Academy Preparation Kit – RSC Uherské Hradiště 2019

ACADEMIC PREPARATION KIT 8th Regional Selection Conference of EYP Czech Republic Uherské Hradiště 2019

REGIONAL SELECTION CONFERENCE OF EYP CZ 2019 UHERSKÉ HRADIŠTĚ

TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS

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the eu and you

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TOPICS

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ORGANISED CRIME, CORRUPTION AND MONEY LAUNDERING 5 ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY

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CULTURE AND EDUCATION

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REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

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CIVIL LIBERTIES, JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS I

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CLIMATE CHANGE

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INDUSTRY, RESEARCH AND ENERGY

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CIVIL LIBERTIES, JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS II

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REGIONAL SELECTION CONFERENCE OF EYP CZ 2019 UHERSKÉ HRADIŠTĚ

THE EU AND YOU Here are some more in-depth resources for your research given the context of the EU. These can be used in combination with your Topic Overviews as these will help you understand what actually goes on behind the scenes. Note that you can always get in touch with your chair to receive an exhaustive guide on the EU.

1. Explained: EU Institutions • A first overview: The EU institutions explained by their presidents • All EU institutions and bodies summarised

2. Explained: Motivations for EU integration • Overview of the history of the EU

3. Explained: EU competences and decision-making • Video explaining law-making in the EU • Legislative powers of the European Parliament • Visualisation of the Ordinary Legislative Procedure • Division of competences between the EU and the Member States

TOPICS COMMITTEE ON ORGANISED CRIME, CORRUPTION AND MONEY LAUNDERING (CRIM) Trading humans over borders: With human trafficking affecting several hundred thousand victims in the European Union annually and being amongst the most profitable criminal activities, how can the European Union effectively combat human trafficking in Europe, while preserving the free movement of persons?

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY (ENVI) The “other” health: The amount of Europeans who suffer from mental health issues is on the rise, and approximately one out of five young adults has experienced mental and behavioural problems in their life.

How can the European Union work on a comprehensive approach to mental health and have the Member States guarantee adequate treatment for their citizens?

COMMITTEE ON CULTURE AND EDUCATION (CULT) ISexuality as a taboo: Chlamydia and gonorrhea are amongst the five most common infectious diseases in Europe. With different approaches towards sex education across the European Union, how should Member States’ governments ensure the establishment and preservation of sexual and reproductive health through education?

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REGIONAL SELECTION CONFERENCE OF EYP CZ 2019 UHERSKÉ HRADIŠTĚ

COMMITTEE ON REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT (REGI) Doctors across borders: With an increasing number of medical residents leaving their home countries in search of better working conditions, some rural areas in Member States are facing a shortage of medical professionals. How can the European Union tackle this issue without restricting the right to free movement of labour?

COMMITTEE ON CIVIL LIBERTIES, JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS I (LIBE I) Migration management: since 2015, the refugee crisis is one of Europe’s toughest challenges due to its impact on human rights, politics and society. Considering all of those aspects, how should the European Union reform its immigration policies to ensure the safety and integrity of asylum seekers while ensuring the safety of its external borders?

COMMITTEE ON CLIMATE CHANGE (CLIM) Strike for climate: The growing influence of the Climate Strike movement, involving thousands of students in the streets worldwide, shows the willingness of the youth to take radical steps against climate change. How can the European Union further improve its environmental policies in order to reach a more sustainable Europe and efficiently fight against global warming?

COMMITTEE ON INDUSTRY, RESEARCH AND ENERGY (ITRE) New winds of cyber threats: With the 5G network entering Europe, new digital infrastructure may become an easy target for external cybercriminal activity. Bearing in mind the already alarming vulnerability to cybercrimes across Member States, how should the European Union secure its Digital Single Market strategy from forthcoming cybersecurity challenges?

COMMITTEE ON CIVIL LIBERTIES, JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS II (LIBE II) Whose face is it? With a new era of heavily edited audiovisual content and ‘deepfakes’ on their way, the intentional spread of fake and misleading content has never been easier. What should the European Union do to correctly identify and prevent such disinformation from being shared online?

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COMMITTEE ON ORGANISED CRIME, CORRUPTION AND MONEY LAUNDERING Trading humans over borders: With human trafficking affecting several hundred thousand victims in the European Union annually and being amongst the most profitable criminal activities, how can the European Union effectively combat human trafficking in Europe, while preserving the free movement of persons? written by Kristína Zídková (CZ) & Krista Čistjakova (LV) Relevance of the topic Human trafficking is a serious crime that abuses fundamental human rights and dignity. It involves the criminal exploitation of vulnerable people for the sole purpose of economic gain. Basically, human trafficking is a modern form of slavery. It is often transnational in character and its victims are of all genders and ages. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), there are various forms of human trafficking such as sexual exploitation, including prostitution; forced labour or services; the removal of vital organs, etc.1 A larger percentage of sexually exploited victims are women and girls, while men are often trafficked for forced labor. Worldwide, around 25% of all trafficking victims are children.2 A 2013 study researching human trafficking in Europe identified and reported almost 16,000 people as victims of human trafficking.3 However, these numbers only indicate reported victims. It is predicted that at any given time there are 140,000 people in Europe trapped in human trafficking. In the past decade, law enforcement authorities in the EU have witnessed a considerable increase in intra-EU trafficking. In 2014, for example, the majority of human trafficking victims (71 %) registered in Europol’s database were EU citizens. Until the problem of human trafficking is prioritised, it will stay one of the fastest growing crimes in the world with global profits of roughly $150 billion a year for traffickers.4

Key conflicts Removing barriers to freedom of movement has increased trafficking in human beings. The European Parliamentary Research Service highlighted how “free movement of people and goods across the EU’s internal borders reduces the chance of detection.” In particular, following the 2004 and 2007 enlargements, controls at borders with countries of origin and transit of human trafficking were either lifted (as in the case of Poland and Slovakia) or eased (Bulgaria and Romania).5 Moreover, the EU now borders on third countries which are significant sources of trafficked persons, including Russia, Ukraine, Moldova and the Western Balkan countries.

Human trafficking is fuelled by the socio-economic inequality between the more developed and less developed European countries. This makes the citizens vulnerable, dreaming of a “better world” and easily explo1 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2009), The global report on trafficking in persons, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime website, pp. 50-51.

2 Polaris: Freedom happens now (2016), The facts, Polaris project website.

3 News European Parliament (2017), Human trafficking: nearly 16 000 victims in the EU, European Parliament website.

4 Human rights first (2017), Human Trafficking by numbers, Human Rights First website.

5 European Parliamentary Research Service (2014), The problem of human trafficking in the European Union, European institute for gender equality website, pp.3.

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ited by human traffickers. These activities are encouraged by many other factors including high demand for sex services and further fueled by increase in low-wage payments.6 Conviction rates are low for human trafficking. In fact, conviction rates fell 25%. A report by the UN found that 742 people in Europe were convicted for trafficking offences in 2016. 7 Victims who have escaped sex trafficking typically experience mental disorders and psychological illnesses, such as anxiety, depression, panic disorder, suicidal tendencies, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and most importantly Stockholm syndrome, also known as traumatic bonding, which means that victims find it challenging to leave their abusers. In addition, victims are terrified to leave their abusers in fear of being physically harmed or killed.

Another problem is drug abuse, which is often exploited by the trafficker. Traffickers may target individuals with existing substance abuse and use it to keep victims in a trafficking situation. It can be framed as a reward or punishment, or as a way to decrease the victim’s ability to resist trafficking and abuse. Many victims have criminal records themselves, which makes it even harder for them to step up.

Stakeholders Europol: Human Trafficking is one of the priorities​ of the European Multidisciplinary Platform Against Criminal Threats (​EMPACT), Europol’s priority crime area, under the 2018–2021 EU Policy Cycle. Europol’s strategic and operational support focuses on organised criminal gangs engaged in human trafficking in the EU Member States, among others.8 European Commission: Acts through the EU Projects and Funding for anti-trafficking actions and the approval of a Legal and Policy Framework that directs EU institutions. This led to the creation of an​ EU Anti-Trafficking Coordinator​, who is responsible for improving coordination and coherence among EU institutions, EU agencies, Member States and international actors.9 The European Union's Judicial Cooperation Unit (EUROJUST): Together with Europol and other EU mechanisms, EUROJUST signed a joint statement to address Trafficking in Human Beings (THB) in a coordinated, coherent and comprehensive manner. This joint effort of the Justice and Home Affairs Agencies includes assistance to the Member States in the coordination of cross-border action against THB to help increase the number of THB investigations and prosecutions. It also focuses on data collection and on identifying what it can do to assist the Member States in bringing human traffickers efficiently to justice.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs): Civil society plays an important role in the implementation of the action against trafficking in human beings, through awareness raising, research, training, detecting victims of trafficking, providing them with accommodation and other assistance and supporting them through the criminal justice process in order to claim compensation. International and national NGOs continued to provide information to the Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA) in the context of the preparation of country evaluation reports10 Member States: It is the Member States’ responsibility to improve their legal and juridical systems and frameworks as well as the supporting systems for victims of human trafficking while following the instructions of the European Commission and the actors mentioned above.

Existing measures On 1 February 2008, the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking Human​s provided 6 7 8 9 10

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Eurostat (2019), Minimum wage statistics, Eurostat: Statistics explained website.

The Guardian (2018), Trafficking convictions fall 25% despite rising number of victims in Europe, The Guardian website.

Europol (2017), EU Policy Cycle- EMPACT, Europol Europa website.

European Commission, Together Against Trafficking in Human Beings, European Commission website.

Council of Europe (2014), Role of NGOs, Action against Trafficking in Human Beings.

