Animals in Antiquity - Vol. 2 by Barakat Gallery

ANIMALS IN ANTIQUITY VOL. 2 - EGYPTIAN AND CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES 1

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CATALOGUE EDITED BY: GIAN PIERO C. G. MILANI CURATED BY: MARIA SERENA PADRICELLI PAINTINGS: FAYEZ BARAKAT

PUBLISHED BY: HANNA BELLA PUBLISHING 01.10.2021 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form of electronic or mechanical means including storage by information or retrieval systems without written permission of the authors except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews.

All our artefacts are guaranteed to be genuine and a certificate of authenticity is included with each item. 4

CONTENTS

Egyptian Antiquities

Classical Antiquities

Foreword This catalogue is the second volume of our series on Animals in Antiquity, focussing on the Egyptian and Classical Worlds and encompassing three of the great ancient civilisations of the Mediterranean: Egypt, Greece, and Rome. While sometimes ancient cultures are thought as completely separate and almost insulated, these three civilisations compenetrated and influenced each other, and the discerning eye of the reader will be able to spot numerous similarities across this catalogue, revealing common trends of evolution and the synthesis of a plurality of cultural elements. Domestic and wild animals are presented in this catalogue, along with mythical animals and animal gods. For example, a number of Egyptian Scarabs are featured, calling the reader to reflect on the peculiar symbology behind this subject: in the life cycle of the beetle, the Ancient Egyptians envisioned a microcosm of the daily rebirth of the sun. They imagined that the ancient sun god Khepri was a great scarab beetle rolling the sun across the heavens. The scarab also became a symbol of the enduring human soul as well, hence its frequent appearance in funerary art. Further ahead, a Greek fresco and a Roman statuette portray dogs. Greeks and Romans had many pets, from cats to apes, but favoured the dog above all others. Dogs feature in many mosaics, wall frescoes, in poetry and prose. There is a large series of reliefs showing men and women with their canine companions, sometimes even on funerary sculptures with the pets bidding an emotional farewell to their departed masters. Dogs will even be mentioned in the Roman law code as guardians of the home and flocks. In one case which was recorded, a farmer brings a suit against his favored because the neighbour dogs rescued the farmer’s hogs from wolves and the neighbor’s then claimed ownership of the hogs. Varro claimed that no farm should be without two dogs and they should be kept indoors during the day and let free to roam at night in order to prevent just such a possibility as the one discussed above. He also suggested that a white dog should be chosen over a black one so that one could distinguish between one’s dog and a wolf in the darkness or the twilight of early morning. These objects show the meaningful relationship between man and nature in these three great cultures, a subject which I have tried to make sense of in my art and through the artefacts I have collected. Fayez Barakat President

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES

This image of the hippopotamus depicts the heavy, lumbering beast at ease as if it is resting on a bank of the Nile River with its head nestled between its fore-legs. In keeping with ancient Egyptian artistic conventions, the craftsmen have captured the essence of this mammal in a remarkably abstract manner with restrained modeling within a highly modernistic abstract design. Notice how subtly the details of the head are indicated with the slight depression between the eyes and the nostrils in the animal’s snout. Note as well the hieroglyphically designed eyes and their eyebrows. These observations of telling details have not been coloured naturalistically because the hippo’s entire body is a turquoise- green in colour, and that green surface has been enhanced with the addition floral motifs done in black glaze in a linear, calligraphic style. The turquoise colour of the surface and the profusion of floral motifs rendered in black glaze may be taken to symbolize the Nilotic environment in which the hippopotamus lived and prospered. In general the hippopotamus, particularly the male of the species, was regarded by the ancient Egyptians as a representative of chaos because he often trampled and destroyed crops, as this famous passage from a didactic treatise of New Kingdom date reveals, “…Do you not recall the fate of the farmer when the harvest is registered? The worm has taken half the grain, the hippopotamus has devoured the rest…” Furthermore, the hippopotamus would impede travel on the Nile River and was widely feared by the ancient Egyptians because it posed a hazard to all boats trying to navigate waters in which it lived.

Middle Kingdom Faience Sculpture of a Recumbent Hippopotamus - X.0180 Origin: Egypt Circa: 19th Century BC Dimensions: 2.75” (7.0cm) high x 3.125” (7.9cm) wide 11

As a result, the hippopotamus was greatly feared because the ancient Egyptians believed that their journey to the Hereafter on the nocturnal counterpart of the Nile River would be thwarted by the hippopotamus just as this mammal threatened boats on the Nile in real life. It was doubtless for this reason that images of the hippopotamus, such as this one, were interred in tombs. However, these funerary images of the hippopotamus were intentionally damaged before interment with the deceased when their legs were broken off and discarded. This intentional damaging of the statuette was ritually motivated to insure that all hippopotami encountered by the deceased in the Hereafter would be similarly incapacitated, by means of such sympathetic magic, so that the journey toward eternal life would not be thwarted by this beast. The lack of uniform glaze on the surface of this animal would be consistent with the ancient Egyptian desire to render the hippopotamus harmless in the Hereafter. However, the ancient Egyptians were ambivalent toward their symbols and often adopted a polyvalent approach with regard to individual motifs. As a result, the turquoise green of such statuettes is itself a symbol of resurrection and renewal as were species of the floral kingdom. Consequently, the immobilized figure of the hippopotamus was still beneficial to the deceased because its color represented the life- giving Nile River and its floral motifs in black glaze suggested both fertility and rebirth. Scholars have long maintained that these figures of the hippopotamus are enormously popular with art collectors. Most of the known examples depict the mammal standing on all fours; a few represent him sitting on his hind legs with his head lifted and jaws open as he roars. There is a smaller number still of such statuettes in this pose, which are prized for their charming depiction of the essence of one of the most majestic denizens of the ancient Nilotic marshes.

This faience hippopotamus belongs to a group of statuettes found in large numbers in Egyptian tombs of the Middle Kingdom period. The black line drawings represent flowers, plants and insects native to the Nile Region. Often shown standing or striding forward, this example is unusual for its seated and almost docile pose. The animal is fashioned as though lying on the banks of the Nile with its legs tucked beneath the body and the head lowered as if to graze. The symbolism of the hippopotamus in ancient Egypt was ambiguous. Known for their aggression, these animals were a threat to crops and people. As a force of destruction they were often associated with the evil god Seth. One of Egypt’s earliest kings was believed to have been killed by a hippopotamus and many temple walls depicted the god Horus hunting them with a harpoon. In the Old and New Kingdoms court officials had themselves depicted on tomb walls engaged in the same activity. The faience examples discovered during recorded excavations were often placed behind the mummy’s back or below the feet. Many of the standing statuettes had their legs deliberately broken before burial. This has been interpreted as an attempt to render evil spirits harmless. However they were also associated with fertility and rebirth. The composite goddess Tawaret, for example, was believed to protect women during pregnancy. The use of faience also suggests that the figurine was used to achieve rebirth in the afterlife. Faience, or ‘tjehnet’, literally means ‘what is gleaming’ and was associated with the light of the sun, moon and stars. Grave goods such as ushabtis or amulets were made from this material in the belief that this would help impart life to the dead. This is a rare and interesting example of Egyptian funerary art that deserves to be included in any comprehensive collection of Egyptian art.

Middle Kingdom Faience Hippopotamus - SK.020 Origin: Egypt Circa: 2040 BC to 1640 BC Dimensions: 2.15” (5.5cm) high x 4.6” (11.7cm) wide

A beautiful New Kingdon Alabaster Vessel with a representation of three snakes. Snakes were particularly important subjects in Egyptian iconography: the Uraeus, the cobra snake native of Egypt, was usually featured on the headpiece of the Pharaohs as a symbol of their authority and power. Various gods were represented in the form of snakes: Nehebkau, the primordial snake, acted as a judge in the afterlife, bestowing upon the soul of the departed the ‘ka’, the peculiar element of the soul distinguishing the dead from the alive. Wadjet, often represented as a snake, used to be the protectress of Lower Egypt, and after the unification of the two kingdoms became the Patron of all Egypt.

