Um hapi qaa’öniwti: The Reclamation of Maize as a Sacred Food Across Turtle Island

ABSTRACT

Maize has been a staple food within Indigenous cultures across Turtle Island for thousands of years, but has more recently become a “colonized” plant of industrial agriculture within the broader so-called American landscape. The Hopi Nation and the Six Nations that make up the Haudenosaunee Confederacy have maintained deep ties with maize as a relative throughout their histories, even in the face of these colonial changes. By tracing maize’s existence through the creation stories within these communities, modern-day agricultural practices, and community-based reclamation work, we can see ongoing efforts to disengage from the industrialization of traditional and critical food systems. In turn, this work reflects the broader power of food sovereignty and self-determination across Turtle Island.

1 Blake, Michael. Maize for the Gods: Unearthing the 9,000-Year History of Corn. Oakland, California: University of California Press, 2015., 17-21.

2 Blake, 28-33, 46-51.

3 Ferdman, Roberto. “How Corn Made Its Way into Just about Everything We Eat.” Washington Post, 2015. https:// www.washingtonpost. com/news/wonk/ wp/2015/07/14/howcorn-made-its-way-intojust-about-eve rythingwe-eat/.

4 Ferdman, “How Corn Made Its Way into Just about Everything We Eat.”

5 Kimmerer, Robin Wall. “Corn Tastes Better on the Honor System.” Emergence Magazine, 2020. https:// emergencemagazine. org/feature/corn-tastesbetter/. INTRODUCTION

The story of maize is long and complex, encompassing hundreds of histories, geographies, and cultures. Western scientific research in the fields of archeology, botany, and ecology tell us that maize and its creation began over 9,000 years ago in what is now known as Oaxaca, Mexico. It is a descendant of a grass called teosinte, which Indigenous communities in the region began to selectively plant and propagate for generations until a more “modern” form of maize spread northward as people moved and traded1. However, the origin stories and lifeways of many Indigenous communities across Turtle Island are tied intimately to this humble grain. Maize has been a part of these communities and nations since time immemorial, often centered in explanations of creation. Maize as a staple food has allowed for the movements and migrations of people, and the establishment of societies for thousands of years2 . Today, what is more commonly known as corn is “virtually inseparable from the [standard] American diet”3, and subsequently “American” culture as a whole. Even though corn effectively pervades every aspect of the industrialized food system, less than ten percent of corn grown in the U.S. is eaten directly by people – and most of this percentage enters our diet through high fructose corn syrup4. The other ninety percent is fed to livestock, and utilized in the production of ethanol5. Corn, in many ways, not only has been colonized itself,

6 Pollan, Michael. Overabundance of corn and its effect on the economy, 2003. https://michaelpollan. com/interviews/ overabundance-of-cornand-its-effect-on-theeconomy/.

7 Baker, Lauren. Corn Meets Maize: Food Movements and Markets in Mexico. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2013, 11.

8 Kimmerer, “Corn Tastes Better on the Honor System.” but has become a tool of the colonization of our collective diet, as stated by author Michael Pollan6. This dichotomy between the spiritually sacred maize, which is at the center of various Indigenous lifeways and diets across Turtle Island, and corn, the industrially farmed, genetically-modified foodstuff viewed only as a source of energy, is great. Further investigation is required into how this staple plant transformed from a spiritual provider into a colonized – and colonizing – plant on behalf of colonial “America”, and what many Indigenous communities today are doing to reclaim maize as a meaningful foodway and relative. I intend to explore these inquiries, drawing specifically on the Hopituh-Shi-Nu-Mu (Hopi) Nation and the Six Nations that make up the Rotinonhsonnih (Haudenosaunee) Confederacy. From this exploration, I argue that the continued reclamation of maize as a dietary and cultural staple within certain Indigenous communities highlights the growing efforts to disengage from the industrialization and genetic modification of critical food systems (when and where possible). In the same way, it also showcases the persistence of Indigenous food sovereignty and self-determination work across Turtle Island. In order to look deeply at this topic, the first section of this paper describes the sacred connections to maize in the origin stories and cultural practices of the Hopi Nation and the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. The second section addresses how cultural connections to maize have been disrupted and contradicted by modern, industrialized agriculture on a broader scale. Lastly, the third section provides examples of how these communities and nations are reclaiming their connections to maize, culturally-based agriculture, and each other.