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a series of rights for victims of THB, e.g. to be identified as a victim; to be protected and assisted; to be given at least 30 days for recovery and reflection. These victims are granted a renewable residence permit and receive compensation for the damages suffered. The Convention is a monitoring system set up to supervise the implementation of the obligations contained in it, which consists of two pillars: GRETA and the Committee of the Parties.

Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA)​is responsible for monitoring the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the Parties. GRETA members meet three to four times a year in Strasbourg at the Council of Europe headquarters to discuss new prevention methods as well as the current situation of THB. Measures taken on the national level: In Romania​, the government increased efforts to prevent trafficking. The government approved a new national program to fight trafficking in November 2018, covering 2019–2023, which included specific tasks for ministries, acknowledged the need for various ministries to improve their anti-trafficking capacity and emphasised protection for young victims.

Denmark​ adopted a three-year national action plan to combat human trafficking and produced stricter guidelines for businesses on preventing forced labor.

In Estonia​, the government established a national victim support hotline for all victims of violent crime, including trafficking, while providing funding to a separate NGO-run hotline. Although the government meets the minimum standards, authorities investigated and prosecuted fewer trafficking cases and courts convicted fewer traffickers.

Conclusion Human trafficking within European borders has been an increasing problem through the past few years and has many possible reasons for its recent escalation. The key conflicts leading to the alarming number of trafficking victims are political instabilities, abuse of technological advancements, lack of transparency of EU Member States and their inability to face the challenges of rapid migration to the EU. Human trafficking is a very sensitive topic, as the trafficking activities are extremely discreet and victims are highly vulnerable. Thus, it is very hard to collect sufficient data to fully understand the scope of the issue and later draw adequate solutions. Though there are existing measures in place, they do not face up to the challenges of the human trafficking reality.

Further research • DVTV (2019), Her mother sold her to pedophiles: I was raped by hundreds of men, head of the network was prime minister of Belgium, Aktuálně.cz website; • Sage Open (2014), Trafficking in Human Beings in the European Union: Gender, Sexual Exploitation and Digital Communication Technologies, Sage Journals website.

• United Nations University: Institute on Globalisation, Culture and Mobility (2015), A Human Rights Approach to Human Trafficking, United Nations University: Institute on Globalisation, Culture and Mobility website, • The Real Stories (2017), The Real Sex Traffic (Crime Documentary), The Real Stories Youtube Channel, • Reuters (2018), Europe urged to protect thousands of children from human trafficking, Reuters website, • Social Europe by Hannah Bondi (2018), Europe Must Target Demand To Fight Sex Trafficking, Social Europe website,

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COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY The “other” health: The amount of Europeans who suffer from mental health issues is on the rise, and approximately one out of five young adults has experienced mental and behavioural problems in their life. How can the European Union work on a comprehensive approach to mental health and have the Member States guarantee adequate treatment for their citizens? written by Erica Moreira (PT) & Adrian Urdea (RO) Relevance of the topic Mental health is everyone's concern; it affects the lives of people living with mental problems, their careers, as well as the productivity and the economy of society. Mental health problems are one of the uppermost public health challenges faced in Europe, with an estimated 17.3% of the EU’s population – approximately 84 million people – experiencing a mental health problem in 2019.1 Poor mental health may have a profound effect on the quality of life of affected individuals and poses a threat to their safety. Europe has the highest rate of suicide compared to all the other regions, making suicide the most common cause of death in several countries.2 There is a strong link between suicide and mental health; in high-income countries, approximately 90% of deaths by suicide can be attributed to mental illnesses.3

Key conflicts Mental health problems are difficult to diagnose, and people are often unaware of the symptoms resulting in inefficiency of treatment.4 Statistics have shown that merely 10% of those afflicted by mental health illnesses receive treatment5 and there have been several cases of misdiagnosis.6 Furthermore, access to healthcare for mental disorders has been consistently reported as low,7 as public hospitals and clinics often lack specialised personnel.8 Moreover, the lack of comprehensive mental health policy in the EU, as well as the inconsistency amongst the national policies of the Member States, hinders the existence of a unified approach to the problem. Every Member State has a different multidisciplinary approach to mental health care, meaning that a variety of medical professionals are involved in the treatment of mentally ill patients.9 1 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2018), Health at a Glance: Europe 2018.

2 WHO Regional Office for Europe (2018), Suicide mortality rate.

3 WHO Regional Office for Europe (2018), Fact sheets on sustainable development goals: health targets, pp. 2.

4 National Institutes of Health (2007), NIH Curriculum Supplement Series, Biological Science Curriculum Study, pp.7.

5 World Health Organization (2018), Fact Sheet on Depression.

6 Elisabet Kvarnstrom (2017), The Dangers of Mental Health Misdiagnosis: Why Accuracy Matters, Bridges to Discovery: Leaders in Residential Mental Health Care.

7 Angelo Barbato, Martine Vallarino, Filippo Rapisarda, Antonio Lora, José Miguel Caldas de Almeida (2014), ACCESS TO MENTAL HEALTH CARE IN EUROPE, EU Compass for Action on Mental Health and Wellbeing, pp.10-12.

8 Jose Miguel Caldas de Almeida, Helen Killaspy (2011), LONG-TERM MENTAL HEALTH CARE FOR PEOPLE WITH SEVERE MENTAL DISORDERS, pp.10-11.

9 SUPPORT-Project (2008), Mental Health in the EU Key Facts, Figures, and Activities, pp.29-32.

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It has been stated that television, movies and social media are the most common means of stereotyping mental illness. The media often advertise a false image of mental illness, hence promoting false stereotypes. Mental health problems are often oversimplified, and the symptoms are generalised.10 Furthermore, venerating and romanticising mental health problems or using harmful phrasing may enhance the risk of death by suicide in individuals who are already ill.11 Aside from harming social relations and the self-esteem of individuals, stigmatisation, discrimination and non-respect for the mentally ill may affect access to employment or housing and influence the decision of not returning to work. It may also lessen the likelihood of seeking treatment.12 Social inequality is one risk factor for mental problems. Countries with a higher levels of income inequality report higher rates of schizophrenia and depression is twice as prevalent amongst the lowest income classes than the highest.13 In addition, lower income countries are associated with an increased exposure to other risk factors, including alcohol, poor diet, unemployment or substandard housing.14 Amongst the social factors contributing to the prevalence of mental health issues, the work environment is recognised as one of the key areas. Although employment may be beneficial to mental health through an increased sense of social inclusion, conversely many psychological factors at work have been found to increase the risk of anxiety, depression and burn-out,15 factors which lead to the desire for unemployment among mentally ill individuals. Although individuals suffering from disorders such as depression and schizophrenia are not exceptionally violent and may perform well in the workplace,16 rates of unemployment are much higher for those suffering from mental ill-health. For example, of the 25–64-year olds with depression, only approximately 50% of them are employed, compared with 77% among healthy individuals.

Research highlights that employers are hesitant to work with those experiencing mental ill-health and that much of society is hesitant about having mentally ill employees and partners, viewing them as dangerous or irrational.17,18

Stakeholders The World Health Organisation (WHO) is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It sets agendas for the Member States and releases reports on progress or improvement.

The Commissioner for Health and Food Safety is a member of the European Commission responsible for taking action on matters in direct regard to public health, making policy proposals to the national governments and monitoring their implementation. However, the European Commission launches frameworks supporting the Member States in examining and improving national policies and providing funds for health projects and promotes research.

Beneficiaries of such funding include non-governmental organisations (NGOs), several of which operate in the European Union: 10 Naveed Saleh (2019), How the Stigma of Mental Health Is Spread by Mass Media, Very Well Mind.

11 European Alliance Against Depression (2014), Take Care - Be Aware, pp. 2-7.

12 Directorate General for Health & Consumers (2010), Countering the stigmatisation and discrimination of people with mental health problems in Europe, pp.1- 2[4-11].

13 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2018), Health at a Glance: Europe 2018, pp.25.

14 WHO Regional Office for Europe (2015), The European Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2020, pp.17.

15 Maria Melchior (2007), Work stress precipitates depression and anxiety in young, working women and men, NCBI. 16 Directorate General for Health & Consumers (2010), Countering the stigmatisation and discrimination of people with mental health problems in Europe, pp.7.

17 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2018), Health at a Glance: Europe 2018, pp.33.

18 Directorate General for Health & Consumers (2010), Countering the stigmatisation and discrimination of people with mental health problems in Europe, pp.7.

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• Mental Health Europe (MHE) envisions a Europe where people with mental health problems live as full citizens with access to appropriate services and support mechanisms. It also coordinates short-term information campaigns and assists policymakers in developing mental-health-friendly policies; • Europe Alliance Against Depression (EAAD) operates to prevent suicide by developing and promoting propitious treatment and prevention methods, as well as optimising the treatment of patients with depressive disorders; • The Movement for Global Mental Health is a network of individuals and organisations aiming to improve services for people living with a mental illness and psychological disabilities worldwide, especially in low- and middle-income countries.

These organisations are aiming to influence the legislative bodies of the Member States and the prejudice of the civil society.

However, National Governments choose whether access to health care is free of charge or to be paid for, what goals and prevention national strategies include and what information is provided in schools.19 They may choose to adopt the regulations set by the WHO or the bodies of the EU.

Existing measures The European Health Action Plan 2013–2020 sets seven objectives that have been developed in cooperation with the Member States, NGOs, and experts. They were adopted by the Council of Europe and the European Commission outlining effective action to strengthen mental health and well-being with the changes that ought to be made to improve it in the European Region.

European countries are obligated to work with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which requires national governments to provide legal, social and economic support for mentally ill individuals, allowing them to be recognised as normal citizens.

The European Framework for Action on Mental Health and Wellbeing aims to collect, exchange and analyse information on policy and stakeholder activities in mental health, a framework that aids the Member States in assessing and improving their policies.

