Tokyo Machiya

TO K YO MAC H IYA

東京 の 町家

A n Analysis of Efficiency in the Structural Design of Townhouses

Fabian Bisig Tokyo | Brussel 2016

Master Dissertation

To k yo Mac h i ya

東京 の まちや

A n Analysis of Efficiency in the Structural Design of Townhouses

Fabian Bisig Supervisor: Prof. Mikio Koshihara Prof. Bruno Peeters Katholiek University Leuven, Faculty of Architecture International Master of Science in Architecture, Campus Brussels The University of Tokyo, Graduate School of Engeneering, Faculty of Architecture 22 | 06 | 2016

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all the people, who supported this thesis. First of all, my professor Mikio Koshihara from the University of Tokyo, for his advises and introducing of people. Furthermore, to all lab members for the helpful discussions and pictures for my research. A special thanks goes to lab student Daima Terramurra, who accompanied me to several interviews and visits, and helped me in translation of texts. Professor Fujita Kaori was a great supervisor during my stay in Japan. I would like to thank her for giving me great advises during several talks.

History professor Jun Hatano for answering patiently my questions.

Furthermore, the thanks goes to Sayake Tsutsui, who introduced me to the young community of Kyojima and enabled me the accesses to machiya and nagaya in Kyojima. And my Belgium professor Bruno Peeters, who made the stay in Japan possible. At last I want to thank my family and especially my brother Flurin, for correcting my texts and the discussions about it.

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II

Abstract

Tokyo machiya is not well known as an architectural subject.

However in this thesis, it stands as a model for the evolution of construction methods related to parallel processes of tools, materials and techniques developments. The timber townhouses as an object are witnesses of a certain time in an urban environment and though an important element. As the shelter for inhabitants in a dense place, it shows the influences of economical, political and technical aspects.

Industrialisation and modernisation penetrated deep into culture and the former feudal society, with its craftsmen, thus it affected traditional construction methods of houses. With the arrival of new materials and techniques, it opened up new opportunities for conventional townhouses in terms of economical efficiency in order to satisfy the demand. If the new techniques are again in closer relation to the generating tools and new materials, they have the potential of an economical efficient design.

The research analysis in the first part the inventory of Tokyo machiya in contemporary cityscape and its background. The second part focuses on efficiency in Tokyo machiya structure and its evolution in parallel process with generating tools. Furthermore, elements of efficiency and a case study in Kyojima district will show several aspects of past construction methods and is aimed to be a toolbox for future design.

Many architects and researcher focused so far on traditional machiya in Kyoto, which have more sophisticated structures and still exists.So far, not much has been researched and focused on Tokyo machiya. Nevertheless, one important contribution for the historical part to the topic is the Edo-Tokyo architectural museum and its existing examples of Tokyo machiya and furthermore the Edo museum in Tokyo. In general the paper is based on different sources of text, folding screens and paintings of Japan archive and the contemporary inventory of the cityscape in Tokyo. The conclusion of the text is the separation of material - tools and techniques by the industrialisation and in parallel the change of efficiency from accomplish a task to time studies of a task.

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IV

Content

Introduction 1

1.

Inventory of the Tokyo machiya

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Definition of Machiya

5

2.

Background of the Machiya in Tokyo

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City of Edo 18 Volume of the Machiya in Edo Era 20 Evolution of the Floor Plan 22 Meiji Restoration 24

Housing Situation after the World War II

27

3.

Efficiency

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History and Definition of Efficiency

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Efficiency in Japan

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Efficiency in Spaces

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Efficiency and Construction

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Development of Tools and Techniques in Relation to Efficiency

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Development of Tools before Edo period

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Tool Development during Edo Period

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4.

The Structure of Tokyo Machiya

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The Machiya Structure of Edo

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The Structure after Meiji Restoration 41 The Contemporary Structure 42

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Elements of Efficiency in Tokyo Machiya Structures

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Architectural Lumbers 48

Roofstructure

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Tectonic

56

Module 60 Fittings 62

6.

Kyojima Case Study 64 Background 64

Case Studies

65

Conclusion 70

V

Introduction The research is based on conventional machiya in Tokyo, which is a Japanese vernacular type of townhouses for merchants with work and living coexistence. The focus for this thesis is put on construction methods and the tools which generate them. By comparing how this relation changed throughout history, my aim is to find conclusions about todays social values, which become visible in the very specific way today these houses are built. It is believed, that when craftsmen product were replaced by manufactured objects during the industrial revolution, within the transformations there was a lost of a very specific and important language of objects. Before the industrial revolution, creation happened through a strong connection between the tool and the human body. Architects replaced the craftsmen in terms of planning and the industrial revolution separated the process of creation and planning. The process of planning carefully and adjusted to individual needs, stayed only accessible for the rich people.

In case of the contemporary conventional townhouses, it is the mass production of houses which defines the dwellings for middle class people and furthermore it is the major element in the streetscape of the city.

Tokyo machiya are the objects of research as a specific example in a fast growing environment. Comparing to the famous model of traditional Kyoto machiya which are still an existing and important element in the contemporary cityscape. It has been many times researched. The machiya in the city of Edo (Tokyo) did so far not attract further studies, because its structure never became as much sophisticated as the one in Kyoto.

Due to the fact that Tokyo has been many times completely destroyed by natural disasters, the city had to be rebuilt fast and it left not many traces of traditional machiya in the city. In Tokyo one can hardly find a building more than 70 years old.

From the beginning on, Edo city was pushed to be a prosperous place, thus its population increased rapidly and became soon a metropolitan place with over 1.4 million inhabitants in 1800. Many carpenters came from Kyoto to built the city of Edo and thus, the same techniques and tools were applied. The pressure for efficient constructions of townhouses challenged the former craftsmen and influenced the townhouses.

Nevertheless, the carpenters’ work, their finish, the grain of woods and their standard joinery were exposed and given value. The carpenter felt responsible for the built object.

1

2

42%

Wooden structures in okyo (Floor area)

In this way, Tokyo machiya represent an example, where the same task challenges humans over 400 years with changes in behaviours, techniques, tools and other outer influences. According to Japan statistics (2014), nearly half of newly built houses in the metropolitan area are still made in wooden structures and 71% are two-storied buildings (Fig.1). This stands in relation to the demands of the middle class society of Japan. Many Japanese people still prefer to live in a detached house, rather than a big apartment block. Wooden buildings in Tokyo have a long tradition, since the whole city of Edo was built by wood and even after the Edo period in 1879, 97% of all buildings were made out of wooden structures. (Sorensen A. 2002. p.42)

3‘000‘000

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19% 42%

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in Tokyo structures Framinginstructure and Number of total built2x4 Wooden in Tokyo Tokyo (Floor pre-fabrication area) floor area in Tokyo

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27%

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1 Storey 2x4 in Tokyo

2 Storey 3 Storey Framing structure and pre-fabrication in Tokyo Amount of stories of built wooden structures (Floor area)

1 Storey

Amount o (Floor are

Fig. 1 Housing statistics for wood structures in Tokyo. 2014

Economical efficiency is one of the main driving force for the design of houses, particularly with conventional houses. Moreover in the market of Tokyo, where high prizes on land is pushing its most. My research follows the moving significance of the term efficiency. If the materials, tools and human were in a harmonic relation, efficiency was related to saving forces and to accomplish a task faster.

In general, this thesis tries to understand, how to build under the premises of efficiency a volume for a human living, considering aesthetic values. The driving force behind this thesis is the search for possibilities to make use of contemporary techniques combined with old construction methods and their logic bound to the material and including in every plan the available resources of a specific place. Behind this stands a hope, to not just construct shelters, but by using such a refined and sophisticated knowledge, to build in a way that makes sense.

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1. Inventory of the Tokyo Machiya Nihonbashi and Honjo districts are located around the Sumida river and were planned during Edo period as commercial centre for townspeople and merchants (Sorensen A. 2002 p.27). To make business and life efficient and to have the control over townspeople, the ken grid model from Kyoto was applied.

Machiya‘s were facing the main street and the shops created a lively neighbourhood.

Many fires, earthquake disaster and world war II destroyed Honjo and Nihonbashi districts several times. Nevertheless the urban morphology remained, but the streetscape changed drastically. Metamorphosis of different layers, like social pattern, economy, political decisions became visible in the physical urban environment. The wide streets are nowadays in many cases only faced by residential houses, without shops, since middle class people mainly work in bigger companies. Cars became thus affordable for people in late post war period and changed the shop into a garage. The desire and promotion of the Meiji government, to introduce western style architecture in late 19th century, changed peoples mind and their aestvaetical value. Furthermore, one main concern of the Meiji government was the fireproof of buildings in urban districts, which was regulated in the law of 1919 with fire proofed material for facades.

Thus the appearance changed drastically, stone facades and plaster were attached to traditional timber frame buildings. The introduction of a dense infrastructure network, changed also peoples mind about the need of a car and the layout of the machiya changed again.

Fig. 2 Honjo district with the grid model (2009) 4

Definition of Machiya

Historically the word has in Japanese several meanings. Machi can be translated as “shop or stall“ and ya means house. In earlier periods, it was often also related to a social concept of a community living opposite to each other and sharing the street (Löfgren K. 2003 P.78). Since many social pattern changed, the building facing a main street with a public part on the groundfloor has to be re-considered in the definition of contemporary machiya. The definition of machiya is in this work a detached timber structure building in an urban environment, where people live dense from one unit to another.

. Sliding Wooden door and lattice for window on the upper floor . Aluminium frames . Working space on groundfloor . Eave and Canopy . Eave at first floor . Wooden board facade 1603

1930

Fig. 3 Machiya from 1856 as an example from Edo era.

Nowadays it can be found in Edo-Tokyo architectural museum. . Westernnized stone facade . Aluminium windows frame

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. Standardised Aluminium frames replaced the wooden shutters Shop Garage Shop . Working space on groundfloorStreet . Aluminium frames Street Street Street . Working space on groundfloor . Eave on the second floor and Canopy on first floor . Eave at first floor Shop Shop Garage . First floor higher than second

Entrance

Entrance

1930 Fig. 4. Machiya in Honjo district. 2016 . Westernnized stone facade . Aluminium windows frame

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Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

. Aluminium frames . Working space on groundfloor . Eave at first floor

. Westernnized stone facade . Standardised aluminium windows frame Shop Garage Shop .

Eave on the second floor and small aluminium canopy .Street Westernnized stone facade Street Street Street . Aluminium windows frame .

Equal floors hights Shop Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

Shop

Entrance Entrance

Garage

1940

Fig. 5 Machiya in Honjo District. 2016

. Facade in coper . Standardised Alumium frames

7 . Westernnized stone facade

. Aluminium frames . Working space on groundfloor . Eave at first floor

. Westernnized stone facade . Aluminium windows frame

. Facade in coper . Standardised Alumium framesGarage Shop Shop . Facade in coper . Small Canopy Street Street Street .Street Standardised Alumium frames . Kanban-kenchiku style (Signboard Architecture) Shop Shop Garage . Second floor higher than first floor Entrance

Entrance

1940 Fig. 6 Machiya in Kanda District. 2016

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. Westernnized stone facade . Apartment has own entrance . Board sign facade

Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

Entrance

. Aluminium frames . Working space on groundfloor . Eave at first floor

. Westernnized stone facade . Aluminium windows frame

. Facade in coper . Standardised Alumium frames

Entrance

Shop

Shop Entrance

Street Shop Entrance

Entrance

Street Entrance

. Small garage business . Appartment on 2nd floor has own entrance . Westernnized stone facade .Street Kanban-kenchiku style (Signboard Architecture) Street . Apartment has own entrance . Imitating stone facade panels .Garage Board sign facade . First floor higher than second Garage

Entrance

Shop

Entrance Entrance

1970 Fig. 7 Machiya in Honjo District. 2016

. Slim windows . hight on second floor higher than first . Groundfloor private use . Artificial facade panels

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. Aluminium frames . Working space on groundfloor . Eave at first floor

. Westernnized stone facade . Aluminium windows frame

. Facade in coper . Standardised Alumium frames

. Westernnized stone facade . Apartment has own entrance . Board sign facade . Gabled Entrance

Shop

Shop

Entrance

Street

Garage Entrance

Entrance

Shop

Shop

Entrance

1970

Entrance

Street

Street Entrance

Entrance

Garage

. Slim windows . hight on second floor higher than first . Groundfloor private use . Artificial facade panels

Fig. 8 Machiya in Nihonbashi District. 2016

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roof turned ninety degree . Groundfloor as privat garage .Street Entrance to the upper floor later added . Second floor higher than first floor . Plastered facade

. Aluminium frames . Working space on groundfloor . Eave at first floor

. Westernnized stone facade . Aluminium windows frame

. Facade in coper . Standardised Alumium frames

. Westernnized stone facade . Apartment has own entrance . Board sign facade

Shop Entrance

Garage Entrance

Entrance

Shop

Entrance

Street

Street

. Slim windows vertical instead of horizontal . Groundfloor is private use . Slim windows . Artificial facade panels . hight Street on second floor higher than first . Groundfloor private use . Second floor higher than first floor

Entrance

Entrance

Garage

. Artificial facade panels

2016 Fig. 9 Machiya in Honjo District. 2016

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Late Edo era scene around Nihonbashi district.