Alabaster Reptilian Vessel - OF.127 Origin: Egypt Circa: 16th Century BC to 11th Century BC Dimensions: 4.5” (11.4cm) high x 5.8” (14.7cm) wide

The sacred beetle of ancient Egypt, the scarab is an emblem of the creator, Khepera. The word kepher denotes Being, Existence, Creation, or Becoming, and the god Kephera is the self-existent maker of all things. The worship of the scarab, which is symbolic of resurrection and fertility, dates from the earliest period of civilization in Egypt. Carved scarabs served two major functions: as amulets with protective and religious powers, and as personal seals, which designated the property and authority of the individual whose name was placed upon them. In both cases, the power ascribed to the scarab was very great—in life they served as the signature of their owner and were thought to bring prosperity, and in the afterlife they ensured rebirth through eternity. Inscribed with the head of a ram wearing a headress with two plumes and two urai. The ram was an animal sacred to the god Amun, whom he represents here. New Kingdom Steatite Scarab - S.076 Origin: Lower Egypt Circa: 1650 BC to 1085 BC Dimensions: 375″ (1.0cm) high x .625″ (1.6cm) wide x .875″ (2.2cm) depth

Inscribed with a design depicting a winged scarab above a cartouche. This means that the king whose name is inscribed in the cartouche is the son of Re, the sun god, and rises to new life. The king’s eternal life renews itself every day like Khepera, the dawning aspect of the sun god, depicted as a beetle. The symbols within the cartouche are somewhat difficult to read, but they appear to form a phrase which means “child of the god.”

New Kingdom Steatite Scarab - S.013 Origin: Egypt Circa: 1650 BC to 1085 BC

Inscribed with a design. At the top are two Maat feathers, symbolizing divine order. These flank a sign meaning “good” or “beautiful”. Below is a pair of Wedjat eyes, which can be the Eyes of Horus or the Eyes of Re. This entire design means that divine order, or rightness, is good. In the myth of Horus, when the god’s eye, torn out by Seth, was restored, it meant that divine order had been restored in agreement with the Maat feathers above.

New Kingdom Steatite Scarab - S.011 Origin: Egypt Circa: 1650 BC to 1085 BC

By far the most important amulet in ancient Egypt was the scarab, symbolically as sacred to the Egyptians as the cross is to Christians. Based upon the dung beetle, this sacred creature forms a ball of dung around its semen and rolls it in a large ball over the sand dropping it into its burrow. The female lays her eggs on the ground and covers them with the excrement ball that is consumed by the larvae that emerge in the following days as if miraculously reborn. In the life cycle of the beetle, the Ancient Egyptians envisioned a microcosm of the daily rebirth of the sun. They imagined the ancient sun god Khepri was a great scarab beetle rolling the sun across the heavens. The scarab also became a symbol of the enduring human soul as well, hence its frequent appearance in funerary art. Scarabs of various materials form an important class of Egyptian antiquities. Though they first appeared in the late Old Kingdom (roughly 2575–2130 B.C.), scarabs remained rare until Middle Kingdom times (circa 1938-1600 B.C.) when they were fashioned in great numbers. While some were used as ornaments, others were purely amuletic in purpose.

New Kingdom Steatite Scarab Seal - fj.2429dc Origin: Egypt Circa: 1600 BC to 1100 BC

This finely crafted turquoise faience charm is fashioned in the form of a hare. It may be a three dimensional representation of the biconsonantal hieroglyph “wn,” but it could also represent one of the many members of the Egyptian pantheon (such as the goddess Wennenet or the god Wennen). This hare is depicted with an almost leonine muscularity, especially in the treatment of the powerful looking haunches, which is all the more remarkable for the small scale on which it was carved. The execution of this sculpture in miniature would certainly have required painstaking attention to detail.

New Kingdom Faience Amulet of a Hare - PF.2950 Origin: Egypt Circa: 1600 BC to 600 BC Dimensions: .75” (1.9cm) high x .375” (1.0cm) wide

This elegantly-carved head represents the Egyptian goddess Hathor – also known as Mehturt – who was one of the longest- worshipped deities in the Egyptian pantheon. Like most Egyptian gods, she went through various incarnations from a “cow goddess” flanking Narmer (who unified Egypt in the 31st century BC) on his eponymous palette, through to being the wife of Ra (the sun god), the wife of Thoth (god of the moon and/or a heavenly mediator) and the mother of Horus (the god of the sky). However, she never lost her primary role, which was goddess of the Milky Way, representative of milk spilling from the udders of a heavenly cow. As the Milky Way, she was believed to encircle the sky – and thus her son, Horus – although she was worshipped for much longer than her offspring, who was replaced by the sun god, Ra. Her significance was mainly economic, for the Milky Way was believed to be a heavenly version of the terrestrial Nile, which could not flood without her assistance. As three quarters of Egypt’s population was directly reliant upon the Nile, a failure to flood spelled disaster; thus her social importance never declined. Expectant mothers also worshipped Hathor, as she was seen as a herald of imminent birth, and she was also seen as a protector for those in desertic areas. It is also interesting to note the parallels between Egypt and other parts of the ancient world who also revered bulls and cows; the Neolithic site of Catal Huyuk was but one of many who became invested with “tauromaquia”, while zebus constituted much of the economy of various Near Eastern and Central Asian countries. Iconographically, she is depicted as a human female with horns supporting a sun disc, or as a cow, again with the horns and disc motif. Early versions of her image show her with what later became known as the Eye of Horus. When in human form, she wears a distinctive dress with circular decorations. She is often shown with an ankh, a cobra and a sun-disc; she also usually wore a (jewelled) collar. Hathor’s cult was centered in Dendera where she was a goddess of fertility and childbirth. There are many others across Egypt, including one in Southern Sinai. Many of these temples maintained a live incarnation of Hathor, which had to measure up to certain standards. He (for it was usually a bull) was used for divination purposes and lived in the temple, tended to as merits a living deity. This piece represents Hathor without her usual paraphernalia, but with the ornate eye-design seen in earlier pieces. Her neck is slim and elongated, narrowing superiorly and merging smoothly with the underside of the jaw and the back of the head. The curves are sensuously and fluidly carved, with details such as the ears and the mouth/nose picked out with consummate care. The stone bears signs of applied pigment, which is concentrated on the complex eyes, with elevated rims and the iris and pupil carefully picked out. There are two cavities atop the head that indicate the presence of horns, which were presumably made from an organic material, since lost. The origin of the piece is uncertain, although it was clearly a devotional object. Its size suggests that it may have been a domestic piece, receiving prayers, libations and requests for supernatural assistance. This is a mature and serene piece of ancient sculpture, and a major asset to any serious collection of Egyptian religious art.

Egyptian Stone Head of the Goddess Hathor - LO.610 (LSO) Origin: Egypt Circa: 1450 BC to 1070 BC Dimensions: 5” (12.7cm) high

This bronze statuette represents a ram gingerly striding forward on integral rectangular base. The ram is modeled with restraint with sculptural emphasis placed on the stylized musculature of its body rather than an articulation of its fleece. Nevertheless, certain details such as its hooves, tail, horns, and muzzle are more naturally rendered and imbue the figure with a sobriety consistent with its depiction as a manifestation of the state god, Amun. That identification is confirmed by the sun disc fronted by a serpent uraeus, which serves as the ram’s headdress and sole insignia. The cult of the state god Amun rose to prominence during the course of the Egyptian New Kingdom in the late second millennium BCE and continued to maintain its pre-eminent role into the Late Period. So, for example, the Kushite pharaohs of Dynasty XXV linked the Egyptian god Amun of Thebes with their own local deity of Napata worshipped deep in Nubia at Gebel Barkal. Later, in the fourth century BCE, Alexander the Great, in an effort to promote his divine claim, often chose to be depicted with the ram’s horns of Amun as his personal emblem. Our ram can, therefore, be dated to this late resurgence of the cult of Amun. And while, admittedly, there are few known parallels for our particular depiction, its style is consistent with that known for the depiction of other animals, such as the mongoose. Sculpture of the God Amun in the Form of a Ram - Z.0038 Origin: Sinai, Egypt Circa: 720 BC to 30 BC Dimensions: 2.5” (6.4cm) high x .75” (1.9cm) wide 32

Egyptian Bronze Staff Finial in the Form of Isis-Selket - X.0300 Origin: Egypt Circa: 664 BC to 525 BC Dimensions: 3.625” (9.2cm) high x 1.75” (4.4cm) wide

