018, the Council of the European Union decided to continue the executive military mandate of Operation EUFOR Althea24 (formally known as European Union Force (EUFOR) Bosnia and Herzegovina) to support Bosnia and Herzegovina’s authorities to maintain a safe and secure environment.
6. What now? What steps should the EU take in order to prevent discrimination of minorities in Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina? How should the EU help potential candidate countries build independent media and promote freedom of speech? How can the EU further ensure the Rule of Law and common economic space between EU, Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina?
12 European Commission: Kosovo - financial assistance under IPA II (latest update December 2016) 22 United Nations Mission in Kosovo (November 2018) 23 Domestic NGOs in Kosovo (October 2016) 24 Delegation of the EU to Bosnia and Herzegovina (2018): Bosnia and Herzegovina: Council adopts conclusions and confirms continued presence of Operation EUFOR Althea
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Useful links N1 Sarajevo (2018), Council of the EU’s conclusions on Bosnia and Herzegovina: http://ba.n1info.com/a269033/English/NEWS/Council-of-the-EU-s-conclusions-on-Bosnia-and-Herzegovina.html The European Commission, Steps towards joining:
https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/policy/steps-towards-joining_en
The Economist (2018), How did Kosovo become a country?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jo8k44_WgGg
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COMMITTEE ON CULTURE AND EDUCATION With globalisation making transnational communications ever more important, how can the EU and Member States promote inclusive societies through enriching plurilingual and pluricultural education, while safeguarding minority languages to maintain the diversity of the European continent? by Martin Veselý and Patrycja Zapała 1. Relevance of the topic As home to hundreds of cultures since the fall of the Roman Empire, Europe counts as a region with very high linguistic diversity – over 200 languages are spoken on the continent, 24 of which have the status of an official language of the European Union1. That means that all important documents of the Union have to be translated into them and citizens have the right to contact EU institutions in these languages. The EU is highly committed to safeguarding this rich linguistic diversity as this commitment is based on some of the most important documents on which the EU was founded, including the Treaty on European Union and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The EU does not have any exclusive competences in this field, as language policy is a matter of the Member States. Instead, EU institutions are supposed to actively support language learning programmes across the continent and promote a European dimension in them. The EU’s goal is for every citizen to speak at least two languages in addition to their mother tongue. The reality is not so bright, though – just 54% of Europeans can speak one language other than their first and just a quarter can communicate in at least two additional languages.2 However, in a world of globalisation and international trade, some languages inevitably become more important and used than others. While the most common mother tongue within the EU population is German with 16%, the most commonly understood language is English with about a half of Europeans being able to communicate in it.² On a global scale, a 2003 UNESCO study showed that about 97% of the world’s population speak about 4% of the world languages (mostly English, Spanish, Portuguese, Mandarin or Arabic), but only 3% of the world speak the remaining 96% remaining languages. 3 This creates a tension between the need for a better international communication (so that as many people as possible understand us easily), and the fact that protecting language diversity is crucial for maintaining the Member States’ cultural heritage. About 40
1 As stipulated by the Regulation No 1 determining the languages to be used by the European Economic Community. 2 European Commission: Special Eurobarometer 386 3 UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages: Language Vitality and Endangerment
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to 50 million EU citizens speak one of the 60 regional and minority languages that exist in the EU. 4 The existence of these languages is not self-evident – several studies have pointed out that economic growth causes the extinction of minority languages.5 The reason for this is the fact that speakers of a less-popular language have to learn the majority language of their country in order to live in big cities or participate in trade, making the minority language less important and less likely to be passed on to their children. Speakers of a minority language may also feel ashamed about using it in public, as regional and minority languages can be viewed as ‘outdated’ by majority-language speakers. Different Member States of the EU have different approaches to protection of regional and minority languages. The French constitution, for example, governs that the sole language of France is French.6 Although these days, regional and minority languages are respected by the law, in the past the French government has tried to eradicate these languages using especially the public educational system. French teachers not only punished pupils for speaking regional languages, but encouraged them to denounce their classmates. The effect of the policies has been called “Vergonha” – “shame” – by speakers of Occitan, one of the most prominent regional languages in France. About 2% of the French population now speak Occitan, compared with 39% in 1860.78 A completely different approach is taken by countries like Belgium or Ireland, which have more than one official language (Dutch, French, and German in Belgium and English and Irish in Ireland). In these countries, all official languages are equal by law. Most countries take the middle ground – they have one main official language, while minority languages are recognised as well. In areas where these languages are spoken, their speakers usually enjoy rights like the right for education in their language, the right to communicate with authorities in their language, or the right to use their language on public signs. All of these facts considered, we have to ask ourselves the following question: what should the EU do about protecting regional and minority languages, while ensuring that Europeans of the 21st century will be able to communicate with people abroad? And what can the EU actually do?
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Pasikowska-Schnass, Magdalena: Regional and minority languages in the European Union Morelle, Rebecca: Economic success 'drives language extinction’ Conseil constitutionnel: CONSTITUTION OF OCTOBER 4, 1958 A. V., The Economist (2018): Occitan’s fight to stay away from the cliff of extinction Picture - Public domain: Simplified Languages of Europe map
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2. Key Terms Plurilingualism is the ability to fluently speak a number of different languages. Plurilingualism and d versification of language proficiency are two of the objectives of the CEFR. Working languages are the three languages (English, French, and German) that are given a unique legal status in a supranational company, society, state or other body or organisation as its primary means of communication. There are currently 24 official languages of the EU. eLearning is a term that defines learning using electronic technologies. In the area of language learning, people can use many online services, like Duolingo or Memrise, to acquire new languages. Regional and minority languages (RMLs) are languages used within a territory of a country by a nation or other cultural group that does not form the country’s dominant cultural force. A methodology for assessing language vitality and endangerment is a method of assessing to what degree a language is endangered. It includes three factors to be considered when verifying the extent to which a language is endangered: Intergenerational Language Transmission, Absolute Number of Speakers and Proportion of Speakers within the Total Population.
3. Key Actors Member States are the 28 countries that make up the European Union. As language policy remains only a supporting competence of the EU, it is mostly the Member States that can introduce new language-related legislation on the national level. It is reasonable to assume that within each national government, the respective Ministry of Culture or the respective Ministry of Education is going to be responsible for handling language-related issues. The European Commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth is a member of the European Commission responsible for the language portfolio. The European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) is an institution of the Council of Europe, the international organisation distinct from the European Union whose 47 member states include for example countries like Russia or Turkey. Nevertheless, similarly to the EU, the Council of Europe carries out activities promoting plurilingualism and linguistic diversity. These activities are coordinated by the ECML and include creating theoretical frameworks for language learning and resources for plurilingual education.9 The European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning (Mercator) researches the field of language learning at schools, mostly regarding the acquisition of minority and regional languages. Schools, universities and language schools are the institutions where EU citizens usually acquire new languages. It is their curricula which heavily influence what languages Europeans acquire as children and how good their language skills are going to be. 9  European Centre for Modern Languages: Plurilingual Education
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4. Key Conflicts With the global situation seemingly inevitably heading towards a more globalised society, a problem arises: where does the balance lie between protecting the less-commonly spoken languages on one hand, and allowing a more efficient international communication on the other? To speak any language as a mother tongue is deeply connected with one’s own culture. By communicating with other people who know our language, we create a certain kind of group identity: those who speak our tongue are “us” – those are the people we can share our ideas with and who we can bond with. On the other hand, we instinctively see speakers of other languages as “them” – at least until we find a common way to talk. For speakers of a regional language, this group identification is especially important. As mentioned before, those who use a regional language in their daily life can often face mockery or rejection by majority-language speakers, especially when those negative feelings are directly supported by the government of the country these people live in. Retaining the language then becomes a way to fight back against the oppression and find a stronger sense of one’s identity. Every language reflects the culture and history of its speakers and when it disappears, the culture usually wanes as well – this is the reason why it is crucial to support and protect regional and minority languages. On the other hand, Europe very obviously needs citizens who are able to communicate in more languages than just their own. Everyone who does not learn any foreign language limits their own world just to the community of their mother tongue’s speakers, as they have no way of communicating with the rest of almost 8 billion people on the planet. Such people are limited in business, trade, science and cultural understanding alike. While the EU has set itself a goal of every of its citizens speaking at least two languages apart from their first, it has no real power in this field and it has to closely cooperate with Member States in achieving this goal.
