Academy Preparation Kit – RSC Tábor 2019

ACADEMIC PREPARATION KIT 7th Regional Selection Conference of EYP Czech Republic Tรกbor 2019

REGIONAL SELECTION CONFERENCE OF EYP CZ 2019 TÁBOR

TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS WORDS OF WELCOME THE EU AND YOU SESSION TOPICS FISHERIES WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND GENDER EQUALITY DEVELOPMENT AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY I ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY II HUMAN RIGHTS INTERNAL MARKET AND CONSUMER PROTECTION

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WORDS OF WELCOME Dear Delegates of Tábor 2019, It is my absolute pleasure to be able to welcome you to Tábor 2019 on behalf of the Chairs’ Team. My name is Alina, and I’m from a small, little country called Luxembourg and I have the immense honour of being the President of the session. Directly working with me are my three lovely Vice-Presidents: Alex from Sweden, Tim from Germany and Kuba representing your home, the Czech Republic. We are incredibly excited to meet you all and with this address, I really want to make sure you feel like you can approach us and talk to us, we don’t bite!

Now, for most of you, Tábor will be your first point of contact with EYP. As I don’t like spoilers, I’ll keep things simple. All I will say is that I remember my first experience as a delegate vividly in my head. EYP grabbed my curiosity in a way that not many things have. How I continued to remain intrigued by EYP is by keeping an open mind and heart, not just towards the people I meet but also when I am introduced to new concepts and ideas.

With this said, the Chairs’ Team and I proudly present to you the Academic Preparation Kit for the session! Within this document, you will find all eight Topic Overviews, which have been prepared by your fantastic Chairpersons. They aim to introduce you to the issues that will be debated within each respective committee.

Within each Topic Overview, you will find information related to the core issues, key actors and conflicts of your topic and they should serve as a crutch for your own individual research. I encourage you all to study the Topic Overviews, with the aim of forming your own educated opinions on the subject, especially because of all the hard work that went into them for the sole purpose of bringing across as much information as possible to you. Additionally, as the theme of the session focuses on the impact an individual has in our globalised society, there is a small section called “in the spotlight.” This section highlights a person, chosen by the Chairperson that has had an impact in the realms of the respective topic. Hopefully, they serve as a source for inspiration, that will empower you to see how much one individual can do if they believe in your purpose.

All that is left to say now is that everyone that you will meet in Tábor is working incredibly hard in making sure that you have an unforgettable experience. Therefore, we are all incredibly excited to be embarking on this journey with you and cannot wait to meet you all very soon!

And again, should you have any questions, don’t hesitate to get in touch with us.

We wish you all the very best for your preparations and many safe travels to Tábor!

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THE EU AND YOU Here are some more in-depth resources for your research given the context of the EU. These can be used in combination with your Topic Overviews as these will help you understand what actually goes on behind the scenes. Note that you can always get in touch with your chair to receive an exhaustive guide on the EU.

1. Explained: EU Institutions • A first overview: The EU institutions explained by their presidents • All EU institutions and bodies summarised

2. Explained: Motivations for EU integration • Overview of the history of the EU

3. Explained: EU competences and decision-making • Video explaining law-making in the EU • Legislative powers of the European Parliament • Visualisation of the Ordinary Legislative Procedure • Division of competences between the EU and the Member States

SESSION TOPICS COMMITTEEE ON FISHERIES (PECH) Nemo Not Found: With 87% of Mediterranean fish stocks being fished unsustainably and the 2020 goals for overfishing being practically unachievable, what stance should the EU take to finally avoid the overexploitation of stocks?

COMMITTEE ON WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND GENDER EQUALITY (FEMM) Invisible Women: With little to no data on female homelessness in Member States and no mention of reproductive rights in any of the few national strategies on homelessness, how can the EU safeguard the aforementioned rights and provide suitable healthcare to homeless women?

COMMITTEE ON DEVELOPMENT (DEVE) In cooperation, there's strength: While 413 million people are still living in extreme poverty in sub-Saharan Africa, the European Development Fund’s investment structure in the region has received criticism of having limited impact on the poor. How should the EU redirect its development investments in sub-Saharan Africa in order to make sure the goals of poverty reduction are reached in line with the Agenda 2030?

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COMMITTEE ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT (AGRI) Meating the Needs: With animal agriculture being the largest contributor of human-caused greenhouse gases, accounting for 12-17% of the EU’s annual emissions, what actions should the EU take in order to reduce the environmental impact of animal agriculture?

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY I (ENVI I) Cry me a river: As water reservoirs are drying up across the world and water consumption rates have pushed nearly two-thirds of global freshwater supplies beyond their sustainability tipping points, what role should the EU play in tackling the freshwater crisis?

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY II (ENVI II) To the ends of the Earth: With the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s warning that the world has 12 years to limit climate change consequences, how can the EU ensure the efficient implementation of the Paris Agreement and show strong leadership in the global fight against climate change?

COMMITTEE ON HUMAN RIGHTS (DROI) Sticks and stones: With debates on the internet shifting towards more offensive statements, mostly targeting minorities or disadvantaged groups of people, and in some cases even resulting in acts of violence, how can the EU prevent the escalation of hatred and discrimination within the society while safeguarding the freedom of expression of its citizens?

COMMITTEE ON INTERNAL MARKET AND CONSUMER PROTECTION (IMCO) An economy that works for all: With movements like Economy for the Common Good promoting a new economic model, how should the EU approach calls for a more ethical European market?

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COMMITTEEE ON FISHERIES Nemo Not Found: With 87% of Mediterranean fish stocks being fished unsustainably and the 2020 goals for overfishing being practically unachievable, what stance should the EU take to finally avoid the overexploitation of stocks?

by Jakob Mišič Jančar (SI) Key Terms • Aquaculture or aquafarming is the farming of aquatic organisms and controlling of freshwater or saltwater populations. It is the opposite of commercial fishing, the term used to describe the harvesting of wild fish.

• The term ‘by-catch’ is used to refer to any marine species that is caught unintentionally in the process of fishing and is regarded as useless by fishermen. An animal can be considered a by-catch by being of the wrong species, the wrong sex, or simply for being undersized.

• The Maximum Sustainable Yields (MSY) indicate the largest catch that can be taken from fish stocks without a long term decline in stocks.

• Total Allowable Catches (TACs), also called fishing opportunities, are catch limits expressed in either numbers or tonnes imposed by the European Commission for most commercial fish stocks.

Contextualisation of the Topic “Overfishing damages the environment as well as the wider economy. Mismanaging natural, renewable resources ruins our natural marine heritage and costs us jobs, food, and money” argued Lasse Gustavsson, Executive Director of OCEANA in Europe.1 According to Gustavsson, “the legal deadline is just two years away and healthy and well-managed EU fish stocks have the potential to produce over 57% more – or 2 million tonnes more – sustainable fish annually and create 92 000 new jobs at the same time.”

The EU has repeatedly failed to implement any sort of legislation that would protect marine life and establish sustainability in the fishing industry. Despite progress in reducing overfishing, several species are still being caught at unsustainable levels. 88% of fish stocks in the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea are overfished.2 European hake, red mullet, blue whiting and anglerfish are all fished at levels around ten times higher than what is considered sustainable.

This is mainly caused by the size of the fishing fleets, which are up to four times larger than necessary.3 Since their focus is often rather on quantity than on sustainability, and the lack of legislation allows for this, the future of European fish stocks is uncertain. With overfishing even threatening disturbances in the food chain, how should the EU further pursue effective strategies in overcoming overfishing ?

1 Gustavsson, Lasse (2018): EU still far from phasing out overfishing by 2020 2 European Commission: Ending overfishing: much to celebrate, much to do 3 Smith, Griffin (2012): Overfishing

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In the Spotlight Zafer Kizilkaya is an engineer and underwater photographer as well as a marine researcher. He has almost completely turned the ruined Turkish bay into one of the most successful and productive marine conservation areas in the Mediterranean. In cooperation with the Turkish authorities, Zafer set up a ranger programme which caused a significant drop in illegal fishing. It all started when Zafer visited the Gokova Bay for the first time in 2008 on a research trip from his hometown Istanbul. The damage to the marine life that he witnessed forced him to stay and devote his life to its revival. Zafer persuaded his government to make the bay a protected area. Ten years after the start of the programme, research shows that marine life inside these no-fishing areas has risen by 800 percent.4

Key Actors The European Commission drafts directives, provides action plans and proposes legislation, such as the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). As fisheries are a shared competence of the EU, Member States and the Commission may both legislate in this area. For the Commission, the Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (DG MARE) is responsible for the policy area of fisheries, the Law of the Sea, Maritime Affairs and the implementation of the new CFP. The Agricultural and Fisheries Council brings together the respective ministers from each EU Member State to discuss matters on Agriculture and Fisheries. The Council adopts legislation proposed by the Commission, in co-decision with the European Parliament.