The 3rd EU Health Programme outlines strategies for improving the state of health for the Member States in the years 2014–2020. It funds the annual Good Practices in Mental Health and Wellbeing brochure, which provides information and spreads awareness on positive approaches towards mental health.

Conclusion Mental health contributes to healthier lifestyles, greater productivity, employment and earnings, more social cohesion and improved quality of life for societies and individuals. Problems regarding mental health are a growing hurdle European countries have to face. Stigma poses an obstacle to the integration of people with mental ill-health and also their access to treatment. Although stakeholders, like the European Union and the World Health Organisation, have acted in regards to addressing mental health illnesses in the region, these actions have not proven enough, as they fail to address social inequalities and the increased risk of mental illness in vulnerable people, including socially deprived and low-income groups. Moreover, national governments generally fail at confronting the issue of mental health in the workplace, restricting the integration of mentally ill individuals into society. Besides, disparities are quite evident across the Member States, limiting equal access to mental healthcare for all European citizens.

19 European Commission, European Health Insurance Card.

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Links for further research • Policies and Practices for Mental Health in Europe – a report created by the WHO, co-funded by the European Commission, giving an overview of policies and practices for mental health; it is best to focus on sections 4 and 9.

• Mental Health: Fact sheet – a fact sheet created by the WHO outlining essential information about mental health.

• Tackling Stigma in Mental Health – an article on tackling stigmatisation.

• Transforming the understanding and treatment of mental illnesses – a website run by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) highlighting more in-depth aspects of mental illnesses.

• Eating Disorders – a website run by Mental Health America (MHA) overviewing the nature of these illnesses.

• Mental health problems costing Europe heavily – an article by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) tackling the economic side of mental health.

• LIVING WITH DEPRESSION – a video created by Kat Napiorkowska in order to give unaffected people a better understanding of this mental disease.

• I Am Not A Monster: Schizophrenia – a TEDx Talk by Cecilia McGough presenting the real aspects of living with schizophrenia.

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COMMITTEE ON CULTURE AND EDUCATION

Sexuality as a taboo: Chlamydia and gonorrhea are amongst the five most common infectious diseases in Europe. With different approaches towards sex education across the European Union, how should Member States’ governments ensure the establishment and preservation of sexual and reproductive health through education? written by Tonia Mambyk (UA) Relevance of the topic Sexual health is essential to the physical and emotional well-being of individuals as well as to the social and economic development of communities and countries. However, reaching a decent level of sexual health depends on access to comprehensive information about sexuality and safe sexual behavior. One of the most effective ways to make long-term improvements in this sphere is to ensure that young people are sufficiently educated to make healthy decisions about their sexual lives.1 Research has found that a rights-based comprehensive education about sex and relationships protects children and young people against the risks of abuse, sexual exploitation, and domestic violence.2 Unfortunately, a stigma, influenced by cultural norms and religious beliefs, still exists and has a significant impact on the quality of sex education in many countries. A good example could be the latest situation in Poland, where the government attempted to ban sex education through new legislation. It aims to “criminalise the promotion of underage sexual activity” with a penalty up to five years in prison.

Some disturbing statistics are showing a growth in new cases of sexually transmitted diseases: • More than 1 million sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are acquired every day worldwide.3 • Each year, there are an estimated 376 million 1 World Health Organization (2010), Developing sexual health programmes, Geneva, p.4.

2 Kohler PK, Manhart LE, Lafferty WE (2008), Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Education and the Initiation of Sexual Activity and Teen Pregnancy, J Adolesc Health, p.344.

3 World Health Organization (2018), Report on global sexually transmitted infection surveillance, Geneva, p.8.

Figure 1 : STDs With the Most New Cases per European Country, Sexually transmitted diseases across space and time.

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new infections with 1 of 4 being STIs: chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis, and trichomoniasis.4 • With an estimated 146 million infections each year, chlamydia is the most common sexually transmitted infection worldwide. And Europe is no exception with almost 385 000 cases reported in 2013 alone and more than 3 million between 2004 and 2013. 5

Key conflicts • Inconsistency in Relationship and Sex Education (RSE) policies implementation In the World Health Organisation – European Region, only in 11 out of 25 countries is sex education a mandatory subject at school.6 In four countries (Georgia, Macedonia, the Russian Federation and Serbia) there is no national sexuality education law or strategy existing.

Upon request by the European Parliament’s FEMM Committee, a study was conducted in 2016 which updated the knowledge on the provision of sexuality education and reproductive rights in the European Union.7 It involved a review of recent research and data on sexual and reproductive health in Denmark, Spain, and the United Kingdom. The problem is that despite the mandatory provision of sex education in schools in the aforementioned countries, there remain means by which schools and parents may avoid participation. In Spain, there is no mandatory provision of sex education in schools at all. This situation leads to a violation of RSE policies in many educational institutions. Besides, only 21 European countries (45%) reported the systematic collection of information on children’s and adolescents’ knowledge of sexuality. There is a notable difference between the Western European countries (Yes: seventeen; No: two) and Southeastern European countries (Yes: five; No: seven).8 • Emerging socially conservative resistance to RSE Religious beliefs, cultural norms, and moral standards form the conservative resistance to RSE in many European countries. For instance, according to the Cypriot family planning association, the larger society mainly remains reluctant to accept modern views of sexuality education.9 In Poland, sexuality education is also considered to be ineffective. As it stated in the European Parliament's Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality report: “Sexuality education conveys, in a lot of testimonies, intolerance towards homosexuality and single parenthood, strong gender stereotypes, false information about contraception, and religion-related beliefs about physiological and concrete scientific subjects. The lessons are often separated between girls and boys, and each group is taught about its gender, leading to a lack of information about the opposite sex.”10 The main argument against sex education is that such a practice encourages young people to enter sexual relationships earlier. However, international practice shows that the early start of sexual contacts is not the result of sex education. According to the UNESCO International technical guidance on sexuality education: “Countries such as Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands have long-standing sex education programmes in schools, and significantly lower adolescent birth rates than countries in Eastern Europe, a region where open discussion of issues related to sexuality and in schools remains more sensitive.”11 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

World Health Organization (2018), Report on global sexually transmitted infection surveillance, Geneva, p.8.

European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2013), Sexually transmitted infections in Europe 2013, pp. 1-2.

Federal Centre for Health Education, BZga, Sexuality Education in Europe and Central Asia, p.26.

Policy department: Citizens' rights and constitutional affairs (2016), Sexual and reproductive health and rights study.

WHO Regional Office for Europe (2017), Situation of child and adolescent health in Europe, p.77.

Karolina Beaumont, Marcia Maguire (2013), Policies for Sexuality Education in the European Union, p. 15.

Karolina Beaumont, Marcia Maguire (2013), Policies for Sexuality Education in the European Union, p. 27.

UNESCO (2018), International technical guidance on sexuality education, p. 83.

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• Lack of profound relationship and sex education The issue is a lack of programmes which cover a wide range of subjects. There is a shortage of information specific to the experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) people.

The GLSEN 2017 National School Climate Survey found that only 6.7% of students reported receiving LGBTQ-inclusive sex education.12 Nowadays, the youth consume more and more information about sex from other sources than sex education at school or family planning associations. Thus, young people are exposed to misleading information about sexual practice through online mainstream pornography and the risk of sexual exploitation through online and social media platforms.13 These topics are not fully covered by existing educational programmes.

Stakeholders The World Health Organisation (WHO) is a major stakeholder engaged in issuing global strategies for the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases among other things, same as the European Centre for Prevention and Disease control in Europe.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) set out core elements of RSE as being grounded in human rights and reflecting a broad concept of sexuality as a natural part of human development.

The European Union has no competence to propose policies for sex education. This is why the major responsibility of promoting improvements across the region belongs to the Member States’ governments or special bodies. For instance, the Czech Family Planning Association in the Czech Republic.

These are some of the key stakeholders when it comes to deciding the future of sex education within various European regions: Council of Europe, FEMM, Department for Education and European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are very important actors for bringing attention to multiple challenges within the bounds of sexual health that European countries struggle with. The role of NGOs is especially recognised because they have access to minorities and vulnerable groups. A widely recognized youth organisation in our field is YouAct. This NGO is engaged in advocating for the Sexual and Reproductive Rights of young people at all levels as well as supporting awareness raising activities across the Council of Europe member states.

Children, adolescents, and young adults are the most affected by the lack of quality sex education.

Many young people are left without accurate information on a broad set of topics related to sexuality and relationships which results in growing rates of sexually transmitted diseases and infections, unplanned pregnancies, and increases the overall risk of abuse or sexual exploitation.

Existing measures The provision of good quality sex and relationship education and advice is strongly supported in various conventions to which the EU and its Member States are signatories, notably the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989). These documents call on the Member States to ensure the implementation of national strategies concerning safeguarding of sexual and reproductive health and insist on the role of the Union in raising awareness and promoting best practices for this issue.

12 GLSEN (2018), The 2017 National School Climate Survey, New York, p.22.

13 Burns, T. and F. Gottschalk (2019), Educating 21st Century Children: Emotional Well-being in the Digital Age, Chapter 10.

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Sexual and health education programmes in some form are mandatory at a national level in 20 out of the 28 countries of the EU.14 Eight countries (Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Spain) do not stipulate that RSE is mandatory in schools. Some countries, such as Denmark and Austria, have been implementing consistent RSE programmes since the 1970s. In others, an RSE policy has been implemented only relatively recently.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which all governments in the European Region have signed, is clear on participation and access to health services. The region has also endorsed an action plan in this area and has signed up to the 2030 Agenda, both of which promote improvements, especially around better access to contraception, health services for at-risk groups, and access to sexual and reproductive health services, which are unequal across the region. Half of the countries have a policy on sexuality education in schools, but policy is insufficient when the extent to which such education translates into knowledge is unknown.