5. Measures in Place Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights says that minorities should not be denied the right to use their own language. Article 14 of The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms prohibits any discrimination on any ground, such as language or association with a minority. ELP – European Language Portfolio – a document in which those who are learning or have learned one or more languages can record and reflect on their language learning and intercultural experiences.10 Its aims are: • to help learners give shape and coherence to their experience of learning and using languages other than their first language; • to motivate learners by acknowledging their efforts to extend and diversify their language skills at all levels; • to provide a record of the linguistic and cultural skills they have acquired (to be consulted, for example, when they are moving to a higher learning level or seeking employment at home or abroad. 10 European Language Portfolio
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) provides common guidelines and syllabi for languages. It established the well-known levels of acquisition of a language: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2. It is a part of ELP. Multilingualism Policy of the EU – its goal is to promote multilingualism in Europe and one of its main goals is to enable citizens to learn at least two foreign languages from an early age. Article 165(1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union says that the EU should respect the linguistic diversity of Europe.11 In fact, the EU cannot implement any policies on minority languages as this is the competence of the national governments. The European Commission maintains an open dialogue encouraging linguistic diversity. From Linguistic Diversity to Plurilingual Education: Guide for the Development of Language Education Policies in Europe – in this document published by the Council of Europe, it is stated that the purpose of language learning is a sense of inclusion and of shared democratic citizenship among Europeans.12 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages is a treaty of the Council of Europe designed to protect regional and minority languages in Europe. It defines certain measures that every participating State has to implement in their legal framework in order to protect said languages. Prizes meant to popularise language learning: •
European Language Label – it is meant to encourage innovations and initiatives in language learning and raise awareness of minority languages.
•
Juvenes Translatores – an annual competition for 17 year-old translators for the best translation.
6. What now? Diversity of languages is a very significant and authentic issue for Europe. There are European countries where more than one language is official, e.g. Belgium or Switzerland. Almost in every European country we can find regional dialects next to the national language that are also a part of the historical past of a given region. Not only are some of those dialects endangered, but the entire culture accompanying it as well. Because of globalisation, minority languages become more and more endangered. There are fewer and fewer speakers of those minority languages already spoken by a small group of people. The EU has already implemented some laws and recommendations as well as programmes and projects in order to popularise learning those endangered languages. However, we should keep in mind that the EU cannot implement any binding laws. The crucial question right now is, what is the future of languages in Europe? How can we facilitate 11 Treaty of the Functioning of the European Union, Article 165 12 From Linguistic Diversity to Plurilingual Education: Guide for the Development of Language Education Policies in Europe
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communication in the EU, while at the same time making sure that not only minority languages are not being forgotten, but languages of smaller Member States as well? Moreover, is it possible and if so, by what means should it be achieved, to guarantee the continuation of the usage and knowledge of less popular languages in the future? How can the EU encourage especially young people to learn and pass on the acquisition of those languages? What measures should be taken by the EU and Member States in order to guard the preservation of the local dialects and cultures? Links for further research: The European Union, Multilingualism:
https://europa.eu/european-union/topics/multilingualism_en
The Council of Europe (1997), Plurilingual and pluricultural competence:
https://rm.coe.int/168069d29b
The European Parliament, Language Policy:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/142/language-policy
The European Parliament, Endangered Languages and Linguistic Diversity in EU:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2013/495851/IPOL-CULT_
NT(2013)495851(SUM01)_EN.pdf Endangered Languages:
http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/
A website where you can search for endangered languages. The United Nations Education, Science and Culture Organisation (2003), Language VItality and Endangerment:
http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/Language_vitality_and_
endangerment_EN.pdf The Council of Europe (2002), Report on Languages, Diversity, Citizeship: Policies for Plurilingualism in Europe:
https://rm.coe.int/conference-report-language-diversity-citizenship-policies-for-pluri-
lin/16807c8137
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COMMITTEE ON HUMAN RIGHTS With acts of violence against members of the LGBT+ community rising in numbers in recent years, how can the EU and Member States protect their citizens against attacks based on sexual orientation or gender identity? by Anna Ryšánková and Ellie Wu 1. Relevance of the topic Although a large majority of EU citizens affirm that they support equal rights for the LGBT+ community, 45% of LGBT+ citizens have been attacked or threatened with violence in the past 12 months.12 Unfortunately, many of the attacks go unreported, as the victims tend to choose to remain largely invisible out of fear of negative consequences or simply due to hostility they had experienced before from law enforcement institutions. Many LGBT+ people have to live in isolation, which results in them avoiding common public places such as school, work, or even restaurants and bars. Some also feel the need to hide their identity due to being afraid of being assaulted or threatened either physically or verbally. In fact, 38% of them admitted that they were never open about belonging to the LGBT+ community.3 The law has made some progress in combatting discrimination against the LGBT+ community. Article 21 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union guarantees the right to non-discrimination, including discrimination based on sexual orientation.4 However, there is no mention of transgender people. Article 47 guarantees the right to legal protection and to a fair trial, but as stated before, cases of violence and discrimination are widely underreported. In addition, under EU law, lesbian, gay, and bisexual people are currently actively protected from discrimination only in the field of employment.5 They are still vulnerable in other areas of daily life, for instance in schools or in public spaces, meaning that not everyone is completely protected by law. How can the EU thus ensure the protection against violence and the fulfilment of the fundamental rights of their LGBT+ citizens? 1 The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) (2012), EU LGBT survey 2 The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) (2012), Survey data explorer - LGBT Survey 2012 - Violence and harrassment 3 The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) (2012), Survey data explorer - LGBT Survey 2012 4 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2012) 5 The European Commission, Employment Framework Directive 2000/78
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2. Key Terms Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (and/or a combination of these) to other persons. The most commonly distinguished orientations are heterosexuality (attraction to the opposite sex or gender), homosexuality (attraction to the same sex or gender), bisexuality (attraction to more than one sex or gender), and asexuality (the lack of sexual attraction to others). Gender identity is a person’s perception of having a particular gender, which may or may not correspond with their birth sex. This is described by two important terms – transgender, people who do not identify with the sex they were assigned at birth; and on the other hand cisgender, people who do identify with the sex they were assigned at birth. LGBT+ community abbreviation stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, as well as queer (an umbrella term used by the whole community to refer to anyone who identifies as a part of the community), questioning, intersex (people born with physical, hormonal or genetic features that are neither wholly female nor wholly male), asexual and ally (people who are not queer, but support the community) , all covered under the “+” sign. Discrimination is the different, especially worse than regular, biased treatment of a group of people, usually a minority, based on grounds such as ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, or gender. LGBT-phobic hate crime and hate speech is violence and speech and/or aggression towards LGBT+ people due to them not being heterosexual or cisgender. It includes homophobic and transphobic hate crime and hate speech.
3. Key Actors While not targeting the EU solely, the United Nations (UN), a global intergovernmental organisation, plays a vital role in fighting for LGBT+ rights. The UN Human Rights Council voted to condemn the imposition of death penalty for consensual same-sex relationships. Several UN experts also condemned the abuse of gay, bisexual and transgender people in Chechnya or Azerbaijan.6 The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) provides expert advice to institutions of the EU and the Member States with their research, surveys and reports. The International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association in Europe (ILGA-EUROPE) 7 is an independent, international non-governmental umbrella organisation bringing together 490 organisations from 45 European countries which fight for LGBT+ equality and human rights in Europe.
6 ILGA-EUROPE (2018), Annual Review of the Human Rights Situation of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex People in Europe 2018 7 ILGA-EUROPE
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The Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR)8 office within the Organisation for Security & Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) provides assistance and expertise to Member States. It reviews legislation and advises governments on how to develop and sustain democratic institutions. The OSCE promotes inclusion and offers training programmes on how to promote and monitor human rights for non-governmental organisations, law enforcements or government officials.