Fishermen heavily depend on the profit they make from their catch. They need to find a balance between commercial instinct and a sustainable approach to fishing, while following new legislation and the developments of the Agricultural and Fisheries Council.

Producer organisations are voluntary organisations set up by fishermen or fish farmers to assist them in selling their products. They are empowered to take products off the market if prices fall below levels set by the Agricultural and Fisheries Council and receive compensation from the community.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as OCEANA5 collect data about fish stocks and provide reports for the European Commission about the demand and consumption of EU citizens.

Third countries are countries outside of the EU. Fish, wild creatures that they are, do not limit themselves to the European maritime boundaries. Catch limits and fishing regulations are therefore always discussed with third countries before being implemented. Additionally, stocks for certain fish are international. This implies that despite the EU's hard efforts to overcome overfishing, we may not end overfishing of these stocks in reality.

Key Conflicts Fish represent an important part of the European gastronomic culture. Their inclusion in a daily diet is conducive to a healthy lifestyle, as fish are an undisputed source of vitamins, proteins, minerals, and Omega-3 fatty acids. Nowadays, only the best species, which are hard to catch, are being consumed. Therefore, large industrial fleets are used. These not only harm other sea creatures, but also seriously damage the artisan fishermen.

4 Whitley Fund for Nature (2017): Guardians Of The Sea: Securing And Expanding Marine Reserves Along The Turkish Coastline 5 Oceana (2016): Towards the recovery of European Fisheries

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The EU is the world’s leader in importing fish with a share of more than 50%.6 Since European fish stocks are dwindling, EU citizens are buying more and more fish from overseas, especially from developing countries. This is not only harmful to the environment because of the lengthy transports, but also to local ecosystems and the local economy.

The EU is not the only problem, though. The Mediterranean Sea is one of the few places on Earth with almost perfect conditions for fish reproduction, and fish are considered to have the best quality of meat right in the middle of the reproduction cycle.7 Hence, many industrial ships from all over the world, especially from Japan, fish near the coasts of Europe. Since tuna in sushi has become a significant part of Japanese culture, they have been importing huge amounts of tuna mostly from the Mediterranean since the early 70s, as can be seen on the graph on the right.

Although fish farming is a solution, it is not viable for all species, since only certain species of fish can be farmed. Additionally, fish farming takes a lot of effort and unlike other farmable animals, fish do not take care of their young. An extensive amount of resources is required to make sure young fish actually get past the first few stages of growth and then to a marketable size. Therefore, death rates on fish farms are very high, often so high that fish farms are not profitable.

The remaining alternative solution are local small-scale fishermen. Small-scale fishing or artisanal fishing implies traditional fisheries involving fishing households, as opposed to commercial companies.

These use a relatively small amount of capital and energy, making short fishing trips close to shore, mainly for local consumption. The question is whether these will ever be able to meet the current high demand for fish.

Measures in place Article 38 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) states that the EU “shall define and implement a common agriculture and fisheries policy. The internal market shall extend to agriculture, fisheries and trade in agricultural products.”

The Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) was first introduced in the 1970s and went through its latest updates in January 2014. As stocks are finite, Member States have taken action to ensure an environmentally, economically and socially sustainable approach to fisheries.

The European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EMFF) was established by the Commission and the European Investment Bank for the CFP to run as smoothly as possible. The EMFF takes on tasks such as helping fishermen in their transition to sustainable fishing, and funds them with the aim of growth and employment in the EU. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) aims to achieve a Good Environmental Status (GES) for the EU's marine waters by 2020. The MSFD was the first European legislative instrument to protect 6 European Commission (2018): The EU fish market - 2018 edition is out!

7 European Commission (2019): Mediterranean sea

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marine biodiversity. It offers a legislative framework that aims to minimise the impact of human activity on marine ecosystems.

To make sure that the CFP is implemented efficiently, the Commission nominates scientific staff for assistance. This group of experts is called the Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries.

Looking Beyond • How is the EU going to satisfy the high demand of fish whilst trying to be sustainable?

• How should the EU lead its coordination efforts with third countries when it comes to fishing in international waters such as the Mediterranean?

• How should the EU change its approach in order to reach its 2020 aims?

Research Guide • The European Commission stance on illegal fishing • Some facts and figures on fishing within the EU • A note on small-scale and artisanal fisheries • An analysis of the EU’s chances of shifting to low-impact fishing by 2020 • Some information on the latest CFP reform • A video about Zafer Kizilkaya and his work

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COMMITTEE ON WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND GENDER EQUALITY Invisible Women: With little to no data on female homelessness in Member States and no mention of reproductive rights in any of the few national strategies on homelessness, how can the EU safeguard the aforementioned rights and provide suitable healthcare to homeless women?

by Lucie Bambušková (CZ) & Sabine Deletombe (LU) Key Terms • Inadequate housing means occupied housing units that have moderate or severe physical problems (e.g. deficiencies in plumbing, heating, electricity, etc.).

• The term “sleeping rough” or “living rough” refers to people sleeping outdoors, roofless, usually because they have no home.

• The term “housing exclusion” is referred to an individual’s or a households’ lack of housing, or to their inadequate housing conditions.

• Domestic violence is violent or aggressive behaviour within the home, typically involving the violent abuse of a spouse or partner.

• Hidden homelessness is the case where people who become homeless find a temporary solution by staying with family members or friends, living in squats or other insecure accommodation.

Contextualisation of the Topic When one speaks about a homeless person, we tend to think of a homeless man, even though it is proved that the experiences and needs of women on the streets are different than those of men. As a result, infrastructure is not providing the necessary support to women that find themselves and in many cases also their children in this kind of situation. As homeless women are less visible than men sleeping rough or using emergency accommodation, they are assumed to be a minor social problem. Additionally, there is scarce research on female homelessness in Member States.1 This lack of research and recognition has been acknowledged by the European Parliament which directly addressed the matter in 2016. The resolution called for more research in this field and more action by the European Commission, the European Institute for Gender Inequality and its Member States.

Another important fact is that homelessness happens to be notoriously difficult to define. As with many complex social phenomena, policy makers struggle to conceptualise homelessness. In some countries, this focus on visible homelessness also reflects nationally specific definitions of homelessness. For example, in France, ‘homelessness’ refers to people who are ‘sans abri’ or ‘without shelter’. Consequently, the policy has tended to focus 1 Bulman, May (2018): True scale of female homelessness 'likely to be significantly worse than official records show’

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on those individuals who do not have access to a ‘house’ or shelter rather than a ‘home’, though there are many other forms of homelessness, as can be seen below.

At present, the precise scale of female homelessness across Europe is unknown.

Most countries undertake a count of the total number of homeless persons and also estimate the proportion of women in the homeless population, which ranges between 15% and 47%. Importantly, however, virtually all estimates are based on the most visible forms of homelessness and, therefore, only count those individuals who are sleeping rough or living in homeless shelters.

Key Actors The EU’s 28 Member States are allowed to set their own lists of national priorities and handle homelessness with national strategies.2 The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) is an autonomous body of the EU, established to contribute to and strengthen the promotion of gender equality, the fight against discrimination based on sex, as well as to raise EU citizens’ awareness of gender equality.3 The European Federation of National Organisations Working with the Homeless (FEANTSA) is the only European NGO focusing exclusively on the fight against homelessness. FEANTSA has developed a European Typology of Homelessness and Housing Exclusion (ETHOS) as a means of improving understanding and measurement of homelessness in Europe, and to provide a common "language" for transnational exchanges on homelessness. FEANTSA has also called for the specific needs of homeless women at risk of domestic and gender-based violence to be integrated into strategic responses to gender-based violence.4 The default perception of homelessness in Europe is male homelessness. Whilst male homelessness is evidently also a critical issue to tackle, female homelessness has additional issues, for instance those related to female hygiene. This makes homeless women in Europe one of the most important stakeholders.

Key Conflicts One of the main causes of women leaving home and their subsequent homelessness is domestic violence.

2000 domestic abuse survivors a year are put at risk of homelessness or being forced back to their abuser due to local authority rules saying they are not vulnerable enough to access housing.5 For example, in 2018, one in ten women in the UK did not endure pressure and harm from their partner yet left their common 2 3 4 5

European Commission (2019): Fighting homelessness and housing exclusion in Europe European Institute for Gender Equality (2019): Our Vision and Mission European Federation of National Organisations Working with the Homeless (2019): About Us Oppenheim, Maya (2019): 2,000 domestic abuse survivors placed at risk of homelessness a year, report finds

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household.6 Other factors causing female homelessness include the lack of shelters for women, increasing rental prices or lower income, compared to the men. Although women do not necessarily live on the streets, they often come to the so-called state of hidden homelessness.7 Although they have a place to sleep, for example with friends, they do not have their own home or stable financial income. The largest percentage of European homeless women is in Ireland, accounting for 42% of all homeless people, and in the capital Dublin even 47%, according to current statistics.8 This issue is blamed on the 2014 crisis, when rent prices increased.