I wish to note that I will be making an intentional distinction between maize and corn in this paper. In writing about sacred plants and food sovereignty, semantics are critical to address. My deliberate decision is influenced by the work of others (see Baker7 and Kimmerer8), and I thank them for broadening my awareness. In this paper, “maize” will symbolize the food that nourishes deep cultural and spiritual connections for many Indigenous communities, alongside providing necessary sustenance, while “corn” will symbolize the industrialized, corporatized, and minimized version of the foodstuff utilized solely for consumption.

POSITIONALITY STATEMENT

há:ka of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, and the unceded lands of the Pennacook and Pequawket peoples, in addition to other Abenaki communities of the Wabanaki Confederacy. I have the privilege to move freely on these lands that are not my own, lands that continue to be colonized and taken from their stewards. I have the ability to attend university, and to publish my work in a journal. In regards to this specific exploration of maize, my Mexican ancestors have been connected to it in ways that I am disconnected from. This part of my own history is not as known to me as I would like it to be, and is definitely an influential factor in me being interested in the cultural significances of maize. I come to this work from the perspective of someone who wants to learn more about efforts to reconnect with maize and other sacred plants. At the same time, I do not identify as Indigenous, and so my sense of connection must be appropriately focused and I must work actively to not take up the space that is not for me. In regards to the origin or creation stories and farming practices I share in this paper, I have no claim to these cultural connections. I am no “authority” in regards to this information in any capacity, so I thank those who have shared this knowledge so that I can access it and share it within my own writing, while also recognizing that these are examples of a few perspectives among many within these communities and nations. Additionally, I want to acknowledge that these recounts are shortened due to space constraints and certain points are emphasized specifically to address the connections to maize.

MAIZE’S PRESENCE IN ORIGIN STORIES AND COMMUNITY CULTURAL PRACTICES

Hopi Nation

Maize has been the basis of Hopi lifeways for over a millennium. It is viewed as much more than a food item; it is a sentient being, as well as a prayer offering, a teacher, a relative, a parent, and a child. Their origin story says that the clans that would become the Hopi people approached Maasaw, the Guardian Spirit, after they entered the Fourth World and asked for permission to settle in what is now called Arizona9. Maasaw told the clans that they could settle there, provided that they follow his lifeway, which he said would be difficult. All he gave to the people for them to start their lives there was a small ear of blue maize, a gourd of water, a bag of seeds, and a planting stick. When Maasaw gave them the blue maize, he said, “here is my life and spirit. This is what I have to give to you.”10 As the

9 Wall, Dennis, and Virgil Masayesva, “People of the Corn: Teachings in Hopi Traditional Agriculture, Spirituality, and Sustainability.” The American Indian Quarterly 28, no. 3 (2004): 435–53. https://doi.org/10.1353/ aiq.2004.0109., 436.

10 Wall and Masayesva, “People of the Corn”.

11 Colwell, Chip, T.J. Ferguson, and Leigh J. Kuwanwisiwma, eds. “The Genetic Diversity of Hopi Corn.” In Footprints of Hopi History Hopihiniwtiput Kukveni’at, 2018. https://muse.jhu. edu/book/57477/., 157.

12 Black, Mary E. “Maidens and Mothers: An Analysis of Hopi Corn Metaphors.” Ethnology 23, no. 4 (October 1984): 279. https://doi. org/10.2307/3773505., 280.