4. Key Conflicts Evelyne Paradis, the executive director of ILGA-EUROPE stated in an interview for Euractiv: “Many Western European countries have rested on their laurels a little bit, having achieved quite extraordinary advances when it came to recognition of couples to marriage equality. I think it took some time for many Western European governments to realise that marriage was not the end of the fighting, that achieving equality requires many more measures and that many Western countries had overlooked the importance of proactive public policies and proactive work to bring public opinion along.”9 Sexual orientation and gender identity have been increasingly recognised as discrimination grounds in international law. According to a survey published in the UK by The Independent in 2017, the number of attacks on lesbian, gay and bisexual people in the UK has grown by nearly 80% in the past four years. More than one in five LGBT people have experienced a hate crime or incident due to their sexual orientation or gender identity in the last 12 months, compared with 16% in 2013.10 Even though the FRA report for the year 2018 states that equality for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex persons made some advances,11 unequal treatment and discrimination remain a reality in European societies. The Equal Treatment Directive12 proposed in 2008 has not yet been adopted by all of the Member States and the situation of the legal status of LGBT+ people varies throughout the Member States. According to an ILGA annual review in 2017, numerous police raids, frequent assaults and forced medical exams were enforced against LGBT+ people in Azerbaijan, the lowest-scoring country in terms of LGBT+ rights fulfillment.13 Journalists were placed in detention, news websites were blocked and politicians continued to make anti-LGBT+ public statements. On 8 Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) 9 Jacobsen, Henriette, Euractiv (2015), Gay rights organisation: The EU no longer leading on LGBT rights 10 Bulman, May, The Independent (2017), Attacks on LGBT people surge almost 80% in UK over last four years 11 The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) (2018), Fundamental Rights Report 2018 - FRA Opinions 12 The European Council (2018), The Equal Treatment directive 13 ILGA-EUROPE (2018), Annual Review of the Human Rights Situation of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex People in Europe 2018
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the other hand, Malta, who received the best rating, voted in favour of marriage equality for both heterosexual and homosexual couples almost unanimously and the government introduced X gender markers on official documentation, establishing the possibility of gender-neutral markers for people’s passports and identity cards. Moreover, discrimination based on sexual orientation is still widely underreported. The FRA survey results show very high non-reporting rates among LGBT+ people who had felt personally discriminated against or who said that they were victims of violence or harassment. The most frequent reasons for not reporting incidents of discrimination were a belief that ‘nothing would change’, as well as a lack of knowledge about how or where to report an incident or fear of homophobic or transphobic reaction from the police.14
5. Measures in Place The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted a Recommendation15 on measures to combat discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation and gender identity and LGBTI-phobic crime in 2010. It is now under the review process of its implementation, looking at existing measures and examples of practices following the implementation of the Recommendation. Currently, only seven Member States have policies tackling hate crime and hate speech based on sexual orientation and gender identity.16 In countries where such policy is yet to be adopted, LGBT+ campaigners pressure the government to recognise hate crimes through legislation, such as Ireland’s National LGBT Federation (NFX) who reacted in response to a series of violent attacks on the LGBT+ community in Ireland. However, in the Balkans there has been “resistance to attempts to harmonise LGBT-related legislation with European Standards.”17 While the EU does not require the recognition of sexual orientation and gender identity as a bias motivating factor in criminal law, its Directive on the rights of victims18 recognises that the nature of bias crimes and the victim’s personal characteristics, including sexual orientation, gender identity and gender expression, have to be part of the assessment of the existence of specific protection needs.19 OSCE offers an annual report on Hate Crimes in the OSCE Region - Incidents and Responses20 which lists all reported hate crimes in the OSCE region. To tackle the issue of under-reporting of hate crimes due to fear, LGBT+ organizations in nine Member States with the financial support from the EU Commission developed and launched the mobile application and reporting website UNI-FORM on 28 September 2017. UNI-FORM is an “online platform connecting LGBTI NGO’s and police forces
14 The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) (2013), EU LGBT survey European Union lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender survey 15 The Council of Europe (2010), Recommendation CM/Rec(2010)5 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on measures to combat discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity 16 Rainbow Europe, EU countries, Hate Crime and Hate Speech 17 Bobis, Zsolt and Vareikate, Marija, Freedom House (2014), The East and West Divide on LGBT rights in Europe 18 The European Commission, Directive establishing minimum standards on the rights, support and protection of victims of crime 19 ILGA-EUROPE, Hate crime & Hate speech 20 Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), Tolerance and Non-Discrimination Information System (TANDIS): Hate crime
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in EU countries�.21 Victims or witnesses can report hate speech, an assault, attack or threat on the grounds of sexual orientation or sexual identity anonymously, or personal data can be provided for official investigation proceedings. As it is a recent project, the effectiveness of UNI-FORM is yet to be seen.
6. What now? Bearing all this in mind, the question remains: how can the EU provide a safe environment for all of its citizens, including LGBT+ people? With the various European agencies and associations as well as many NGOs working towards establishing equal rights and safety for everyone, how can we further support numerous already existing measures combating this problem? There is a strong need for a common ground of legislation for all of the Member States, in order to ensure equal protection for every LGBT+ EU citizen, regardless of their nationality. However, the EU only has a shared competence in the field of freedom, security and justice and therefore cannot establish an overall directive. Above all, the EU needs to focus on the numerous cases of violence towards members of the LGBT+ community that go unreported for various reasons, the most significant one being the fear of homophobic/transphobic reactions. That said, how can the EU combat the biased opinions on the LGBT+ community?
To read, watch and listen to: Schindler, Margalit (2016), LGBT 101: An introduction to the Queer community: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DE7bKmOXY3w #EU4LGBTI: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLRJQlmZcpCVEh0dAtzoyn5HBxviyhddg7 Rainbow Europe: https://rainbow-europe.org/ Jacobsen, Henriette, Euractiv (2015), Gay rights organisation: The EU no longer leading on LGBT rights: https://www.euractiv.com/section/social-europe-jobs/interview/gay-rights-organisation-the-eu-no-longer-leading-on-lgbt-rights/ The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA), EU LGBT survey - European Union lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender survey - Main results: http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2014/eu-lgbt-survey-european-union-lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender-survey-main
21  UNI-FORM
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COMMITTEE ON EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS With the fertility rate in the EU averaging 1.6 births per woman, and a record high old-age dependency ratio in 2018, how can the EU and Member States reform the labour market to provide a well-functioning pension system? by Theodoulos Hadjimatheou 1. Relevance of the topic Europe is growing older. The decreasing fertility rate coupled with the increasing life expectancy give rise to a changing demographic. The percentage of people who have passed the age of retirement rose from 13.7% in 1990 to 17.4% in 2010 and is predicted to increase fourfold by 2060.1 The changing demographic causes an increase of the old-age dependency ratio. Based on Eurostat’s predictions, the average old-age dependency ratio in the 28 Member States of the European Union is expected to increase from 29.3% in 2016 to around 52.3% by 2080.2 This means that for each person above 65 there would be significantly fewer people of working age and thus, people would be working more and more to support older dependent people. This could have significant consequences as Member States may face challenges in maintaining pensions, healthcare and other public services for older people, resulting in an increase of expenses. It is therefore crucial to adapt the current pension system and labour market to ensure that the provision of pensions remains affordable, sustainable and adequate. There are different approaches to dealing with the demographic change in order to prevent the negative consequences it may have. Some Member States encourage the increase in fertility or immigration to increase the number of economically active people, while other countries are promoting active ageing and providing incentives for people to stay in the workforce longer.
2. Key Terms •
Demographic change3 describes the change in size, composition and structure of populations through time.
•
Old-age dependency ratio4 is the ratio of individuals that could depend on the state for their living due to their age vs the people of working age.
1 2 3 4
European Commission (2017): The 2018 Ageing Report Eurostat (2017): People in the EU - population projections WIKIAlps (2017): Demographic Change OECD Data (2018): Working age population
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•
Active Ageing5 is a concept recently deployed by the European Commission and the World Health Organisation (WHO). This concept evokes the idea of longer working lives in view of increasing longevity, encouraging older people to stay economically active and socially engaged in their community.
•
Pensions6 are the main source of income for older European citizens with the purpose of delivering adequate retirement incomes and therefore allow older people to enjoy decent living standards and economic independence. There are two main pension systems. The first is “pay as you go” where revenue from current contributions is used directly to pay for current retirement benefits. The second is a “funded scheme” where contributions invested over time are then used to pay the pension benefits in the future. Pension systems also consist of three pillars as shown and explained in the figure.
3. Key Actors The European Commission7 supports national efforts to ensure a high level of social protection, including pension adequacy and sustainability. There is a coordination process between the European Commission and the Member States to facilitate and promote national reform, share best practices and set high level objectives.8 Specifically within the EU, the European Semester9 provides country-specific recommendations that deliver an analysis of each Member State’s economic situation and recommends measures that each country should take in many areas including reforms of pension systems. Member States10 are responsible for creating or changing their pension systems. Member States share competence with the EU in the area of social inclusion, but it is their responsibility to define the fundamental principles of their social security systems.11 The healthcare sector is also a key actor. As the percentage of older people increases the cost of healthcare provision will also increase.12 Moreover, by providing preventive healthcare, the Member States can decrease the dependency of older people and allow them to be healthy for longer and therefore stay in the workforce longer. Labour Unions are independent organisations of workers that represent and negotiate on behalf of working people.13 Together with the civil society, which refers to groups or organisations working in the 5 Unionpedia: European Commission 6 The European Commission’s magazine on employment and social affairs (2010): Affording old age: the EU pensions debate 7 European Commission: Pensions 8 European Commission (2010): Green Paper on Pensions 9 European Council (2018): European Semester: a guide to the main rules and documents 10 European Commission (2010): Green Paper towards adequate, sustainable and safe European pension systems 11 European Commission (2018): EU Competences 12 National Academy of Sciences: The Financing of Health Care Services for the Elderly 13 Ethical Trading Initiative (2010): Working with Trade Unions to Improve Working Conditions
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interest of the citizens but operating outside of the governmental and for-profit sectors,14 they are often critical for pension system reforms and are often seen as obstacles to a redesign of sustainable retirement income systems in an ageing society. It often falls upon local organisations and authorities to make sure that older people have access to care, transport and other services which enable them to stay independent and continue working longer. Companies that could potentially employ older people are also a significant stakeholder. Their stance on employing older people would be crucial in enabling older people who are still able to work to find employment and be integrated in the workforce. The World Health Organisation (WHO)15 is concerned with the well-being of older people and promotes healthy ageing through a range of strategies including strengthening health systems and improving healthcare services.