In addition, homeless women are vulnerable as they lack basic health care and often suffer from sexual violence.9 Additionally, homeless women lack funds for basic female hygiene products. During menstruation, they are forced to use things like socks, plastic bags or rags instead of pads and tampons, which can lead to infections and health problems.10 Difficulties with pregnancy are another example. Homeless, pregnant women lack access to necessary medical examinations related to pregnancy or childbirth.

Other medical issues related to homelessness include mental health problems.11 Another thing about this issue is the lack of data – there is no data on the exact number of homeless people across the EU. National figures are collected using different methods and in different years. Especially in countries like Ireland, Luxembourg and Belgium they point to a sharp rise in street sleeping after the economic crisis.12

Measures in place The European Commission can support Member States, including funding from the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Fund for European Aid to the Most Deprived (FEAD). A set of EU policies such as social inclusion, regional development, migration, financial regulation, health and human rights policies help address the complex causes of homelessness.13 The European Commission provides guidance on tackling homelessness within the Social Investment Package. It explores trends in homelessness, good practices by Member States and core elements of integrated homelessness strategies, highlighting the support role of the EU. In Paris, the homeless have a palatial city hall, where up to 120 women can sleep or get hot meals and basic hygiene items every day.14 There are many NGOs in Europe dealing with this issue. Irish Daisyhouse, British Independent Together, Romanian Casa Ioana, are just a few examples. However, FEANTSA is the only NGO which received funding from the European Commission and works particularly close with EU institutions and the United Nations.

The Women’s Homelessness in Europe Network contributes to discussions and debates about female homelessness across Europe and beyond. They share knowledge and information and have opportu6 Bulman, May (2018): True scale of female homelessness 'likely to be significantly worse than official records show’ 7 Noor, Poppy (2017): The hidden homelessness crisis: 'what happens to those who are turned away?

8 The Journal (2017): The feminisation of homelessness: Ireland has far more homeless women than Europe 9 European Federation of National Organisations Working with the Homeless (2015): The Links between Violence against Women and Homelessness 10 Brooks, Libby (2016): Period poverty: call to tackle the hidden side of inequality 11 Fred Victor (2016): 8 Challenges Homeless Women Face Every Day 12 Marques da Silva, Isabel (2019): Homelessness in Europe - a hidden figure 13 European Commission (2019): Homelessness 14 Tabary, Zoe (2019): Down and out in Paris: homeless women find refuge in grandeur

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nities to disseminate and generate discussion on issues that can have a direct impact on policy and practice.

Looking Beyond • How can the EU further tackle the causes of homelessness such as domestic violence?

• How could the EU further its efforts in collecting the necessary data to get a clearer picture of the scope of female homelessness?

• What could be done to provide help for particularly vulnerable homeless women who face medical problems?

Research Guide • A magazine dedicated to female homelessness • A list of videos concerning women’s homelessness • A report on housing exclusion report • An article on women’s homelessness

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COMMITTEE ON DEVELOPMENT In cooperation, there's strength: While 413 million people are still living in extreme poverty in sub-Saharan Africa, the European Development Fund’s investment structure in the region has received criticism of having limited impact on the poor.

How should the EU redirect its development investments in sub-Saharan Africa in order to make sure the goals of poverty reduction are reached in line with the Agenda 2030?

by Milica Antić (RS) Key Terms • Extreme poverty is a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, such as food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education, and information.

• Social protection consists of policies and programmes designed to reduce poverty, decrease people's exposure to risks, and enhance their capacity to manage economic and social hardships, such as unemployment, exclusion, sickness, disability, and old age.

• Development investments, investment capital of companies or public authorities that seek to reduce poverty, support economic development, increase prosperity, and combat climate change as well as environmental destruction, while promoting corporate responsibility.

Contextualisation of the Topic According to the United Nations (UN), more than 700 million people, or 10% of the world’s population, still live in extreme poverty and are struggling to fulfil their most basic needs.1 The majority of sub-Saharan Africa’s population is living on less than USD 1.90 a day, therefore 413 million people in the region are extremely poor.2 After two decades of unprecedented economic growth, how much have the lives of African families improved?

Estimates from the World Bank suggest that the share of the African population in extreme poverty did decline from 57% in 1990 to 43% in 2012,3 as can be seen in figure 1. At the same time, however, Africa’s population continued to expand rapidly. As a result, the absolute number of people living in extreme poverty still 1 United Nations (2016): Goal 1: End poverty in all forms and anywhere 2 ibid.

3 The World Bank (2016): While Poverty in Africa Has Declined, Number of Poor Has Increased

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increased by more than 100 million.4 Worldwide poverty reduction has been slowest in fragile countries, and rural areas generally remain much poorer, with a rate of 17.2% of people living in extreme poverty,5 which is three times higher than in urban areas.

The causes and effects of poverty are often interrelated, and one problem hardly ever occurs alone. Bad sanitation leads to the spread of old and new diseases, hunger and lack of water which makes people more vulnerable to them. Due to the low quality of schooling, more than two in five adults are still illiterate; not having social protection, one out of five children lives in extreme poverty. The roots of poverty include unemployment, social exclusion, and high vulnerability of certain populations to disasters, diseases, and other phenomena that prevent them from being productive.

In the Spotlight Many people are involved in the everyday fight to reduce poverty and make the world a better place. Jeffrey Sachs is an economist and public policy analyst committed to the idea of ending global poverty. In 2006, supported by the UN Development Program, he launched the Millennium Villages Project aimed at putting twelve selected villages in ten sub-Saharan countries on a path towards economic growth by investing heavily in food production, health care, education, and infrastructure for five years. In retrospect, some critics claim that the project was riddled with fundamental methodological errors and there was little scientific evidence for its success. Others say that although the outcomes on poverty were mixed and impacts on nutrition and education inconclusive, the lessons learned were highly pertinent.6

Key Actors The European Commission is the executive body of the EU. It is responsible for proposing legislation, which later goes on to the European Parliament and the European Council to debate. In 2003, the European Commission and European Council established the European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership that funds research for prevention and treatment of poverty-related infectious diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Commission’s Directorate-General for International Cooperation and Development (DG-DEVCO) is responsible for drafting, managing, and implementing EU development policies.

The UN is an international organisation made up of 193 member states that assumes the mission to maintain international peace and security, protect human rights, and promote sustainable development.

The African Union (AU) is a continental union of 55 African member states created to strengthen the continent’s economy and raise living standards for African people, amongst other things. The AU has established the economic development programme New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), which is also the point of contact for all development partners.

A non-governmental organisation (NGO) is a non-profit organisation independent from public authorities.

A number of NGOs tackle poverty in sub-Saharan Africa, for example the Development Action Group or Millennium Promise Alliance.

4 Beegl, Kathleen; Christiaensen, Luc; Dabalen, Andrew; Gaddis, Isis (2016): Poverty in a Rising Africa 5 United Nations (2016): Goal 1: End poverty in all forms and anywhere 6 Beth Duff-Brown (2018): The fog of development : Evaluating the Millennium Villages Project

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Key Conflicts Currently, 40% of the 783 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa do not have access to clean drinking water.7 While poverty causes hunger and prevents people from accessing clean water, hunger and water insecurity are major reasons why people struggle to escape extreme poverty. If a person does not get enough food, they simply do not have the energy needed to work, while the lack of access to food and clean water can also lead to preventable illnesses. Thus, people often travel long distances to clinics or spend what little money remains on medicine. This deprives already vulnerable populations of money and assets. Even if clean water sources are available, they are often located far from poor communities. This means that women and girls in rural communities collectively spend some 200 million hours every day walking to fetch water, instead of using that time on work or education.8 As a catalyst for social, economic, and gender inequalities, poverty is a major cause of social tensions.

In many regions, women are segregated and have very limited access to education for political, religious, or social reasons. Sometimes they are forbidden to work or are restricted to tedious occupations.9 Moreover, many families cannot afford to send their children to school, since they need them to work and contribute to the household income. A great number of children living in poverty still widely suffer from physical and emotional abuse, neglect, and forced labour.10 Traditional European development assistance has been criticised for taking a one-size-fits-all approach.11 Additionally, some have argued that despite having positive short-term effects, foreign assistance replaces domestic investment with foreign capital, which ultimately prevents development of an autonomous, sustainable economy. Thus, the EU needs to find a strategy that balances aid and cooperation.