This carefully cast bronze figure depicts a composite being in the form of a scorpion goddess. Her female torso from the level of the waist to the crown of her head is designed in accordance with ancient Egyptian conventions for the depiction of goddesses. Consequently, she appears to be unclothed, but should be understood as clad in the tightly- fitting sheath which was the staple of an ancient Egyptian aristocratic woman’s wardrobe. Depictions of this particular garment, particularly on sculpture, generally lack all indications of a neckline, hem, and ends of the sleeves, as here. Her accessories include armlets and a broad collar, rendered as linearly incised bands, and a striated, tri-partite headdress, the lappets of which fall to the level of her breasts but do not cover her ears. Atop the wig is the goddess’s principal attribute in the form of a cylindrical modius fronted by a uraeus which serves to support the cow’s horns cradling the sun disc. The cow’s horns and sun disc were once the exclusive emblem of the goddess Hathor. Due to the syncretistic nature of ancient Egyptian religion over time, the sun disc and cow’s horns were gradually incorporated into the regalia of other goddesses whose characteristics also began to merge with those of Hathor. The arms of the goddess are bent at a ninety degree angle at the elbows with her hands, palms open and face down, resting on the integral plinth in order to raise and support her body in an up- right position. Her scorpion body, which conveys a very real sense of corpulence, is well-modeled and detailed. A series of parallel bands running perpendicular to alignment of the body separate it into sections with parallel strokes ornamenting each zone within. This same decorative scheme, but reduced in size, adorns the proportionately smaller tail, the stinger of which is raised and poised as if to strike. The eight legs of the scorpion are likewise ornamented with linear adjuncts with their “feet” oriented toward the front of the composition where they align quite nicely with the hands of the goddess. The entire composition is set on to an ancient, integral plinth with which it was cast as a piece. This base is provided with a centered, cylindrical fitting on its underside for attachment into a staff. Such finials, originally affixed to staves of either metal or exotic hard wood such as ebony or cedar, served as standards either to be carried by priests in procession or to be affixed to a sacred barque. The smaller scale of our figure, however, suggests it is a votive object, deposited for the well-being of its owner, and intentionally modeled on such monumental temple accruements. The ancient Egyptians pioneered the development of such composite beasts, the design tenets of which are rooted in the hieroglyphic basis of ancient Egyptian art. And yet, these images are exceedingly benign in their appearance and are neither as frightening nor terrifying as their counterparts in Western art. The reason for this fundamentally different approach to “monsters” lies in the observation that most of these ancient Egyptian creatures were intended to assist mortals in time of need. Furthermore, ancient religious praxis often transformed that which was malevolent into that which became benevolent on the principle of alexikakoi, best explained by the modern analogy of “fighting fire with fire.” The scorpion, whose venom attacks the respiratory system of humans and can cause death, was, therefore, transformed into a deity whose primary function was to insure the breathing of the deceased in the Hereafter. This transformation occurred rather early in Egyptian history, as demonstrated by the fact that a late Pre-dynastic ruler of Egypt is known as the Scorpion King, doubtless because he considered himself to be under tutelage of that goddess. Shortly, thereafter, during the course of the Old Kingdom that goddess was named and identified as Selket- hetu, which literally translates into English as, “She-who-causes-the-throat-to-breathe.” By convention in popular literature, she is referred to merely as Selket.

Although the integral base is inscribed in hieroglyphs, the inscription is abraded in places and so worn that an exact transcription and translation is difficult to achieve. Nevertheless, individual signs are clearly visible, including those forming the first group at the right-hand side of the front of the base. The signs there conform to a known dedicatory formula on such bronzes which include the name of the deity depicted and an invocation on behalf of the individual for whom it was dedicated and named. In the case of our bronze, we can read, “May the goddess Isis grant life to….” The sign for this goddess’s name is the throne, and that sign is unmistakable and clearly visible. The inscription clearly indicates that its accompanying figure of a scorpion- goddess is to be identified as the goddess Isis. That association at first appears to defy neat Aristotelian categories into which one is accustomed to compartmentalize deities and their animal manifestations. Such an impression is based upon a Eurocentric approach to the culture of ancient Egypt and fails to address the polyvalent nature of that society’s material culture. Because ancient Egyptian art was hieroglyphic, and the hieroglyphs are depictions of things in the real world, the Egyptians were forced to employ one and the same visual image for expressing a variety of ideas and concepts because the world of abstract thought far transcends the actual number of real objects known to the Egyptians. The syncretistic nature of ancient Egyptian religious beliefs developed concurrently with the practice of employing the same visual image for different concepts. As a result, the ancient Egyptians witnessed an exponential rise in the importance of the cult of the goddess Isis, particularly during the course of the Third Intermediate Period. As the priesthoods of that cult asserted more and more leverage, they folded into the cult of Isis characteristics and attributes of other goddesses which were already inherent, but perhaps not fully developed, within the Isis cult. The maternal nature of Hathor, for example, was compatible with the nurturing personality of Isis who raised her son Horus. Hence it was appropriate for Isis to appear with Hathor’s attribute of the cow’s horns and sun disc, with which she is shown on our bronze statuette. By the same token, the roles of Isis, Nephthys, Neith, and Seklet were instrumental in the protection of the corpse of Osiris. By the time of the New Kingdom, the powers of these goddesses had expanded to include the protection of the Canopic jars (witness the beautiful, gilded, wooden figures of these four goddess embracing the Canopic shrine of King Tutankhamun) and sarcophagus. Slowly but surely the close association of these four goddesses in such contexts blurred their distinctions with the result that the exponential rise of the cult of Isis enabled her priesthoods to elevate her to such a supreme position of authority that she could now be identified with any number of deities, Selket among them, and assume both their characteristics and outward manifestations. This particular bronze is datable to Dynasty XXVI, the so-called Saite Dynasty (664-525 BC) and is particularly rare among the preserved repertoire of bronze types known from that period. Nevertheless, our bronze finds its closest parallels in examples in both the collections of Baltimore and Berlin, which are, however, not a consummately crafted.

Modern scholars believe that the worship of Sobek, the crocodile god, arose from a fear of these ferocious beasts. However, crocodiles were not universally feared in ancient Egypt. In certain regions, they were held sacred. Some were even tamed, kept in shallow pools and temples, embellished with jewellry and hand fed fresh meats, milk, and honey by reverent priests. While this may have been the case, it was certainly the exception; for throughout the greater part of the land, crocodiles remained a constant threat both to sailors cruising along the Nile as well as workers tilling the fertile banks of the mighty river. Sobek, the crocodile god, is either represented in the form of a crocodile, as he is here, or with the body of a human man with the head of the animal. A water deity, Sobek was the most popular deity in the oasis city of Arsinoe (renamed Crocodilopolis by the Greeks), one of the places where tamed crocodile were openly revered. Archaeologists have unearthed numerous examples of mummified crocodiles, and in some cases even their eggs, revealing the Ancient Egyptian’s honour for this powerful deity. The Nile was the life source of Ancient Egpyt, however, this waterway was filled with dangerous, unpredictable beasts. In order to mollify the danger of these wild animals, Sobek was honoured with prayers, sacrifices, and libations, thereby ensuring a prosperous harvest and safe sailing. This grey stone sculpture of Sobek in the form of a crocodile is a splendid example of the stylized naturalism that characterizes Egyptian art. While subject of the work is unmistakable and his head is rendered with a fair amount of realism, the texture of the body has been conveyed through a series of abstract patterns that appear more fanciful than imitative. However, while these patterns are clearly of the sculptor’s own creation, they do marvellously convey the thick, scaly hide of these beasts. The top of the crocodile’s back is filled with small donut-shaped markings that spill over onto hi neck. The sides of his body and his legs are marked by a diagonal grid pattern. Meanwhile, his fragmented tail is decorated with a larger brick pattern. These geometric patterns belie the naturalism of the face. His eyes and the skin around them have been carefully incised and his sharp fangs have been indicated by a series of triangles around his narrow mouth. A double plumed headdress, perhaps made from a less durable material such as wood, may have originally been inserted into the hole in his head, thereby revealing his divine nature. Hundreds of years ago, when wild beasts still lurked alongside human civilization, this sculpture would have been worshipped in order to protect the people and ensure the prosperity of the Kingdom. Stone Sculpture of Sobek in the Form of a Crocodile - X.0189 Origin: Egypt Circa: 664 BC to 525 BC Dimensions: 2.875” (7.3cm) high x 3” (7.6cm) wide x 12.625” (32.1cm) depth