Plywood manufactured only for interior parts.

Government announced Western style „Ginza Bricktown“

First Building Stand for fire proofed fac Domestic production of Western-style nails

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Kantō Earth

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Residents Shop

Fig. 10 Inventory of Tokyo machiya according to their function 12

Residents Shop

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Second Building Standard Law required amount of braces to the short side of the facade. (kyutaishin)

13‘000‘000 Arrival of Alluminium window 8‘040‘000 frame, Metall sheets

dard Law cades.

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hquake

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Building Standard Law revised. Bigger dimension for structural members and re-inforcement are required. (shin-taishin)

Mass production started

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Residents Residents 1860 Shop Shop

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Entrance Entrance

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Residents Residents Shop Shop

Residents Residents Garage Garage

Fig. 10 Inventory of Tokyo machiya according to their function 14

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Fig. 10 Inventory of Tokyo machiya according to their function 16

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2 .Background of the Machiya in Tokyo City of Edo

Before Edo (renamed Tokyo in 1868) first was built in 1603 by the new governor Tokugawa Shogunate, it was a small fishing village with wetlands around the Sumida river (Naito A. 2003. p.17). Once the castle site was designated, the different classes of residents would be determined to specific locations in the city, according to their functions and economical status (Fig.11). The lords and samurai built their mansions around the castle and low ranked samurais lived in tenements houses (nagaya) in the northern and western parts. The townspeople lived in the commercial centre and to the east around Sumida river. The plans for the central district of Edo were based on the grid model of Kyoto. The basic unit of chō, a square of forty jō (about 121.2 m) was used as a grid and the streets had a hierarchy starting from 18m to 6 m wide. All four sides of the plots were surrounded by machiya‘s facing to the street. In the middle part of each square, there was a common space (kaishochi) for general use with garbage facilities and latrines (Fig.12) (Naito A. 2003. p.28). In comparison with Kyoto, where the chō was shared by people from different classes and the inner space could be also occupied by aristocrats or warriors dwellings with big gardens surrounded by clay walls (Löfgren K. 2003. p.87). This was a big difference to the strict distinctions of classes in Edo and had also an significance on the layout of the city. In both cases, the middle of the chō became occupied even more, when the population in the city increased and with it the density.

Honjo Honjo

Kanda

Honjo Kanda

Kanda Nihonbashi

Nihonbashi

Common Area (kaishochi)

Nihonbashi Shogunate buildings Feudal Lords Religious buildings Samurai Townspeople

Fig.11. Residents distribution in Edo. 18

Fig.12. Layout of central district for townspeople.

The big Meireki fire in 1657 destroyed eighty percent of the city, which had to be re-constructed again. Several changes in city planning were designated by Shogunate to stop future fires. The streets were widened, firebreaks were introduced and three story constructions for townhouses were prohibited. Furthermore, verandas had to be installed to the houses facing the streets, to enable the accesses for firefighters (Naito A. 2003. p.111). A design manual (hinagata-bon) which was for the first time introduced by a carpenter, helped the unskilled workers to acquire all the basics about structures and joints, which they could immediately apply into the construction (Coaldrake W.H. 1990.p.140). Thus it was possible to bridge the huge carpenters shortage at this time and to re-built the entire city again. Since the population increased rapidly, Tokugawa could not provide residences around the castle to all samurais and lords the city enlarged to the outskirt. Masses of houses were built to the east and the northern part of the city and gave the city an organic pattern, because of the rapid self-development (Hitoshi M.1966. p.89). Furthermore, the layout in the inner city also changed at this time and the district became more class mixed (Fig.13). Three different levels of fireproof architecture defined the cityscape. The landlords, which owned the property lived in the plastered houses, the middle class (merchants, artisans, householders) could afford the rent for plastered buildings on the main road and the lowest class (salesmen, day labourers) lived in the units of tenements houses with flammable wooden boards.

Machiya Kura Nagaya

Fig.13. Layout of central district for townspeople around the 18th century 19

Volume of the Machiya in Edo Era

The machiya in the city of Edo were shorter comparing to the one in Kyoto from the 18th century (Fig. 14, 15). Nowadays the Kyoto machiya are still famous for its short front facades and its length. The width of the street facade was determining taxes, thus they became short as possible. To stimulate the new capital city, merchants, retailers and artisans from Kyoto were forced to move and start their businesses in Edo. In exchange they were relived for a long time from the taxes for the size of the house and its lot (chishi-sen tax) (Löfgren K. 2003. P.97). This had obviously an impact on the layout of townhouses because merchants and artisans preferred a wider facade along the main street and though it went never that deep into the chō. In the beginning of the Edo era, they would have had enough space in the middle of the plot, which was used as a communal space. Later in Edo era, these space was filled up by nagaya structures and the plots became densified. At this time, it was the biggest city in the world, around 1.4 million inhabitants were recorded. Therefore the chō became self-developed and small alleys from the main streets were leading to the dense areas in the middle with nagaya (Fig.13). Thus, at one point, when the plots became smaller, there was no return back for major changes. The development of the building volumes within the Edo period, started in the beginning with small one storey buildings from two by one and a half ken (around 4m x 3 m) (Fig.17).

In comparison to Kyoto machiya, the same kind of volume were built in the 16th century before Edo city started to exist (Fig.16). In the 17th century, the built volumes were still similar to each other, two rooms and one and half storey machiya started to appear. The bigger changes in volumes happened in the 18th century, when Kyoto‘s townhouses expanded their structure more to the backyard. A zashiki started to be implemented into the structure, at least among wealthier merchants and the general hight was set to 14 shaku (4.25 m) and a second floor was common (Löfgren K. 2003.

P.114). At this time Edo‘s population increased rapidly and thus the density. The building volumes increased in hight to one and a half storey and more sophisticated and stable structures were built. To the back, smaller one storey structures were added and the machiya started to have two rooms. The long volumes of Kyoto machiya developed another feature, the toriniwa. The earthen floor functioned as a kitchen and corridor to the back of the house, furthermore it connected the raised rooms. This feature was missing in Edo city townhouses. According to the Edo-Tokyo Museum, many buildings did not have a kitchen part, because often males moved without their families to the city of Edo, thus they ate outside the house their meal. In the dense neighbour20

hoods, it would have been too dangerous to have fires inside a house. In the end of Edo era, beginning of Meiji, all restrictions for common townhouses were cancelled and the buildings became bigger with full second floor and ceiling in first floor. Nevertheless, the volume of Edo city machiya did not much expand.

8.5 m

13 m

Fig. 14. Typical layout of machiya in the city of Edo.

16th C.

End 17th C.

Fig. 15. Typical layout of machiya‘s in Kyoto.

18th C.

19th C.

Fig. 16. Evolution of the dimension of machiya in Kyoto

Beginning 17th C.

End 17th C.

Mid 18th C.

19th C.

End 19th C.

Fig. 17. Evolution of machiya volume in Edo city 21

Evolution of the Floor Plan

To construct a new capital city from the scratch was an ambiguous project and needed a vast amount of labour forces and efficient construction methods. Artisans and merchants from allover the country, particular from Kyoto were forced to move to the new city of Edo to develop the new environment. Well skilled carpenters were reserved for the construction of religious buildings, lords and warriors mansions. During the entire Edo period, common townspeople were not allowed to hire skilled carpenters for construction of their own houses, even though some merchants could have afford it (Hitoshi M.1966). From the beginning of Edo era, the new governor Shogunate set up a code for architectural materials and elements (kinrei laws) which were forbidden for townspeople. To ensure that all inhabitants lived in dwellings of their social status level. Zashiki, tsukeshoin, carved beams, cedar doors, silver and gold paintings on the fusuma and using lacquered posts were not allowed for common people. In some buildings the zashiki (formal space) was added later as a separate structure (Piccinini A. 2000). The first ground floor of Edo was a single one storey room (Fig.18) which was reconstructed by ken module from a folding screen (Edo-zu)1 of the 17th century.

One part it had an earthen floor (doma) and one part was raised and covered with wooden boards or simple straw mats. This did not much change during the 17th century, even though the hight increased and a half storey was added as a storage place.

The later version in the 17th century layout had already partitions in between the the two spaces, emphasised only with a beam in between the two spaces. This was probably already a subtile division between the public space and more private space in the back.

In around the 18th century, the structure became more stable and especially after mereiki fire, the fire proofed architecture increased (Naito A. 2003. p.136).

Some machiya were still only one floor, but the space size increased and with it also the

Fig.18 Groundfloor ans Section of the first townhouses in Edo

Fig.19. Developed layout and structure from the 17th century

1) Edo-zu Folding screen was a pair of six panel screens depicting Edo and suburbs in the 17th century.

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height. Therefore the second floor was not only a storage anymore, it could be also used for living (Fig.19). Some machiya became a second room, which was clearly separated, by columns and walls, but not yet with sliding doors (Fig. 20). It started to be implemented and affordable for townspeople only by end of the 18th century (LĂśfgren K. 2003). The room in the back was used as work and living space (hinoshi). As aforementioned in Kyoto a formal space (zashiki) started to be a part of the machiya in mid 18th century, even thought it was forbidden by laws. According to professor Hatano Jun2 (2016), the townhouses of Edo city had in most cases not a zashiki, because bigger business could be done out of house in special entertainment places. In the city of Edo, the layout was in most houses small and offered not as many different space, as the Kyoto machiya did. Thus, the spaces were not as clear determined, but the front space (mise) was used as the space to display products. A ladder or smaller staircase lead to the upper half floor. (Fig.21) Around this time the courtyards of the chĹ? started to be filled by row-houses (nagaya). The nagaya ground floor (Fig.22) was a simple extended structure of machiya. The dwelling was subdivided and each space one family lived in. The spaces measured around ten square meters (2.7m x 3.6m) and it was used as living and working space for artisans and low class merchants.

Fig.20. Two room machiya from the 18th century

Fig.21. Section and live of a two room machiya.

Fig.22. Nagaya 2) Hatano Jun is a professor and specialist for historical architecture and he wrote several books about Edo. Furthermore, he was involved in the reconstruction for the Edo Museum in Tokyo.

23

The machiya of figure 23 was located in TaitĹ? ward and it functioned as a bar. It was constructed at the end of Edo in 1856 as one storey building and a second floor with staircase was added in around 1920‘s. Guests were sitting at the earthen floor (doma) and the second space (hinoshi) was the place where the owner lived and worked (Edo-Tokyo Open Air Architectural Museum. 2015).