Since long-term local projects often require costly investments, the EU couples its own development assistance with private loans and investments. Some fear that these public-private partnerships are a way for private businesses to exploit new markets and make a quick profit, instead of serving the local public interest. 12

Measures in place The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. The first goal is to end poverty in all forms everywhere. In addition, there are 16 other goals, for instance on good health and well-being, reducing inequalities, and tackling climate change.13 NEPAD is a strategic programme of action intended to support Africa’s development set by the AU. It is designed to address the challenges of poverty, underdevelopment, and marginalisation in Africa.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has established so-called Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers 7 United Nations Department of Economic and Social affairs (2016): International Decade for Action ‘WATER FOR LIFE’ 2005-2015 8 Myers, Kristin (2017): Women, water and the cycle of poverty 9 Poverties (2011): Effects of Poverty on Society, Health, Children and Violence 10 Concern Worldwide US (2019): The top 9 causes of global poverty 11 Handly, Higgins; Sharma, Bird, Cammack (2009): Poverty and Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Overview of Key Issues 12 Handly, Higgins; Sharma, Bird, Cammack (2009): Poverty and Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Overview of Key Issues 13 United Nations (2016): Sustainable Development Goals

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(PRSPs) to aid recipient countries. They are drafted in a participatory process involving the IMF, the World Bank, the respective country, its population, and other development partners. PRSPs provide an analysis of a country’s poverty situation, existing poverty reduction programmes, and future strategies.

The European Development Fund (EDF) is the EU’s main instrument for providing development aid to Africa. This includes funding to help countries mitigate the short-term effects of externally-caused shocks such as economic crises or natural disasters.

The EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund provides funding for infrastructure projects in sub-Saharan Africa by blending long term loans from participating financiers with grant resources from donors.

The European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership was launched in 2003 by 16 European countries and the EU to support and fund clinical research to accelerate the development of new or improved drugs, vaccines, microbicides and diagnostics against HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria as well as other poverty-related infectious diseases in sub-Saharan Africa.

Looking Beyond • How can all stakeholders cooperate to design a coherent strategy that produces lasting success, both in the short- and long-term? What is the EU’s role in this?

• How should the EU ensure that its strategies, albeit successful in the short run, do not have detrimental long-term effects?

• How can the EDF re-allocate its resources to effectively reduce poverty in sub-Saharan Africa?

Research Guide • An overview of the Africa-EU Continental Cooperation by the European Commission • A list of priorities for EU and its development aid • An article on eliminating extreme poverty in Africa by 2030 from the African Development Bank • A TED Talk on Africa losing its economic resources due to external actors • A talk by Bill Gates on the fight against poverty

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COMMITTEE ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Meating the Needs: With animal agriculture being the largest contributor of humancaused greenhouse gases, accounting for 12-17% of the EU’s annual emissions, what actions should the EU take in order to reduce the environmental impact of animal agriculture?

by Jakub Hejdukiewicz (PL) Key Terms • Greenhouse gases are gases emitted mainly as a result of human activity which contribute to the greenhouse effect and the warming of the planet. Examples of greenhouse gases include water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O).

• Climate neutral economy or carbon neutrality are terms used to describe the state of an entity, such as a company, service, product or event, where the carbon emissions have been balanced out through the funding of an equivalent amount of carbon savings elsewhere.1 • Soil fertilisation is a process involving the use of substances that improve growth and resilience of plants, and soil management.2 These often contain nitrogen that can then lead to the formation of N2O. • Enteric fermentation is a process in which bacteria break down organic matter producing hydrogen (H2), CO2 and CH4. This process naturally occurs in the digestive system of domesticated and wild cattle, sheep, natural wetlands, and rice patties.3 Check the visual below for an elaboration on enteric fermentation.

Contextualisation of the Topic Global warming is a multi-faceted issue that requires tackling from multiple policy areas: industry, transportation, energy production and animal agriculture. Animal agriculture is responsible for 12% to 17% of human-caused greenhouse gases emissions globally and around 10% in the EU. Despite the fact that emissions in this field have been reduced by almost 25% since 1990,4 the quantity is still too high. In 2015 alone, the agricultural sector released 426.473 kilotonnes of CO2.5

1 2 3 4 5

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Carbon Footprint (2019): Carbon Neutrality FAO (2019): Soil Management FAO (2019): Reducing Enteric Methane for improving food security and livelihoods Eurostat (2018): Agriculture - greenhouse gas emission statistics Eurostat (2019): Agri-environmental indicator - greenhouse gas emissions

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When analysing the release of greenhouse gasses in animal agriculture, we mainly have to focus on CH4 (55% of emissions), N2O (45% of emissions) and CO2 (5% of emissions).1 The production of one kilogramme (kg) of beef releases around 13 kg of CO2. One kg of lamb and pork produces 17.4 kg and 6.4 kg of CO2 respectively (see image below for further clarification). With the average European eating around 86 kg of meat each year, changing people’s attitudes towards the consumption of meat is an important factor in tackling this issue. Therefore, how can the EU limit greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture in order to fulfil the EU’s objective to keep the global temperature average well below 2 degrees Celsius and achieve a climate neutral economy by 2050?2

In the Spotlight Ingrid Newkirk has been part of the animal protection movement since 1970. She was the first female animal control officer of the United States (US) District of Columbia. In 1981 she co-founded People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) and is currently its president. Despite PETA being known for campaigning against the inhumane treatment of animals, they also work actively in spreading awareness of the impact animal agriculture has on the environment.

Key Actors As agriculture and the environment are shared competences, the European Commission in cooperation with the European Parliament, the Council and the 28 Members States’ governments can create laws and regulations concerning these matters.

The European Commission is the executive branch of the EU and represents the interests of the EU. The Directorate-General on Agriculture and Rural Development (DG-AGRI) carries out the Commission’s objectives for this policy area.

On the international level, the United Nations’ (UN) Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) is creating worldwide guidelines and coordinating interstate cooperation on agricultural policies. In addition to the FAO’s work, the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC) is conducting leading research on climate change and its effects on various policy areas.

1 Eurostat (2019): Greenhouse gas emissions by source sector 2 European Commision (2019): 2050 long-term strategy

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Numerous non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are conducting educational campaigns such as LessMeatLessHeat by Greenpeace to reduce meat consumption in Europe. Other NGOs such as PETA or Animal Liberation League focus on animal protection as many of them advocate more humane treatment of farm animals. These campaigns can also reduce greenhouse gas emissions as animals living in better conditions produce less gas.

In addition, farmers themselves are important actors as the responsibility of the implementation of EU or governmental policies rests on them. Thus it is up to them to implement any changes on the local level.

Key Conflicts Agricultural greenhouse gas emissions are a result of processes that are essential for our food supply and any significant changes made to limit emissions can have drastic consequences for this important sector as can be shown in the graph above.3 CH4 is released mostly as a result of the enteric fermentation process and it accounts for almost half of greenhouse gases released in the agricultural sector. This process occurs naturally and we cannot fully eliminate it, but we can limit its impact. The way we treat, feed and keep animals affects how much gas is released. However, due to the additional costs such changes require, many farmers are not willing or even able to switch to a more eco-friendly way.

Furthermore, N2O is released mostly as a result of soil management, specifically fertilisation and in the process of animal excrement decomposition. Importantly, cheaper fertilisers are more harmful than more expensive natural ones. Environmentally conscious farmers use eco-friendly methods of soil management but it requires more work and yields less crops than with the use of synthetic fertilisers. Due to this, many farms use cheaper synthetic fertilisers to maximise their profits and minimise the costs of growing plants.

Another important issue is meat consumption. If meat consumption was reduced by half, the total greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture are estimated to go down by 42%.4 This poses the question of how to further support farmers who produce meat in their transition to the use of more environmentally-conscious methods of meat production.

Measures in Place The EU set a long-term strategy aiming to be carbon neutral economy by 2050.5 The EU has already introduced the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and emission caps that set greenhouse gas emission limits for companies.

Agriculture in general is one of the most important areas of EU policy as approximately 38% of the EU’s budget is dedicated to its development. The majority of this money is spent as part of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The CAP provides direct subsidies to support farmers in their transition to more environmentally-conscious methods of meat production. Under this programme, the Commission decided to dedicate EUR 12 billion each year from 2015 to 2020 to environment protection in agriculture and it is planning to increase that funding in the future.6 When it comes to individual Member States, the situation varies drastically as some of them have already created national strategies to limit emissions and are implementing them, whereas some are reluctant to make any large strides in this issue.

3 4 5 6

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Eurostat (2018): Contribution of agriculture to total GHG emissions EURActiv (2016): EU agricultural emissions: On the table European Commision (2019): 2050 long-term strategy European Commision (2015): EU agriculture spending

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Looking Beyond • How should the EU incentivise farmers to use more eco-friendly standards in the meat production process?

• What legislation should the EU introduce to limit agricultural emissions and how to ensure these regulations will not destabilise the agricultural sector economically?