Yet despite that artist sought to replicate models of the past, Egyptian art of this era was infused with a heightened sense of naturalism. This fact is likely due to the influx of Greek culture. The Saite rulers recognized that Egypt had fallen behind the rest of the Mediterranean world in terms of military technology. Thus, they were forced to rely upon foreign mercenaries, many of whom were Greek. With ties between these two cultures firmly established during the 7th Century B.C., commercial trading quickly blossomed. Special entrepots for foreign traders were established, including the famed center of Naucratis, a Delta town in which Greek merchants were permitted access. During the Saite Period, two great powers of the Mediterranean world became intimately linked, commercially and culturally. As the exchange of ideas flowed across the sea, the Greeks began to experiment on a monumental scale while the Egyptians began to approach art with an enhanced sense of realism. The sacred Apis bull was considered the living manifestation of the creator god Ptah. In the temple of Ptah at Memphis, the Apis bull resided, serving as an intermediary allowing mankind to communicate with this mighty deity through oracles. From dedicatory sculptures and the writings of Greek historian Herodotus, we are familiar with the special physical attributes that differentiate the Apis from any other bull. The bull is coloured black, save for a small white triangular patch on its forehead. Sometimes a solar disk crowns its head, revealing the divine nature of the animal. On its back, it features the wings of a vulture goddess. Here, the wings have been carefully engraved along the top of the bulls body. As well, the tail is typically divided into two stands, perhaps reflecting the original two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. As a representative of Ptah, the Apis bull was naturally pampered, residing close to the temple of Ptah in Memphis in a palatial structure befitting for a pharaoh. The average lifespan of the Apis was fourteen years during which time the upper echelons of Memphis society were able to view the creature at certain annual ceremonies in the temple of Ptah. After the Apis passed away, it was mourned as if the pharaoh himself had died. The bull would be mummified, and the embalmed and bejeweled carcass would be paraded through the city on route to the burial plot in Saqqara. Like Ptah himself, the origin of the Apis dates back from the earliest days of Egyptian history, well before the Dynastic era. After Greek occupation, during the Ptolemaic Period, the Apis bull would survive in the form of the composite deity Sarapis.

It is believed that some stucco works such as this one functioned as aids for apprentices to learn the art of sculpting before embarking upon royal commissions where one mistake could mean disaster. Similar pieces were unearthed in what are thought to have been artist workshops, thus their identification as models. Considering the stylization of Egyptian art, it is clear that there was not much room for individual interpretation. When one realizes that many sculptors would have been responsible for decorating a single tomb or temple, stylistic unity becomes a foremost concern. Today, these sculptures give us unique insight into the creative process behind some of the most endearing and enduring artworks ever created by mankind. The lion is a symbol of strength and ferocity. The largest of the cat family, this animal is known as the “king of the beasts.” They are equally feared and respected for their power, speed, and intimidating growl. Kings and rulers have associated themselves with this noble creature since the days of antiquity. However, the lack of a bushy mane on this stucco work indicates that it represents a lioness. Therefore, it is probable that this head was a sculptor’s model employed during the manufacturing of Sekhmet sculptures. Sekhmet, along with her husband the creator- god Ptah and their son Nerfertum, was part of the powerful trio of deities that protected Ancient Memphis. She was a sun goddess, embodying the scorching, burning, destructive heat of the sun. Fierce goddess of war, the destroyer of the enemies of Ra and Osiris, she was represented as having the head of a lioness and the body of a woman. Like the sun, her temper was uncontrollable. In the legend of Ra and Hathor, Sekhmet’s anger became so great, she would have destroyed all of mankind if Ra had not taken pity on us and made her inebriated. Many centuries ago, a master sculptor might have corrected his apprentice by showing them such a model. A useful tool for understanding the dimensions and shape of the subject, such models would have assisted young students when natural observation was not possible. Considering the subject of this work, a lioness’ head, it is unlikely that many artists would have been keen to venture into the wild and sketch likenesses of this beast. There is a royal presence visible in the face of this lionness, suggesting that she would be a suitable model for a sculpture of the goddess Sekhmet. Egyptian Stucco Model of the Head of a Lioness - X.0354 Origin: Egypt Circa: 664 BC to 525 BC Dimensions: 7.5” (19.1cm) high

The Egyptians have left us with what is perhaps the most detailed legacy of an ancient civilization. They had strong beliefs about what would happen after the death and spent much of their earthly lives preparing for the next world. The falcon is one of the few clear examples of a motif known in Egypt’s Predynastic times that continued into the Dynastic period, after 3100 B.C., when it symbolized the king as an embodiment of the falcon-headed god Horus, the patron deity of kingship. Horus was the falcondeity, originally the sky-god, identified with the king during his lifetime Known more importantly as the son of Osiris and Isis. Horus was also the avenger of his father Osiris, who was killed by Set. Masterfully carved from stone, the falcon’s shape and profile are familiar from later representations. In all his forms, the Egyptian Horus was seen as the Prince of Gods, other gods of the pantheon becoming subordinate to him. Archaeologists researching the sites of Ancient Egypt have uncovered numerous falcon figures, ranging from life-size representations to tiny statuettes crafted with exquisite precision. This is also partly due to the fact that the falcon was sacred to Sokar, the Memphite patron of the Dead. Stone Falcon Horus Figure - LK.009 Origin: Egypt Circa: 664 BC to 525 BC Dimensions: 3.6” (9.1cm) high

Figures of animals used for magical protection are often termed amulets of assimilation and can be assigned to what Sir Flinders Petrie the father of Egyptology designated as the homopoeic category. The idea of wearing zoomorphic amulets was based upon the belief that one or more perceived characteristics of an animal would pass to the human being wearing it. This varied according to the animal owls are said to be good luck in some parts of the world even today and some animal parts were believed to endow the wearer with good fortune. An enduring modern parallel for this ancient practice is the rabbits foot. This apple-green faience amulet depicts a recumbent maned (i.e. male) lion at rest upon an integral rectangular base. The head is held majestically erect, the forelegs extended, the rear legs retracted and the tail curled around his right haunch. The modelling of the amulet is highly accomplished, the main body being smoothly finished, and with details in relief and highlighted with incisions. The suspension loop formed from an eminence in the middle of the lions back is pierced at a right angle to the bodys long axis. In ancient Egypt, the lion has always been associated with a series of regal characteristics power, serenity, stealth and cunning with which people were eager to be associated. The long identification of pharaonic leaders with lions is evidenced by their sculptural hybridisation the famous sphinx figures. Our example is representative of a type traditionally cast in faience, and invariably shown in this pose with a suspension loop and integral base. Most examples are believed to date from Dynasty XXVI (654 625 BC), although some may be later. There is evidence to suggest that they may have played a more active role than a good luck charm. One magic spell preserved on a papyrus requires an individual to recite a spell over a lion of glazed composition threaded to red linen, so as to protect against snakebite, although it is possible that snakebite may metaphorically represent any type of accidental misfortune. 26th Dynasty Faience Sculpture of a Recumbent Lion - X.0689 Origin: Egypt Circa: 664 BC to 525 BC Dimensions: 1” (2.5cm) high x .75” (1.9cm) wide x 2” (5.1cm) depth

This object is a flat-backed plaque depicting the right facing head of a ram in high relief. The horn of the ram is re-curved and curls around the ear toward the front of its face. The profile is aristocratic, helped by the high nasal bones and small ears that characterise many North African domestic and wild sheep breeds. The details of the ear particularly the treatment of the hair in the area from which it springs from the head the tear duct anterior to the eye, and the mouth-nostrils are meticulously observed and executed. The entire object is modelled in broad planes to which linear detail has been added. The facial aspect is smooth clay: the horns and long hair at the neck level are in stronger relief. Without either an accompanying inscription or distinctive specific attribute, it is difficult to identify the deity to which this particular ram carving was intended to relate. Candidates include Khnum (who, as potter, fashioned mankind on the potters wheel), Amun (whose depiction as a ram is demonstrated by the avenues of ram-headed sphinxes in Thebes) and Bad-neb-djed, the ramheaded god of Mendes (the capital of Egypt during Dynasty XXIX). Our ram may well represent any one of these deities. In style and technique, our terracotta plaque finds its closest stylistic parallels in limestone plaques that are often termed sculptors models, with the understanding they were maquettes for larger works, However, they may in fact have served as votive offerings in their own right. Limestone versions are usually dated to the Late Period, but stylistic comparisons with related artefacts including an example in Boston seem to suggest a date somewhere in the Ptolemaic Period. In essence, however, our plaque is unique. This is an exceptionally beautiful, perfectly executed and very rare artefact that will appeal to anyone with interests in ancient Egyptian artworks. 26th Dynasty Terracotta Sculpture of a Ram Head - X.0690 Origin: Egypt Circa: 664 BC to 525 BC Dimensions: 2” (5.1cm) high x 2.5” (6.4cm) wide