Added in 1920s

Hinoshi

Original from 1856

Mise

Doma Genkan

Fig.23. First floor of the bar in Edo.

Meiji Restoration

The Meiji regime wanted to introduce all by sudden western architecture into the city of Edo, which was renamed to Tokyo. The new government promoted strongly this new approach, which was linked with a forced metamorphosis into a modern society.

A middle class had to be introduced into the feudal class system of lords, samurais, farmers, common townspeople and merchants. Western style houses and lifestyle were strongly promoted and advertised by western images. It was especially addressed to women, since there was a clear idea about the role of her in a Japanese household (Sand J. 2003.p.82). Many issues faced the society and its community by the modernisation process. The relation of house and family as a main principle was suddenly broken. Material and practice of vernacular construction method became abrupt the most important part of the economy (Sand J. 2003.p.1). Carpenters and family workshops had to break with native building traditions and adjust their technique and design to fulfil the new demands of western style factory buildings, offices and houses suitable for the modern state. This new approach of construction emphasised only the form of western style architecture, not the system itself. At this time, carpenters just reached their peak of their profession, through the services for samurai lords mansions and in interaction with developments of most sophisticated tools (Coaldrake W.H. 1990.p.151).

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Fig.24. City scene of Tokyo in early 20th century

Around the 1880s the first commercial and office buildings in Tokyo were still constructed in the traditional timber frame system, but with western style elements like cupolas and towers. The government proudly presented a new model for progress and civilisation for Ginza district, where the buildings had facades in brick. This project influenced also the general image for conventional townhouses and had impact on the decrease of timber buildings (Coaldrake W.H. 1990.p.151). Nevertheless, wood remained as a basic building material for residential housing and the main concern of the government was in the improvement of structural durability of conventional timber frame structures, through western style diagonal bracings (Coaldrake W.H. 1990.p.156). Due to that, townhouses enhanced in terms of size and structure. (Fig.25.

26) Additionally, elements of shoin-zukuri 3) architecture were allowed and became standard in machiya for middle class people.

Another important change related to the form of machiya was the land reform of the 1870s. Land became for the first time a commodity and the old rice tax was eliminated. Due to that, the land could be bought and sold. In Tokyo, only few richer merchants were landowners in commoners areas and they were confirmed after the reform (Sorensen. 2003. p.59). With the increase of the population in beginning of the 3) Shoin-zukuri style is the style used in mansions for warriors and samurais and is the basis for the famous style of traditional japanese architecture.

25

20th century, the land value arose and influenced the land plots in terms of size, thus many plots of machiya were subdivided later even more, as the it can be seen in the contemporary cityscape.

In the end of the 19th century, the architectural profession was established, based on the european model. The design and construction was suddenly distinguished and this affected the carpenters technique and construction method. The first Japanese architects tried to find designs against the traditional layout of dwellings and behaviours. The focus was on the transformation of the undefined domestic space into the civilised world. Eating, sleeping, working and playing happened all at the same plane, which was considered suddenly as unhygienic. Their first and simplest solution was to replace tatami mats by tables and chairs (Sand J. 2003.p.82).

Carpenters struggled at this time with educational reforms against their traditional pattern of learning trades over long time as part of the apprenticeship. Nevertheless, the master carpenters were in charge until the early twentieth century for construction projects and smaller carpenters could still live from their work, besides the new industrial system (Sand J. 2003.p.261).

Simplified and fireproofed envelopes for townhouses became around that time standard, which was related to a new fire code in the building standard law after the devastating Kantō earthquake in 1923. Japanese architect and historian, Fujimori Terunobu (1988) named the new appearance of machiya‘s, “signboard architecture“ (kanban kenchiku). A sign board at the front facade covers the roof structure and the extended surface can be used as an advertisement place. This playful approach with the facade started with a art movement which decorated the front facades of temporary barracks after the earthquake and some companies started to attach this idea as a standard element to normal shops of townhouses. (Weisenfeld G. 1998.p.240)

Fig.25. First floor and facade of a soy sauce shop built in 1933.

26

Fig.26. First floor and facade of a stationery shop constructed in 1927. (kanban kenchiku style).

Fig.27. Modern version of Kanban-kenchiku in Nihonbashi 2016

Housing Situation after the WW II

Tokyo was after the devastating bombing of world war II completely destroyed and had to be rebuilt again. The mass production of housing started in factories, as a consequence of the enormous housing demand, noise disturbance for construction, shortage of timber and carpenters (Kiyosi H. 1998. P.103). Even the automobile industry, like Toyota and Mitsubishi started with their own home factories. Bedroom units, bathroom, kitchen units are produced on a conveyor belt and are assembled on the construction site. As aforementioned, the house became a consumer good and the production was similar to the automobile industry (Coaldrake W.H. 1990.p.169).

Japan developed since then the most sophisticated industrialised housing and techniques, thus it became an expensive solution for houses. The amount of prefabricated townhouses in Tokyo are very rare. In the whole country only around 3% (2014) of detached houses are done by the prefabrication method. Therefore it will be not further discussed in this work.

The start of manufacturing of components in housing had in turn a bigger impact on the structure and appearance of conventional townhouses and was a further step in the rationalisation process. Windows and doors became standardised in aluminium and metal sheets and wood wool cement board were further introduced as a building material (SunWook K. 2015. p.82). It created another approach in construction, since 27

in traditional methods, the carpenter first designed and built the framework, afterwards he measured openings and produced the necessary sliding screens and interior parts and not vice versa (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. p.170). Furthermore plywood and other wooden plane material enabled mass production of houses and fasten its construction time. Only view carpenters are currently able to do the traditional construction work for the preservation of cultural heritage. They became disconnected from the conventional housing structures due to the mass production and the rationalisation of housing. The loss of skilled craftsmen resulted also in the loss of locality and led to a regional collapse. Because the house and the society got disconnected. Furthermore, the increased efficiency, which was strongly promoted led to the low quality of production and thus a short lifetime of residential buildings (SunWook K. 2015. p.92). Within this, the ownership of the shop and the upper residential part also separated and the townhouses became an independent entrance connected to the staircase for the upper floor. The example from below shows a groundfloor in Kanda district from 1961 with the remained idea of the working and living coexistence (Fig.28).

Section

Fig.28. Groundfloor in Kanda from.

28

First floor

Second Floor

3. Efficiency History and Definition of Efficiency

The word origin can be found in latin as efficientia which literarily means, “power to accomplish“ and was first mentioned in 1398. Furthermore it is from ex – out, thoroughly and facere which means in french do, make. The term efficiency transformed over time and nowadays it is known as the “ratio of the effective or useful output to the total input in any system“ (oxforddictionaries.com. 2016).

During the industrialisation in the late 19th century the word became fashion in scientific management. It was the start of modern life and the people saw in the conveyor belt a measurable tool to increase the input to the total output. The efficiency movement came out of scientific management in the early 20th century and emphasised on the approach of time saving for the working labour in order to have more leisure time and not being overworked. Thus, several theories were in relation to a social approach rather than economical. The most influential efficiency theory was written by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1890s), which is known as Taylorism in the entire world. He developed the concept of “time study“, as he was convinced to enhance and increase the production line. In measuring first the speed of the task performed by workers and re-design the task would increase the speed and therefore the output. According to Taylor, every job, every task, every process has an optimum output (Witzel M. 2002.

P. 38-47).

Efficiency in Japan

The modern efficiency discussions occurred in Japan rather late comparing to the western world. The American way of efficiency and the theories of Taylor started to be used during the world war II, but only in post war period, the theories became a stronger meaning. But like other studies have emphasised, the “cult of efficiency“ is going far beyond the simple industry and labor relations (Meier.1980). It includes a complex set of values and imperatives. Ueno Yōichi (1883-1957) was the foremost populariser of American science management in Japan, especially of Taylorism. Even though he criticised Taylors‘ theory in many parts, he experimented with the time and task theory as a consultants in a Japanese company for the very first time in Japan. He introduced efficiency in Japan, known as nōritsu undō. In general, the concepts of scientific management remained long, penetrated deep and spread widely into the Japanese culture (Tsutsui. 2001. P.444). From Uenos‘ perspective, the efficiency should be increase in all aspects of the daily life and social intercourses, not only in 29

business administration. As he was trained as psychologist, Ueno mainly focused on human beings and not machines in his efficiency studies. In his point of view in terms of efficiency, personal development and people problems were more important than mechanical concerns (Tsutsui. 2001. P.453). He wanted to achieve harmony by selfinterest or by an enslavement to customary practices and hierarchical relationships.

He like to use the organic term as comparison to how a company should work and he saw business as mutual service organisation, in which all part of the body fulfil its role.

It is in ideal state when input and output are balanced and in harmony. It was not only a method for him, it was thus a spirit, which includes event selection of foods, correct teachings, cultivation of correct faith and so on. In his opinion this could not be achieved in a free-market economy. „It is inevitable that competition should exist between individual economic units. As a result, however, it reaches the point where one unit gives no regard to the interests of others and, paying no attention either to the movements of the entire national economy, each economic entity just serves its own profits“ (Tsutsui. 2001. P.460). A rationalised, centrally planned and society full of harmony was Ueno’s utopian vision, which he believed to achieve it by efficiency (Tsutsui. 2001. P.454).

Efficiency in Spaces

This new vision of a society was influenced by new opportunities from the industrial revolution and the Meiji restoration. Thus, efficiency entailed modifications in all layers of life and specific in domestic spaces and its construction. The manufacturing of construction material enabled to supply the demand of houses for the new middle class and made it affordable for them. In Tokyo, people were even faster confronted by the metamorphosis of their physical environment and habits, because of its fast growth and its disastrous events, like fires, earthquakes and world war II. Urban dwellings, the layout and slowly its structure changed because of western ideas of spaces in relation to efficiency. The kitchen part of the Kantō region (Tokyo) changed as one of the first element in the houses. Nearly all tasks have been executed in sitting, kneeling or squatting close to the earth floor (doma). Around 1910 reformers and architects promoted the standing up westernised kitchen with table, because it was seen as unhygienic and inefficient (Sand J. 2003. p.82). To promote the modern and western spaces, efficiency and hygiene was suddenly connected to give a stronger reason for changes. Moreover the bigger aim was to connect the housing market with the economy and thus stimulate it.

30

Efficiency and Construction

Before the industrialisation, as aforementioned, work meant something done by the body in relation to its forces, thus to have the power to accomplish a task. If a tool required more man power the efficiency in performing a task decreased and the product, like a specific dimension of timber was less affordable for common people. After industrialisation, when conveyor belt started to produce the products in masses, time became a measurable unit in terms of input and output of a specific task. In terms of construction elements, architectural lumbers, joint equipment, windows and doors became standardised and thus it had an enormous impact on construction of houses.

It can be assumed, efficiency in earlier periods could be distinguished between the act of making and the product itself. Through the standardisation and machines, the act itself became less important. The focus lied on the product itself to increase the efficiency. The terms “men forces“ ceased away from the production and was replaced by time management (Fig. 29).

„Power to accomplish“ Before 19th Century

After 19th Century

(Force + Tool) + (Material - Waste) = Object of Efficency

(Time + Machine) + (Material - Waste) = Object of Efficiency „Ratio of the effective or useful output to the total input in any system“

Fig.29. Change of efficiency in relation to construction

The evolution of houses and specific townhouses were always in relation to efficiency in terms of structure and its appearance. Builders of townhouses felt already early the pressure in the fast growing urban environment of Tokyo. Since all the works were accomplish by hand tools until middle of 20th century, development of tools had an impact on the techniques and materials and vice versa. Shortage of hinoki 4) timber in 12th century made the Japanese carpenters develop a saw. Before the straight grained timber could be easily split by steel, but the available bad quality timber were hard to split. Within this process, shorter timber were also a reason for carpenters to 4) Japanese cypress

31

develop more sophisticated joints to increase the span. Due to this fact, material - tool - technique were during the history of construction always in close interaction with each other. To accomplish the task easier, the human body wanted to use less forces.