The WHO has developed a Human Rights and Sexual and Reproductive Health Tool15 assisting countries to evaluate whether national legislation creates obstacles in accessing information and quality services to all population groups.

Conclusion Comprehensive sex education is one of the most important tools to ensure that young people have the information they need to make healthy and informed choices. Considering that public health challenges related to sexual behavior, including HIV/AIDS, other STIs, unintended pregnancy, and sexual violence, are among the most significant of current global health problems:16 • How can Member States be more consistent in their implementation of RSE? • How can Member States ensure the comprehensive approach to sex education, so that it is taught from a biologically accurate perspective and in an open-minded way ?

Essential reading • Article “Sexuality education – what is it?” by the European Expert Group on Sexuality Education - an overview of key issues in sex education.

• Article by Greta Hughson “The struggle for sexual and reproductive health and rights in central and eastern Europe” – a comparison of Western, Central and Eastern Europe sex education systems.

• Article by Heather D. Boonstra “Advancing Sexuality Education in Developing Countries” – review of different approaches to sex education.

• Video by KC Miller at TEDxPSU “The Abstinence of Essential Information - Advancing Sex Education” – director of Keystone Coalition for Advancing Sex Education KC Miller analyses the failures of abstinence programmes and challenges to move towards a comprehensive and inclusive model.

14 Policy department: citizens' rights and constitutional affairs (2016), Sexual and reproductive health and rights study, pp.

19-20.

15 WHO (2011), Sexual Health: A public health challenge in Europe, The European Magazine for Sexual and Reproductive Health, p. 8.

16 Megan B. Ivankovich, Kevin A. Fenton, John M. Douglas (2013), Considerations for National Public Health Leadership in Advancing Sexual Health.

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Doctors across borders: With an increasing number of medical

residents leaving their home countries in search of better working conditions, some rural areas in Member States are facing a shortage of medical professionals. How can the European Union tackle this issue without restricting the right to free movement of labour?

Written by Laura Eklová (CZ) & Šimon Prek (CZ) Relevance of the topic By 2020, Europe could be facing a shortage of 230,000 medical practitioners.1 The reasons for this range from ageing of the general population, through lack of necessary qualifications, to the most important one of them all – emigration. Workers in the healthcare sector often choose to work elsewhere in Europe, be it due to better pay or better work conditions. That leads to inequalities in access to quality healthcare – some countries have five times fewer doctors per capita than others.2 This is not compensated by the influx of new workers; in fact, more than half of unfilled healthcare positions in the EU are caused by the lack of candidates with the necessary qualifications. Summed up, this leads to an eerie estimation – in 2020, the EU will not be able to meet about 13.5% of the population’s medical needs.3

Key conflicts The less developed Member States now face a major crisis in the outflow of their medical workers. In Germany, for example, foreign doctors made about 12% of all healthcare personnel in 2017; that is a 6% increase from 2010.

The annual number of new medical practitioners in Europe increased by 10% between 2010 and 2017, yet the inflow is not enough to cover the outflow.4 Medical practitioners to-be face an uphill battle before employment: their first and foremost worry is “attestation”. To be attested a student needs to work in an accredited hospital with workers legally capable of evaluation, but due to the low amount of accredited hospitals the number of attested practitioners is very low. Furthermore, the expected number of future physicians has been a cause of concern for the Member States and may not be sufficient to tackle the needs of the future population.5 The main reasons for medical workers’ emigration were touched upon in the first paragraph. Underdeveloped countries cannot match the financial compensation offered by economically strong countries, resulting in migration toward better pay. The working standard in the countries of origin is usually much worse than in more developed ones; a perfect example of that would be the story of one Estonian doctor named Lidström, who left his home country to work in Finland. The difference was staggering; Lidström recalls his time as a general practitioner in Finland where the amount of patients was about 15 a day, while back in Estonia 30 patients a day would have been a slow day in the office. Lidström also mentions the pay gap – in Estonia, he felt like his tireless work was not being compensated enough.6 1 2 3 4 5 6

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European Commission (2012), Commission Staff Working Document on an Action Plan for the EU Health Workforce.

World Health Organisation, Data and statistics on Health workforce.

Berthier, D. (2018), Europe has a shortage of doctors. European Data Journalism Network.

Organisation for Economic Co-Development and Development (2017) Health Workforce Migration Statistics Hervey, G., (2017), The EU exodus: When doctors and nurses follow the money. Politico.

Organisation for Economic Co-Development and Development (2017) Health Workforce Migration Statistics

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Stakeholders Member States of the EU are responsible for managing their healthcare facilities and medical workforce.

They also fund medical education, and therefore invest into future healthcare. Workers leaving across borders mean non-negligible losses for the Member States.

European Advisory Committee on Health Research (EACHR) is a committee launched by the World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe (WHO/EUROPE). Its functions are to advise on the formulation of policies for the development of health research, review the scientific basis of selected regional programmes, coordinate health research internationally across the regions, and finally, advise on new findings on priority public health issues and evidence-based strategies to address them. At its annual meetings, EACHR provides advice on health-related topics, reviews implementations or recommendations and facilitates the sharing of information on health-related topics.

European Public Health Alliance (EPHA) is a member-led organisation consisting of public health NGOs, patient groups, health professionals and disease groups. It works to improve health and strengthen the voice of public health in Europe.

Healthcare companies are all companies with stakes in the healthcare industry. Mainly insurance, pharmaceutical and medical equipment companies are among these.

Healthcare unions work as a messenger to employers, in this case the Member States. Unions are responsible for negotiating better pay and working conditions for the employees, e.g. nurses, practitioners and specialists.

Existing measures In 2013, the WHO Global Code of Practice was adopted, aiming to address the challenges posed by health worker migration and promoting the practice of ethical international recruitment. Member States are discouraged by the Code from actively recruiting health workers from developing countries struggling with health personnel shortages.7 The Code has proven very effective so far, according to a 2015 report. However, there is still room for improvement, for example expanding awareness about the Code or disseminating its policies more thoroughly.8 The Health for Growth Programme has a general objective of working with the Member States to encourage innovation in healthcare, increase the sustainability of health systems, improve the health of EU citizens and protect them from cross-border health threats. This programme focuses on fewer but more specific actions of proven EU added value that will deliver concrete results and respond to identified needs or gaps.

The programme seeks to improve the way Member States cooperate in the area of health and to provide leverage for the reform of national health policies.

International Recruitment Integrity System (IRIS) is a global initiative that is designed to promote ethical international recruitment. It works by defining and setting a benchmark for ethical recruitment (the IRIS Standard) and through establishing a voluntary certification scheme for ethical labour recruiters and a compliance and monitoring mechanism. IRIS was created by the International Organisation for Migration (IOM) and a coalition of partners from governments, the private sector and civil society.

On a local level, the United Kingdom implemented certain standards for ethical international recruitment based on a list of developing countries vulnerable to doctors’ emigration. The prime country on the list was Croatia, losing about 5% of its medical personnel since joining the EU, but it also included 7 World Health Organisation (2010), Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel.

8 World Health Organisation, Health Workforce Migration Q&A.

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countries in EU accession talks and non-EU countries.

Conclusion In what is known as the push-pull effect, workers from developing countries choose to move abroad due to insufficient conditions in their home countries, as well as the attractive possibilities offered by developed countries. Low salary, unsatisfactory workplace conditions or poor prospects of quality education all contribute to emigration of medical workforce, and ultimately create disparities throughout the healthcare sector of the EU. Additionally, in the majority of cases it is the younger population emigrating, leaving their home countries with an ageing population, and scant medical personnel able to provide it with sufficient care. The data on the issue is clear: if no action is taken, migration of medical workforce is only going to increase and the healthcare systems of the less developed Member States will continue to lack personnel due to the ever-rising demand from the most developed ones.

Further Reading • “Imagine…” | A video by the Global Health Workforce Network • With a rapidly aging population, Germany looks to Balkans for care workers | An article by Deutsche Welle • Brain drain: Stemming migration of medical personnel | An article by The Guardian • Brain drain to brain gain | A project by the Global Health Workforce Alliance

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COMMITTEE ON CIVIL LIBERTIES, JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS I Migration management: since 2015, the refugee crisis is one of Europe’s toughest challenges due to its impact on human rights, politics and society. Considering all of those aspects, how should the European Union reform its immigration policies to ensure the safety and integrity of asylum seekers while ensuring the safety of its external borders? written by Daria Bajorek (PL) & Theresia Maier (AT) Relevance of the topic The Refugee crisis, also called the European migrant crisis, started in 2015, characterised by a vast number of people coming to EU member states mainly through the Mediterranean Sea, Turkey and Albania. By the end of 2016, nearly 5.2 million refugees and migrants reached european shores; in 2018 alone it was more than 138,000 people.1 According to 2015 data, Syrians escaping Civil War made up the largest group of migrants (39%), while Afghans escaping the war with Taliban rebels (11%) and Eritreans fleeing forced labour (7%) were second and third largest groups.2 The main destinations included Germany, Hungary, Greece and Italy.3 In 2019 Syrians and Afghans still made up the largest group of asylum-seekers coming to Europe4 (due to the ongoing wars in both countries). Since 2015 the number of refugees arriving to European shores has been dropping; however, the problem still persists. It is said to be the worst refugee crisis since World War II.5 Important definitions • Migrant is any person who changes their country of resi1 USA for UNHCR. (2019), Refugee Crisis in Europe: Aid, Statistics and News, https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/refugee-crisis-in-europe/, Unrefugees.org 2 Park J. (2015), Europe’s Migration Crisis,https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/europes-migration-crisis, Council on Foreign Relations website 3 Park J. (2015), Europe’s Migration Crisis,https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/europes-migration-crisis, Council on Foreign Relations website 4 Asylum quarterly report - Statistics explained (2019), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Asylum_quarterly_report, Europa.eu website 5 AFP. (2015), EU says world facing “worst refugee crisis” since WWII, https://www.businessinsider.com/afp-eu-says-worldfacing-worst-refugee-crisis-since-wwii-2015-8?IR=T, Business Insider website

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dence. They move for a variety of reasons, ‘migrant’ is an umbrella term encompassing both asylum-seekers and economic migrants (moving to improve living conditions or for job opportunities).