The 26th Dynasty, also known as the Saite Period, is traditionally placed by scholars at the end of the Third Intermediate Period or at the beginning of the Late Dynastic Period. In either case, the Saite Period rose from the ashes of a decentralized Egyptian state that had been ravaged by foreign occupation. Supported by the assistance of a powerful family centered in the Delta town of Sais, the Assyrians finally drove the Nubians out of Egypt. At the close of this campaign, Ashurbanipal’s kingdom was at the height of its power; however, due to civil strife back east, he was forced to withdraw his forces from Egypt. Psamtik I, a member of the family from Sais, seized this opportunity to assert his authority over the entire Nile Valley and found his own dynasty, the 26th of Egyptian history. Known as the Saite Period due to the importance of the capital city Sais, the 26th Dynasty, like many before it, sought to emulate the artistic styles of past pharaohs in order to bolster their own claims to power and legitimize their authority. The first examples of amulets appeared in Ancient Egypt as early as 4000 B.C. Believed to possess magical powers that protected the wearer or bestowed upon the properties they symbolized, amulets were worn both by the living as well as the dead. Throughout their evolution, talismans were crafted from a variety of materials including precious metals such as gold and silver, semiprecious stone like jasper and carnelian, as well as other more affordable glazed compositions such as faience. The particular powers of an individual amulet were based upon its specific shape, although the material and even the color of the charm could affect its magical abilities. While many of the amulets created to be worn by the living could also be worn after death, there also existed a specific group of charms that were made specifically to be placed upon the mummified remains of the deceased. All together, amulets represent an important class of Ancient Egyptian art that furthers our understanding of their complex religious beliefs. Faience, which dates back to predynastic times, at least 5,000 years, is a glasslike non-clay substance made of materials common to Egypt: ground quartz, crushed quartz pebbles, flint, a soluble salt-like baking soda, lime and ground copper, which provided the characteristic color. The dried objects went into kilns looking pale and colorless but emerged a sparkling “Egyptian blue.” Called tjehnet by the Ancient Egyptians, meaning that which is brilliant or scintillating, faience was thought to be filled with the undying light of the sun, moon and stars and was symbolic of rebirth. Ancient Egyptians believed the small blue-green objects helped prepare them for eternity in the afterlife. Jackals, like crocodiles and hippopotami, were a threatening force in the Ancient Egyptian environment. However, while these two other beasts were a danger to the living who sailed the Nile or worked along its banks, the jackal was mainly a danger to the deceased. While this fact might first appear less significant, it is actually far more ominous. Black jackals wandered around desert cemeteries in search of bones to chew on. Sometimes they even entered embalmers’ storage rooms and carried off a salted limb from an unsupervised corpse. Since the preservation of the physical remains was a necessity to enter the afterlife, any desecration of the corpse would have prevented the possibility of resurrection. Thus the jackal-headed deity Anubis became the god of embalming, presiding over the very object the animal would attack in nature. The earliest jackal amulet dates to the predynastic era and portrays the animal in a recumbent position much as this one does. Throughout Egyptian history, such amulets were continually produced, evolving over time to include a variety of position and materials. However, the couchant state remained popular until the end of the Pharaonic age, as this work attests to. Created from a gorgeous blue faience, this amulet would have only been worn by the deceased. By placing this powerful talisman upon the deceased, one could ensure the preservation of the corpse and pave the way for a safe passage into the afterlife.

26th Dynasty Faience Amulet of a Jackal - X.0330 Origin: Egypt Circa: 664 BC to 525 BC Dimensions: 0.78” (2cm) high x 0.94” (2.4cm) wide x 1.19” (0.5cm) depth 57

Lion amulet are known to date as early as the Old Kingdom. Lions, who inhabited the deserts of Ancient Egypt, were believed to possess regenerative capabilities, thus there frequent occurrence in funerary art. Lion amulets forged from gold were often given to victorious generals to reward their courage and valor on the battlefield. Although they were produced until the end of the dynastic era, there are only two main types of lion amulets. While both varieties feature the animal lying down with the tail curled around the back right leg and a clearly defined mane, they can be easily differentiated. One type depicts the animal without a base and a suspension loop attached to the top of the back. The other variety, of which this example belongs, portrays the lions resting upon a low base with a square front and curved back. These amulets were suspended by a longitudinal boring as opposed to a loop. This magnificent amulet of a couchant lion still possesses the magical powers that Ancient Egyptians utilized in hopes of altering the course of their lives for the better. 26th Dynasty Faience Amulet of a Recumbent Lion - X.0325 Origin: Egypt Circa: 664 BC to 525 BC Dimensions: 0.66” (1.7cm) high x 1.18” (3cm) wide x 0.27” (0.7cm) depth

Khnum, the creator god, represented as a ram headed man, is one of the oldest deities in the Ancient Egyptian pantheon. His name means: “to create.” He was the creator of all things that are and all things that shall be. He created the gods and he fashioned mankind on a potter’s wheel. A water god, he was closely associated with the annual flooding of the Nile, and thus intimately interlinked with the life- nourishing harvest that made the desert terrain habitable. This sculpture of Khnum represents the god in his animal form. Here he is not a human with the head of a ram, but an entire ram. The modeLling of the head is especially impressive. The sculptor carefully crafted the forms of the pointed ears that protrude from the semicircular projecting horns. The facial structure of the ram, including the flat, hooked nose so characteristic of the creature, is extremely naturalistic. So how do we know this is Khnum and not just an ordinary, albeit noticeably beautiful, ram? There is the fragment of the crown of Upper Egypt on the top of his head. This symbol, in its original state, would have been clearly recognizable to Ancient Egyptians and would have revealed the divine nature of this creature. Today, this piece remains a striking work of art as gorgeous as the day it was cast. Bronze Sculpture of the God Khnum - PF.5777 Origin: Egypt Circa: 625 BC to 550 BC Dimensions: 1.75” (4.4cm) high x 2.75” (7.0cm) wide

Egyptian Bronze Sculpture of a Mongoose - FZ.033 Origin: Sinai, Egypt Circa: 600 BC to 300 BC Dimensions: 1.375” (3.5cm) high x 3.75” (9.5cm) wide

In a land like Egypt filled with serpents, the Ichneumon-- the sacred mongoose of the Nile-- enjoyed a special status. Swift and clever, he alone was able to outwit the anger of the cobra. A statue like this might have been offered to the mongoose god in return for his protection from snakebite. Though we are perhaps in less danger from such things today, it could hardly hurt to have this charming creature on our side.

Sculpture of an Oxyrhynchus Fish God - FZ.166 Origin: Sinai, Egypt Circa: 600 BC to 300 BC Dimensions: 3.5” (8.9cm) high x 5.375” (13.7cm) wide

Egyptian Bronze Sculpture of a Mongoose - FZ.033 Origin: Sinai, Egypt Circa: 600 BC to 300 BC Dimensions: 1.375” (3.5cm) high x 3.75” (9.5cm) wide

By far the most important amulet in ancient Egypt was the scarab, symbolically as sacred to the Egyptians as the cross is to Christians. Based upon the dung beetle, this sacred creature forms a ball of dung around its semen and rolls it in a large ball over the sand dropping it into its burrow. The female lays her eggs on the ground and covers them with the excrement ball that is consumed by the larvae that emerge in the following days as if miraculously reborn. In the life cycle of the beetle, the Ancient Egyptians envisioned a microcosm of the daily rebirth of the sun. They imagined the ancient sun god Khepri was a great scarab beetle rolling the sun across the heavens. The scarab also became a symbol of the enduring human soul as well, hence its frequent appearance in funerary art. Scarabs of various materials form an important class of Egyptian antiquities. Though they first appeared in the late Old Kingdom (roughly 2575–2130 B.C.), scarabs remained rare until Middle Kingdom times (circa 1938-1600 B.C.) While some were used as ornaments, others were purely amuletic in purpose. Green Jasper Scarab - FJ.0065 Origin: Israel Circa: 600 BC to 300 BC Dimensions: 2.25” (5.7cm) high x 1.625” (4.1cm) wide