Therefore, he tried to develop the tools further in order to increase the harmony in between the body, the tool and the material and the natural outcome was efficiency.

This development enhanced the living environment, thus the layout and the volume changed. With new techniques, the timber could be connected more rigid and the structure could be built bigger and got affordable also for common people. Shortage Timber Structures of Townhouses in Tokyo of skilled laboursConventional have been from time to time a problem, particularly for townhouses in Tokyo. The demand of construction of townhouses after a disaster of fire or earthquake challenged the carpenters several times. Thus new construction techniques, tools and materials opened the market for less skilled carpenters, parallel the structure and layout were simplified (Fig. 30).

Tools Techniques

Material

EfďŹ ciency

Evolution of Structures and Layouts

Shortage of skilled Craftsmen

Asian inuences

Westernization

Fig.30. Efficiency and influential elements in the evolution of structures.

Development of Tools and Techniques in Relation to Efficiency

The developments of tools had several reasons, like changes of society, patterns, influences from abroad, but in general it was to make a work or a task with less man power and less waste of material. Japanese carpenters had always their own way in developments of tools and the way the tools are used. Many tasks were done in a sitting position and thus the saw was invented as a pull saw, comparing to other countries where the saw had push angled razor cutting edge. Furthermore, the tools have been developed for the softer density conifers, which demands sharper blades to have a clean cut.

Since it was to expensive to make a mistake, the work depended on the quality of tools (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.20-23).

32

3500 BC - 300 BC

300 BC - 300

5th - 6th Century

7th Century

13th - 14th Century

4th Century

5th Century

8th - 10th Century

15th Century

Fig.31. Development of tools before Edo

Development of Tools before the Edo Period

At the turning point to edo period, many big timber buildings, which are nowadays still well known, like the big hall of HĹ?ryĹŤ-ji in Nara (Fig.32) or Katsura Imperial Villa in Kyoto have already been built before the city of Edo. The way the buildings were constructed, it was only possible with certain tools. The tools have been developed over decades from a simple stone to an adze, chisel and later on to saw. The adze with a polished stone attached to the a branch was one of the first tool in human history, but its use was mainly invented for hunting and food preparations, not for 33

construction works. The form of the tool was shaped to have a maximum efficiency in the striking force (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.93). When first iron tools from the asian mainland arrived during Yayoi period (300 BC - 300) new techniques enhanced the structure of pit dwellings rapidly. Longer and slimmer posts and mortise and tenon joints improved the structure and raised floors improved the quality in dwellings. This big changes could be only done, with new more efficient iron tools (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.98). Chisels, gimlets, small push saw and planing knives started to be used in the 5th century. Especially chisels had already their significance for carpenters in building tombs and religious buildings (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.101).

Fig. 32. HĹ?ryĹŤ-ji Great Hall in Nara from 7th Century

Around the 9th century, pillars changed from round to square section in residential dwellings. Even though, all surrounding asian countries used round pillars, the Japanese sliding screens connected better to squared posts. To cut out a squared column from a round tree, the carpenters invented their special design tool, the sashigame (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.119). It is an angle, where the squared geometry is easily to sign within a round section, which made this work also more efficient and cheaper.

In the beginning of the 14th century, penetrated tie beams arrived from Asian mainland and changed the work practices of carpenters and its buildings. As aforementioned, hinoki shortage challenged the carpenters in developments of new tools. To cut and join the harder and bad quality timber, saw blades and chisels were enforced with steel (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.127). The introduction of the frame saw from China in the 15th century helped further to solve the issue of harder wood. Due to the advantage, that boards for wooden floors and ceiling could be cut for the first time instead of split.

34

Tool Development during the Edo Period

Before Edo city started to be built in early 17th century, saws and and planes were significant developed, which made the construction process faster and modified the design. Without the changes, it would have been hardly possible, to construct a vast amount of buildings and satisfy the timber demands for the city of Edo. A short bladed one man saw (maebiki-oga) was invented by sawyer of Kyoto and replaced the frame saw immediately (Fig.33). Since the earlier frame saw required two man forces, the new short blade saw was simpler to handle and required in the same amount of time, only one man (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.141). Furthermore the blade of the saw was thinner and produced less waste, the amount of boards cut out of a trunk could be increased by a skilled sawyer. Due to this fact, the boards became affordable for common people dwellings and lumber could be cut more precise and in a bigger amount (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.145).

Fig.33 .Short bladed one man saw (Maebiki-oga) in use by sawyers. Hokusai woodblock print series „thirty-six views of Mount-Fuji“

In end of the 16th century, a block plane arrived from China and stimulated carpenters works and its efficiency in construction. The new plane speeded up the smoothing of a surface and less forces was used to accomplish the work. Additionally, the tracks for the sliding partitions could be efficiently done. It had a greater impact to the layout of residential buildings, since the interior space became more flexible through the ex35

tensive sliding screens use (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.147). In Edo city machiya, sliding partition became only common in around the 18th century. But on the folding screen of Edo-zu from the 17th century, simple sliding doors are already visible. It can be assumed that doors without papers are used, because paper was costly and at this time forbidden for common townspeople.

Chisels and saws were in details developed and became more efficient and convenient in use. Slowly the carpenters increased their amount of tools in their toolbox with different chisels and saw blades (Fig.34). The new prosperous urban marked divided the work of carpenters into different professions and in parallel process the tools were developed and specialised for each field. For example, the demand of storage boxes in the commercial district of Nihonbashi requested specialised carpenter for the mass production. Also the houses of wealthier merchants became more sophisticated and closer to the shoin-zukuri residence style, even though it was forbidden by law. Fellers, Sawyers for lumbers, and the different carpenters and artisans for interior parts completed the construction profession. The shĹ?ji screens and door makers opened shops and sold standardised sliding partitions, since the ken module was applied in all townhouses. The construction work was the biggest market at this time and many parts of the society were involved. The market opened for people of all the classes, thus the tools became more sophisticated in order to satisfy the huge market, increase the quality of joints, but also it became more convenient for less skilled carpenters (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.148- 149).

Fig.34 .Carpenters Tool Box in 1841

36 1 Edo-zu- Folding screen.

In the following years, when Japan opened up the borders during Meiji restoration, new western influences made final settings on the existing tools. This tools are nowadays famous all over the world and became even more precise. The dōtsuki saw was changed from the standard cross cut saw by applying a steel reinforcement on top of the saw, to make the blade itself more thin and rigid. This feature was taken from the precise western tenon saw (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.157).

When first saws were developed, its thick blade grinned the wood rather than cutting it. It was inefficient in use and needed a lot of forces to cut a trunk. Later when the blades and teeth were specialised for specific tasks and adjust to the different type of timber properties, it cut the wood in most precise manner. One further development of saw happened only in late 19th century, when the ryōba saw was introduced. The double edge blade was an considerable improvement in terms of efficiency on construction side. It consisted on one side rip teeth for to cut parallel to the grain of the timber and on the other, crosscut teeth, to cut against the grain. Thus it was possible to use the same saw for two task (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P.158).

Fig.35 .Last developments of saw. Dōtsuki and Ryōba

The start of the 20th century was for the carpenters difficult, because they suddenly had to build other building styles, but the tools and techniques remained for longer time until around 1960s. As aforementioned in chapter two, the buildings were still built by wooden structure, but the appearance had to be western style. This was also reflecting in townhouses of Tokyo. The kanban-kenchiku had either a facade in coper, stone or concrete elements which also covered the roof structure. Nevertheless the structural system of post and beam remained, but the wooden joints were reinforced by manufactured western nails and bolts. The carpenters tool box from 1841 continued to be in use until now, even thought the amount of tools utilised decreased. After world war II, the city was heavy devastated and had to be rebuilt again. Due to this fact power tools became also for Japanese carpentry workshops standard. Utilising of efficient power tools could not anymore denied, since their was a big demand of 37

houses and time for production and preparing became even more important. Related to it was to save labour forces, since their was an enormous shortage of carpenters and it enabled unskilled workers to enter the construction work (Sun Wook K.2015. p.82).

New invented systems of this time, like pre-fabricated and two by four system, did not require anymore wooden joints made by hand tools. The metal fittings fixed by screw replaced the costly wooden joints and only drill machine was needed. The mass production stimulated developments and improvements in technology to increase the value of the total output of the supply system in conventional construction methods. It was a further step in the rationalisation and modernisation of the space, but in close relation to its tools. The house went on track to became a consumer good (Koos and Sasaki. 2008).

Once CAD program became a part of the planning process, parallel the pre-cut system started its business in order to rationalise the supply process. Around the 1980s, a company from Thailand started the production in association only with bigger construction companies. In late 1980s the pre-cut construction increased rapidly, due to the shortage and arising wages of carpenters. The pressure on smaller carpenter firms made them change their conventional construction method and to switch to the precut system. Nowadays pre-cut method is applied in 80% of newly constructed timber houses in Japan (Sun Wook K.2015. p.84).

Fig. 36 .Pre-cut machine 38

Fig.37 .Assembly on site by pre-cut elements

4. The Structure of Tokyo Machiya The Machiya Structure of Edo Period

The vast construction of new houses for merchants, low class samurais and common people required standardised and low cost structures and joints, even more after the two big fires around mid 17th century. As it can be seen in figure 38, the lumbers for the structural members were mostly already squared and had simple mortise and tenon joints (Seike K. 1977). Therefore, the structure lost soon its roughness of earlier structures, seen in machiya of Heian, Kamakura and Kyoto. Due to the small dimension of buildings in the 17th century, the posts reached until the purlins and transverse beam could be done with only one piece and without any joints in longitudinal direction (Fig.39). In the folding screen of Edo-zu, from the 17th century, most of buildings have all a groundsill on top of stones, comparing to the earlier Kyoto machiya, it was already an improvement by the carpenters from the western part.

An important element of the traditional Japanese houses in relation to its structures are tatami mats. Nowadays, the modular (kiwari) system is well known and by western architects it was glorified in terms of its strict order. The posts are based in a modular grid in interaction with the tatami mat size. In shoin-zukuri architecture, this system

Fig.38. Construction work for a townhouse in beginning of Edo. 39

was applied in the 16th and 17th century. For merchants living in a machiya, the tatami mats were not affordable, therefore the raised floor was covered by wooden boards and simpler straw mats. In Kyoto townhouses it came only into use in middle of 18th century (Lรถfgren K. 2003. p.179). It can be presumed, that it appeared also around this time in the city of Edo, because of its prosperous trades between the two cities.

This modular system will be further discussed in chapter six.

A major change in terms of appearance, but also related to structure, was the invention of a lighter and economically more affordable roof tiling. After the two big fires in middle of the 17th century, the changes from straw to terra cotta tiles were strongly promoted by the Shogunate, with elimination of taxes and money lend. For the heavy tile, a stable roof structure was needed before, the lighter version needed only few adjustments in terms of the distance of rafters, in relation to the tile size (Naito A. 2003. p.136). Machiya structure slowly developed and bigger events like fires and increased also the quality of the structure in terms of improvements of fireproof and layout.

Plastering of the second storey facade became also standard and the streetscape thus became more unified.

One can not distinguish between the roof structure and the main structure. The roof structure has been in Japanese traditional architecture always an important factor and will be further discussed in chapter six. Several systems has been developed, different to western roofs. When the bigger wooden structure of machiya started to be

Beginning 17th C.

Fig.39. Machiya structure of Edo era 40

End 17th C.

Mid 18th C.

built, there was already a design manual published. It can be presumed that this had also an impact on the quality of the structure. Because, they required not only more and heavier timber, also the joints had to be strengthened. In general in Japanese architecture, diagonal bracing were not used. In order to reinforce and stabilise the structure, rails which are passing through the posts have been used (Fig.40). Between the post, a bamboo grid was attached to the posts and filled by mud and covered by plaster (Seike K. 1977. p.119).