• How can the EU ensure consistency in the agricultural sector of Member States in terms of its environmental impact?

Research Guide • A short introductory video on the topic • A list of relevant statistics • An article on the impact of meat consumption and its impact on greenhouse gas emissions • An explanation of fermentation and methane emissions

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COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY I Cry me a river: As water reservoirs are drying up across the world and water consumption rates have pushed nearly two-thirds of global freshwater supplies beyond their sustainability tipping points, what role should the EU play in tackling the freshwater crisis?

by Emma Körnerová (CZ) & Isidora Nikolić (RS) Key Terms • Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet the demands of water usage within a region.

• Water irrigation is defined as the application of controlled amounts of water, which maintains landscapes, helps grow agricultural crops and revegetate disturbed soil in drier areas or during a dry period.

• The water cycle describes how water evaporates from Earth’s surface, rises into the atmosphere, cools and condenses into rain or snow in clouds, and falls again to the surface as precipitation.

• The water footprint is an indicator of freshwater use that pinpoints both direct and indirect water use of a consumer or producer.

• Water stewardship is the use of water that is both culturally and socially equitable, environmentally sustainable and economically beneficial.

• Water degradation is the misuse or pollution of water. It is the introduction of harmful substances into bodies of water that will endanger human health, local fauna and flora and their ecosystems.

• Groundwater is the water present below Earth’s surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations, an underground water reservoir.

• An aquifer is an underground water-bearing permeable deposit of rock, such as sandstone containing water that can be used to supply wells.

Contextualisation of the Topic Leonardo Da Vinci described water as “the driving force of nature”. Unfortunately for our planet, freshwater is beginning to run dry – and at an alarming rate as well. The world’s population continues to soar, but that rise in numbers has not been nearly matched by an accompanying increase of freshwater. 1.1 billion people lack access to water and 2.7 billion people lack water

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at least once a month. That means that almost half of the world's population is suffering from a lack of freshwater.1 Water does not just disappear, which is ensured by the water cycle. However, out of all the water on our planet, only 3% is freshwater. Ocean water has too many minerals for us to drink or use in agriculture. Out of that 3%, two-thirds are held in glaciers and therefore inaccessible to us.

That leaves us with the remaining 1%2 that is split into groundwater, river or lake water, soil moisture, and air humidity as demonstrated by the first graph.

Furthermore, that same 1% is, as of now, not regenerating fast enough through the water cycle because we use it so excessively. Though we use freshwater in our everyday lives, most of it is actually used in agriculture, an approximate 70%3 as seen in the second graph above.

All in all, if we continue to treat water as a commodity and not as a precious resource we will wholly deplete our freshwater resources. The water demand is expected to rise by 55% from 2000 to 2050,4 and there are many ways to use water in an environmentally conscious way. Thus it is a question of shaping our perception of water, implementing the right policies to limit water consumption, not just as individuals but also industrially and agriculturally.

In the Spotlight Professor Andrea Cominola is the Chair of the Smart Water Networks at the Technische Universität Berlin and Einstein Center Digital Future and the man in charge of the SmartH20 project.5 The SmartH2O consortium works on the digitisation of water utilities in terms of water conservation, demand management, and increased user awareness.6 Professor Cominola believes that a possible solution for saving water would be implementing a more technological approach, as he says “in the water and utilities sector, digitalisation is gaining acceptance rather slowly. However, several pilot projects around the world have demonstrated the potential of smart water networks.”7

Key Actors There are 28 Member States that form the EU. Their local policies on water management and distribution can greatly impact water scarcity within their respective countries. Examples of Member States with their own legislation on water are Bulgaria, Estonia and the Czech Republic.8 The European Commission’s Directorate General on Environment (DG-ENV)9 is responsible for the EU’s policy on the environment. Its main work consists of proposing and implementing policies that ensure a high level of environmental protection and preserve the quality of life of EU citizens.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

World Wildlife Fund (2019): Water Scarcity The National Academy of Sciences (2007): Where is the Earth’s water?

Food and Agriculture Organisation (2016): Water uses Leflaive, Xavier (2012): Water Outlook to 2050 Smart Water Networks (2017): SmartH2O - Project description European Commission (2018): Digital Water Prize from Water Innovation Europe 2018 Cominola, Andrea (2018): Smart Water Networks CaWater Info: National Water Legislation Eurooean Commission: Directorate-General on Environment

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The European Drought Observatory (EDO)10 is a service run by the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre. EDO’s work consists of conducting studies that compile relevant information on drought, such as maps of indicators derived from different data sources.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as Water Aid11 and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF),12 are international non-profit organisations that have helped millions of people gain access to clean water. Water Aid for instance, focuses on providing clean water to the poorest communities through water projects and influencing government policy in 26 countries worldwide. One of the main goals of the WWF is securing freshwater for people and nature.

Even though personal use takes up only a small fraction of our freshwater use, even reducing your own individual shower time could affect the global issue in the long term. Though it might not seem like it, people’s behaviour towards the issue has as much value as water policies themselves.

Key Conflicts The main problem in this topic is our heightened consumption of freshwater. As mentioned above, agriculture uses a high percentage of freshwater, around 70%. However, 60% of that water is wasted because of leaky irrigation systems,13 inefficient application methods and growing of crops that consume large amounts of water.

Animal products and meat are even worse in terms of their water footprint, as it is a staggering four times larger than the water footprint of grain.14 This leads to the issue of water scarcity, which is usually split into physical and economic categories.

Physical water scarcity suggests that the available water resources are very close to depletion.

Economic water scarcity on the other hand suggests the lack of human capacity to satisfy the demand for water in a certain area. This occurs mainly in poorer or developing countries, where access to water is limited and water is not clean enough to consume. This is illustrated by the graph above.

Water pollution is also a cause for concern in developed countries and the EU,15 with the excessive use of pesticides and fertilisers.16 Other sources of freshwater pollution can be untreated human waste water or industrial waste. These can greatly pollute already shrinking groundwater supplies, with 13 of the world’s 37 aquifers reaching depletion levels.17 With the pollutants reducing the amount of oxygen available in freshwater, plants and especially fish find it hard to survive in water that has less than 5 parts per million (ppm) O2.18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

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European Commission: European Drought Observatory European Commission (2018): Water Aid World Wildlife Fund World Wildlife Fund (2019): Water Scarcity Threats Gerbens-Leens, P.W. (2013): Water Resources and Industry Eurostat (2016): Agriculture and Environment - Pollution risks Food and Agriculture Organisation (2018): Water pollution from and to agriculture Plumer, Brad (2016): Where the world is running out of groundwater Lenntech: Introduction to freshwater pollution

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With the rising lack of water, as with anything in high demand, water is also starting to get more and more expensive. However in come countries water pricing can be used as a tool to regulate overall water quality.19

Measures in place In 2007, the European Commission carried out an in depth assessment of water scarcity and droughts called Water Scarcity and Droughts in the EU.20 This assessment included seven policy options that could be implemented to combat water scarcity. This was later updated in 2012.

There are many European directives addressing water scarcity issues in the EU. The Water Framework Directive21 was published in 2000 and tackles many important issues connected to water such as water pollution from agriculture and water filtration. It also includes the Groundwater Directive22 that aims to improve the status of groundwater. Other directives that can be considered are the Urban Wastewater Directive, Bathing Water Directive, Nitrates Directive and Drinking Water Directive.23 Other than that, there is the Common Agricultural Policy24 which was launched in 1962 and aims to, among other things, ensure sustainable management of natural resources including water.

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification25 is a convention formed in 1994 to help combat desertification and to mitigate the effects of drought. It uses national action programmes that incorporate long-term strategies supported by international cooperation and partnership arrangements.

Looking Beyond • With the other major use of freshwater being industry, how can we help EU factories save water and use water more efficiently?

• What alternative food production methods could be further explored?

• Could sea water desalination be a viable and feasible solution? How efficient would that be?

• How can we as individuals try conserving water in our daily lives?

Research Guide • General overview of the topic encapsulated in a video • The Millenium Project is a global participatory think tank that focuses on 15 global problems and challenges, one of which is sufficient and clean water supply. They not only list several possible solutions but also take into consideration regional challenges • An article defining and debating the current situation of freshwater • An explanation of water degradation • An article on freshwater and water scarcity with various statistics

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Jones, Tom (2019): Pricing water European Commission (2019): Water Scarcity and Droughts in the European Union European Commission (2019): Introduction to the EU Water Framework directive European Commission (2019): Groundwater in the Water Framework Directive European Environment Agency (2018): European policies on water European Commission (2019): The Common Agricultural Policy at a glance United Nations: The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

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COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY II To the ends of the Earth: With the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s warning that the world has 12 years to limit climate change consequences, how can the EU ensure the efficient implementation of the Paris Agreement and show strong leadership in the global fight against climate change?

by Rebecca Byström (SE) Key Terms • Climate Change or “Global Warming” is a drastic change of weather patterns that causes irreversible environmental consequences due to an increase in the average atmospheric temperature. This phenomenon has been severely accelerated and worsened through human activity such as a dire increase in greenhouse gas emissions.