In all its vitality and vigor this magnificent bronze canine now stands before us as if beckoned by its ancient master. The artisan who sculpted this lean and athletic dog captured the swiftness in his limbs and the pronounced agility throughout his body. With inlaid silver eyes, the artist depicts the dog’s acute vision and cunning gaze. One can imagine that this charming sculpture belonged to a proud and loving master who wished to memorialize his agile companion through the elegant medium of bronze. Dog and master are an inseparable team; in antiquity, as in modern times, the relationship between man and dog is one of inexplicable trust and camaraderie. The master of this dog could very well have been a hunter, served faithfully by his hound in pursuit of elusive game. With all its dexterity and enthusiasm, this dog would pounce on any threat to its master, rewarded with the love and affection of a grateful owner. Having survived the ravages of time, this wonderful animal stands alert and ready to serve a new master as a testament to loyalty and friendship— eternal qualities that transcend the lacunae between ancient and modern. Egypto-Roman Bronze Sculpture of a Male Dog - PF.5491 Origin: Egypt Circa: 300 BC to 100 BC Dimensions: 3” (7.6cm) high x 5” (12.7cm) wide

This pierced rectangular panel depicts a seated ibis with its sickle-shaped beak resting on the head of a kneeling male figure. The figure wears a frontal uraeus, a stylised cobra that symbolised royalty, divinity or authority in ancient Egypt. Naked to the waist, he wears a short tunic and holds one arm out in supplication. The ibis was considered a sacred bird and associated with wisdom and purity. Thoth, the god of writing, wisdom and the moon, was often depicted with a human body and ibis head. In the late period ibises were frequently embalmed and interred in tombs in earthenware jugs. It was believed that they would provide instruction and protection during the last journey. This panel may well have come from an item of furniture placed in a prestigious tomb, such as a funerary bed or ceremonial chair. In its original state it would have been painted and gilded, but it continues to impress us with its elegant design. Egyptian Wooden Furniture Attachment - SK.023 Origin: Egypt Circa: 336 BC to 30 BC Dimensions: 10.5” (26.7cm) high

CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES

Fresco Depicting a Procession - LA.570 Origin: Southern Italy Circa: 450 BC to 250 BC Dimensions: 41” (104.1cm) high x 32” (81.3cm) wide

With a profusion of bright colours and vivid architectural elements, this fresco from Paestum, the greatest city of Magna Graecia stands as an enduring tribute to the detail, naturalism ad adaptability with which the ancient Greeks approached their fine arts. This tall pentagonal composition features vivid pigments for greatest effect, with clear bold fields of colour that intersect each other with clearly defined linear boundaries. The use of these fields of colour makes for an instantly legible and appreciable vignette. A luxuriantly leaved palmette fills the top half of the relief. Some of the leaves stretch up vertically, others undulate to the sides, and two long vine-like extremities course out to the edge of the triangular top. Below the palmette, a strong line of red pigment separates the leaves from a band of egg- and-dart moulding, which has been painted in red and bright cerulean blue pigments. Below the moulding, a procession takes place: a darkskinned youth, sitting proudly astride a horse, rides across the scene from left to right. A faithful long-limbed hunting dog follows behind him, and to his right, a fair-skinned goddess beckons the youth onwards. With her fine features, elegant robes and patera cradled in her arm, she is Persephone, goddess of the bountiful harvest and queen of the underworld realm, Hades. Persephone, after being abducted by the king of the underworld Hades, was later released thanks to her mother Demeter. On releasing her, Hades gave her a pomegranate. When she later ate it, it bound her to the underworld, where she had to stay there one-third of the year, while she spent the rest with her mother. This myth is a symbol of the budding and dying of nature. These figures have been painted with passion, but also economy, so that their spare forms remain apprehensible even from a distance. Both collected and exuberant, the youth, the horse, the dog, and the goddess are outstanding examples of the artistic style of Magna Graecia and Paestum in particular. The southern regions of Italy, well watered by rivers, fertile with pleasant terrain for cities and harbours, attracted the wandering Greeks of the Aegean from the days of ancient Mycenae. The islands of the Aegean archipelago were small, resource-poor and often crowded. For the able sea-faring Greeks, the plains of southern Italy and Sicily offered pasture, resources and respite from their travels. By the middle of the first millennium BC, Magna Graecia, as it became to be known, contained some of the most lavish cities in the ancient world. Cities such as Sybaris were known for their wealth, and the Sicilian city of Agrigento built beautiful temples in the Classical style. But for all of their wealth and graceful architecture, none of the cities of Magna Graecia approached Paestum in its size, wealth or architecture. By the early 5th century BC, the Italian peninsula was becoming Roman, as the last of the tyrannical kings was expelled and the Republic founded. However, the south was still very much Greek and the economic and political security of Magna Graecia and its kings remained secure. Paestum, originally founded under the name ‘Poseidonia’, was still the jewel of these Greek cities, renowned for its monuments and for its distinctive artistic style. While its temples were clearly modelled on the temple of Zeus at Olympia, the decorative arts of Paestum are distinctively local. The fresco is a prime example of its local style. Bright colours, clear forms and deliberate registered compositions define the fresco style of Paestum. The inclusion of a pomegranate, a classical motif of great durability, links the painting to the one from the Spina-Gaudo necropolis outside the ancient city. Another relief featuring the Charon again from the same necropolis and now in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Paestum, presents a similar triangular inclusion.

Formerly in a Private Collection , Basel, Switzerland. The Greek fish plate was a circular dish for serving seafood. Its broad open form supported on a stemmed foot allowed the fish to be placed directly on the plate, while the juices would gather in the centre. This exceptionally large example features three fish, striped and with spiky dorsal fins, swimming counterclockwise. Between them three small scallops. a wave pattern is also applied to the overhanging rim and around the central depression. Apulian Fish Plate - LA.539 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 400 BC to 300 BC Dimensions: 10” (25.4cm) high x 10” (25.4cm) wide

Apulian Red-Figure Fish Plate - PF.6108 Origin: Magna Graecia Circa: 400 BC to 300 BC Dimensions: 7.75” (19.7cm) high x 7.75” (19.7cm) wide

In an overview of Ancient Greek pottery, perhaps no single type is as charming as the fish plates of Apulia. The Greek colonies of southern Italy (known in antiquity as Magna Graecia) were marked by their initial allegiance to the ceramic styles of the Attic mainland. However, over the years, native traditions and innovations heavily influenced the works of Magna Grecian potters. Unorthodox forms and painting-styles were seamlessly merged with the standard Greek style, creating distinctive works of art unique to the Hellenistic world. The Apulian fish plate, originating in the Eastern province of Apulia situated along the Adriatic Sea, is a perfect example of this gorgeous hybrid style. Three large fish are depicted along the surface of the plate while shells and other smaller aquatic creatures fill in the voids. While the red-figure painting technique derives from the mainland, the subject matter is uniquely Apulian and reveals their nature as a sea-based culture. As a colony of Greeks situated on a foreign peninsula, the sea was a link to their homeland. The bountiful waters of the Mediterranean provided them with food and sustenance. Most importantly, the sea provided access to foreign markets where their pottery could be exported. Apulian works of art were widely collected throughout the Classical world, even rivaling the popularity of Attic vessels. We gazing upon this fanciful work of art, it is easy to understand why this distinctive style of work was so popular in antiquity and remains so with collectors today.

An askos is traditionally used for pouring oil. However, this vessel has taken on the untraditional form of a bird. The elongated beak served as a spout while the oil would have been loaded through the opening at the top of the bird’s back. Next to the loading mouth, there is a strap handle decorated with black painted lines. In fact, the entire vessel is elaborated with red and black painted highlights. Radiating lines depict the texture of the tail feathers protruding from the hind. The wings are elegantly painted with feathers and rows of hash marks. The bulging red eyes with recessed centers are painted in, as are sporadic spots along the neck. While pottery and functional vessels often took the form of animals, few are quite so entirely successful. In the end, this is not a pouring jar in the shape of a bird; but a bird in the form of a pouring jar.

Corinthian Askos in the Form of a Bird - PF.5591 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 400 BC to 300 BC Dimensions: 5.25” (13.3cm) high x 2.625” (6.7cm) wide

This is an Apulian red-figured fish plate attributed to the Ricchioni Painter. The fish plate stands on a tall stemmed foot with moulded edge, depicting a pair of bream and a skate. added white pigment is used to highlight the eyes, underbeliies, fins, and gills on the bream and for the eyes and outline of the skate. The central concave depression and rim bear wave patterns. Apulian Fish Plate - LA.540 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 320 BC to 300 BC Dimensions: 8.25” (21.0cm) high x 8.25” (21.0cm) wide

Bronze bust of a ram - PH.0147 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 300 BC to 100 BC Dimensions: 4.75” (12.1cm) high

This ‘phalera’ – a decorative plate worn on the cuirass of a soldier – is decorated with a central roundel containing a low relief image of a horse head. The horse is openmouthed and wide-eyed, this possibly being a depiction of it in battle. His head takes up the whole central space of the plate, and when light runs across the surface it really comes to life. Around the circumference of the phalera are the remains of the heads of the bolts that would have attached it to the armour. Silver-Gilt Phalera with the Head of a Horse - OF.139 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 300 BC to 100 BC Dimensions: 5” (12.7cm) wide

Extremely rare, only a few marble shells have survived from the ancient world. A form taken from the shells that could be found along the shores of Greece, its hollowed out interior is suggestive of its use as a libation vessel, used to pour liquids (usually wine) into the ground as thanks to the gods, an invocation for divine help, or in honor of the deceased. However, as so few survive and their find contexts are not coherent, their original function is not known. This shell is finely carved, the natural qualities of the marble giving it an incredibly natural appearance. The carving is smooth and gently rendered with great attention to detail. It shows a clear interest and study of the natural world by whoever created this magnificent piece. It is truly remarkable.