Fig.40 Nuki System with bamboo and mud

The Structure after Meiji Restoration

The traditional framing construction was not much adopted until the 1940s, because of the sophisticated techniques, there was not much need. The modernisation process introduced western materials and new techniques into the construction market.

Domestic production of western nails started in 1898 and influenced the conventional post and beam system and it unburdened the work for carpenters. Before handmade Japanese steel nails were for conventional systems not affordable and therefore as less as possible applied in townhouses. With manufactured nails, diagonal braces could be fixed faster and simpler to the post and started to be applied in conventional construction system. Thin lattices are nailed on top of the beams as a underground layer for the plaster. Thus, the wall system of the conventional construction method for townhouses changed significantly from nuki to kizuri system (Fig.41). Even thought the nuki system is even nowadays sometimes still in use. It had obviously an impact on the structure and appearance of conventional townhouses (Fig.42). Shorter and standardised dimension of architectural lumbers started to be used also for the roof structure.

41

Additionally, braces appeared also in the roof structure and made it much lighter and changed the direction of the roof. Furthermore traditional wooden joints were for the first time reinforced by western style metal fittings and became standard.

It was in connection to the new standard building law from 1950. After several earthquake damage and bigger discussions, tightening of joints, braces and foundation became a part of the building law. For the first time, the amount of braces and amount of shear walls were quantified in relation to the amount of load. Thus it was related to the roof and distinguished into the lighter roof with coper, shingles, barks and the traditional heavier roof with clay tiles fixed with mud (SunWook K. 2015. p.80).

Fig.41. Kizuri System with braces and laths

Fig.42 Machiya structures (Kanbankenchiku) beginning 20th century.

The Contemporary Structures

Nowadays around 42% of the annually built houses in Tokyo are made in wood structures, which are either two or three storey high. (Statistics Japan. 2014) The townhouses built since the 1970s are mostly made by the modified vernacular post and beams structures or 2x4 system (Fig.43). The last mentioned system was introduced from America and increased over years. Around 115‘000 units are built annually in the whole country, which makes around 13% of the whole timber market. According to Mitsui home (2016), which is the biggest company for two by four systems, in Tokyo around 10‘000 units are built annually, which is around 19% of newly built wooden structures. Two by four means literally translated, the dimension of the vertical 42

studs in inches (5cm x 10cm), which were in Japan adapted to 3.8 by 8.9 centimetres (Fig.44). The system first started during the American industrial revolution, to make use of thinner and standardise sawn framing members and to decrease the cost of construction by using around the third of the volume of lumbers and nailed joinery instead of traditional wooden joinery. This was only possible by the introduction of manufactured nails, which also required less skilled labours on construction site. The whole system was based on the equal distribution of the vertical loads on studs (Kingston W.H. 1996. P.898). The structural system is less flexible in terms of ground plan, since it requires as a wall whole elements with studs. Horizontal loads were taken by diagonal braces, as the traditional methods, but fixed with nails. Once the plywood boards were introduced, the braces were replaced by them. Later the balloon frame was adapted into the platform structure, which is in Japan most likely applied and called light frame construction. In the two by four system, wall panels can be prefabricated in the workshop. Comparing to the ballon frame and the framing method with posts over two storeys it is an advantage. The floor of the two by four is simply done by vertical plywood boards fixed with metal fastener to the beams and covered by plywood panels or the entire floor is out of CLT boards. (2x4 Association Japan.

2014 ) The roof structure is considered as a light frame structure in the direction of the small span. Comparing to the traditional Japanese roof structure, this was a big change and it will be discussed further in chapter six.

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Structure designed by Carpenters Restoration Traditional Frame Structure

Specialisation

Original frame structure

Standardization in Tokyo

Pre-cut System Frame structure rationalization

81%

Framing Structure

19% 2x4 System

Kanto Earthquake

World War II

Fig.43. Timeline of structure changes of conventional timber houses 43

Nevertheless the traditional framing construction method (post and beam) is still the most applied system for timber housing with around 84% of all timber houses in Japan. Often the houses are still constructed by smaller carpentry firms (komuten) and the experiences and knowledge in the structure overweighting other systems.

As aforementioned in chapter three, a bigger change for traditional constructions happened in 1970s when the pre-cut system was introduced. This change divided by sudden the hardware supply and the construction into two fields. New opportunities with a manufactured joint system of vernacular wooden frame became possible and influenced the decrease of skilled craftsmen and artisans. Nowadays around 80% of timber houses are made within the pre-cut process (SunWook K. 2015. p.87).

In the modified system of traditional wood framing structure, the members are cut and prepared with manufactured joints decided by the factory. According to the received ground plan, the structural performance of each element is calculated by the pre-cut company. Afterwards, the elements are assembled on site by carpenters within a fast process, since all members are pre-marked on the right position. Few posts are leading from the marked groundsill until the roof structure and bring the loads direct back to the ground. Instead of the former stone foundation, the groundsill is set on a stable concrete foundation. Newer systems of diagonal braces between the columns have been developed to reinforce the structure, which have to be earthquake approved by the ministry for construction (Fig.45). From a western perspective it is surprising, but as aforementioned, traditional structures were done only by horizontal and vertical members. It changed after the building law of 1950 required for the first time a certain amount of braces in timber structure (Coaldrake W.H. 1990. P. 275).

According to an engineer of Polus pre-cut factory (2016)4), each company has its own diagonal brace system patent. When carpenters order their supply, they also involve the company systems in their design. Glue lamb beams are applied as a floor system and connected to the posts by metal fastener or manufactured mortise and tenon joints. The roof structure is often a modified wagoya-gumi structure with braces reinforced (Fig.44). In general, since the pre-cut system was introduced, elements of the structural system got standard dimension to achieve a simplified processing of joints and shape of the house (SunWook K. 2015. p.86). It can be assumed, to reduce the cost, the structural systems are not creating anymore their own shape of the building and since the structure are not exposed anymore, it is hard to distinguish between a timber structure, steel or concrete structure only from the appearance of a building (Fig.47).

4) Polus is a timber construction company and pre-cut factory in Saitama prefecture (Japan) In a visit of the Polus pre-cut factory an engineer explained and showed different joint systems of their company.

44

Roof Truss (Wagoya-gumi) Rafters Joist

Plywood panels

Post two storey high

Floor beam

Floor Band and Joist Vertical Plywood panels Studs (3.8 x 8.9 cm)

Bracing

Concrete foundation

1)

2)

Fig.44. 1) Modified Framing Structure | 2) Two by Four Structure

Fig.45. Polus Bracing System and pre-cut structure

45

TIMELINE OF CONVENTIONAL TIMBER STRUCTURES IN EDO-TOKYO Edo

1603 Meireki Fire Oshichi Fire

1‘400‘00

430‘000 1600

1650

1700

1750

1800

Design Manual handbooks (Hinagata-bon)

Maebiki-oga, Short bladed one man saw

Wide blade saw

Edo

Block push plane (tsuki-ganna) 1603 16 th, 17 th century

Daigiri, Crosscut lumber saw

TOOLS

1‘400‘00

430‘000 1600

1650

1700

1750

1800

Groundsill Joints

JOINTS

Tenon-Mortise

One storey Structures

STRUCTURE

Cross Lap joints

Wood came Tonegawa, Fujigawa (Shizuoka Perf.) and Kisogawa (Nagano Perf.)

Most construction wood were allready rectangular Lumber

Organization of carpenters into trade associations and Carpentry Guilds

Fig.46. Timeline of Tools | Joints | Tokyo Machiya Structures 46

Scarf Joints (Tsugite)

One - Three storey Structures.

Two storey Machiya

Shogunate set a code for architectural materials and elements that were forbidden for townpeople

MATERIAL

Tenon-Mortise

Kyoro-gumi

Orioki-gumi

Builders of new houses were encouraged to keep structure as low as possible.

La Th Ve

Nagaya

Zalkova, Sugi Kuromatsu (black pine) Tochi (horse chestnut)

Carpenters in short supply

First Tatami mats appeared in Machiya.

Sliding doo by average

Town carpenters. Building profess by end of 18th century of new urb

13‘000‘000 Meiji

Taisho

1868

00

1912

Showa 1989

8‘040‘000

7‘350‘000 Kantō Earthquake 3‘490‘000 WW II

1‘150‘000 1850

1900 Standardization of measures

Heisei

1926

1950

2000

Machine manufactures of saws

Pre-cut system started

manufactured in Japan

ed one man

Dōtsuki

13‘000‘000 Meiji 1868 Carpenters Tool Box 1841

00

Taisho

Showa

1912 1926 Double edge saw (Ryōba), Double bladed plane

Using of Power tools became 8‘040‘000 standard after WW II

7‘350‘000

1‘150‘000 1850

3‘490‘000 of traStrenghtening ditional timber frames by westernstyle metal 1900

sion subdivided ban market.

1950

2000

But still using the timber Joints.

Metall Fittings for Rafters

aw limited houses to 7.3 m in height. hree storey construction was forbidden. erandas were required.

ors came into use e merchants.

Heisei 1989

Two storey Machiya

Metal Fastener and Mortise-Tenon

2nd Building Legislation

System First Pre-fabricated House Massproduction of Houses

Kanbankenchiku Machiya Domestic production of Westernstyle nails 1898 Manufacturing of steel nuts, bolts and door hinges Establishment of architectural profession

2x4 Light Frame started Arrival of Alluminium window frame, Metall sheets Lumber comes from Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Chile Companies (Mitsui Homes, Daiwa House, Misawa Homes, Sekisui etc.)

Kōmuten

47

Fig.47 Detached house in Tokyo with a pre-cut frame structure during and after construction. 2016

6. Elements of Efficiency in Tokyo Machiya After the analysis of the evolution of townhouse structures from city of Edo and Tokyo, five elements were determined, which influenced the economical efficiency of structures most. Dimension of lumbers - Roof structure - Tectonics - Module and Fittings will be further examined, to extract the difference of past to contemporary constructional methods. Machiya of different ages and locations in KantĹ? region/ Tokyo prefecture have been analysed and compared, to give ideas about efficiency in future structural design for middle class people.

Architectural Lumbers

During Edo era, the timber was cut from the nearby mountain areas, like Nagano and Shizuoka prefecture. For the bigger construction works, carpenters ordered customised dimension direct from foremen (Naito A. 2003. p.41). For the big demand of standard size timber for townhouses, according to Edo-zu folding screen, their was a storage of different lumbers and wooden boards (Fig.48). Squared laths were used for main structure and round harsh trunks and branches were used in roof structure, 48

as a transverse beams and rafters. Even the lengths of the different elements seem to be already all the same, since the ken module was in use, standard sizes were already determined. The width and length of houses varied only within this grid. The dimension of lumbers varied according to Seike K. (1977) from ten by ten centimetres to twelve by twelve centimetres for structural posts and nine and half centimetres for beams. But in the beginning of Edo era, when the structure were smaller, it seems like that the dimension of lumbers were less. Economical thoughts were made concerning amounts of lumbers cut out from one trunk. Only experienced sawyers could reduce the amount of waste and increase the amount of lumbers of one trunk in handling the one man blade saw by cutting more straight and precise. When a less skilled sawyer could provide ten boards out of a log, the more skilled was able to cut twelve pieces. For a ceiling in eight tatami room this meaned half of the cost (Coaldrake W.H. 1990.p.145).

Fig.48 Stock of standardized lumbers in folding screens of Edo-zu from 17th century.