4. Key Conflicts The key reasons that cause the increase in old-age dependency ratio are the decrease in fertility and the increase in longevity. Moderately low birth rates can have benefits such as contributing to an increase of the broader standard of living.16 However, with the number of births decreasing to lower than 2.1,17 which is the replacement level, coupled with the increase in life expectancy18 it jeopardises the sustainability of pension systems. The pension and welfare systems are important for both the working age and older people. For older people, the pension system determines the monthly amount of money they get and therefore their standard of living. At the same time, other public services such as healthcare or public transport are important for their well-being. For younger people, the pension system is also important since eventually they will grow up and be entitled to and dependent on pensions. At the same time, pensions, public healthcare and other services provided to older people are paid from the taxes working people pay. Unaffordable pension systems will ultimately collapse under the weight of ageing populations. It is consequently vital for Member States to reform the pension system to one that is affordable, but still allows older people to live dignified lives. The first important problem that arises is the reform of the pension system. It is clear that the pension systems currently employed by Member States will not prove sustainable in the long run.19 With increasing life expectancy as an argument, many countries have increased the pensionable age in the past with the aim of balancing the time spent working with the time receiving pension. An increase in the pensionable age would force older citizens to stay in the workforce longer. Thus, the old-age dependency ratio would decrease and lift the burden on people of working age as more people will be working and paying taxes to support and provide pensions and services for older people. Also, raising 14 15 16 17 18 19
Study.com: What is a Civil Society? - Definition & Examples World Health Organisation Regional Office for Europe: Healthy Ageing: Policy Maxine Myers (2014): International team reveal how low birth rates can bring economic benefits Eurostat (2018): Fertility Statistics Eurostat (2018): Life expectancy at birth increased in 2016 European Parliament Research Service (2015): European Union pension systems Adequate and sustainable?
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the retirement age could encourage more people to save up for private pensions. However, this approach to pension system reform is often met with criticism by labour unions and the civil society, who argue that forcing older people to work for more years is inhumane, as the extra years of work could lead to many difficulties for people with labour intensive jobs. In addition, finding work can be much harder for someone in their sixties. Furthermore, due to older people’s level of experience, it is argued that the approach of increasing the pensionable age would make it harder for younger people to get jobs and thus increase youth unemployment.20 Raising the retirement age would not be sufficient if older people are not capable or motivated to work. Thus, promoting active ageing is vital. Limiting early retirement and encouraging people to work for longer would enable older people to live independent of pensions. It is therefore important that the healthcare sector promotes preventive health, and thus reduce the risk of dependency due to diseases or disabilities. It is equally important to make transport more accessible and working environments more age-friendly in order to allow older people to stay in employment and live independently. The European Commission aims to encourage private and occupational pensions.21 In order to achieve this, the European Commission aims to establish an internal market for funded occupational schemes as stated in the “Green Paper on Pensions”. The problem with this is that not everyone has the resources to invest in a private pension, which would increase discrepancies in older people’s income. Additionally, the financial crisis has exposed the vulnerability of privately funded schemes. The European Commission and Member States will therefore have to find ways to improve the cost-effectiveness as well as the safety of supplementary pension schemes.
5. Measures in Place There is limited EU-level competence on pension systems, as these are primarily a responsibility of the Member States to determine based on their circumstances. Nevertheless, the EU supports and complements the activities of the Member States on social protection. More specifically, the EU has a shared competence in the internal market of labour, consumer protection and social inclusion policies while Member States have the right to define the fundamental principles of their social security systems. The retirement age in many Member States has been increased in the recent past, but further increase in the future to account for the increase in longevity could help to ensure that pension systems remain sustainable. Therefore, some Member States are considering further increasing retirement age. For example, the Belgian government proposed raising the retirement age from 65 to 66 in 2025 and then to 67 in 2030.22 Moreover, progressive retirement schemes23 have been introduced in many Member States.24 These 20 IZA Institute of Labour Economics (2017): Does Delayed Retirement Affect Youth Employment? Evidence from Italian Local Labour Markets 21 European Commission: Personal Pension Products 22 Eurofound (2015): Reform of old age pension and retirement systems in the EU 23 Roberto Pedersini (2001): Progressive retirement in Europe 24 DICE (2014): Early retirement conditions in the EU, 2014
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would provide to workers close to the retirement age the possibility to decrease their working hours and receive some form of income to make up for the decrease in their pay. The European Commission has set out a vision on pensions in its 2012 White Paper, ‘An Agenda for Adequate, Safe and Sustainable Pensions’. The paper states that the main goals for pensions will be their adequacy and sustainability. Some recommendations include linking the retirement age with increases in life expectancy, restricting access to early retirement schemes, supporting longer working lives by providing better access to lifelong learning, adapting workplaces to a more diverse workforce, developing employment opportunities for older workers and supporting active and healthy ageing as well as the development of complementary retirement savings to enhance retirement incomes. Some countries like Sweden employed further measures to battle the increasing old-age dependency, which include encouraging an increase in fertility as well as an increase in immigration. This would result in an increase of the workforce and thus a decrease in the old-age dependency ratio. The European Commission launched “The European Innovation Partnership in Active and Healthy Ageing” (EIP)25 to foster innovation and digital transformation in the field of active and healthy ageing. The partnership brings together all the relevant actors at EU, national and regional levels across different policy areas to find solutions to active ageing.
6. What now? The EU aims to establish a single market for occupational pensions. How can this be achieved and how can the EU encourage the increase in uptake of occupational or private pensions? With the aim of pension systems being adequate and sustainable, how should the Member States reform their pension systems? What pillar should be the focus of pension systems in the future? Should active ageing be encouraged? What measures can the EU, Member States, but also local authorities do to achieve active ageing and the integration of older people in the workforce? What further measures can be taken by the EU and Member States to help enable older people to live independently longer?
Useful links: PROJECT M (2014): What is the old age dependency ratio? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iVXXJDZpjWU&t=1s Cendrowicz, Leo (2010): Will Europe Raise the Retirement Age? http://content.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,2002296,00.html World Health Organisation (WHO): What is Healthy Ageing? http://www.who.int/ageing/healthy-ageing/en/ Eatock, David (2015): European Pension Systems: Adequate and sustainable? h tt p : / / w w w.e u ro pa r l .e u ro pa .e u / Reg D ata /et u d e s / B R I E / 2 0 1 5 / 5 7 1 3 2 7 / E P RS _ BRI(2015)571327_EN.pdf Nerlich, Carolin and Schroth, Joachim (2018): The economic impact of population ageing and pension reforms https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/ebart201802_02.en.pdf
25 European Commission: European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Ageing
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COMMITTEE ON EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS With growing certainty that greater inclusion of artificial intelligence (AI) will have a considerable impact on the labour market, how can the EU maintain a high employment rate while incorporating this technology? by Mia Letić and Patricija Zorne 1. Relevance of the topic To quote the famous Professor Stephen Hawking: “The development of full artificial intelligence could spell the end of the human race.”1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become an important part of our daily lives. It is used in a wide range of everyday services such as banking, healthcare, transportation, or the heavy industry. The introduction of AI technology is supposed to bring faster and more accurate results, reduce human effort and by default significantly improve our work experience as a whole. According to the annual Digital Reports study carried out by Adobe in 2018, 15% of enterprises are currently using AI and 31% said they are planning to invest in AI within the upcoming 12 months.2 Technological advancements can have an effect on employment by directly displacing workers from jobs they were previously performing and by increasing the demand for labour in industries or jobs that develop due to technological progress.3 A recent study finds that one additional robot per thousand workers reduces the employment rate by 0.16-0.20%.4 The reduction has the biggest impact on workers of secondary education and younger employees, while men are more affected than women. 1 Cellan-Jones, Rory (2014): Stephen Hawking warns artificial intelligence could end mankind 2 Abramovich, Giselle (2018): Study Finds Investments In Customer Experience Are Paying Off 3 Petropulos, Georgios (2018):The impact of artificial intelligence on employment 4 Chiacchio, Francesco; Petropoulos, Georgios; Pilcher, David (2018): The impact of industrial robots on EU employment and wages: A local labour market approach
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2. Key Terms Artificial Intelligence (AI)5 refers to systems that show intelligent human-like behaviour; they can perform various tasks with some degree of autonomy to achieve specific goals. The Digital Single Market6 is a strategy introduced by the European Commission in 2015 which aims to open up digital opportunities for people and businesses as well as to strengthen Europe’s position as the world leader in digital economy. Labour force7 is a term used for all the people in a given country who are of the right age to work. Structural unemployment8 refers to unemployment caused by industrial reorganisation and technological progress. Automation9 is the process of using machines or computers instead of people to carry out a particular task.