• Refugee: a person fleeing conflict or persecution on the basis of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion. Under the 1951 UN Refugee Convention, a country is legally obliged to shelter a refugee and is not allowed to expel or return a refugee somewhere where their life or freedom would be threatened.6 • An asylum-seeker is a person who has applied for asylum but whose refugee status has not yet been determined.7

Key conflicts European migrant crisis and issues connected with this topic can be broken down into parts which include: Why & how it happens In response to persecution, many people escape to Turkey first, which still hosts more refugees than any other country, but Turkey does not grant Syrians, the largest group of refugees, work-permits except in special circumstances.8 They are not allowed to work and do not have access to education, which is why they prefer Europe instead. Refugees decide to leave Turkey and the Middle East in general because they realise living in refugee camps is not a temporary solution anymore.9 As the situation in their home countries is not improving, they would rather try reaching Europe than live in refugee camps for years.

In most cases, they choose the dangerous route through the Mediterranean Sea. The risk of drowning is high and thousands do not make it alive across European borders. Many boats are overcrowded, just like the refugee camps (e.g. Athens, Lesbos), which is connected to poor living conditions and elevated risk of sexual violence.10 Since 2015, migrant smuggling has also developed into a profitable business. Smugglers use land, sea and air routes to facilitate illegal migration both into and within the EU and abuse the legal migration system.

They contribute to the numerous deaths of migrants. 11 Why has this problem not been solved yet There is an ongoing debate as to why the crisis still persists and one of the core reasons are of course wars and conflicts in refugees’ countries. Another reason is the lack of cooperation between EU Member States and standardised policies on how to tackle the crisis, which would be fully accepted and respected by all members.

Not all countries agree with the EU on immigration policies because of their right-leaning governments (e.g. Poland or Hungary) which mostly oppose accepting immigrants. They fear that refugees could threaten their culture and safety, and equate them with terrorists, having seen the rise of terrorist attacks in France and Germany, conducted in some cases by immigrants. In some European countries, this resulted in closing the borders and not participating in the relocation scheme (Poland, Slovenia). This action 6 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2019), The 1951 Refugee Convention, https://www.unhcr.org/pages/ 49da0e466.html, UNHCR website 7 Bajekal N. (2015), The 5 Big Questions About Europe’s Migrant Crisis, https://time.com/4026380/europe-migrant-crisis-questions-refugees/, Time website 8 Kingsley, P. (2018). 10 ways to manage the migration crisis, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/04/10-ways-tomanage-the-migration-crisis, the Guardian website 9 Daileda, C. (2015), 3 reasons why the refugee crisis is happening now, https://mashable.com/2015/09/10/why-the-refugeecrisis-is-happening-now/?europe=true, Mashable website 10 Muller N.(2018), UNHCR: Migrants in Greek camps at risk of sexual violence, https://www.dw.com/en/unhcr-migrants-ingreek-camps-at-risk-of-sexual-violence/a-42525256, DW.COM website 11 Migrant Smuggling. (2016), https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/irregular-migration-return-policy/ facilitation-irregular-migration_en, European Commission website

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raises concern because it is contrary to EU law and the European Convention on Human Rights.12 Stricter border controls have also been implemented (e.g. Hungary, Denmark), along with erecting fences in Bulgaria, Greece, Spain and Hungary.

The existing system of top-down mandatory national quotas for resettlement in the EU of refugees who arrived first in Greece and Italy has been failing since 2016.13 In 2017, the EU imposed sanctions on Hungary, Poland and Czech Republic because they neglected their legal obligations to take in asylum seekers from Italy and Greece.14 However, up to this moment, there has been no significant change in these countries’ attitudes.

Because some Member States do not participate in the relocation scheme, the number of refugees is not equally distributed among EU countries – the majority of the people stays in countries with exposed borders, namely Greece and Italy. This is one of the reasons why refugee camps are so overcrowded.

Another reason for that is the backlog of requests for asylum; the rejection rate for asylum requests in Europe has almost doubled in three years, from 37% in 2016 to 64% in 2019. If the request is rejected, every migrant has the right to have recourse to appeal but it lengthens the time waiting for approval.15 In addition, it still is difficult to assess whether someone can have the right for asylum or not. If asylum-seekers are accepted into a European country, there are not enough legal pathways (e.g. family reunification) for them to follow. They find it hard to get used to European culture, often face negative remarks and even experience violence.16 Right-wing governments often claim that refugees would either be reluctant to work in their country or take away other residents’ jobs. They do not want to let them in because of possible economic consequences. However, the refugees can actually be an opportunity instead of a threat,17 especially in Poland, which is in need of workers.18 The actions of right-leaning governments affected public attitudes towards refugees. In 2016, a survey by the Pew Research Center, found that most respondents in Poland, Greece, Hungary, Italy and the UK agreed with the proposition that refugees posed a major threat to their country.19

Stakeholders The office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): an Agency of the United Nations (UN) to assist and protect refugees at the request of a government or by the UN itself. They assist in the voluntary repatriation of refugees, their local integration or their resettlement in third countries.20 12 Vonberg, J. (2017), Patrolling the world’s deadliest migration route, https://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/22/europe/europe-refugee-policy/index.html#Poland, CNN website 13 Funk, J. (2019), Immigration Reform in Europe Needs External Border Controls, Respect for Sovereignty, and Shared Costs, https://leaders.economicblogs.org/peterson-institute/2018/blanchard-jacob-funk-kirkegaard-immigration-reform-europe-needs-border-controls-respect-sovereignty-costs/, Leaders website 14 Nielsen N. and Zalan E. (2017), Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland face EU sanctions on migrants, https://euobserver.com/ migration/138216, EUobserver website 15 Tondo, L. (2019), Nearly 900,000 asylum seekers living in limbo in EU, figures show, https://www.theguardian.com/ world/2019/aug/25/asylum-seekers-limbo-eu-countries, the Guardian website 16 Jazeera, A. (2019), Eastern German City Dresden Declares “Nazi emergency”, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/11/ eastern-german-city-dresden-declares-nazi-emergency-191102180800087.html, Aljazeera.com website 17 Legrain, P. (2016), Refugees are not a burden but an opportunity, https://www.oecd.org/forum/oecdyearbook/refugees-are-not-a-burden-but-an-opportunity.html,Oecd.org website 18 Pronczuk, M. (2019), Poland’s immigrant stance at odds with need for workers, https://www.ft.com/content/2dd225a8-a498-11e9-974c-ad1c6ab5efd1, Financial Times website 19 Dempster, H., & Hargrave, K. (2017). Understanding public attitudes towards refugees and migrants, https://euagenda.eu/ upload/publications/untitled-92767-ea.pdf, euagenda.eu website, p. 10 20 Nahr, D. (2019). About Us, https://www.unhcr.org/about-us.html, unhcr.org website

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The International Organization for Migration (IOM): is an intergovernmental organisation that provides services and advice concerning migration to governments and migrants, including internally displaced persons, refugees and migrant workers. In September 2016, it became a related organisation of the United Nations.21 The European Asylum Support Office (EASO): is an agency created by European Union Regulation to increase the cooperation of EU Member States on asylum, improve the implementation of the Common European Asylum System, and support Member States under pressure.22 The European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE): is a European network of 104 NGOs in 41 European countries. It protects and advances the rights of refugees, asylum seekers, and displaced persons.23 Members States follow their own refugee policies, subject to the international agreements they have committed to. They have a central role in managing the current migration influx and the integration of those granted asylum. Italy, Greece and Spain are the countries that accept most of the refugees because of exposed borders. Taking into consideration that Italy's anti-establishment, far-right government heralds even more controversy over how to deal with the flow of migrants as it raises the spectre of mass expulsions,24 that Greece's refugees-camps are “on the edge of catastrophe,”25 and that Spain's government asked Morocco to keep part of the migrants,26 there is a massive need for a change of the distribution of migrants in these countries.

Third-party countries: Whilst the EU has been a destination for a large number of refugees, non-EU Members States, such as Lebanon or Turkey, are currently handling larger numbers of refugees. Furthermore, the conflicts within the main departure states are subject to international negotiations and peace brokerage.27

Existing measures The Dublin (III) Regulation: This EU Law, also extending to certain other European states, determines that asylum seekers must remain in the first European country they enter and that this country is solely responsible for examining the applications. The purpose of the regulation is to determine which country is responsible for processing an asylum seeker’s application. The regulation also strives to ensure that each application gets a fair examination in one country of the European Union.

The Dublin system assumes that asylum laws and practices are at the same level in all European Union co21 Our Work. (2019). https://www.iom.int/our-work, IOM Website 22 About Us | EUROPEAN ASYLUM SUPPORT OFFICE. (2019). https://easo.europa.eu/about-us, easo.europa.eu website 23 OUR WORK | European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE). (2019). https://www.ecre.org/our-work/, ecre.org website 24 Carrier, F. (2019). What will Italy's new government mean for migrants?. https://www.thelocal.it/20180521/what-will-italys-new-government-mean-for-migrants, the Local 25 Greek migrant camps 'on edge of catastrophe'. (2019). https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-50260597, BBC News 26 María Martín, L. (2019). Spain and Morocco reach deal to curb irregular migration flows. https://elpais.com/elpais/2019/02/21/inenglish/1550736538_089908.html, el País news 27 Figures at a Glance. (2019). https://www.unhcr.org/figures-at-a-glance.html, UNHCR website

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untries and those applicants will be afforded equal status of protection everywhere within the EU. However, asylum practices vary from country to country. Member States at EU borders have also complained that the system puts all the burden of migrants on them, since they are usually the first point of refugees fleeing to Europe.