• Greenhouse gases are gases that absorb and emit radiant energy that control the Earth's temperature and keep it at an average 15°C that is crucial for life to exist. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is an example of a greenhouse gas.

• Carbon capture and storage projects entail the process of capturing waste such as CO2 and transporting it to a storage site where it will not enter the atmosphere, usually an underground geological formation. It is a relatively new solution to mitigate the release of CO2 into the atmosphere.

• Coal is the most carbon-intensive fossil fuel and thus the EU needs to undergo a coal phase-out in order to reduce emissions to limit global warming to the goal of 1.5 degrees Celsius.

Contextualisation of the Topic With the threat of global warming increasing, environmental damage and extreme weather patterns threaten food production, public health, biodiversity, and even political stability. The UN’s 2018 Emissions Gap Report1 recognises the large gap between what we need to do and what we are doing to reduce the detrimental consequences of climate change.

In order to mitigate the effects of climate change, an international agreement was signed by 195 countries within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change called the Paris Agreement in 2015, committing them to keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius and aiming to keep global warming below the even more ambitious target of 1.5 degrees Celsius.2 However, Germany and Norway had already reached their peak emissions before 1990. Of the 43 developed and emerging economies listed in the agreement, all but one (Turkey) are expected to have peaked their emissions by 2020.3

1 United Nations (2018): Emissions Gap Report 2018 2 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: Climate Get the Big Picture 3 Gütschow, J, Jeffery, L, Gieseke, R, Gebel, R (2018): UN Environment’s 2018 Emissions Gap Report

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In general, global warming will make areas of the world uninhabitable due to natural disasters caused by the impact of climate change. Increases in sea levels caused by the melting of glaciers can lead to flooding that areas of the world are ill-equipped to cope with. With the Paris Agreement clearly not being implemented in the most effective way, how can the EU continue its efforts in tackling climate change on all levels? What consequences can climate change have on richer countries versus poorer countries? What responsibilities do Member States have regarding climate change?

In the Spotlight Greta Thunberg, a teenager from Sweden began her solo climate protest “Skolstrejk för klimatet” (School strike for climate) in August 2018. In only a year she has been joined by thousands of schools, universities, and organisations. Greta Thunberg's solo climate protest has grown to a global climate movement with climate strikes in over 200 countries.4

Key Actors The EU’s 28 Member States play an important role in reaching the goals set by the Paris Agreement. As the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU)5 Article 4 states, the environment is a shared competence. Therefore, the European Commission and national governments can both propose legislation in this field.

The European Commission is the executive branch of the EU and was one of the first entities to ratify the Paris Agreement. The Directorate-General on Climate Action (DG-CLIMA), led by Raffaele Mauro Petriccione, is responsible for EU policies on climate action and leads international climate negotiations for the EU. The UN creates a forum for its 193 Member States and two Observer States to discuss multilateral treaties and resolutions. Within the UN’s seven organs,6 the Economic and Social Council is the principal body for environmental issues. Additionally, the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a body of the UN which assesses the science related to climate change.7 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), play an important role in raising awareness on climate change 4 5 6 7

Friday for Future (2019): Strike List Countries EUR-Lex (2016): Division of competences within the European Union United Nations: Main Organs The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: About IPCC

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with different types of campaigns. Climate Action Network International, Greenpeace and Earthjustice are only a few of the many NGOs working with climate change.

Key Conflicts The coal phase-out is one of the most important steps the EU can take in order to reach a carbon-neutral Europe by 2050 and to meet the EU’s commitment to reduce CO2 emissions by at least 40% by 2030.8 Coal remains a central energy source as it accounts for nearly a quarter of the total electricity production in the EU. Coal also provides jobs to around 240,000 EU citizens in mines and power plants.9 Only eight of 28 Member States aim to phase out coal-powered energy by 2030. For instance, Poland is the biggest coal producer in the EU and Poland is proposing to expand its coal mines. The coal industry has deep roots in the Polish culture and is a highly respected job, therefore any policy that could negatively affect mining jobs can have immediate negative consequences for the national government.10 Another issue is that not every Member State is in agreement on how high up climate action should be on their political agenda. For example, 22 Member States have signed numerous statements for increasing efforts on an EU-level to tackle the climate crisis. However, currently six Member States, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia have chosen not to join any of the statements as stated in the infographic below.

Furthermore, a point of reflection is how strong the current greenhouse gas emission targets are, especially given the socio-economic context of each Member State. MEPs pushed for raising the 2030 emission reduction target from 40% to 55% compared to 1990 levels.11 A recent Commission evaluation of National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs)12 draft shows that the majority of Member States are expected to miss their targets in 2030, even without the additional proposal in their NECP. The countries that are on track to meet their targets under EU strategies and the Paris Agreement are countries that set very low targets13 that were easy to reach. However, if the raised goals are not met, it could affect the credibility of EU climate policy.

8 EURActiv (2019): Only eight EU countries plan to phase out coal by 2030 9 European Commission (2019): Coal in Europe’s Energy Mix 10 Baker institute (2018): Explaining Poland's Coal Paradox 11 Chatain, Baptiste (2019): MEPs urge the EU to lead the way to net-zero emissions by 2050 12 Itkonen, Anna-Kaisa (2019): Energy Union: Commission calls on Member States to step up ambition in plans to implement Paris agreement 13 Climate Action Network Europe: Off Target: Ranking of EU countries’ ambition and progress in fighting climate change

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Measures in place As mentioned above, the Paris Agreement is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing with greenhouse-gas-emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance.1 The UNFCCC2 is the main international agreement on climate action. To date, it has been ratified by 195 countries. Its critics suggest that political realities provide a challenging context for climate change negotiations, regarding financial commitments and legally binding targets.

The 7th Environment Action Programme (EAP)3 was implemented in 2012 and is the guiding European environmental policy until 2020 with three main objectives: to protect, conserve and enhance the EU’s natural capital; to turn the EU into a resource-efficient, green, and competitive low-carbon economy and to safeguard EU citizens from environment-related pressures and risks to health and wellbeing.

The Kyoto Protocol4 is an international agreement with the goal to reduce greenhouse gas emissions during the period 2008–2012. The protocol has been ratified by the EU and has been extended until 2020.

The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is operated in all EU countries.5 EU ETS is the world's first and biggest international emission trade system. The EU sets a limit on gas emissions, which reduces over time.

Companies then buy and sell admission allowances through the carbon market. The less a company emits, the less it pays.

In addition to the EU ETS, the Innovation Fund was established by the Commission for the post-2020 period,6 financed through the EU ETS. The Innovation Fund will support projects in renewable energy, carbon capture and storage, and low-carbon innovation in energy-intensive industries.

Looking Beyond • How can the EU further contribute internationally as a strong advocate of climate change mitigation?

• How can the EU support countries of any socio-economic capacity in tackling climate change?

• How can the EU encourage Member States to develop long term climate strategies?

• What measures can the EU take to speed up the coal phase-out?

Research Guide • An article on the impact of climate change on the world according to the 2018 UN IPCC Report • A video explaining the Kyoto Protocol • A short summary of the contents of the Paris Agreement • A summary of the EU’s role in the Paris Agreement

1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: Climate Get the Big Picture 2 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: What is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change?

3 European Commission (2019): Environment Action Programme to 2020 4 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: What is the Kyoto Protocol?

5 European Commission: EU Emissions Trading System 6 European Commission (2019): Experts put forward ideas for EU low-carbon Innovation Fund

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COMMITTEE ON HUMAN RIGHTS Sticks and stones: With debates on the internet shifting towards more offensive statements, mostly targeting minorities or disadvantaged groups of people, and in some cases even resulting in acts of violence, how can the EU prevent the escalation of hatred and discrimination within the society while safeguarding the freedom of expression of its citizens?

by Emma Quast (DE), Marek Jankovský (CZ) Key Terms • Freedom of expression is a human right enshrined in EU legislation in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) as follows: “Article 1: Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers.

This article shall not prevent States from requiring the licensing of broadcasting, television or cinema enterprises.

Article 2: The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society.”1 • The Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 2008 on combating certain forms and expressions of racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law2 defines illegal hate speech as “all conduct publicly inciting to violence or hatred directed against a group of persons or a member of such a group defined by reference to race, colour, religion, descent or national or ethnic origin.”

• Discrimination is a situation where your rights are limited or you are treated unfavourably, unfairly and unequally on the basis of your sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation.

• Governmental censorship is the state-initiated suppression or prohibition of any parts of books, films, news, etc. that are considered obscene, politically unacceptable, or a threat to security.