3. Key Actors The responsibility for employment and social policy lies primarily with national governments of Member States10 and therefore belongs under the supportive EU competence. The European Commission monitors employment policies in the Member States, supports and complements their efforts by funding. The European Social Fund11 is the main instrument for supporting jobs, helping people get better jobs and ensuring fairer job opportunities for all EU citizens. The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC)12 represents the European civil society; plans on shaping, focusing and promoting the public debate on AI involving all relevant stakeholders, and thus raising awareness. The EU Programme for Employment and Social Innovation (EaSI)13 is a financing instrument which promotes a high level of quality and sustainable employment, guarantees adequate and decent social protection, combats social exclusion and poverty and improves working conditions.
5 European Commission (2018): Factsheet: Artificial Intelligence for Europe 6 European Commission (2018): Digital Single Market 7 Cambridge Dictionary (2018): LABOUR FORCE | meaning 8 Investopedia (2018): Structural Unemployment Definition | Investopedia 9 Cambridge Dictionary (2018): AUTOMATE | meaning 10 European Union (2018): Employment and social affairs - EUROPA _ European Union 11 European Commission (2017): European Social Fund - European Commission 12 European Economic and Social Committee (2018): Artificial intelligence | European Economic and Social Committee 13 European Commission (2018): EU Programme for Employment and Social Innovation (EaSI) - Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion - European Commission
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4. Key Conflicts Artificial Intelligence is currently so highly developed that it matches or exceeds human performance in a growing number of domains, and several tasks traditionally performed by humans have already been taken over by robots and algorithms. Due to this development many fear that their jobs may be in danger. A two-year study from McKinsey Global Institute suggests that by 2030, AI and robots could eliminate as much as 30 percent of the world’s human labour.14 Those jobs that are on some level repetitive and predictable, for example telemarketers, tax preparers and sports referees, are at bigger risk of getting replaced by AI than professions that are unpredictable, involve building complex relationships with people and rely on creativity, such as recreational psychologists, physicians and artists.15 Despite these fears and concerns, every technological shift has ended up creating more jobs than were lost. Even though this sounds very promising, there is reason to worry, as some have predicted that this time around, the different nature of automation means more jobs would be lost than created.16 Bearing this in mind, it is also important to note is that most of the citizens are not fully aware of how AI could potentially impact the labour market. There are many misconceptions as for example that AI completely replaces humans in the labour market.17 Automating parts of a job will often increase the productivity and quality of workers by complementing their skills with machines and computers, as well as enabling them to focus on those aspects of the job that most need their attention. It is important to add that as populations age, Artificial Intelligence could also help increase productivity.18 Taking into account that it is a relatively new technology, it is crucial to enhance and broaden knowledge and awareness of AI amongst citizens to ensure that as a society we could make the most of it, instead of risking losing jobs.
5. Measures in Place The European Commision has increased its investments in AI by 70% through the Horizon 2020 Programme,19 which is the biggest EU Research and Innovation programme ever created. It will reach €1.5 billion (for AI only) for the period 2018-2020. It promises to strengthen research, support development and application of AI in key sectors. The European Union also funds other major AI-focused projects such as MURAB20 (MRI and Ultrasound Robotic Assisted Biopsy), Aeroarms21 (AErial RObotics System integrating multiple ARMS and advanced manipulation capabilities for inspection and maintenance) and Bridget22 (Culture), which all help further research and develop AI.
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
McKinsey research (2017): The future of work with Artifical Intelligence The Guardian (2017): What jobs will be around in 20 years? In a nutshell (2017): The rise of Machines - Why automation is different this time Forbes (2017): The lack of knowledge about Artificial Intelligence OECD (2017): Possible advantages of Artificial Intelligence in the labour market European Commission (2018): What is Horizon 2020? - European Commission European Commission (2018): Using artificial intelligence to detect cancer and other diseases European Commission (2018): Aerial robotics systems and AI to make checks on industrial pipelines safer European Commission (2018): Visual European search engine of the future
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On 10 April 2018, Member States signed the Declaration on Cooperation on Artificial Intelligence,23 which will ensure Europe’s competitiveness on the digital market, as well as deal with social, economic, ethical and legal questions that follow, with the European Commission serving as the facilitator. The European Commission is aware that the use of AI will generate many new ethical and legal questions, which were promised to be resolved through AI guidelines in 2019.24
6. What now? Considering that AI will have a considerable role in the future of employment in Europe, it is important to ensure that our society gets empowered and not overpowered by Artificial Intelligence. This goal can be reached by raising awareness towards it so that citizens would know all the benefits and possible risks. By maintaining an objective look on AI and being aware of the possible risks, a disaster which could cause unemployment rates to rise could be avoided. In addition, implementing laws that would compliment AI and the labour market, could result in a significant economic benefit for the Member States. •
What measures should be taken to ensure that the labour market, especially workers, benefit from Artificial Intelligence?
•
What are the risks and benefits of further implementing Artificial Intelligence?
•
What should the European Commission do to prevent the increase in unemployment rates caused by further automation?
Further links: Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell (2017), The Rise of the Machines – Why Automation is Different this Time
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WSKi8HfcxEk
WIRED (2017), The Future of Your Job in the Age of AI | Robots & Us | WIRED
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MMIsbl3DIL8
McClelland, Calum (2018, IoT for All), The Impact of Artificial Intelligence – Widespread Job Losses
https://www.iotforall.com/impact-of-artificial-intelligence-job-losses/
23 European Commission (2018): EU Member States sign up to cooperate on Artificial Intelligence 24 European Commission (2018): European Commission Staff Working Document: Liability for emerging digital technologies
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COMMITTEE ON CIVIL LIBERTIES, JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS With an estimated 570,000 stateless people living in Europe today, how should the EU assist Member States in safeguarding the fundamental rights of stateless people and providing them with access to public services and opportunities? by Sophie Serebryanaya and Iga Karasińska 1. Relevance of the topic Nationality is a human right.1 Usually, people acquire a nationality at birth, either through their parents or place of birth. Sometimes a person must apply to become a citizen of a country. However, there are stateless people. One can either be a stateless person at birth or become one throughout their life. Lack of identity documents often prevents stateless persons from acquiring jobs, receiving medical care, marrying and starting a family, enjoying legal protection, travelling, owning property, gaining education, or registering the birth of their children.23 Today, for example, about 12% of residents of Latvia, and 6% of residents of Estonia are stateless.4 After restoring their independence in 1991, Latvia and Estonia granted citizenship to individuals and descendants of individuals who had been citizens prior to the occupation of Latvia and Estonia by the Soviet Union; those who moved into these countries as citizens of the Soviet Union and their descendants were not granted citizenship and became stateless. They could apply for naturalisation that included a language test and an exam on the country’s constitution, traditions and culture. These criteria mainly excluded ethnic Russians, many of whom decided not to apply for naturalisation since they can travel more easily to Russia.5 A similar situation has occurred in Greece where an estimated 300 to 1000 people remain stateless, primarily minorities.6 Different categories in British nationality law have led to situations in which people were considered British subjects but not nationals, which made them de facto stateless. The main causes of statelessness around the world are racial and ethnic discrimination (in Myanmar and the Dominican Republic, entire ethnic groups have been made stateless), gender discrimination (in 25 countries including Lebanon and Nepal, women cannot pass on their nationality to their children), state succession 1 2 3 4 5 6
United Nations (1948): Universal Declaration of Human Rights Weissbrodt, David; Collins, Clay (2006): The Human Rights of Stateless Persons The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) (2018): Statelessness Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion (2018): Statelessness in numbers: 2018 An overview and analysis of global statistics Vetik, Raivo (2011): Citizenship, Statelessness and Belonging in Estonia Kalantzi, Erika (2017): Greece moves one step closer to introducing an effective statelessness determination procedure
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(when borders are changed or a state gains independence, a question of nationality must be settled and may leave out minorities), lack of birth documentation and inherited statelessness.7
2. Key Terms A stateless person is a person who is not considered a citizen by any state under the operation of its law. 8 Naturalisation is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen in a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country.9 Statelessness Determination Procedures (SDP) identify stateless persons in order to help them. Not all Member States have established SDPs. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) can assist States which do not have the capacity or resources to put SDPs in place.10 Jus soli (right of soil) is a principle by which the citizenship of a child is determined by the place of their birth.11 Jus sanguinis (right of blood) is a principle by which citizenship is determined by the nationality of one or both parents.12
3. Key Actors Through a series of resolutions beginning in 1995, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly gave The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) the formal mandate to identify stateless people, prevent and reduce statelessness around the world, as well as to protect the rights of stateless people. The UNHCR provides legal advice to state governments about how to ensure that their nationality laws are compliant with international standards. They also work to ensure that the way nationality matters are dealt with in specific countries is improved. European Network on Statelessness (ENS) is a non-governmental organisation (NGO) working towards the eradication of statelessness in Europe. It is a network of over 100 NGOs, academic initiatives, and individual experts across 39 countries. The organisation is committed “to ending statelessness and ensuring that the estimated 600,000 people living in Europe without a nationality are protected under international law”.13 Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion (ISI) is an independent non-profit organisation with the mission to promote inclusive societies by realising and protecting the right to a nationality. It focuses on spreading awareness, empowerment and forming partnerships with those interested in addressing statelessness.14 The International Stateless Persons Organisation (ISPO) is an international NGO that aims to provide institutional representation to stateless persons throughout the world through a network of volunteer human rights law practitioners who act as country representatives.15 7 de Chickera, Amal, Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion, (2018): All About Statelessness: What Development Actors Need to Know 8 UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), (2003): The 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons: Implementation within the European Union Member States and Recommendations for Harmonisation 9 Encylopaedia Britannica (2018): Naturalization 10 UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), (2010): Statelessness Determination Procedures and the Status of Stateless Persons ("Geneva Conclusions") 11 Merriam Webster (2018): Jus soli 12 Kostakopoulou, Dora (2008): The Future Governance of Citizenship, Cambridge University Press. pp. 26–27. 13 European Network on Statelessness (2018): About European Network on Statelessness 14 Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion (2018): Our strategies and Objectives for Fulfilling our Mission 15 International Stateless Persons Organisation Facebook (2018): About