Hellenistic Marble Shell - DD.001 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 300 BC to 100 BC Dimensions: 10” (25.4cm) high x 18” (45.7cm) wide 87

Pegasus, famed winged horse of Greek mythology, sprang forth from Medusa’s neck when she was killed by the hero Perseus. Shortly after its birth, the magic steed struck the ground on Mount Helicon, and on the spot a spring, later sacred to the Muses and believed to be a source for poetic inspiration, began to flow. All longed in vain to catch and tame the creature, and this became the obsession of Bellerophon, prince of Corinth, who captured the horse with the aid of Athena. Pegasus thereafter proved to be a great help, aiding the hero in his adventures against the Amazons. However, Bellerophon was overcome by his own pride. When he attempted to fly to the top of Olympus to join the gods, the wise horse threw him, leaving Bellerophon to wander disconsolately about, hated by the gods. Pegasus found shelter in the Olympian stalls and was entrusted by Zeus with bringing him his lightning and thunderbolts. This bronze decorative fragment depicts the mythological stallion in flight, wings open, legs prancing forward. The details of the horse are outstanding, from the incised eyes and mouth to the finely detailed hair and mane. The base stand has also been decorated by a pattern of diagonal hashes, imitating foliage. The base terminates in a loop, presumably used to hang something. However, what this extraordinary work of sculpture was once attached to remains a mystery. The artistry of this fragment is evident. Clearly this was treasured in antiquity as it is treasures today. Bronze Fragment Depicting Pegasus - FZ.390 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 300 BC to 100 BC Dimensions: 6.75” (17.1cm) high x 1.375” (3.5cm) wide

Of elegant proportions and with a pleasing dark green patina, this ewer, once used for the pouring of water, makes for a very beautiful addition to any collection. Stood upon a delicate foot, the bulbous body curves gently upwards until its form subtly merges into the tall neck and flaring spout that is so characteristic of ewers. What sets this particular vessel apart from others are the two rather large bird finials, one acting as a handle, and the other more intricate bird, possibly an eagle, acting as a way of steading the angle at which the ewer is held to control the pouring of the water. Their size and intricacy are rare, and are suggestive of this vessel having come from the Eastern Mediterranean. Bronze Ewer with Bird Finial and Handle - BF.010 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 300 BC to 300 AD Dimensions: 10” (25.4cm) high x 5” (12.7cm) wide

The lion we see here is not the lion of Heracles, or of a Roman hunt. The dramatic strength of its composition, the sweeping, bold curves of its majestic paw, its regal mane- give away its Biblical origin. It was not the dainty hands of one trained in the Imperial school that tempered and expressed this bronze, but the large and powerful hands of a Jewish artist, which yielded from the metal the rich and valiant figure we see here. Above it towers an imposing torch, each pyre of flame substantial enough to merit a subject within it self, and wrought finely enough to merit an artist of its own. This piece, a torch rising from behind the lion calls to mind the biblical passage from Zechariah, in which God claims that in the day he makes Jerusalem the capital of the world, he “will make the clans of Judah like a firepot among pieces of wood and a flaming torch among sheaves, so they will consume on the right hand and on the left all the surrounding peoples, while the inhabitants of Jerusalem again dwell on their own sites in Jerusalem.” Judah, the largest and most powerful of the Jewish clans was traditionally represented as the lion. This lion and torch may very well have been mounted on the door of an opulent synagogue, a reminder to the Jewish people that the world was, and again will be theirs. To a frustrated and down-trodden Jewish artist, whose worship made his life so very difficult within the pagan-dominated world, this piece acted as an emblem of hope and a symbol of strength. Out of the handful of pieces of art that remain from Classical antiquity, only the tiniest portions of them are Jewish. Out of the pieces of Jewish art that remain, the vast majority are small utilitarian items like clay pots. A glorious bronze work such as this is one of the most absolutely final links to the true art and spirit of the Jewish people of the Classical era. This piece stands as a testament to the resilience and capability of a people, and that even in a state of oppression, the art and creativity of humanity can flourish. That we can be lions, light, with the torch of our pride and faith, the darkest of straights, and the most hopeless of circumstances.

Graeco Roman Bronze Sculpture Of a Lion - SP.589 Origin: Israel Circa: 200 BC to 200 AD Dimensions: 11.5” (29.2cm) high

The dolphin is rendered in great detail with long upraised tail, large incised eyes, carefully depicted flippers and dorsal fin and two rows of teeth. The remains of an iron pin on the proper right of the sculpture indicate that it was probably designed as a support for a life-size statue of Venus, the goddess of love. Roman Marble Dolphin - AM.0426 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 1st Century AD Dimensions: 26.38” (67.0cm) high

This well-modelled head of a ram captures the essence of the animal with the articulated ridge running across the top of its snout. This feature gives prominence to its nostrils and mouth. Its eyes are carefully modelled as are its horns and ears. One may suggest that our head originally came from a statue because it is both executed in the round and exhibits a clean break along the lower, horizontal edge of the neck. As such, the original may have served either a decorative function adorning a garden of a Roman villa on analogy with other animal sculptures serving that purpose from Pompeii or as an adjunct for a statue depicting a deity, as seen in a selected number of examples in Italian museums.

Roman Sculpture of a Ram’s Head - PF.5275 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 100 AD to 300 AD Dimensions: 6.75” (17.1cm) high

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Hollow-cast bronze protome of a bull, naturalistically modelled with upwardcurving horns, with traces of ridged bands at their base. The animal is presented with small projecting ears, heavy-lidded eyes, whereas the muzzle, nostrils and mouth are all well defined. Presence of a dewlap indicated by a ridge running from the underside of the muzzle down between the animal’s prancing forelegs. The figurine must have been appliqué on a larger artefact, most possibly paired with a similar zoomorphic protome. Roman bronze protome of a bull - MS.942 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 1st Century AD to 3rd Century AD Dimensions: 9” (22.9cm) high

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A charming representation of a household animal, this small bronze statuette of a dog may be a representation of someone’s pet, for a collar has been added to the animal showing its domestication, so too suggested by the lines on his nose representing a muzzle. He may once have had a long tail (now unfortunately lost) but the dog is full of character, for his tongue is shown hanging out, possibly suggesting that he was meant to be depicted as panting. Such a statuette may have been a simple ornament, furniture applique, or it could have been an image of a loved, deceased pet, and placed among similar statuettes of family members in the household shrine to pray for their protection and honour their memory. In ancient Rome the dog was seen as the loyal, devoted figure to his master, whether that master returns the devotion or not. The well-known mosaic, Cave Canem (Beware of Dog) shows how dogs were appreciated in Rome as guardians of homes just as they had been in earlier cultures and are still today. The great Latin poet Virgil, wrote, “Never, with dogs on guard, need you fear for your stalls a midnight thief ”(Georgics III, 404ff) and the writer Varro, in his work on how to live in the countryside, writes that every family should have two types of dog, a hunting dog and a watchdog (De Re Rustica I.21). The Romans had many pets, from cats to apes, but favored the dog above all others. Dogs feature in many mosaics, wall frescoes, in poetry and prose. There is a large series of Roman reliefs showing men and women with their canine companions. Dogs are mentioned in the Roman law code as guardians of the home and flocks. In one case which was recorded, a farmer brings a suit against his favored because the neighbour dogs rescued the farmer’s hogs from wolves and the neighbor’s then claimed ownership of the hogs. Varro claimed that no farm should be without two dogs and they should be kept indoors during the day and let free to roam at night in order to prevent just such a possibility as the one discussed above. He also suggested that a white dog should be chosen over a black one so that one could distinguish between one’s dog and a wolf in the darkness or the twilight of early morning. Roman Bronze Dog - SF.015 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 100 AD to 300 AD Dimensions: 2.75” (7.0cm) high x 4” (10.2cm) wide

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Roman Bronze Oil Lamp - LO.1269 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 100 AD to 300 AD Dimensions: 6.9” (17.5cm) high x 10” (25.4cm) wide

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This pear-shape oil lamp dates to the Roman era. The arched handle terminates in a horse- head finial emerging from a leafy wreath. The horse’s features are naturalistically rendered with flaring nostrils and the mouth slightly ajar. The facial muscles are well-defined and a thick curly mane runs back along the neck. The body of the lamp is set on a low foot ring with a circular filling hole and an extended nozzle. The majority of oil lamps in the ancient world were made from clay, and only the wealthy could have afforded such a luxurious bronze example. The beauty of the lamp lies in the simplicity of its form, particularly the curve of the handle, and the sensitive treatment of the horse.