49

In the analysis of machiya of different types, location and construction year, the amount of structural lumbers vary remarkably (Fig. 49). Different dimension of lumbers applied in specific structures, depended on size of building, but moreover, the social status of owner in relation to the cost for the house. Mantoku Inn (4) was built in the 1860s in Ome, Tokyo prefecture and functioned as a hotel (Edo-Tokyo Architecture Museum. 2015). Thus it can be presumed that the owner was wealthier then a normal merchant in Edo. The amount of different sizes of lumbers is an indication, that the carpenter for this house ordered customised timber from sawyers, which probably has been more expensive. On the other side it has the least amount of wood per square meter of posts and beams of all analysed machiya, which is in percentage 1.3%, respectively 1.8 % as the ideal case. Thus standardisation of lumbers were important for Edo, since the huge demand for construction could otherwise not have been supplied from the sawyers. But otherwise it might have been more efficient to order customised sizes to use exact the amount of dimensions needed. Most of the analysed machiya used the standard dimensions of twelve by twelve centimetre and fifteen by fifteen centimetres and for bigger beams twenty by twelve centimetres.

The dimensions for structural timber in Osawas townhouse (2) from Kawagoe, were extremely big and over dimensioned, furthermore the amount of wood per square meters was enormous. Since it has a steep gabled roof and thick plastered walls, the dimension for the structure would need to be bigger. This type of machiya arrived from kura, a storage which was plastered against fire. To own a storage house was also a sign of wealthiness. Thus, it can be assumed, that the massive columns and beams were translated from the kura architecture and used as a symbol of showing wealthiness. This type of machiya came only into use in downtown Edo at the end of the era after several fires (Naito A. 2003.P.140).

On the other side, the contemporary building from 1961 (6) and the the two by four systems (7) have one standard columns or studs. Both are conventional townhouses and it can not be compared with wealthier machiya. In comparison with the conventional machiya (1) from the 18th century, the amount of wood per square meters was similar, but the single post dimension are smaller, since they were cut by machine from around end of the 19th century (成田寿一郎. 1976.) The lumbers in the roof structures changed in later townhouses, since metal fastener replaced the wooden joints and required straight wood without any adjustments, rather than curved timber.

50

20 x 12 cm 15 cm 12 cm

12 x 12 cm 18 cm

Section

18th Century

Groundfloor

1) Edo Machiya | Edo Nihonbashi

Wood / m² 52 x 26 cm

2) Osawas House | Kawagoe 1792

43 x 22 cm 38 x 20 cm 30 x 26 cm

17 x 17 cm

23 x 17 cm 22 x 11 cm 32 cm 27 cm 20 cm 17 cm

Section

22 x 22 cm

Groundfloor

25 x 15 cm 26 x 26 cm

Wood / m²

27 x 12 cm 25 x 14 cm 12 x 11 cm 12 cm 10 cm

Section

30 x 14 cm

14 x 14 cm 14 x 12 cm 12 x 12 cm 12 x 10.5 cm

Groundfloor

3) Bar „Kagaya“ | Taito Ward 1856

Wood / m²

4) Mantoku Inn | Ome City 1850s

37 x 15 cm 23 x 20 cm 23 x 14 cm 23 x 12 cm

18 x 15 cm 18 x 14 cm 17 x 17 cm 13 x 11 cm 12 x 12 cm 11 x 11 cm 10 x 10 cm 17 cm 13 cm

Section

20 x 12 cm

18 x 18 cm 16 x 16 cm 16 x 13 cm 15 x 15 cm 13 x 13 cm 12 x 12 cm 10 x 10 cm

Groundfloor

22 x 17 cm

Wood / m²

10 x 10 cm

20 x 10 cm 14 x 12 cm 14 x 10 cm 12 x 10 cm

Section

26 x 10 cm

15 x 15 cm

Groundfloor

5) Stationery Shop | Chiyoda Ward 1927

Wood / m²

12 x 12 cm

Section

37 x 12 cm 10.5 x 10.5 cm

Groundfloor

6) Workshop | Kanda 1961

Wood / m²

24 x 3 cm 9 x 7 cm

Section

25 x 9 cm 8.9 x 3.8 cm

Groundfloor

7) 2 x 4 System | 1974

Wood / m²

Fig.49 Wood / m²Analysis of dimension and 1 2 amount 3 4 5 6 of 7 lumbers used in machiya‘s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Groundfloor

Section

51

Roof Structure

One of the most important element of the building for traditional carpenters, among the framework and windows, is the roof structure. Because it determines the shape of the building and through the coincidences of horizontal, vertical and diagonal members, it challenged the carpenters from the past most (Seike K. 1977 p.21).

Thus, the roof structure is in terms of efficiency in structures one of the most important part. A gabled roof structure was for machiya common, in Japanese it is called kirizuma. Since the first machiya had only a small surface area with a single room, one longer trunk in the middle could lead until the ridge and thus it would carry most of the roof load (king post structure). Additionally, it had the advantage, that no joints in vertical direction were needed (Lรถfgren K. 2003. P.124). Since the houses were not as deep, transverse beam as one single element kept the roof structure together between the purlins. This system could be easily extended in one single direction. It was thus very efficient to build houses only with single elements of timber, to satisfy the housing demand within the creation of the new city of Edo. The same system was also applied to the one and half storey machiya, with a higher amount of vertical elements. Even thought the roof was a bit higher, the vertical lumbers could still carry the roof ridge directly. The so called shintsuka-gumi, was in relation with the previous system, the king post is standing on the transverse beams instead of going all the way down and it became into use for simpler and bigger structures (Fig.50).

The wagoya-gumi structure was developed in Japan to bridge the shortage of timber, in using curved and short lumbers. This invention could only happen together with the evolution of better chisels, since this system more precise joints required. In temples and mansions of aristocrats, the roof truss was already applied during Muromachi era, around the 15th century (Lรถfgren K. 2003. P.125). For the machiya in the city of Edo, it only came into use, when also the structure became bigger in the 18th century.

Thus, longer spans of transverse beams were solved by using curved timber trunks, instead of straight cut lumbers, which were more expensive and not affordable. Soon, the carpenters realised the aesthetically value of such natural trunks and developed the system into their art. If we consider the defined formula for efficiency before industrialisation of chapter three; Forces, plus tools, plus material (minus waste) is an object of efficiency. The term becomes more clear in the wagoya-gumi truss system.

Whole trunks were used, instead of cutting them, which means they saved forces as the main part of efficiency. Even though it increased the amount of wood, since it was 52

low quality material, it did not count. Customised joints for the individual shape of trunk were needed and arose the construction time and challenged the carpenters in terms of efficiency.

Transverse beam

Trunk

King Post Structure

Shintsuka-gumi

Wagoya-gumi

Fig.50 Different types of kirizuma roofstructures of machiya and its extension.

Roof trusses of contemporary structures are made by diagonal braces or a triangular framework with a ceiling joist directly connected to the rafters (Fig.51). The frame truss is spanned at the short direction of the buildings and without inner support.

Thus, there is a limited span and flexibility of the system, which only can extend into the long direction with additional frameworks (Gromicko N. and Gromicko B. 2006).

Lumbers for the roof trusses changed into slimmer machine cut timber. Thus, the joints are made by metal truss plates with straight standardised length of lumbers, which are pre-cut and connected on construction site. Since the frameworks are only two dimensional, comparing to the three dimensional grid system of wagoya-gumi, they are often pre-fabricated in the workshop. Contemporary approaches of roof trusses are much lighter and slimmer, comparing to the older structures. But it has also lost its important symbolical meaning, thus the roof structure is not proudly exposed and can not be perceived anymore in newer houses.

Fig.51 Contemporary rooftrusses as frameworks with braces.

53

4.5 4.2

4.1 4.2

16

Wood members for the truss

2) “Kawano Shoten“ Umbrella store Edogawa Ward | 1930

5.5

4.5

3.5

14.2

3) Osawas House Kawagoe | 1792

3.686

3.722

8.653

4) Edo Machiya Nihonbashi | 18th Century

5.561

8.688

5) Edo Nagaya Nihonbashi | 18th Century

2.712

2.712

7.2

6) Contemporary Machiya Kanda District | 1961

5.7

Fig.52 Analysis of different machiya roofstructures by amount of lumber and Joints 54

Amounts of Joints / per m²

Amounts of Joints

1) Shiga Perfecture

In a analysis of several types of wagoya-gumi roof trusses, once the machiya became longer, the length of transverse beams also extended (Fig. 52). Thus the longer span had to be bridged by shorter elements which the flexible wagoya-gumi allowed. In most cases the length of a single trunk were not longer than five meters, which is about the size of a normal timber and a standard lengths for transportation. As aforementioned, when the roof had many small members, the joints also increased. For the Osawa house in Kawagoe, the truss grid for members is denser than usual and therefore the amount of joints is relatively high comparing to the nagaya or machiya built around the same time. The carpenters‘ work for this kind of roof truss, which was used as a symbol of wealth, must have been much more expensive, then a simple wagoya-gumi of Edo city machiya. The townhouse from Shiga prefecture (1) shows the length of a typical Japanese western part dwelling. As aforementioned in chapter two, the machiya of Kyoto area was short at the main street and long to the courtyard. The wagoya-gumi structure was adjusted to the form of the building, by extending it each four meters the loads of the roof was balanced. Remarkable, the amount of joints per square meters is about the same then the economical nagaya structure.

The amount and lengths of structural lumbers in newer townhouses (6) comparing to older structures with the same width are around the same. Nevertheless, the traditional wagoya-gumi roof truss has also connecting elements into the depth, though it needs more joints comparing to the braced roof truss. If we consider the defined efficiency formula for contemporary constructions; Time, plus machine forces, plus material (minus waste) equals efficiency, a newer roof truss is less time consuming. Because of less joints and blunt cut timber, jointed by metal fastener. Furthermore the pre-fabrication possibility is much higher than the older systems, since the curved trunks had to be individual fitted to the right length and position.

The townhouses for merchants in Edo had to be built in masses, since the housing demand was enormous, the construction time had presumably to be fast and the cost had to be low. By 1800 it was the biggest city in the world. Since this pressure created such building environment, the townhouses were also not as sophisticated as in Kyoto around the same time. Thus, the depth of the houses were adjusted to the length of a standard trunk in order to use it as a transverse beam, which was around five meters.

To enlarge the ground floor space, one storey volumes were attached to the machiya, which could be constructed with small size lumbers and simple roofs. During Edo period, the gabled roof were parallel to the streets. Additional townhouses houses were 55

attached along the street, comparing to Kyoto machiya, which extended more into the back. Nowadays, many gabled roof turned ninety degrees, due to the pressure on land value, the plots became smaller and with it the width of the building decreased. The span of the ceiling joists was therefore more efficient into the shorter direction (Fig.53).

20th Century

et

Stre

18th Century

17th Century

Fig.53 Changes of the gabled roof direction.

Tectonic

The buildings have some general key points, which enables them to stand. After the post were set on a stone or groundsill instead of buried in the ground, the carpenters were challenged to fix the loos post. Thus, the detail from the columns to the beam and to the roof truss became an anchor point in making the building stable and challenged the carpenters back in the days. Since the tie beam was in the Japanese roof truss under the bending stress, the requirements and design of the specific wooden joints was based on tension forces. In traditional townhouses, the kyoro-gumi or oriokigumi were applied (Fig.54). In kyoro-gumi, the transverse beam is on top of the purlin with a tension joint and the purlin is connected to the post by mortise tenon joint.

In orioki-gumi the beams are joint directly to the post with long mortise-tenon joint, which is further connecting the purlin. For this joint each beam requires one post, the advantage of kyoro-gumi is, that the transverse beam can be set independently from the 56

post. (Kawashima Ch. 1986 P.82) The beams were in general connected by rabbeted (kone-hozo) or true mortise-tenon joints (hira-hozo) and on top of the main beams, secondary beams crossed with a lap joint. There were two different versions, either the cogged-lap-joint (watari-ago), which only little weakens the beams or the fully cross lab joint (Ai-gaki). Watari ago joint is also often used in roof trusses of wagoya-gumi, when two beams cross each other (Seike K. 1977 p.125).