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4. Key Conflicts Statelessness affects an estimated 10 million people around the world and at least 570,000 in Europe alone.16 However, statelessness remains a hidden and little-understood issue. With both governments and civil organisations often unaware of the problem, many stateless persons find themselves stuck on the margins of society without respect for their basic human rights, access to public services, such as healthcare and education, and basic laws. Additionally, this makes them vulnerable to discrimination and human rights abuse, being often destitute and exploited. Moreover, the EU is still a “producer” of statelessness and children are still being born into statelessness today due to many problems in the conflicting nationality laws of the various Member States and the laws governing civil registration procedures such as birth registration. Stateless people may naturalise. Before an individual applies for naturalisation, they must also meet additional requirements. These, in turn, depend on the individual’s situation Figure 1: Newly displaced persons per minute | 2003 - 2015 (end-year) and the legislation put in place and may include language competency as well as knowledge of the constitution and history of the country.17 Current issues in identification and protection measures present a vicious cycle18 for the stateless in Europe.19 If not identified as stateless, stateless persons cannot avail themselves of the rights available to them under international law. If not protected, a stateless person has no means for recourse if those rights are violated. However, the ability to resolve these issues may be hampered by conflicting nationality laws, differences in European governments’ approaches to statelessness and government failures to accede to international agreements on statelessness protections and identification. At least 15 EU Member States have no statelessness determination procedures (SDP),20 and the process is different across Member States. The UNHCR has criticised this disparity, as a failure to provide stateless persons with an adequate SDP is distressing for the applicant and often leads to unnecessary burdens on national asylum and immigration systems.21 Issues are likely to arise in proving statelessness while denying access to documentation, lengthy application processes, arbitrary detention and high financial costs among others.22
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
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UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) (2017): Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2016 Germany Visa (2018): How to get German citizenship? Goris, Indira; Harrington, Julia; Kohn, Reddy; Kohn, Sebastian (2009): Statelessness: What It Is and Why It Matters European Network on Statelessness (2018): Issues European Comission (2006): Statelessness in the EU Cochetel, Vincent (2017): Identifying stateless persons in the European Union Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion (ISI) (2018): Impact on Statelessness
5. Measures in Place In the EU, some improvements are made, yet not on a large scale. Member States try to find different ways to address statelessness. In Europe, some steps have been taken to address the issue, for example, Moldova issuing free IDs in 201423 and the Justice and Home Affairs Council conclusions of 3 and 4 December 2015 which mandated the European Migration Network (EMN) to establish a platform for an exchange of information and good practices.24 On 13 November 2011, the European Parliament issued Directive 2011/95/EU25 on standards for the qualification of stateless people as beneficiaries of international protection. This included an unvarying status of persons eligible for subsidiary help and protection, as well as its content, which ultimately paved the way for the protection of basic human rights of stateless persons. In 1961, the UN adopted the Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness,26 a multilateral treaty which the states agreed upon in order to decrease the issue of statelessness by preventing it at birth and later in life. The UNHCR launched the #iBelong campaign27 that aims to end statelessness by 2024 with the cooperation of United Nations Member States, civil society, and other UN Agencies. Its main goal is to resolve existing statelessness, to prevent new cases from emerging and to better identify and protect stateless populations.
6. What now? The main causes of statelessness in Europe include conflicting nationality laws, administrative obstacles and the succession of states on a specific territory. While some stateless people may also be refugees, not all refugees are stateless. Therefore, statelessness can arise in a number of circumstances. Though both the EU and the UN are diligently working in order to prevent the existence of such high numbers of stateless persons across the globe, numbers are still rising and people are still suffering. To properly tackle this issue, it is imperative for one to understand why there are still stateless people in Europe and what is preventing them from being granted a nationality. Trying to resolve the pressing issue, how can European governments address distinct situations with one coherent response? We still wonder whether the EU should consider simplifying the naturalisation application process for stateless persons as well. How to ensure that all children born in Europe have access to free and universal birth registration?
23 UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) (2018): How small Moldova ran one of Europe's largest campaigns to prevent and address statelessness 24 European Network on Statelessness (2017): Building Impetus with the EMN Platform on Statelessness 25 European Parliament, Council of the European Union (2011): Directive 2011/95/EU 26 UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) (2018): Text of the 1961 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons with an Introductory note 27 UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR (2018)): IBELONG
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Useful links: What are the reasons for statelessness? European Network on Statelessness, What does it mean to be stateless? https://68.media.tumblr.com/0fcef445adbc01ce9563f576cd954145/tumblr_oflsg6Ey6r1vva1bvo2_r1_1280.png The Economist (2014), Nowhere to call home https://www.economist.com/international/2014/05/17/nowhere-to-call-home How has the issue been addressed already? The European Council (2015), Council adopts conclusions on statelessness http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2015/12/04-council-adopts-conclusions-on-statelessness/ The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Ending Statelessness within 10 years http://www.unhcr.org/protection/statelessness/546217229/special-report-ending-statelessness-10-years.html The Statelessness Index assesses how countries in Europe protect stateless people and what they are doing to prevent and reduce statelessness https://index.statelessness.eu/
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COMMITTEE ON REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT I With old industrial sites in European cities being decommissioned, how can the EU, Member States, and local authorities use these spaces to promote social cohesion on the urban level? by Julia Kozłowska and Valérie Taftová
1.
Relevance of the topic
With the European economic landscape changing quickly over the past twenty years, especially when it comes to the primary (agriculture and mining industry) and secondary (industry) sectors being reduced in favour of the tertiary, the service sector, a growing need for adaptation and repurposing of former industrial sites arises. With some operations requiring coordination on national or even international level, it proves a difficult challenge for local authorities. With those economic changes comes a need to rethink the way urban space is being used. Urban planning has changed over decades, and now it is clear that some of the old neighbourhoods do not comply with the current requirements of both legislators and inhabitants. One of the objectives of the European Union is to promote economic, social and territorial cohesion and solidarity among Member States. Whereas the common regional policy deals mainly with economic and territorial cohesion, the common social policy tries to strengthen social cohesion. Cohesion policy reduces structural disparities between regions and Member States through a variety of operations that are financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Cohesion Fund. Every three years, the European Commission presents a report on progress made towards achieving economic and social cohesion and the part played in this by EU policies. According to a study by the Bertelsmann Stiftung in 2014, there is a direct connection between social cohesion and personal well-being that can be improved by various factors such as social relationships, acceptance of diversity, solidarity or social interaction, as well as stable economic situation and higher living standards. Due to the global climate deal accepted by all 193 members of the United Nations at the 2015 Paris Conference on Climate, there is a need for restructuring in the Energy sector of EU countries. In Germany, for instance, all nuclear power plants are to be closed by 2022.1 The other big action is a closure of coal-powered power plants in Central European countries in order to meet the Paris Agreement pledged goals. Beside those big scale projects, factories, mines and industrial plants are being closed every month all across the continent. Many of those companies fell into bankruptcy, and the decommissioning and repurposing of 1
Bundesgesetzblatt (2011), Dreizehntes Gesetz zur Änderung des Atomgesetzes
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those sites was left to the national and local authorities. It is a great opportunity for them to use these spaces for the benefit of the local communities, but also a great challenge and often a heavy financial outlay. Leaving them lying fallow would not only jeopardise their possible benefits, but also present a threat to the environment as well as to the people living around it. Former industrial sites are often localised near the centre of the city, where there are no unoccupied areas left, which allows architects to make up for former oversights (e.g. a lack of a primary school or kindergarten, insufficient share of green areas, etc.) in the process of planning the management of the neighbourhood. The process of decommissioning industrial sites causes the emergence of brownfields, which may have non-negligible economic and social costs and cause environmental and health issues. Nowadays there are over a million brownfield sites that negatively affect soil across the European Union.2 Revitalising brownfield sites can improve health, environmental and economic situation. Moreover it can increase the valuable use of land resources. Successful brownfield revitalisation strategies may vary between each region due to culturally heavily rooted practices of regional stakeholders. There are many benefits of brownfield restoration and re-use; however, possible decontamination can be complex and costly, requiring soil, surface and ground-water remediation. This demonstrates that authorities, such as land users, need to take precautionary measures when developing land. Fiscal instruments to stimulate investment and guide land use to a more sustainable path can therefore be important policy tools to enable brownfield regeneration and reduce urban sprawl.