Common European Asylum System (CEAS): The CEAS was set up by the EU under the aim of creating a joint standard of handling refugees across Europe. Respecting the Member States’ discretion in asylum policy, it aims to ensure that all procedures within the EU are fair and effective.28 European Refugee Fund (ERF): was a scheme designed to facilitate the sharing of the financial costs of the reception, integration and voluntary repatriation of refugees amongst EU Member States. All EU Member States apart from Denmark participated in the ERF.29 EU Action Plan against Migrant Smuggling: setting out a series of steps to tackle this problem between 2015 and 2020. These are grouped into four main priorities: enhanced police and judicial response; improved gathering and sharing of information; enhanced prevention of smuggling; assistance to vulnerable migrants and stronger cooperation with third countries. The implementation of the plan is ongoing, alongside a number of complementary initiatives to tackle migrant smuggling.30

28 European Parliament's Committee for Migration and Home Affairs. (2019). The Common European Asylum System [Ebook] (p. 1). https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/background-information/docs/20160713/factsheet_the_common_european_asylum_system_en.pdf 29 Refugee Fund - Migration and Home Affairs - European Commission. (2019). https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/financing/ fundings/migration-asylum-borders/refugee-fund_en 30 Migrant Smuggling - Migration and Home Affairs - European Commission. (2019). https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/whatwe-do/policies/irregular-migration-return-policy/facilitation-irregular-migration_en

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EU-Turkey deal: In 2016, an agreement between the EU and Turkey, aiming to discourage migrants from making the journey from Turkey to Greece, came into effect. As the deal outlines, migrants arriving in Greece will be sent back to Turkey if they do not apply for asylum or their claim is rejected. This agreement leads to further discord between the EU and Turkey, because of financial aid issues, which leads to bad living conditions of refugees in the Turkish refugee camps.31 Furthermore in October 2019, the EU-Turkey relations became tense because of the invasion of Turkey into Syrian territory.

Conclusion Since 2015, the refugee crisis has been one of Europe’s toughest challenges due to its impact on human rights, politics and society. The majority of the migrants arrive in the EU through the Mediterranean Sea, Turkey and Albania. Many organisations and regulations have been created to handle the crisis, e.g. IOM, CEAS, Dublin Regulation. However, the distribution of migrants through the Member States is uneven and puts pressure on the states with exposed borders. The influx of refugees is still too big and the hostility towards immigrants is constantly growing, mainly due to the right-leaning governments. Furthermore, the relations between Member States and non-European host countries are shaky because of the crisis.

Should the EU move towards a common framework and harmonisation of immigration laws on a European level, or should the current system be upheld with further development of national immigration policies separately?

• Beside the Dublin Regulation, how can greater cooperation between Member States be achieved?

• How can the EU work closer with third-party countries to ensure responsible sharing?

• What position should the EU take regarding the issue on a global scale, both concerning the support of non-european states hosting the majority of displaced people as well as tackling the core issues causing migration in departure countries?

Essential Reading • Myths about the refugee crisis and why they aren’t true: https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jun/05/ five-myths-about-the-refugee-crisis • A few more words about the CEAS: https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/ policies/european-agenda-migration/background-information/docs/20160713/factsheet_the_common_ european_asylum_system_en.pdf • EU legislation concerning immigration explained: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-towards-a-new-policy-on-migration/file-jd-revision-of-the-dublin-regulation • Reflection about the topic and the future: https://prospect.org/world/migration-crisis-future-europe/

31 Serdar, S. (2019). Can the EU-Turkey deal be fixed?, article, https://www.dw.com/en/can-the-eu-turkey-deal-befixed/a-50680789, Deutsche Welle website

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COMMITTEE ON CLIMATE CHANGE Strike for climate: The growing influence of the Climate Strike movement, involving thousands of students in the streets worldwide, shows the willingness of the youth to take radical steps against climate change. How can the European Union further improve its environmental policies in order to reach a more sustainable Europe and efficiently fight against global warming?

Written by Julia Pressner (CH) & David Mumenthaler (CH) Relevance of the topic Recently, the movement Climate Strike has spread to the entire globe. The first climate strike movement, organised by an independent group of students, encouraged others around the world to skip school during the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris to raise awareness and urge for a more sustainable future.

Climate change is partly caused by human expansion of the greenhouse effect through the release of excess gases such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, and methane. Carbon dioxide, released into the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels, is responsible for 64% of man-made global warming. Behaviours such as meat consumption, driving personal vehicles with carbon emissions, consumption of non-local or organic foods, deforestation, livestock farming, and fertilisation all contribute to the crisis.1 Without a reduction of emissions, global temperature is expected to rise by 4 degrees Celsius by 2100, the sea level is expected to rise by 74 cm, and risks of frequent flooding, high tides, storms, and tsunamis are expected to increase.2 Demonstrations have been focused on counteracting these behaviors with 100% clean energy, stopping the use of fossil fuels, and supporting climate change refugees. The movement blew up with the help of Swedish High School student Gretha Thunberg, who sat outside the Swedish parliament in 2018.3 She demanded the reduction of carbon emissions, as per the Paris Agreement. Following in her footsteps, students in 150 countries globally have participated in climate strikes to urge governments to take immediate action in preventing and limiting the effects of 1 European Commission, 2019, Causes of Climate Change (https://ec.europa.eu/clima/change/causes_en) 2 Global Climate Change Explorer, 2019, Looking Ahead (https://www.exploratorium.edu/climate/looking-ahead) 3 BBC, 2019, School Strike for Climate (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-48392551)

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climate change. In March and May of 2019, global strikes were timed to coincide with European Parliament Elections. This recent strike phenomenon among the youth of the world has put pressure on governments to listen to their citizens and take action in preventing and reversing the damage of climate change. To the right is a map showing the countries involved in school strikes for the climate.

The EU has policies in place to reduce carbon emissions, but the willingness of the youth to make more radical steps forward renders the existing policies small and unimpressive. At the moment, the EU lacks initiative to fulfil the goals presented by the youth.

Key conflicts Economists have long argued that the best way to fight climate change is to levy a price on carbon dioxide (and other greenhouse gases), either via a global specific carbon tax or a competitive worldwide market for emission permits. This price should be equal to the present value of current and future global warming damages from emitting one ton of carbon today and be the same throughout the world. But despite decades of climate negotiations, very little success has been achieved in implementing such first-best climate policies. What are the roots of this disappointing cleavage between theory and practice?4 The roots are various. First, global warming is the only truly global externality. In economics, an externality is a consequence of an industrial or commercial activity which affects other parties without this being reflected in the market prices. An externality can be both positive or negative and can stem from either the production or consumption of a good or service. The costs and benefits can be both private – to an individual or an organisation – or social, meaning it can affect society as a whole. An example of a positive production externality is the pollination of surrounding crops by bees kept for honey. The value of the harvested honey does not display the total value generated by the production of it. This means that less of the good may be produced than would be the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others.

Anthropogenic climate change is the perfect example of a negative production externality. The value of the goods produced by the burning of fossil fuels and rearing of livestock lies way under the value it should have including all its negative effects on global society. This means that an indescribably higher amount of goods is produced than would be the case if the producer were to pay taxes on the external costs of others. The failure of internalising the negative effects of climate change is the greatest example of market failure.

And this is why policy makers face huge free-riding problems with countries choosing to protect jobs in fossil-based industries at home instead of protecting the planet. In social sciences, the free-rider problem is a type of market failure that occurs when those who benefit from resources, public goods, or services of a communal nature do not pay for them. If only some countries price carbon, this will depress the world price of coal, oil, and gas, and thus some of the cuts in emissions are offset by higher emissions elsewhere.

This phenomenon is called carbon leakage and can be overcome by border tax adjustments or trade tariffs on non-participating countries.

Second, global warming is not just a gradual process but also manifests itself by irreversible tipping points. The climate system does not only consist of the atmosphere, but of multiple components, such as oceans, ice and snow, soil, and vegetation which are in a constant state of exchange with each other.

If one of these parts changes, it has consequences on all the others. These changes again affect the system as a whole and can intensify or reduce the change. There are many examples to this, e.g. the oceans' ability to bind CO2 is steadily reduced with an increase of temperature. The CO2, which is then released from the ocean, further intensifies the warming of the atmosphere. The same is the case with permafrost 4 University of Oxford - Department of Economics, 2017, Climate Change and Green Paradoxes (https://www.economics. ox.ac.uk/impact/climate-change-and-green-paradoxes)

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binding the gas methane, which is 20 times worse for the atmosphere than CO2 in the same amount, but does not appear as often as CO2. This makes climate change even more dangerous, because once the system is over the tipping point, it gets out of control. The consequences of such an event would be devastating and would lead to the total collapse of the climate system.

Third, although scientists have been warning about climate change for decades, people are only slowly realising now how big of a problem we are facing. Today, 60% of people think climate change is a serious problem compared to 43% in March 2017.5

Stakeholders Everybody is affected by global warming, and therefore is a stakeholder in the issue. Member States are another kind of stakeholders, as governments indicate the course of action in reacting to climate change. In the EU, 28 Member States are concerned with meeting the target goals for 2020, 2030 and 2050 set by the European Commission. In addition, transnational initiatives and organisations have their own stakes in the climate issue. They can have an influence over the EU’s policies, and the other way around. Individual citizens and action groups are affected by global warming and the way governments choose to react to it.

They also have the power to vote in their own Member States and propose policies.