Purlin

Transverse Beam

kyoro-gumi

orioki-gumi

hira-hozo

kone-hozo Ai-gaki

watari-ago

Fig.54 Coincidences of the structural elements in traditional framing structures

Rafters

Metal joints for rafter Transverse Beam

Mortise-Tenon with metal fastener

Manufactured joint

Fig.55 Coincidences of the structural elements in contemporary framing structures

Fig.56 Detailed section. Two by four (above), Conventional framework with braces (below) 57

Manufactured wooden joints like mortise and tenon or modified dovetail joints, strengthen with metal braces against earthquake performances, are often applied in the structure nowadays (Fig.55). In comparison with traditional construction methods it is significant, that all structural elements are separated in contemporary structures.

The three elements, post, purlin and transverse beams are not combined with each other anymore (Fig. 57). Furthermore, the transverse beam is not treated differently to other beams, because the joints are the same. The traditional handmade joints were penetrating the structural elements more than the manufactured ones, in order to combine all three. The manufactured joints are approximately only four centimetre deep. Some roof trusses and beams are connected by metal connectors with blunted lumbers and the rafters became a structural element. The two by four roof rafters are directly connected with the transverse joists which is on tension, since there are no other supporters.

Fig.57 Changes of the coincidences of structural elements in framing structures

37 x 15 cm 23 x 20 cm 23 x 14 cm

20 x 12 cm 18 x 15 cm 18 x 14 cm

18 x 18 cm 16 x 16 cm 16 x 13 cm 15 x 15 cm 13 x 13 cm 12 x 12 cm 10 x 10 cm

58

17 x 17 cm 13 x 11 cm 12 x 12 cm 11 x 11 cm 10 x 10 cm 17 cm 13 cm

Section

22 x 17 cm

Groundfloor

23 x 12 cm

1.8 m

In late edo period, when merchants became more wealthy, they started to invest money on timber and thus building parts from shoin-zukuri architecture were imple- 3.6 m mented in machiya (Löfgren K. 2003. p.99). The focus was set on the main facade and the interior to show their wealthiness. In comparison to a common machiya in Edo city the Mantoku-inn, built at the end of Edo era as a hotel in Ome city (Kantō region) had an additional layer of stationary lattice windows (Fig.58). Therefore, the inner sliding partitions, probably made at this time with shōjigami paper, could be moved Wood / m² and the outer wooden lattice, would still give the security, but also provided ventilation and increased at the same time. In Edo machiya, Lumber the decoration qualityRoof truss Tectonicsthe lattice Module and wooden sliding partitions were positioned in the same layer, between the structure (Engel H. 1985 p.125). Furthermore the rafters of the roof were visible from an outside perspective.

Fig.58 Windows compartments in Mantoku-inn and a machiya in Edo city.

Another intriguing fact was the coverage of the structure in beginning of 20th century. As the bracing was in traditional construction methods always in between, thus the structure was exposed. When new materials arrived, like plywood and manufactured nails, it was more efficient to fix them on top of the column (Fig. 59). Some might argue it had also fire safety reasons to cover the wooden structure. Nevertheless, it became obvious in adding a layer on top of columns, is in contemporary construction methods faster and more efficient.

Bamboo / mud

plywood panels, mineral boards

Nuki System

Kizuri System

Plywood

Fig.59. Evolution of re-inforcement 59

Module

In traditional design and construction methods, columns were set according to a modular system ken. The grid with position of the post were drawn on a wooden plan board (ezuita) and thus the design process was in interaction between man, material and tools, thus this harmony means the most efficient way. The architectural drawing only appeared around the 16th century, to guide clients and was not used until the modernisation for carpenters (Coaldrake W.H. 1990 p.24).

The ken grid has been first applied in the cities, with the name kyo-ma ken, translated it means “column distance in metropolis measurement“ and was six and half shaku (1.97 meters). The model was required to simplify the construction of residential buildings, in the time, when cities started to grow and within the artisans profession.

Thus, it was a standardisation based on economical considerations, moreover efficiency in construction methods. Meanwhile on the countryside a different ken unit grid appeared, which was called inaka-ma (column distance in countryside) and it measured six shaku (1.818 meters) (Engel H. 1985 p.25). In the city of Edo and the whole northern part the inaka-ma system spread, because of its practical reasons without half units. When first tatami mats in machiya‘s appeared in the 18th century, because of its pre-fabrication, there was a conflict between the two units. (Engel H. 1985 p.26) Therefore the mat sizes were also standardised and became the second important module. For the city of Edo, the standard size of 175.7 by 87.9 centimetres was introduced.

Furthermore, heights of ceilings, subdivisions of panels were all made according to the grid. (Coaldrake W.H. 1990 p.24) Thus the prefabrication happened in carpentries workshops and the buildings could be assembled in a single day on the site. According to the folding screen of Edo-zu, the construction and preparation from building elements could also happen on site. Even after the modernisation and industrial revolution, the grid remained for residential buildings, since it fitted perfectly to the idea of mass production. All elements in the building had its standard measurements, therefore it was simple to translated into a factory made unit. In the entire world such strict module is unique. It developed over three hundred years and thus it is very sophisticated and an integral part in the society.

As visible, in figure 60, in a bigger machiya the grid could sometimes change, especially for corridors (engawa). In the example of Monaku-inn hostel (1), the small chan60

ges of the grid might be an indication, that the rooms in the back were later added to the structure. In nagaya and machiya (2,3) of Edo city, the mass production of buildings can be seen. The rooms were built in rows and hardly designed from the interior part, comparing to shoin-zukuri architecture.

1) Mantoku Inn | Ome City 1850s 0.606

0.909

0.758

0.758

5.45 m

0.758

2) Edo Nagaya Nihonbashi | 18th Century

1.818 0.909

1.818

3) Edo Machiya Nihonbashi | 18th Century

1.818

3.636 m

4) Contemporary Machiya Kanda District | 1961 0.9

3.636 m

Fig.60. Analysis of machiya within the modular system 61

Fittings

Because of the modular grid, the openings and fittings had already its standard measurements. Even though in traditional building methods, carpenters only made the sliding screens and window frames after finishing the framework. However, nowadays building components like windows and doors are manufactured with standardised dimension, which has in contemporary houses a significants in terms of design. The openings in buildings are designed according to dimensions of aluminium windows frames and doors, not vice versa (Coaldrake W.H. 1990 p.170). In the big urban market in Edo, the building parts and profession, started to be subdivided, therefore, standardised window frames and sliding doors made by joiners, started already to be sold in a shop. During most of the Edo period, sliding screens with shĹ?jigami paper was only reserved for the upper class and was not affordable for common townspeople. Richer merchants started to implement sliding screens into their townhouses. According to Hatano J. (2016), interior sliding doors were at the end of Edo more often applied in machiya. Wooden shutters for doors were already earlier in use. The use of sliding doors influenced the layout of the machiya, since it was possible to move from one room to another. This had also an impact on the structural members, since wider openings meaned also bigger beams and pillars, which was related to an economical question as well (LĂśfgren K. 2003. p.171).

In figure 61, dimension and amount of openings varies from form around 58% in a machiya in end of Edo era until around 18% from a townhouse today. Several reasons, but especially laws for enforcements for earthquake performances, influenced the opening amount. The building standard law has been since 1981 many times revised in order to make the houses more earthquake proof. Thus, especially for the smaller side of the townhouse more wall area are required. On the other hand, the building standard law also requires minimum amount of light in one room. It is set to one seventh of the room area. It can not be clearly determined, if there is also an efficiency reasons in relation to the applied structure. Due to the fact, that the facades are closed nowadays to 82 %, changes obviously the interaction to the streetscape, which is related to the change of the function on ground floor. The average of openings is around 40%, which seem to be reasonable and well balanced between surface of facade and windows.

62

37%

58%

1860

1856

37%

44%

39%

1900

1879

27%

43%

1930

1933

34%

35%

1980

1960

18%

26%

2000

2015

Pre-fabricated system

Tectonic visible | Canopies etc.

2x4 Light frame structure Pre-cut system

Enforcement Ordinance 1856

1860

1879

1900

1930

1933

1960

1974

1980

2000

2015

Fig.61. Analysis of the main facade and its amount of openings.

63

6. Kyojima Case Study Background

Kyojima was during the Edo period designated as a farming village by the Shogunate. The farmer houses were surrounded by land and natural topography. Thus the organic street pattern, seen nowadays, are tracing the old paddy fields and canals.

Furthermore through its self-development it became densely packed and even smaller alleys and shortcuts were implemented. Thus, the streetscape is very lively, since many old wooden houses (nagaya and machiya) remained along the streets and alleys. The reason lies in the resilience of the area, since it survived somehow both bigger disasters in Tokyo, the Kantō earthquake and the world war II fire bombs. Therefore it is one of the only area in Tokyo, which still has the atmosphere of wooden houses and narrow alleys. Most of the old houses are built between 1923 and 1960 (Cameron A. 2013).

After the big Kantō earthquake from 1923, the place changed dramatically. Massive construction of nagaya provided homeless people a temporary shelter, since the area was not hit by the earthquake and still offered some open fields. Later on, the row houses were subdivided and changed to other needs. The area functioned very much as a catalyst for the affected people (Fuji A. and Taira J. 2004). In comparison to the Nihonbashi, Honjō and Kanda districts, which were planned by Shogunate, Kyojima became an organic pattern. The maps show the situation in 1948, after the world war II (Fig.62).

Fig.62. Kanda district with the grid pattern (left) and Kyojima (right) in 1948 64

Case Studies

The Kyojima case study shows an example of low budget wooden structures, together with a do-it yourself culture it created over time the organic pattern within the small alleys. The government declared Kyojima as a high risk area in terms of fires and earthquakes, because of its old wooden structures and narrow alleyways. Nevertheless, recently many young people moved to Kyojima, because of its cheap rents and young community. Most of them live and work in old wooden houses and have their own small business on the ground floor of the buildings. Often they also share their offices with other young creative people and have thus an exchange and support of others, if they demand. All of the three cases are row-house structures and by time one by one was destroyed. The attachment of another structure within the same house can be seen in case one. The beam of the attached building is penetrating the wall and is visible in the other space, thus the two beams are sharing one post (Fig.63).

The office space on the ground floor is shared by four persons, who are working independently in other fields. On the second floor, two people of the office are sharing the flat, thus self made walls were installed in order to divide the spaces.

1) Office / Shared House From around 1930 1F 48 m2 | 2F 40 m2

1) Office / Shared house Around 1940 1F 48 m² 2F 40 m²

Fig.63. Machiya in Kyojima | Case Study 01

2) Office / Bike shop Around 1930

65

The second case is a bike shop and an office space on the second floor. This townhouse is rented by a young couple with a small kid. They live in another machiya around five minutes away. The building shows interior features, like sliding partitions with shōjigami paper, the tokonoma and ceilings which were in earlier times either 1) Office or / Shared house for townspeople. Furthermore the facade shows standarforbidden not affordable dised aluminium window frames, comparing to earlier machiya, the openings were Around 1940 emphasised in horizontal direction. The reason is related to changes of the second 1F 48 m² 2F 40 m² floor height and Japanese customs. Since in traditional houses all tasks were done in a sitting position without furniture, the sitting position required also other interior perspectives.

2) Bike Shop / Office Around 1930 1F 29 m2 | 2F 24m2

2) Office / Bike shop Around 1930 1F 29 m² 2F 24 m²

Fig.64. Machiya in Kyojima | Case Study 02

The bunkan reptile branch cafe is on of the meeting point of the young community 2) Bunkan Reptile Ranch in Kyojima (Fig.65). Besides the café on the ground floor, there is also a public shower Around 1930 for the young people who live in a machiya or nagaya and do not have a private shower 52 m² in 1F their homes. The owner of the restaurant, Natsuki Terakado used to live on the second floor, but he recently moved to another wooden house and it became a storage.