2. Key Terms Social cohesion is the capacity of a society to ensure the well-being of all its members, minimising disparities and avoiding marginalisation; this term includes concerns about social inclusion, social capital and social mobility.
3
2  Oliver, Lee et al. (2005), The Scale and Nature of European Brownfield 3  Bertelsmann Stiftung, Eurofound (2014), Social cohesion and well-being in the EU
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Social inclusion is the provision of certain rights to all individuals and groups in society, such as employment, adequate housing, healthcare, education and training.4 Revitalisation is the process of making formerly abandoned sites functional again, often with a different purpose than the original one. Decommissioning is the process of safely closing a site (e. g. factory, nuclear power plant, mine) to retire it from service after its useful life has ended; usually requires the buildings being dismantled and their components disposed of either by sale or scrapping; in some cases the buildings can be repurposed. Brownfields are sites that have been affected by the former uses of the decommissioned architectural objects and surrounding land, are derelict and underused, may have real or perceived contamination problems, are mainly in developed urban areas and require intervention to bring them back to beneficial use. Greenfield status is the end point when the formerly industrial site has been restored to conditions existing before the construction of the plant or factory. Urban sprawl is the expansion of population away from central urban areas into communities that are low-density, monofunctional and usually heavily car-dependant; it refers to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development as well. Urban planning is a technical and political process concerned with the development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportation, communications, and distribution networks and the provision of municipal services to residents and visitors.
3. Key Actors The process of decommissioning and adaptation of former industrial sites involves many stakeholders. Firstly, we have the previous owner of the site, mostly private companies. In most of the Member States, creating local zoning plans falls under the competence of local authorities. They know the needs of their citizenship best and can responsibly decide what would be the best use for the site. Sometimes, private investors are also interested in revitalising old sites. They can create a mall or a housing building within an old factory, and if the local authorities do not have any particular plans for those areas, and their project does not collide with their local zoning plan or their idea of the neighbourhood, they can allow them to do so. 4 
The European Commission, European Semester Thematic Fact Sheet: Social Inclusion
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Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) often organise events for promoting social cohesion within their communities. They can be powerful advocates for change, especially when their municipality is not interested in revitalising the sites it owns. There is no unanimity across the EU in regards to which Ministry should deal with urban architectural matters – in some Member States the Ministry of Arts and Culture is in charge, but often the competences are shared with the Ministry of Infrastructure and Urban Housing, or the Ministry of Environment and Urban Development. Regardless of this question of internal organisation, the Member States’ governments and the respective Ministries are responsible for the decommissioning on the national level. On the international level, as the European Union holds a shared competence on matters such as Environment and economic, social and territorial cohesion, it needs to be considered as an important actor as well, especially the European Commission.
4. Key Conflicts Unfortunately, no common legislation at the European level for the sustainable use of soil resources has been adopted. Thus, there is a lack of impetus for a coherent approach for remedial soil protection, for a harmonised inventory of potentially contaminated sites and how to regenerate them efficiently. Another factor that complicates the situation is the lack of a unified definition of brownfields and wide range of similar yet different definitions. Conversion of brownfield into a valuable site provides a lot of non-negligible benefits; unfortunately, the process of revitalisation can become complicated due to a fair amount of both internal and external factors. Decisions on brownfield remediation projects are long-term commitments and careful ex ante planning is required to ensure they are economically viable and effective. Decision Support Systems (DSSs)5 are designed to aid this process. However, there is a scarcity of tools which can manage complex spatial information and provide planners with clear results. Moreover, costs of decontaminating the complex below-surface of all European brownfields likely exceeds €100 billion.6
Wikipedia, Decision Support System The European Commission (2013), Science for Environment Policy, Thematic Issue: Brownfield regeneration 5 6
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5. Measures in Place The Seventh Framework (FP7)7 was the European Union’s Research and Innovation funding programme for 2007-2013. It has been replaced with the current programme Horizon 2020, but the final reports on specific brownfield regeneration programmes have been produced and can serve as a base for future legislation. The Integrated Framework of Methods, Technologies, Tools and Policies for Improvement of Brownfield Regeneration in Europe (TIMBRE),8 which came to an end in 2013, consisted of six working packages (WPs): • WP 1: Expert system as an information platform for innovative and widely applicable strategies, technologies and solutions; • WP 2: Decision structures and local culture: Investigation of administrative possibilities and site specific attitudes of stakeholders; • WP 3: Success metrics and prioritisation tool; • WP 4: Strategies and technologies for integrated site characterisation and remediation; • WP 5: Deconstruction and re-use of structures and materials; •
WP 6: Web based tool for integrated planning and assessment of revitalisation options for brownfields and Web platform, outreach, dissemination, and transition.
Another PF7 project, which also came to an end in 2013 is the Holistic Management of Brownfield Regeneration (HOMBRE),9 which seeks to achieve a paradigm shift in sustainable brownfield land management practices. This strategic goal can be expressed in four underlying objectives: understanding under what circumstances brownfields arise; solutions of sustainable brownfield reuse; possibilities of avoiding originating new brownfields; and the implementation and development of regeneration technologies for successful brownfield revitalisation. The project recognises four main issues: zero brownfields strategy, assessment of brownfield regeneration scenarios, integrated regeneration technologies and intermediate renewal. The European Social Cohesion Platform (PECS)10 meets once a year, with the aim of exchanging good practices and innovative approaches in the field of social cohesion among Member States and its various Committees, as well as with relevant international organisations and other stakeholders. Its goal is to reinforce the intergovernmental component of the Secretary General’s strategy to enhance the Council of Europe’s work in the area of social cohesion, in particular through the promotion of the European Social Charter and its collective complaints procedure in order to ensure equal and effective access to social rights. The Urban Agenda for the EU was launched in May 2016 with the Pact of Amsterdam. It represents a new multi-level working method promoting cooperation between Member States, cities, the European Commission and other stakeholders in order to stimulate growth, liveability and innovation in the cities of Europe and to identify and successfully tackle social challenges. One of its Priority Themes Research and Innovation FP7 The European Commission (2015), Final Report Summary - TIMBRE (An Integrated Framework of Methods, Technologies, Tools and Policies for Improvement of Brownfield Regeneration in Europe) 9 The European Commission (2015), Final Report Summary - HOMBRE (Holistic Management of Brownfield Regeneration) 10 The Council of Europe, European Social Cohesion Platform (PECS) 7 8
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is the Sustainable Land Use, focused on tackling issues such as land under-usage, brownfields, and urban sprawl. It is becoming standard practice in many jurisdictions to mandate a return to greenfield status at the end of plant service as a condition of the initial site license, and potential licensees must demonstrate that steps will be taken to assure the availability of funds via the posting of a reclamation bond for that task before a site-license will be issued. While this concept has mainly applied to the power-generating industry, it is coming into wider use in other areas of industrial decommissioning. There are numerous examples of good practices on successful revitalisation of old industrial sites from all around Europe, the most spectacular being probably the neighbourhoods Confluence in Lyon, Bjørvika11 in Oslo, Manchester Docks and Albert Docks in Liverpool. All of those former harbour sites have been transformed into residential areas, with a great respect for their architectural integrity. Manufaktura12 in Łódź and Galerie Vaňkovka in Brno are prime examples of an adaptation of former factories to the use as unique shopping malls, attracting not only those who want to buy something, but also becoming magnets for tourists. Dolní Vítkovice13 in Ostrava is another example of using the industrial past as a strong asset when it comes to cultural life and tourism. If treated with care, former industrial buildings can even become luxurious apartment complexes, such as Nowa Papiernia14 in Wrocław and New Concordia Wharf15 of London.