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Bronze Eagle Finial - LO.1170 Origin: Israel Circa: 100 AD to 300 AD Dimensions: 3.3” (8.4cm) high x 2” (5.1cm) wide

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Exhibiting a rather handsome and charming faces, these lion-headed appliqués would have been used as doorknockers to the home of a Roman aristocrat. Indeed, some can still be seen in situ at the site of Herculaneum, the town fossilized by Vesuvius in 79 A.D. along with neighbouring Pompeii. His features are gentle and welcoming, but as they are those of a lion, it marks the high class of the inhabitants of whose doorway he sits; lion hunting was the legendary pastime of the Homeric heroes and other elite warriors, thus associating with them garnered a feeling of wealth and class.

Pair of Roman Bronze Lion Roundels with Handles - SF.010 Origin: Ein Gedi, Israel Circa: 1st Century AD to 3rd Century AD Dimensions: 7.4” (18.8cm) high

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Cast bronze alloy bird figurine, probably of votive nature, dating to the late Roman period. This unidentified bird –presumably an eaglet- is depicted with short curved beak and a rounded vivid eye visible on either sides of the head. All over the body, as well as the head, curved incisions represent the feathers whereas particular attention has been given to the wings. The fledgling is obviously shown, with great naturalism, in one of its first attempts of trying to awkwardly spread its wings. On the lower part two protruding lugs are a possible indication that the figurine was mounted on to another object. Roman Sculpture, with artists from across a huge empire and changing public tastes over centuries, is above all else, remarkable for its sheer variety and eclectic mix. The art form blended the idealised perfection of earlier Classical Greek sculpture with a greater aspiration for realism and absorbed artistic preferences and styles from the East but also from the local Etruscan art. As with Greek sculpture, the Romans worked stone, precious metals, glass and terracotta but favoured bronze and marble above all else for their finest work. However, as metal has always been in high demand for re-use, most of the surviving examples of Roman sculpture are in marble. Roman sculpture did, however, begin to search for new avenues of artistic expression, moving away from its Etruscan and Greek roots, with artists seeking to capture and create optical effects of light and shade for greater realism. Roman period bronze figurine of a bird - FF.092 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 300 AD to 400 AD Dimensions: 3” (7.6cm) high x 5” (12.7cm) wide

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Standing amidst luxuriant foliage are two birds, a dove at left and a stork at right. The stork, (or possibly an egret), has bold white feathers, a small head tilted slightly upwards, and very large feet standing firmly on a branch. With very delicate coloration of alternating black and white on the wings and touches of blue and pink the dove appears about to move from its perch; watching with a keen eye its surroundings of swirling branches, leaves and flowers. Roman-Byzantine Mosaic Depicting Two Birds - PF.5314 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 300 AD to 600 AD Dimensions: 25.25” (64.1cm) high x 80” (203.2cm) wide

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A beautiful Roman bronze figurine of a bird. The animal is portrayed in an elegantly plastic pose, with the head slightly turned. The plumage is rendered with delicacy. The beauty of the artefact is enhanced by the presence of the green patination typical of ancient bronzes. It is possible that this figurine had a decorative function. Alternatively, a use as a votive in a sanctuary or another sacral context is an appealing possibility. Birds were often used as sacrificial animals in Roman temples, and the use of a bronze figurine to permanently commemorate a sacrifice would be meaningful.

Roman Bronze figure of a bird (quail?) - CB.2997 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 100 AD to 300 AD Dimensions: 3” (7.5cm) high x 5.5” (13.5cm) wide

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This magnificent bronze sculpture of a panther and her young offspring is a masterpiece of Roman naturalism. Her ferocious head has been rendered in a fashion characteristic of Roman felines. Her brows are clenched together as she snarls, head held high in the air with fangs exposed. We can almost hear her mighty roar. Judging from this intimidating posture, we can assume she is attempting to defend herself and her offspring who stands at her side in a similar posture, as if mimicking the mother. Her body has been rendered with meticulous attention to detail such as her swollen teats, a sign that she has been recently feeding her young. In addition, the texture of her fur has been replicated by a series of wavy engraved lines. The panther was considered sacred to the god of wine, Bacchus. The fact that this panther wears a harness with an attachment loop behind the neck indicates that she was meant to draw the chariot of Bacchus during his triumphant return from Asia, a popular scene that was often depicted on sarcophagi during the Roman era. Roman Bronze Sculpture of a Panther - X.0284 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 200 AD to 300 AD Dimensions: 4.25” (10.8cm) high x 5.75” (14.6cm) wide

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Roman Terra Sigillata Vessel in the Form of a Standing Bull - X.0063 Origin: Mediterranean Circa: 2nd Century AD Dimensions: 4.5” (11.4cm) high x 1.75” (4.4cm) wide x 5.125” (13.0cm) depth

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Terra sigillata wares were the classic fine wares of the Roman period. The roots of the industry go back to Italy during the 1st Century B.C. Building on the foundations of a pre-existing industry dedicated to black-slipped ware, the glossy red-slipped terra sigillata wares were first produced at Arezzo, in northern Tuscany. The industry expanded, and factories producing Italian-type sigillata were founded across the Mediterranean world, notably southern France and northern Spain. Characterized by a red- orange to red-brown colored clay, these glossy household vessels were decorated by relief figures and incised designs. This gorgeous vessel takes the form of a standing bull with his horned head raised upwards. There is a suspension loop directly behind the filling spout rising from the middle of the animal’s back and a hole in the mouth serves as the pouring spout. In Classical Antiquity, the bull was a symbol of strength and fertility. Jupiter was told to have transformed himself into a bull and the creature was the central animal in the cult of Mithras, an ancient religion imported from the east that gained popularity during the Roman Empire and influenced many of the legends of Christianity. Might this vessel have once played a central role in an ancient Mithraic ritual now lost to us? The sacrifice of a bull was the highest libation that could honor Mithras, and the blood was believed to provide fertility to the earth? Did bull’s blood once fill this vessel, so that this costly sacrifice could be reenacted later in private? As the rites of Mithras remain a mystery, it might be safer to assume that more mundane libations like oil were once contained within this bull-shaped vessel.

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North African Terra Sigillata Flask Decorated with Lions - X.0052 Origin: North Africa Circa: 3rd Century AD Dimensions: 5.75” (14.6cm) high

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Characterized by a red-orange to red- brown clay and a slip of a more refined version of the same clay, these glossy household vessels were decorated by relief figures and stamped designs. Frequently, separately applied clay figures were cast in molds and added to the vessels as decoration. This vessel is a fine example of the very wares that were produced in North Africa. Immediately obvious is the glossy red slip that made these wares extremely durable and gave them their name. This particular work features two handles and a small round foot. The body has been divided into two sections framed by four applied palm leaves. Each section is decorated by a molded reclining lion. Hundreds of years ago, this vessel was created in Roman North Africa, shipped out of Carthage, and landed on the table of a household somewhere across the vast empire. The history of this work is truly fascinating and is surmounted only by its beauty.

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Roman/Byzantine Bronze Oil Lamp - Z.0047 Origin: Bethany, Israel Circa: 400 AD to 600 AD Dimensions: 4” (10.2cm) high x 2.375” (6.0cm) wide

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The handle grip of this splendid lamp terminates in a stylized horse head, while the oil hole cover is in the form of a shell. Both these motifs look back to the Classical world that was then in its dusk. To hold this lamp in our hands is to feel the touch of some ancient hand upon it, to imagine forgotten corridors that spring to life with its passing glow and then fade once more into darkness.

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Roman bronze protome of a bull - MS.942

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