66

The entire roof truss is done by curved trunks as a wagoya-gumi structure, which are joined by the kyoro-gumi system. The trusses are only made in one dimension, penetrated tie beams are missing. Furthermore it is only a pent roof, assumed it might have been the more efficient and economical solution for this shape of building.

3) Bunkan Reptile Branch Around 1920 1F 52 m2 | 2F 52 m2

Fig.65. Machiya in Kyojima | Case Study 03

Those were only three examples of still existing examples of machiya in a contemporary context. The young community in Kyojima created their own network between the townhouses. In terms of technical aspects, few points for a design in relation to efficiency elements for a structural design of chapter six can be added. Since it was a self-development and fast construction of the buildings, the span of the room is only around four to five meters, smaller volumes are attached on the ground floor in order to increase the floor space. When buildings were attached to each other, the beams were sharing the post, by that timber elements were saved. The change of position from kneeing to seating and the ceiling height changed also the shape of the window from horizontal to vertical. Since the organic pattern of the Kyojima district created strange angled buildings, the pent roof is sometimes applied and thus a simpler solution (Fig.66).

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Attached volumes increases the ground floor area.

Attached Dwelling

Dwelling

Attached Dwelling

Dwelling

Attached Dwelling

Dwelling

Simplyfied roofstructure.

Kneeing and seating postion in relation to the windows.

Attached Dwelling

Dwelling

Two beams from different houses share one post.

Fig.66. Conclusion of Case Studies

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„Architecture was the art of the possible and the measurments of early buildings like famous temples were determined as much as the way the pieces of wood split.“ (Choaldrake.1990. p. 24)

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Conclusion Tokyo machiya were used in this study as objects to show the influences of efficiency on wooden building structures, changing through time, in a specific (urban) environment. Since the traditional wooden structure of machiya have always been a product of a craftsmen, they were influenced by several factors in their evolution and resulted in a manufactured product assembled on site. The lost of craftsmen appears as a global phenomena, that most of societies went through after the industrialisation and with modernisation. In Japan and moreover in contemporary Tokyo the metamorphosis became even more visible, since timber structure had a long historical background before modernisation. Japanese traditional (wooden) architecture is appreciated all over the world. Many people have written about the beautiful structures made with precise techniques and sophisticated joints, which form a fluent spatial layout. My interest was slightly different: not to put my focus on the much recognised masterpieces, but on the evolution of the conventional townhouses from the past to the present. Furthermore my thesis shows, how craftsmen from the past did react on a fast growing urban environment. Even though the amount of annually built timber structures decreases, nearly half of the constructions in Tokyo are timber structures. But it became hard to distinguish between a steel or a wooden structure, after the house is completed. In addition to the evolution of structures, it was important to understand the changes in the social circumstances, besides its visible architectonic form. In this thesis, I have made an attempt to describe some aspects of life in relation to constructions and the evolution throughout history.

My suggestion is, that conventional townhouses mirror in a very direct way, political and economical developments of a broad part of society. I chose this focus deliberately, based on my personal interests, as well as an attempt, to go as a foreigner in Japan beyond the conventional clichĂŠs. Most wooden houses seen in contemporary Tokyo were built after the world war II and are related to the big demand of houses. The mass production brought new materials and systems, and the appearance of conventional houses changed significantly. Different laws against the fire were introduced and required other materials for the facade. The land reform law introduced in 1870s was another turning point in the history of machiya. Land became suddenly a commodity, and it could be sold and bought. As for the first time value was attached to the land, the house became disconnected and the request of land subdivided the plots. After the

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Meiji-restoration, the house and construction materials became the most important part of the economy. Being a major product of the society and the economy in Japan, it affected the structure of houses, their intended lifespan and furthermore peoples idea about a house.

Tools developed through time, in order to accomplish a task faster and more importantly, with less man power. Shortage of a specific wood challenged the carpenters to develop new tools and techniques. Influences from other countries brought new ideas of tools. Material, tools and techniques interacted with each other in harmony and men were the executing force. The modernisation of the Meiji-restoration and industry broke this natural flow suddenly. Machines became the executing forces.

The conveyor belt produced standardised mass products and time became a measurable unit. Construction elements like architectural lumbers, metal joints, windows and doors were newly manufactured in standards and the conventional townhouses were designed in dimensions given by the companies. The Japanese architect, Shigeru Ban argued in a personal talk, that standardisation is not bad, because it allowed many people to afford products. Already many modernist architects strongly believed in standardisation, in which they saw the new way of building for a freer man of the future. Standardisation had indeed the power to enhance the physical environment of humans and the repetition of elements brought many opportunities. Thus, as it can be seen on contemporary townhouses in Tokyo, locality (materials, mentality etc.), a bound to tradition and individualistic details are lost in this process.

Japanese tools were developed in relation to the characteristics of wood. Therefore, it was simpler and more affordable to make complicated joints to increase the span, than to cut a straight long timber. The amount and type of material was thus more expensive than the labour. At that time, humans were not able to develop new materials and rather focused on enhancing the tools. After the introduction of machines, the focus switched to the development of new materials. Which was related to the fact, that materials became a commodity on the economical market. Thus it became a global exchange product without any bound to locality. In contemporary construction for conventional townhouses it is in most cases not put into question to challenge a specific material. It is rather a question of choosing the cheapest material available and the related techniques to solve the issue efficiently. The development of cheaper material influenced the townhouse structure and the techniques foremost. The interi-

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or and the facade changed significantly. Once manufactured nails, plywood and other panels were invented and manufactured, the structure became covered and thus less important in terms of aesthetics.

It was not my aim in this thesis to imply a nostalgic view on the past cityscape of Tokyo, with its wooden townhouses and structures. It was much more my intention to show the close relations that are maintained between tools, techniques and materials towards the shift of significance of the term “efficiency“. The studied elements of efficiency were: lumbers - roof structure - tectonic - module and fittings. The results of this examination should give inspiration for future designs for conventional houses with the contemporary possibilities in available tools, techniques and materials, BY considering and using the local circumstances.

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In a preparation for a meal, I was introduced by Japanese students to a traditional rice pan. A ceramic pan, with its visible traces of burned rice on the ground. The exact time the rice needs to be cooked and the amount of rice and amount of water was explained and underlined. Furthermore, the rice needs to be three times washed, before cooking it. I was impressed, when I saw the perfectly cooked rice after stopping the right times in the right process. After that, I cooked several times within the same process by the ceramic pan. I enjoyed the process of preparing the rice and was amazed, when I noticed, how simple it was to wash the rice. With other pans or rice cooking machines, the process of washing rice always annoys me, since it needs a second tool. The ceramic pan as one very specific detail on the edge of the pan, the border is slightly shaped concave, thus the water can be easily poured out and the rice stays in the pan, without any additional tool. I told my amazement to the Japanese students, which were surprised and never had noticed such a detail. This pan’s shape seems so naturally formed by its use and refined over a long period of time, that it became an anonymous design, without much noise.

Fig. 67 Ceramic Rice Pan 73

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Glossary Ai-gaki lap joint chishi-sen tax for the house size in Kyoto chō square in the urban grid (121.2 x 121.2 meters) dōtsuki standard cross cut saw with steel reinforcement doma earthen floor engawa veranda ezuita wooden board for carpenters plan fusuma sliding door with paper on both sides hira-hozo true mortise - tenon joint hinoshi work and living area hinoki japanese cypress hinagata-bon design manual from and for carpenters inaka-ma column distance in countryside jō length unit kaishochi common space in the middle of chō kanban kenchiku signboard architecture used as advertisment ken length unit kinrei laws prohibition laws of specific elements kirizuma gabled roof kura store house komuten smaller carpentry companies kyoro-gumi joint for tranverse beam on top of purlin kiwari modular system kizuri lath nailed on top of column and plastered kone-hozo laped mortise - tenon joint kyo-ma ken column distance in metropolis measurement machiya townhouse machi shop / stall maebiki-oga short bladed one man saw mise shop part of the house nagaya row-house nōritsu undō efficiency in Japan nuki bamboo and mud wall between posts orioki-gumi joint for transverse beam on top of post ryōba rip teeth on one side and on the other crosscut teeth shoin-zukuri mansion traditional architecture style shōji sliding door shōjigami japanes paper for sliding doors sashigame Angle tool for marking a square shintsuka-gumi king post roof system tatami japanese straw standardised straw mat tsukeshoin writing or desk alcove toriniwa corridor / kitchen in kyoto machiya wagoya-gumi roof truss system watari-ago cogged-lap-joint ya house zashiki formal space for guests 76

List of Illustrations Fig. 1 Japan Statistics. 2014 Fig. 2 Google maps. 2009.

Fig. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, Photos by Bisig F. 2016. | Fig.10 Edo scene. Old Tokyo.2004.

Available at http://www.oldtokyo.com. (Accessed at 10 March 2016) Fig. 11, 13, 14,15 Maps by Bisig F. 2016. based on maps of Edo Museum and Hatano J. 1998.

Fig. 12 Illustration by Bisig F. 2016. based on drawings of Hozumi K. 2003.

Edo, The City That Became Tokyo. An illustrated History. Kodansha International.

Fig. 16, 17 Drawings by Bisig F. 2016. based on books and maps of Japan Archive Fig. 18, 19, 20, 22 Drawings by Bisig F. 2016. based on Edo-zu folding screen and Hatano J. 1998.

Fig. 21 Edo Tokyo Museum Fig. 23, 25, 26 Yoneyama I. 2015. Researcher from Edo-Tokyo Architectural Open-air Museum.

Fig. 24 Shibaura in Tokyo Meisho-Zue. 1902.

Masai Y. 1990. Tokyo From A Feudal Million City To A Global Supercity.

Geographical Review of Japan. Vol. 63 No.1 P. 1-16 Fig. 27 Photo by Bisig F. 2016.

Fig. 28 Sato H. et all. 2009. Seismic Diagnosis and Structural Performance Evaluation of

Existing Timber Houses in Tokyo. Part 4 Analysis of Urban Houses in Kanda.

Building Stock Activation. pp. 479-486 Fig. 29, 30 Diagram by Bisig F. 2016.

Fig. 31, 34, 35 Illustrations by Bisig F. 2016. based on ...

Fig. 32 Coaldrake W.H. 1990 Fig. 33 Hokusai woodblock print series Thirty-six views of Mount-Fuji.

Available at https://ukiyo-e.org/image/mia/22514. (Accessed on 23 March 2016) Fig. 36 Alastair Townsend.2011. Available at http://www.alatown.com/precut-modern-

japanese-timber-construction/ (Accessed 25 February 2016) Fig. 37 Photos by Bisig F. 2016.

Fig. 38 Hatano J. 1998.

Fig. 39 Drawings by Bisig F. 2016. based on Edo-zu folding screen and Hatano J. 1998.

Fig. 40, 41 Illustration by Bisig F. 2016 Fig. 42 Drawings by Bisig F. 2016. based on Sato H. 2009 and

Edo-Tokyo Architectural Open-air Museum.

Fig. 43 Diagramm by Bisig F. 2016 based on the work of Sunwook K. 2015.

Fig. 44 Drawings by Bisig F. 2016.

Fig. 45, 47 Photos by Bisig F. 2016.

Fig. 46 All drawings by Bisig F. 2016 Fig. 48 Edo-zu folding screen. 17th Century

Available at https://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/english/education_research/gallery/web

gallery/edozu/r62.html (Accessed on 10 February 2016) Fig. 49 Photos and drawings by Bisig F. 2016 Fig. 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55 Illustration and drawings by Bisig F. 2016 56, 57, 58, 59, 61 Fig. 62 Japan GIS map. 2009. Available at http://maps.gsi.go.jp (Accessed on 10 May 2016) Fig. 63, 64, 65 Measurments and Drawings taken by Bisig F. 2016.

Fig. 66 Diagramms by Bisig F. 2016.

Fig. 67 Photo by Bisig F. 2016 77