6. What now? The European Union has been actively tackling both the issue of decommissioned sites and of social cohesion for over a decade. Although every society is unique and has specific needs, habits, and traditions, a fundamental element, which is common to all societies, is connection. Brownfields can be used to create and strengthen such connection. Indeed, every single decommissioned site presents a great opportunity to connect people, bring them together, and increase social cohesion. With each successful project representing a brick building the future of Europe, it is up to us to build durable foundations for the continent. Imagine the city of your dreams. How would it be planned? How many schools should be there? How would you design the transportation system? What about the greenery? Would there be gardens hanging over the streets, like in Manchester?16 Or maybe a long park stretching from North to East? Would you plan a separate office district, or maybe workplaces should be spread among apartment buildings? Now think about your city, and every other one you have ever been to. How can former industrial sites be used to make it closer to the one you just imagined? How to ensure all of the European cities would move in this direction?
Further research The European Commission, Sustainable Land Use 11 12 13 14 15 16
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Plan- og bygningsetaten Oslo kommune (2010), Bjørvika 2020 - Bjorvika, Oslo (English version, 2010) 3Dpatrol (2014), Manufaktura shopping center Lodz FilmovaniDronem.cz (2017), Ostrava - Dolní Vítkovice Nowa Papiernia Ehouse (2012), New Concordia Wharf, London SE1 Shepherd, Alison, The Independent (2012), Walking in the air: Castlefield’s own High Line Park
COMMITTEE ON REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT II With migration becoming an integral aspect of modern European cities, how can local stakeholders prevent cultural division in urban planning and best account for cultural diversity within urban societies? by Triin Sulengo 1. Relevance of the topic As urbanisation continues (see fig. 1), more and more people are faced with having to take long commutes in their day to day lives. The limited living space in cities makes central areas highly valued, thus driving up the housing prices, limiting the demographic that can afford to live there. However, the new constructions on the edges of urban areas are mostly targeting more affluent social groups as well, spreading the problem of cultural and social inclusion to the periphery just as it is in the heart of the city. Significant price differences between various parts of urban areas work as an invisible filtering mechanism, causing certain regions to be dominated by inhabitants of certain social strata. Furthermore, the cycle of poverty can disproportionately affect certain social groups that have been been forced into poverty by social and historical factors such as discrimination or immigration. Such a division can pose significant problems to the diversity of people’s social environment, hence raising questions of inclusion. This can also lead to the isolation of certain social groups, as contact between different parts of society remains limited. As exposure is an important part of learning to coexist with different cultures, this can build up to further problems in dealing with the ever increasing multicultural nature of Europe. Furthermore, in gentrifying regions, the influx of more affluent citizens into previously poorer regions of the city is forcing the previous residents to relocate due to the rise in living costs, making it not a process of increased diversity in said areas, but rather a mere switch of the demographics present.
Figure 1. Urban populations in the EU.1 PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (2016): Cities in Europe Facts and figures on cities and urban areas
1 
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2. Key Terms Urban planning is the technical and political process based on which the future developments of urban areas are planned. Suburbs are residential areas in the peripheries of cities, which due to their distance from the more culturally diverse and concentrated central areas can become socio-culturally uniform. Commuting is the process of travelling almost daily beyond one’s area of residence in order to work or study. Urbanisation is the gradual increase of urban populations at the expense of rural populations. Social housing consists of low-cost and government regulated housing for those, who would not be able to afford rent otherwise. Disadvantaged neighbourhoods have high poverty and crime rates, which are thus a hotspot for social problems. Furthermore, growing up in one such area can significantly impede future chances of children, as they lack the opportunities for growth and social support necessary for development, both through struggling schools and general social environment, often making these neighbourhoods dead-ends. Gentrification is a process wherein previously run down and predominantly working class districts become popular among more affluent social strata, causing them on the one hand to be renovated, but at the same time often force the original residents to relocate due to skyrocketing housing costs. Co-operatives are jointly owned democratic enterprises, where people have come together to better meet their social, economic, and cultural needs.
3. Key Actors Local governments are responsible for most urban planning with the occasional help from the central governments of Member States. Depending on the area and its demographics, local communities may also exhibit more signs of social activism as well as self-organisation into community centers. However, in all instances local inhabitants are directly affected by the urban community in which they live. In creating a welcoming educational environment, schools have to accomodate for the specific demographics of the region and often are the ones to deal with the residue of other social problems in the community. Potential investors can provide another source of innovation and growth in urban areas or could conversely further the social divides within the bounds of the city. Transport ministries have to take into account the growing numbers of people for whom a long commute to the city’s central area is becoming an everyday reality, especially in cities with large metro areas and populations. On a European level, The Urban Agenda for the EU, launched in 2016, promotes the co-operation between the European Commission, Member States, cities, and other stakeholders to effectively tackle social problems in urban environment. UN Habitat is a United Nations programme aimed at effectively coping with the growing levels of urbanisation, promoting socially and environmentally sustainable development of human settlements.
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4. Key Conflicts In the centre of tackling inclusion problems in European cities are the disadvantaged and impoverished neighbourhoods. On a social level, community programmes can be a helpful means to provide local inhabitants with social support and outlets for growth. This approach also helps to cater to the specific needs of local populace, such as religious centers. However, having an area become known as that of a specific social group can in turn impede inclusion due to issues with xenophobia, keeping people from other cultures from moving there. A large part of poverty is also due to high living costs, such as rent and communal bills. A way to tackle this has been by providing affordable government-subsidised housing. However, as with most social policy, this has to be done in a way that ensures effectiveness, instead of isolating impoverished social groups further. Questions have also been raised whether the governments should take a ground up approach instead, investing into people and communities, which could potentially help mitigate the social problems festering in poor areas.2 Indiscriminate influx of more affluent residents into marginalised areas, also known as gentrification, can instead of increasing the diversity of smaller urban communities, lead to the relocation of previous residents, hence doing little to help inclusion, whereas a more controlled melange of different social strata in the same living environment could in theory still go a long way to improve cultural diversity in urban life.
5. Measures in Place Both the EU and the UN have taken steps to increase cooperation in solving problems associated with urbanisation. 2016 saw the establishment of the Urban Agenda for the EU, which aims to improve urban policies in Member States and promotes the inclusion of cities in relevant EU decision making processes.3 The CITIES forum in 2017 was one of these attempts for cooperation, bringing together various actors in urban development, further including NGOs, businesses and experts.4 The EU’s URBACT programme is another tool of the EU the goal of which is to enable cities to work together in effective policy design.5 It works primarily through knowledge and experience sharing to help cities better face the challenges of urban development, also highlighting already existent projects such as Refill, a scheme of reusing vacant spaces to foster innovation on a local level. UN Member States also signed a document in 2016 called the New Urban Agenda, aiming at much the same things as the Urban Agenda for the EU, but on a global level. On a grass-roots level, co-operatives have been seen as one possible way of catering to the needs of the community.6 Social programmes in disadvantaged areas such as initiatives for accessible arts and sports education have been proposed and enacted as a means to alleviate the effect of social issues on children. Social housing is another way in which governments, with varying levels of suc2 For a further discussion on social housing and tackling poor regions see Tosics, Ivan (2018), The dilemma of fighting urban poverty: invest into poor people or into poor places? 3 The European Commission (2016), What is the urban Agenda for the EU? 4 The European Commission (2017), CITIES Forum 2017 5 URBACT 6 For more on co-operatives as well as universal basic income see Adams, Eddy (2018), “We have no Rockefellers or Carnegies, but we do have co-operatives.”
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cess, have attempted to help impoverished social groups handle the cost of living. Some cities have also tried to specifically tackle inclusion problems such as the Refugee Taskforce set up in Ghent (see fig.2).
Figure 2. Infographic on the Refugee Taskforce.7
6. What now? Should change come from grass-root activism or systematic government intervention? What are the limits of what communities can do on their own and what means do the EU and Member States have to promote active citizenship? What infrastructure needs to be already set in place by local governance? To what extent can large intergovernmental bodies such as the EU and the UN provide uniform assistance in urban planning and which aspects should be considered on a case by case basis instead?
Useful links: UN-Habitat Worldwide (2016), New Urban Agenda Whiteboard Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=umZedR_8XH8 PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (2016): Cities in Europe Facts and figures on cities and urban areas: https://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/cms/publicaties/PBL-2016-Cities-in-Europe-2469.pdf The European Commission, Urban Development: http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/policy/themes/urban-development/ Urban Agenda for the EU (2017), Presenting the Urban Agenda for the EU at Cities Forum 2017: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=moZLNpjBG7g 7 
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Gent: International (2018), The Refugee Taskforce
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