The European Commission, as the executive branch of the EU, is responsible for setting the environmental agenda of the EU and enforcing it. The Commission is responsible for proposing legislation, enforcing decisions and upholding EU treaties and agreements. Positive incentives and assistance are provided by the European Commissioner for Climate Action and Energy, Miguel Arias Cañete, to Member States which fail to achieve the goals set by the European Commission.

Since global warming and climate change affect the entire world, Member States play an important role in the decision-making process towards setting goals for a shared environment. Member States may wish to alter target goals, or set more/less ambitious goals depending on their own initiative and competencies.

Furthermore, wherever the EU does not provide legislative rules, Member States can legislate individually and adopt respective policies regarding climate change.

Transnational initiatives, organisations, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), including for example Horizon 2020 or NER300, are organisations important for research into climate change and necessary action, as well as setting a precedent for new, environmentally friendly technologies. The EU decision to support these, including financially, can influence the EU’s climate agenda.

Every European citizen is affected by the climate crisis and the target goals associated with it. A cut on emissions can directly affect people’s lives, as this may mean pressure from governments to cut back on behaviors that once were not considered destructive, for example meat consumption, indulging in food with high transportation costs, driving a car, etc. Unrest of individuals could influence the EU’s climate agenda and create less intense goals. Individuals also have the power to voice their concerns with the way the EU is handling climate change, which can influence the EU’s agenda as well. The scale of the climate strikes, for example, makes certain that the EU recognises the demands and understands the citizens’ willingness for a more radical climate policy.

Existing measures The EU currently has target goals for 2020 and 2030, implemented in 2009 and 2014 respectively, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The European Commission has also called for a climate neutral Europe by 2050 (climate neutral meaning that emissions are balanced through methods that remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere) in 2018. The 2020 target goals, which are on track to be met, include a 20% cut in greenhouse gas emissions from 1990, 20% of EU energy from renewable sources and a 20% improvement in energy efficiency.6 The 2030 target goals are along the same lines and include a 40% cut in greenhouse 5 European Commission (2019), Special Eurobarometer 490 - “Climate Change”, Report, pp. 5,7 6 EU, 2019, 2020 Climate and Energy Package (https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2020_en)

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gas emissions from 1990, 32% of EU energy from renewable sources and a 32.5% improvement in energy efficiency. 7 The EU is also a part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which is the main international agreement on climate change. The European Council handles two issues relating to the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. The Kyoto Protocol involves 38 countries (including the EU and its 28 Member States) and calls them to reduce emissions by at least 18% from 1990 to 2020. This protocol however does not include the USA, Canada, New Zealand, Russia, or Japan. It therefore only applies to 14% of the world’s emissions. The aims of the Paris Agreement are to limit the effects of global warming to under 2°C. The countries included in the agreement can account for 55% of global emissions.8 Aims of the EU will be achieved by reducing emissions from housing, agriculture, waste, transport, and the EU ETS (European Union Emissions Trading System, the world’s largest carbon market). The EU requires Member States to implement these measures wherever possible, but recognises that not each Member State has the same opportunity to do so. The aims are adjusted to each state’s individual availability of resources, but a reduction is still required from each state so that the goals can be met for the EU as a whole. Member States have to adopt National Climate and Energy Plans9 and the final plans for each state have to be finalised by the end of 2019. The EU also supports the innovation of low-carbon technologies such as NER300 and Horizon2020.

Conclusion Global warming is a global externality that is endangering the population. Politicians putting off making policies so their successors take the responsibility, little success in implementing climate policies and carbon leakage are all part of the problem. The European Commission's current climate policies and target goals are steps in the right direction, but do not correspond to the dire circumstances of the situation.

Member States are required to, according to their own abilities, take steps in limiting the consequences of climate change, but their engagement could be considered too little. However, enhancing these goals could lead to unrest amongst individuals if their quality of life and habits change drastically.

Climate Strikes have gained popularity since 2015 and spread to the entire world, spreading awareness of global warming and the effects thereof along with them. The youth of Europe and everywhere else are demanding governments to focus on stopping the use of fossil fuels entirely, only using renewable energy sources, and aiding climate refugees. Given the apparent willingness of the youth of Europe to move in a more radical direction regarding climate policies, the conflict the EU needs to solve is how to reach a more sustainable Europe by efficiently fighting global warming, taking the youth’s demands into consideration.

Further Reading • Global Climate Strikes Website: https://globalclimatestrike.net/ • NASA on Climate: https://climate.nasa.gov/ • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Website: https://www.noaa.gov/ • EU on Climate Action: https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/eu-climate-action_en • UN Paris Agreement: https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement • European Council on Tackling Climate Change: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/climate-change/ 7 EU, 2019, 2030 Climate and Energy Framework (https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2030_en) 8 European Council, 2018, International Agreements on Climate Action (https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policie s/ climate-change/international-agreements-climate-action/) 9 EU, 2019, National Climate and Energy Plans (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.20 1 8.328.01.0001.01.ENG)

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COMMITTEE ON INDUSTRY, RESEARCH AND ENERGY New winds of cyber threats: With the 5G network entering Europe, new digital infrastructure may become an easy target for external cybercriminal activity. Bearing in mind the already alarming vulnerability to cybercrimes across Member States, how should the European Union secure its Digital Single Market strategy from forthcoming cybersecurity challenges?

by Matthieu Morin (CZ), Filip Choděra (CZ) Relevance of the topic The fifth generation of telecommunication systems (5G) is going to be one of the most essential parts of Europe’s digital economy as well as society in the upcoming decades. With the roll-out of 5G networks across Europe, we are fast approaching a technological tipping point.1 Its advantages can be found in several areas such as the low latency and virtually ubiquitous connectivity. 5G structure is expected to serve in a wide range of applications. What is more, it is going to influence the advance of AI systems as it will provide real-time data collection and analysis.2 The fifth-generation cellular network technology will help to control a significant number of objects around us such as lighting fixtures, thermostats, home security systems and cameras, and other home appliances; this is called the Internet of Things (IoT). In the consumer market, the IoT represents products related to the concept of the “smart home.”3 Naturally, every major technological novelty poses a possible safety threat. That applies twice in the case of 5G as it will be used in critical sectors such as energy, transport, banking, and health, as well as industrial control systems carrying sensitive information and supporTowards 5G (2019) European Commission ting safety systems. For that reason, the EU is taking steps to ensure a high level of cybersecurity across the new generation of networks.4 1 King J. (2019), Europe’s 5G network will be secure – if we work together, The Guardian https://www.google.com/amp/s/ amp.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/oct/28/europe-5g-network-technology 2 European Commission, Towards 5G https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/towards-5g 3 Meola A. (2016), How the Internet of Things will affect security & privacy, Bussiness Insider https://www.businessinsider. com/internet-of-things-security-privacy-2016-8 4 European Commission, Member States publish a report on EU coordinated risk assessment of 5G networks security https://

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Key conflicts Why do we need 5G? Even though 5G poses certain cybersecurity risks, such technology remains highly sought-after as it transmits data more efficiently and can be up to 40 times faster than its predecessor. Furthermore, 5G suffers from shorter lag times than the current 4G standard. Due to this, 5G technology improves communication and reduces costs as well as energy consumption. Finally, this new generation of cellular network technology will be able to make an interconnection of computing devices embedded in everyday objects. This means everyday objects like appliances can send and receive data via the internet; this is the Internet of Things.

What is preventing us from having 5G? The primary issue is the cost of building. Surprisingly, 5G has a very small range, unlike the previous generations, and even though it is very precise, it has a hard time going through walls. Because of this, numerous small stations must be built to cover a bigger area, in turn upping the construction costs.

According to the European Commission (EC), the security challenges are mainly linked to key innovations in the 5G technology – in particular, the important role of software, the wide range of services and applications enabled by 5G, as well as the role of suppliers in building and operating 5G networks and the degree of dependency on individual suppliers.

Another problem is geopolitical, as it seems impossible for now to build a 5G network without the help of Chinese technology and companies, which would create not only a dependency on China but also an opportunity for the Chinese information services to easily access all data of all European citizens.

There is also a strong concern about the diversification of suppliers. Currently there is a lack of diversity which adds to the vulnerability of the 5G infrastructures. If a large number of operators source their sensitive assets from one single supplier, this would significantly affect the possibilities of resolving a network failure, making the 5G network more vulnerable to supply interruptions.

Furthermore, there is another threat which has to be further researched. The 5G technology which is beginning to be used in the EU uses frequency bands from 700 MHz to 3800 MHz. There is a plausible risk of harm from electromagnetic fields, which may affect many living organisms, including humans. Sceptics believe exposure to non-ionizing radiation may still be responsible for a range of illnesses, from brain tumours to chronic headaches.5,6

Stakeholders The European Commission (EC) is the executive body of the EU framework and it issues proposals of legal acts from the European Parliament and the Council of European Union. The EC is also responsible for giving funding and recommendation to the national governments.

The European Union Agency for Network and Information Security (ENISA) assists the EC in its legislation and also works closely with the Member States. ENISA is ready to support in responding to large-scale cyber incidents taking place across borders and it also contributes to the proper functioning of the Digital Single Market.

The Member States are important stakeholders as they are the ones establishing legislations affecting their europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-19-6049_en.htm 5 Childers T. (2019), 5G Network: How It Works, and Is It Dangerous?, LiveScience https:// www.google.com/amp/s/www.livescience.com/amp/65959-5g-network.html 6 McCutcheon J. (2019), Frightening Frequencies: The Dangers Of 5G, Eluxe Magazine https://eluxemagazine.com/magazine/ dangers-of-5g/

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own territory. Alongside with the European Parliament and the Council of European Union, the Member States adopt regulations about cyberspace within the EU, which are later transmitted to the EC. The private sector is another stakeholder that has a lot of impact on the implementation of a 5G network.