• Filter bubbles create a situation where an internet user encounters only information that resembles and reinforces their own beliefs, caused by algorithms that personalise an individual’s online experience.

Contextualisation of the Topic Freedom of speech is something we consider as given without a doubt and it is crucial to guarantee a stable democracy. But nowadays, due to social media this right is oftentimes misused by faceless accounts on the internet to spread hate, which, because of today's modern technologies, reaches and influences millions of people.

Throughout history there have been many examples of hate speech fueling violent actions. In 1994, over 800,000 members of the Tutsi minority were slaughtered within a time span of 100 days during the genocide in Rwan1 Council of Europe (1950): European Convention on Human Rights 2 EUR-Lex (2008): Council Framework on combating certain forms and expressions of racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law

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da. Hate propaganda was spread by radio and newspaper, urging people to “weed out the cockroaches,” suggesting cold-blooded murder.3 Despite policy makers and international bodies such as the United Nations (UN) having made long strides in tackling hate speech, the internet has provided a whole new platform where hate speech can spread, maybe even faster and easier than ever before. The internet can provide a level of anonymity or distance from the real world, from where users often hide to post offensive or discriminatory statements. According to Twitter, in May 2018, its “systems identified and challenged over 9.9 million potentially spammy or automated accounts per week.”4 But how many more are there that the mechanisms were not able to identify?

Furthermore, mechanisms and algorithms on social media often form filter bubbles.5 As a result, the content on social media, for example your news feed on Facebook, is filtered based on your previous activities on the internet. This forms a “bubble” which reinforces your views, political preferences, forming communities that may share discriminative or even extremist views.6 Therefore, what kind of adequate policies should the EU adopt in order to tackle the issue effectively?

In the Spotlight: Lyudmila Savchuk Lyudmila Savchuk is a Russian Internet activist and investigative journalist who in 2015 infiltrated groups of Russian “trolls” in St. Petersburg, which produced content aimed at evoking hate between Russians and Americans, as well as affecting the US and EU politics. After her two-month work experience, Savchuk leaked all the documents collected within the time period to an independent Russian news outlet, risking her safety and career. As a result, charges have been put against 13 of the company employees.7

Key Actors The 28 Member States’ governments decide on local laws and policies regarding hate speech, which allows for targeted solutions, protection, and support to those at risk of becoming victims of hate-motivated crimes.

Taking Germany as an example, the Netzwerk Durchsetzungsgesetz (NetzDG) law is the most extreme example of national online hate speech law thus far observed.8 The European Commission is the executive branch of the EU and is in charge of proposing legislation and implementing EU decisions. The European Commission also has the authority to negotiate hate speech policies with tech giants on behalf of the EU.9 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) launch campaigns targeting hate speech. Amnesty International has started various projects in many EU countries to fight hate speech. In the UK for example Amnesty International met with various local councils and urged them to take action. After these meetings many publicly condemned hate speech and even passed motions against hate speech.10 Tech giants such as Facebook, Twitter, Google can adopt policies monitoring and targeting hate speech, stopping it from spreading, and ensuring its removal when necessary. Furthermore, they can inform their users about the rules of the platform and promote anti-hate movements and organisations. However, there is a lack of legislation on how to regulate them. There are also smaller platforms that slip through the radar.

Thus, the question is not just how the EU should regulate these platforms but also whether the EU should regulate and scrutinise all platforms in the same manner.

3 BBC (2019): Rwanda genocide: 100 days of slaughter 4 Twitter: Elections integrity 5 Hern, Alex (2017): How social media filter bubbles and algorithms influence the election 6 Nielsen, Nikolaj (2018): Russian activist warns on 'fake news' as EU backs action 7 Evstatieva, Monika; Myers, Jolie (2018): Meet The Activist Who Uncovered The Russian Troll Factory Named In Mueller Probe 8 BBC (2018): Germany starts enforcing hate speech law 9 European Commission (2016): Code of conduct on countering illegal hate speech online 10 Amnesty International UK: Tackling hate crime in the UK

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The guarantee of EU citizens’ rights needs to remain a priority of the EU. Victims of hate speech or groups and people susceptible to hate speech deserve to have as much of a platform as any other citizen to express themselves freely without the fear of being attacked.

Key Conflicts The central conflict of this topic is freedom of speech versus censorship followed by the question, how can the EU balance a fundamental freedom and the rights of victims of discrimination? All citizens are guaranteed the freedom of expression and at the same time the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU stresses that no group is allowed to be discriminated.11 If a government strictly regulates social media content, it undermines the freedom of expression. On the other hand, citizens also have the right to not be attacked based on their beliefs or background. What kind of balance needs to be struck between the fundamental right to free speech while still protecting the victims of discrimination? Then the other question is, should the EU pursue censorship, would it really eliminate the hate speech problem or would it leave deep-set and long-held beliefs unconfronted? Importantly, the EU stresses that even content, which would be considered as an insult or would disturb people should be accepted since this is what pluralism calls for and without it our democratic society would fail. Therefore, every restriction must pursue the goal of upholding freedom of expression.12 Furthermore, what is classified as hate speech also varies from one social media platform to another.

Many activists and journalists reported that in disputed areas like Crimea they found themselves being censored due to Facebook favouring governments and elite groups over them in order to keep its access to the global market in the countries.13 The European definition of hate speech applies to whichever medium exists.14 However, the difficulty lies in the fact that the definition itself can be interpreted in many ways and more often it is a personal and individual interpretation. Therefore, should we truly let American companies like Facebook or Twitter define what hate speech means In Europe?

Why is it so difficult to make that distinction? Social media platforms rely heavily on artificial intelligence and content moderators, who are burdened by the sheer volume of content.15 However, artificial intelligence and algorithms are not always able to identify comments that would be considered hate speech, as seen with Google's algorithms, which became “biased” and labelled most posts from African-Americans as “toxic.”16

Measures in place The ECHR is an international treaty established by the Council of Europe (CoE) and signed by all 47 members, thus ranging beyond the borders of the EU.17 Additionally, since the implementation of the Lisbon Treaty, the ECHR is legally binding for Member States.

In order to prevent and counter the spread of illegal hate speech online, the European Commission agreed with Facebook, Microsoft, Twitter and YouTube on a “Code of conduct on countering illegal hate speech online.”18

11 Official Journal of the European Communities (200): Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 12 Columbia University: Handyside v. United Kingdom 13 Laub, Sachary (2019): Hate Speech on Social Media: Global Comparison 14 EUR-Lex (2008): Framework Decision on combating certain forms and expressions of racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law 15 Laub, Sachary (2019): Hate speech on social media: global comparison 16 Martin, Nicole (2019): Google’s Artificial Intelligence Hate Speech Detector Is ‘Racially Biased,’ Study Finds 17 Council of Europe (1950): European Convention on Human Rights 18 European Commission (2016): Code of conduct on countering illegal hate speech online

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REGIONAL SELECTION CONFERENCE OF EYP CZ 2019 TÁBOR

Member States’ national policies on hate speech differ from Member State to Member State. Germany introduced the aforementioned NetzDG law in 2018. With Germany’s past, far-reaching restrictions on hate speech are a common approach for them. Therefore, the NetzDG allows the government to hit companies with fines of up to EUR 50 million should they fail to remove “obviously illegal” hate speech and other posts within 24 hours of receiving a notification.19 Tech giant policies also differ from website to website. For instance, Youtube, owned by Google, has arguably harsh monetisation rules.20 Youtube creators consider their work as a fulltime job as the platform allows creators to earn money from advertisements showed on their videos. Videos can be demonetised should they not reflect community standards or go against advertisers’ wishes. However, these monetisation rules are becoming harsher and harsher and the platform has even been accused of censorship and stifling free speech.21

Looking Beyond The importance to solve this problem is growing with more and more people adopting extremist viewpoints, that they get from social media. The most important question to ask is: • How can the EU tackle hate speech online while simultaneously protecting and upholding basic rights such as the freedom of expression?

• Why do the current measures fail to solve the problem completely?

• In the pursuit of protecting targeted groups will the EU end up guaranteeing the freedom of expression only for the politically correct?

• Due to the numerous national jurisdictions, should there be more harmonisation across the EU in terms of what is considered hate speech?

Research Guide • An explanation of the Code of Conduct • An article comparing hate speech across social media • A description of the Council of Europe work regarding hate speech • A video on Facebook’s leaked guidelines for content moderation

19 Oltermann, Philip (2018): Tough new German law puts tech firms and free speech in spotlight 20 Google: AdSense programme policies 21 Alexander, Julia (2019): The golden age of YouTube is over

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COMMITTEE ON INTERNAL MARKET AND CONSUMER PROTECTION An economy that works for all: With movements like Economy for the Common Good promoting a new economic model, how should the EU approach calls for a more ethical European market?

by Marta Sowa (PL) and Nik Smerkolj (SI) Key Terms • Profit is a pivotal concept in business. It measures the economic value generated by some economic activity and is defined as the difference between revenues and costs.1 • Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total value of goods produced and services provided in a country during one year.