The ICT manufacturers would be providing 5G services used by people and private businesses that are themselves providing services to the population. Private companies are therefore a major piece of the puzzle that will bridge the gap between the concept of 5G and its arrival in our lives.

Existing measures Due to the many possible threats, certification is needed to secure the whole network and goes beyond the simple idea of product market. The securitisation of the network will be made possible by making use of existing EU legislation such as the EU Cybersecurity Act and EU certification framework. Although not perfect, these measures make the first step to regulating 5G technology while reserving room for changes and adaptations which will go hand-in-hand with the development of the technology in the future.7 The EU Cybersecurity Act, adopted on 26 June 2019, provides a stronger mandate for the EU Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) and establishes the European cybersecurity certification framework.8 EU certification Framework – the EU’s framework that enables the creation of a common framework for EU-wide valid cybersecurity certificates.9 In 2016, the EC adopted the 5G Action Plan for Europe. Its main purpose has been to ensure an early deployment of 5G infrastructure across Europe. The first launches are set to begin by late 2020 at the latest, most urban areas and main transport passageways are scheduled to get covered by the end of 2025.10 The Euro-5G project will drive the 5G Infrastructure Public Private Partnership (5G PPP) goal to maintain and enhance the competitiveness of the European ICT industry in the 5G domain.11 5G PPP is a joint initiative between the European Commission and European ICT industry. It has numerous goals it wants to accomplish: 7 Blackman C.and Forge S. (2019), 5G Deployment - State of Play in Europe, USA and Asia, Policy Department A https://www. europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2019/631060/IPOL_IDA(2019)631060_EN.pdf 8 European Commission, The EU Cybersecurity Act, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/eu-cybersecurity-act 9 European Commission, The EU cybersecurity certification framework, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/eu-cybersecurity-certification-framework 10 European Commission, Towards 5G, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/towards-5g 11 https://5g-ppp.eu/

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• Providing 1000 times higher wireless area capacity and more varied service capabilities.

• Saving up to 90% of energy per service provided.

• Creating a secure, reliable and dependable internet with a “zero perceived” downtime for services provision • Ensuring for everyone and everywhere the access to a wider panel of services and applications at a lower cost.

Obviously, the enrolment of 5G goes hand in hand with the process of Digitising European Industry. For the sake of establishing a Digital Single EU Market, the EU launched a 5-pillar Action Plan in 2016. The pillars include information on policy instruments, financial support, coordination and the functioning of legislative powers. In order to make the most of the digital transformation, the EU citizens and workers need to be adapted and reskilled, which is tackled in the fifth pillar.12

Conclusion The arrival of 5G network poses yet another technological milestone that the EU needs to control and regulate, taking into account the difficulty of finding providers, regulating across borders and securing its network against possible cyber threats. Undoubtedly, it will mean a significant economic advance and allow faster data processing and access to all EU citizens. And yet, we must be cautious possible health issues, as well as safety measures, should be taken into consideration. Only with such an approach, this technological transition will take place without any further issues.

So, what specific steps must be taken in order to ensure the smooth roll-out of 5G in the EU?

Links for further reading: • The 5G Observatory where all the updated information regarding the roll-out of 5G in Europe can be found.

• A brief overview of risks connected with the deployment of 5G networks.

• Explanation of the 5G-PPP Collaboration.

12 European Commission, Digitising European Industry, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/policies/digitising-european-industry

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COMMITTEE ON CIVIL LIBERTIES, JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS II Whose face is it? With a new era of heavily edited audiovisual content and ‘deepfakes’ on their way, the intentional spread of fake and misleading content has never been easier. What should the European Union do to correctly identify and prevent such disinformation from being shared online? written by Matyáš Diestler (CZ) Relevance of the topic Fake news and the absence of a global strategy on how to protect us against them are a huge problem in our current society. Information technologies and the ways of getting information about public affairs have fundamentally changed. The main struggle is that today online media, which are easily reached, present the main platform for sharing information. People are lacking time and they aim for quick and concise information, which can be found on online channels. Many people are still not used to this situation and are not able to critically process the information they read, which is now very important when practically anybody can write anything online. We need to see the problem of fake news as a challenge of the new era and find an effective way to fight it and find an effective solution to the threats it poses on the internet. The problem of fake news is also impacting different publicsectors, e.g. the educational system, media, social networks or online platforms, impacting the work of professionals but also of the everyday citizen.

Key conflicts In the past, you were informed about the news and current affairs only through printed newspapers, TV or radio.

Spreading information was more difficult and restricted to a lower number of media. Nowadays, when somebody wants to write an article or an opinion on a topic, they have a much easier way to do so. Information can be shared on a multitude of platforms and reach a large number of viewers, regardless of the quality or the truth of its content. Video or audio content can also be manipulated; this material is called ‘deepfake’. It was used in May 2019 on the speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi’s speech, which was slowed down and edited intentionally to make her seem drunk or disabled.1 Interest groups try hard to gain influence or sway public opinion to their side. These people are spreading information similarly to propaganda, using clickbaits with distorted information, hoaxes and flames about people holding different opinions. Usually this kind of manipulation rises up before elections, trying hard to influence voters to vote for a particular party.2 The problem of fake news has escalated quickly since the occupation of Crimea in 2014 and the rise of tensions between the West and Russia. There, Russia used its media influence as a tool to gain power and destabilise regions. Since that time a number of doubtful websites calling themselves the “alternative media” have sprung up and they have been spreading hoaxes, half-truths, and flames about the Ukrainian conflict, all in line with the Russian position. They also create a picture of the West as a bad and decadent place to live in and depict major European politicians as incompetent. Their goal is to disturb the confidence of the people in the elites and the leadership of their countries and to spread conspiracy theories about a secret backstage direction 1 Sara Rimer, Q&A: LAW’s Danielle Citron Warns That Deepfake Videos Could Undermine the 2020’s Election, Boston University 2 Tom Bateman, How Finland fights the fake news trolls, BBC News

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of the current affairs (expressed as ‘all is directed by somebody unknown’).

Society is not completely immune to fake news. This issue is now being covered in the educational system of some Member States, but the majority still do not see the need for implementing it in the schools. There is a need to consider the problem of fake news as a challenge of the new era, in order to find effective ways to fight against it.

Stakeholders The countries the most affected by Russian propaganda are post-Soviet countries, which are the main targets of Russian geopolitical interests according to the communication of East StratCom Task Force. These countries encounter a big problem with fake news and face Russian efforts to regain influence in the region. Those countries are calling for maximum support from everybody who can help them weather the war on information. Other important targets of Russian trolls are Finland, the Balkans, and the post-communist Member States in Central Europe. One way to improve the situation is to improve the cooperation between the two main stakeholders, the European Commission, which is the executive branch of the EU, and the Member States, which are seeking help to secure their online information content. The last important stakeholders are the citizens because they consume but also produce media, and thus participate in spreading the vicious cycle of fake news. Citizens also comprise professionals from the educational system and from the media, who are able to impact the flow of fake news especially with the help of education.

Existing measures The EU published in April 2018 its communication about the fake news issue named Communication Tackling Online Disinformation: a European Approach which sets out the views of the European Commission on the problem of disinformation.3 At the end of last year the EU strategy against fake news was published, called the Action Plan Against Disinformation suggesting possible united reactions of European institutions to the problem of disinformation.4 In response to the EU Communication from April 2018 representatives of online platforms, leading social networks and advertisers and the advertising industry agreed on the Code of Practice on Disinformation,5 a self-regulatory strategy determining the actions to protect the online world against fake news.

Some measures in the war against fake news were set by some Member States. The more developed policies are in Finland which has focused strongly on media education for high school students and adults.

The students there learn how to spot fake news, which channels are they typically found on, and how to sort fact from fiction.6

Conclusion A few measures from the EU are aiming at tackling the spread of fake news, but unfortunately, without solving this issue. An interesting direction to improve the fight against fake news could be the cooperation between the European Commission and the Member States and the implementation of a media course within the educational system.

Disinformation and fake news are problems that need to be dealt with thoroughly, with regard to the serious issue of the security of the online world in the future. It is a technological challenge and we need to keep 3 The Directorate General for Communication Networks, Contents and Technology, Communication - Tackling an online disinformation: a European Approach, European Commission 4 The Directorate General for Communication Networks, Contents and Technology, Action Plan against Disinformation, European Commission 5 The Directorate General for Communication Networks, Contents and Technology, Code of Practice against Disinformation, European Commission 6 Eliza Mackintosh, Edward Kiernan, Finland is winning the war against fake news. What it’s learned may be crucial to Western democracy, CNN

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one of the biggest inventions of today secure and helpful, not changing it in a vicious cycle of bringing more problems than improvements. Not only European institutions and the Member States but also the public, professionals from the involved branches and the non-governmental organisations are important actors all willing to end the trend of disinformation.

Further reading • BBC, How Finland fights the fake news trolls: https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-europe-48401922/how-finland-fights-the-fake-news-trolls • European Commission, Communication - Tackling an online disinformation: a European Approach https:// ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/communication-tackling-online-disinformation-european-approach • European Commission, Action Plan against Disinformation: https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/ news/action-plan-against-disinformation • CNN, Finland is winning the war against fake news. What it’s learned may be crucial to Western democracy: https://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2019/05/europe/finland-fake-news-intl/ • Wikipedia, Ruská propaganda: https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusk%C3%A1_propaganda#cite_note-25 • Boston University, Q&A: LAW’s Danielle Citron Warns That Deepfake Videos Could Undermine the 2020’s Election: http://www.bu.edu/articles/2019/qa-laws-danielle-citron-warns-that-deepfake-videos-could-undermine-the-2020-election/ • European Commission, Code of Practice against Disinformation: https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/code-practice-disinformation

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