• An ethical way of doing business is one in which economic actors behave in such a way that people and the environment are left unharmed, or they are even enriched.2 • The common good is the welfare of all members of a community, as opposed to some particular group or individual.

• The European Single Market is a trade bloc of 28 European Union (EU) Member States, Norway, Iceland, Lichtenstein, and Switzerland. Its aim is to guarantee the free movement of goods, services, capital, and labour.

• Economy for the Common Good (ECG) is a citizens’ movement started in 2010 in Austria. Their main vision is “to live well in a world in which the economy is aligned with ethical values.” They organise lectures, workshops, congresses, and exhibitions and visit schools and universities.3

Contextualisation of the Topic In 2015, the online retailer Amazon was accused of tax-avoidance and exploitation of workers. Employees, it was claimed, had to work under high pressure, were expected to be available for work at any time of the day or night, and were warned against cutting back on hours to care for their children.4 Numerous other big corporations similarly have been accused of exploiting their workforce in the past, e. g. Walmart, Nestlé, Tesco, and Coca-Cola.5 Generally, companies strive to increase revenues and lower expenses to maximise financial profit. Ethical behaviour, however, often comes with higher expenses for companies, which thus have an incentive to move their headquarters into countries with lower taxes, neglect environmental rules and obligations, support child labour, or undermine workers’ rights.

1 Davila, Antonio; Oyon, Daniel (2012): Malea Fashion District - How Successful Managers Use Financial Information to Grow Organizations, p. 15 2 ibid 3 Economy for the Common Good (2019): Our work 4 Kantor, Jodi; Streitfield, David (2015): Inside Amazon: Wrestling Big Ideas in a Bruising Workplace 5 Hunt, Tim (2018): Five Unethical Companies

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REGIONAL SELECTION CONFERENCE OF EYP CZ 2019 TÁBOR

In turn, a business behaviour not primarily oriented towards the common good can produce significant costs for the general public. As seen above, with the real world GDP rising, carbon dioxide emissions, oil consumption, and oil production have steadily increased, too. Since environmentally friendly behaviour represents an expense for companies, they can tend to neglect environmental regulations. Prosecution is often insufficient and incomplete.6 The costs of labour and safe working conditions also contribute greatly to the overall expenses of a company. Child labour and precarious working conditions are just some examples of resulting unethical behaviour of employers.

In light of this potential conflict between profit-seeking and ethical behaviour, what can the EU do to ensure that the economy contributes to the welfare of all? Should we move to a whole new economic model, one in which companies are rewarded for ethical behaviour and penalised for unethical behaviour?

In the Spotlight Many companies and business people promote ethical policies. One of them is Helmut Lind, Chairman of the Management Board at Sparda Bank München eG. For that reason, he is one of the foremost supporters of ECG and their call for an economy that serves the common good. On the movement’s webpage, he is quoted saying: “For me, orientation towards the common good is the most important foundation of the future and thus of any increase of productivity in the future.”7

Key Actors The 28 Member States have transferred certain legislative competencies to the EU. Domestic legislation has a significant impact on incentivising certain conduct, e. g. by national taxation schemes.

The European Commission is the EU's executive arm and holds the sole right of initiative for new European legislation.8 The Commission would have to play a vital role in proposing, implementing, and overseeing policies for a more ethical European market. Depending on the precise area of legislation, the Commissioners for Euro and Social Dialogue, Competition, Internal Market and Economic and Financial Affairs would be of special importance.

The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) is a forum for consultation, dialogue, and consensus between representatives of civil society (from employers to consumers and many more). The EESC advises the EU institutions and promotes the interests of civil society both inside and outside of the EU.9 ECG is a movement advocating an alternative economic model. ECG brings together individuals, economic actors, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and municipalities, and it is officially supported by more than 2000 companies and organisations.10 Privately held companies generally strive to maximise their profit, sometimes at the expense of ethical business conduct.

6 7 8 9 10

Billiet, C. M. (ed.) (2018): Sanctioning Environmental Crime (WG4) Prosecution and Judicial Practices, p. 45f.

Economy for the Common Good (2019): Common Good Balance Sheet European Commission (2019): European Commission - Overview European Economic and Social Committee (2019): About Economy for the Common Good (2019): Economy for the Common Good

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REGIONAL SELECTION CONFERENCE OF EYP CZ 2019 TÁBOR

Key Conflicts With every proposed measure for a more ethical economy, there also come numerous concerns and risks – how deeply should the EU interfere with the market forces on the European Single Market? Is it big and strong enough to shift to a whole new economic model?

Under the premise that companies’ profit orientation and the common good often come apart, ECG promotes such a shift. Proponents maintain that a new economy should rest on mutual cooperation and the common good, not competition and individual profit. To this end, they suggest to replace financial balance sheets, with which companies measure their financial performance, with Common Good Balance Sheets evaluating the contribution of their activities to common welfare (see figure below for details).11 The sum of all companies’ scores would then make up an economy’s Common Good Product – a new indicator for economic success to replace the Gross Domestic Product.12 Advocates of ECG further call for legal advantages for companies with higher Common Good scores, such as lower taxes and cheaper loans.13 Furthermore, amongst other things, they demand that key livelihood sectors like education, health, or energy be in public hands, and that hostile acquisitions of other companies be forbidden.14 Up to this day, the ECG has won the support of more than 2000 companies and organisations as well as a favourable opinion by the EESC.1515

Fig. 2: Common Good Balance Sheet graphic above https://www.ecogood.org/en/our-work/common-good-balance-sheet/

At the same time, ECG ideas have attracted severe criticism. If it was implemented, companies would have to either spend more money on ethical business conduct or face penalties. How could the EU secure the international competitiveness of such companies? In general, liberal economists argue that markets work best for the common good when they are based on the competition of individuals.

11 12 13 14 15

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Felber, Christian; Hagelberg, Gus (2017): The Economy for the Common Good ibid. ibid. ibid.

European Economic and Social Committee (2015): Economy for the Common Good

REGIONAL SELECTION CONFERENCE OF EYP CZ 2019 TÁBOR

Another concern is that the ECG will be just one more model of environmental and social reporting that will create even more paperwork, and that non-financial factors of success could not be measured.16 Moreover, some types of companies will have an easier time to acquire high Common Good scores due to their size or what type of sector they operate in.17 The new Balance Sheets could thus systematically disadvantage certain sectors and big companies. Some critics have even compared the ECG model to Marxism, or called the project of defining a ‘common good’ for a whole society dictatorial.18

Measures in place Today, more than 2000 companies and organisations primarily from Austria, Germany, Switzerland, and Spain have declared their support for ECG.19 They already voluntarily publish Common Good Balance sheets and commit themselves to improving their scores. The ECG is trying to continue spreading their message through lectures, workshops, and congresses.

In many policy areas, the EU and its Member States already strive to influence the conduct of economic actors by means of financial incentives or regulations. For example, the European Emission Trading Scheme, in which companies have to buy certificates to emit carbon dioxide, is designed to incentivise economically friendly behaviour.20 These political initiatives, however, are tailor-made for specific political goals, there is no general mechanism to reward ethical or penalise unethical behaviour.

In 2014, the EU passed a directive according to which large companies have to regularly publish reports on their policies concerning environmental protection, social responsibility, treatment of employees, respect for human rights, anti-corruption, and diversity.21 Furthermore, in 2015, the EESC has recommended to implement some of the ECG’s core ideas into EU and Member States’ legislation; amongst them were Common Good Balance Sheets, the Common Good Product, and financial incentives for ethical businesses.22

Looking Beyond • Is the European market big and strong enough to be a leading example of adopting a more ethical economy?

• What side effects would have to be expected from implementing ECG policies?

• Would consumers be willing to pay a higher price for an ethically produced product?

• Would it be sensible to enforce ECG policies only in some Member States?

Research Guide • A comprehensive article presenting the Economy for the Common Good • A newspaper report on the Economy for the Common Good • An overview of the Common Good Balance Sheet • A TEDx Talk on the Economy for the Common Good • The EESC’s opinion on the Economy for the Common Good

16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Ibid, p. 12f.

Lars Forsberg: Economy for the common good – Another ecological tool or a vital paradigm changer Schmidpeter, René (2012): Gemeinwohl-Ökonomie à la Felber - eine kritische Betrachtung, p. 17 Economy for the Common Good (2019): Economy for the Common Good European Commission (2019): EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) EUR-Lex (2014): Directive 2014/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council European Economic and Social Committee (2015): Economy for the Common Good

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