13 Wall and Masayesva, “People of the Corn”, 451-452.

14 Wall and Masayesva, “People of the Corn”, 436.

15 Wall and Masayesva, “People of the Corn”, 439.

16 Wall and Masayesva, “People of the Corn”, 446. Hopi followed his way, the clans learned the values of hopivötskwani – which loosely translates to “the Hopi path” – and thus grew to value compassion, reciprocity, humility, and stewardship of the life-sustaining world11. The clans learned how to plant, nurture, and protect the maize they had been given, which was hardy and sturdy in order to survive in the climate of the region. The origin of the Hopi as a people is directly tied to the existence of maize; if Maasaw had no maize to give to the clans, the Hopi might never have been able to stay. This extremely interconnected beginning has led to rituals, ceremonies, and the Hopi way of life being centered largely around maize. It is used as a significant milestone marker for different points in a persons’ life. When a child is born, a Corn Mother (which is a fully grown ear of white maize) is placed with it for twenty days following birth. Children are also given a Corn Mother to hold close to them when they have their ceremonial transition into adulthood. A father might make a speech in honor of his son’s transition, first saying “Um hapi qaa’öniwti”, or “you truly have become corn”12. Similarly, Cornmeal is laid out to create a guiding path for a person’s departing spirit after they pass away13. Hopi communities recognize that people and maize have a completely symbiotic relationship. Maize is simultaneously a mother and a child to the community, in the same way that members of the community are simultaneously mothers and children to the maize. As Masayesva and Wall mention, “[Maize] is the Mother in the truest sense – the people take in the [maize] and the [maize] becomes their flesh, as mother’s milk becomes the flesh of the child”14. At the same time, the community protects it and assists it in growing to maturity, as corn needs a human hand to help it along. The maize growing practices that have been passed down through generations of Hopi farmers are not only based on agricultural efforts – there is a significant emphasis on ritual and ceremony to provide for the health of the maize, and to ask for a bountiful harvest. Women specifically maintain the seed knowledge of the different varieties, and they wish the seeds well before they are sent out to be planted. During the growing period, you can often hear farmers singing to their plants, as Elder Victor Masayesva Sr. recalls. He says that the songs energize the plants and help them grow, and it is another form of showing respect to them for contributing part of their lives to ensure Hopi survival15. When the maize is brought home at harvest time, the women of the family greet each ear of corn and thank it for providing food for the family. Eventually, once the season has passed, community members lay the stalks down to rest in the fields, a further demonstration of the recognition that maize is given16. The Hopi Nation is intimately connected to the life cycle and value of maize, which has been understood since time immemorial.

Haudenosaunee Confederacy

Maize also plays a central role in the creation story for the Six Nations of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. In the beginning, there was a woman known as Sky Woman who was pregnant, and lived in the Sky World17. As pregnant women often do, Sky Woman had a craving for a tea made from the roots of the Tree of Life. However, the beings of Sky World were told to not disturb the Tree of Life. When Sky Woman’s husband went to dig to the roots of the tree in order for her to have the tea, it is said that Sky Woman fell through the hole made by dirt falling away from the tree roots into the world below. As she fell, she grasped at seeds from around the Tree and got a handful. After other occurrences, she was deposited onto the back of the turtle who agreed to support her. Creatures of all sorts tried to retrieve earth from below the water, but the creature who eventually succeeded was the muskrat. Sky woman danced in a counter-clockwise direction, which helped the earth and the turtle’s back grow into the land. Eventually, Sky Woman gave birth to a daughter, who had twins of her own, yet Sky Woman’s daughter died in childbirth. Sky Woman buried her daughter, and from her daughter’s body grew the sacred plants maize, beans, and squash, as well as tobacco and the medicine of wild strawberries18. Just as with the Hopi beginnings, maize is intimately tied with the beginnings of life on earth in the Haudenosaunee origin story. In ways similar to the Hopi maize teachings, Haudenosaunee values are reflected not only in the importance of maize to culture, but also through the specific communal cultivation practices and ceremonies that take place to celebrate its seasonal arrival. The use of mound agriculture represents the interdependence of the Three Sisters on one another, as well as the reciprocal relationship between the community and the plants. As a traditional Corn Grower from Onondaga Nation mentions, the maize plant is seen as the leader of the Three Sisters19. It is the first plant to stand up strong and tall, meaning it is a support system for the beans and squash (which they reciprocate). She articulates that Elders have said to look to the gardens for information – if there’s trouble with the maize, that could signify trouble within community leadership20. Maize is more than a food item; rather, it is an important leader, teacher, and provider. Maize, and more broadly the Three Sisters, represent a communal interdependence. The gardens and agriculture have always been communal. Individuals who grow and farm know to plant for those unable to do it for themselves, and that the result of the harvest will be shared amongst everyone21. Ceremonies are also centered around its life cycle; the planting, care, harvest, and eating of the first green corn are all fundamental ways of marking seasons and time22. As is the case in the Hopi Nation, maize is deeply entwined with almost

17 Haudenosaunee Creation Story as Retold by Kay Olan (Ionataíe:was), 2014. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=qV5sGEneGCM; “Kanienkehá:ka Creation Story – Adapted from a Story by Ionataié:was, Mohawk Storyteller.” Mohawk Language Custodian Association – Kontinonhstats, 2016. http://www. kanehsatakevoices. com/wp-content/ uploads/2017/04/ CREATION_-as-told-byKANIENKEH AKA-womanstoryteller-FINAL2April-13.pdf.

18 “Kanienkehá:ka Creation Story – Adapted from a Story by Ionataié:was; Mt. Pleasant, Jane. Traditional Iroquois Corn: Its History, Cultivation, and Use. NRAES 179. Ithaca, NY: Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service, Cooperative Extension, 2010.

19 Bleir, Garet. “Indigenous Corn Keepers Are Helping Communities Recover and Reunite with Their Traditional Foods.” Intercontinental Cry, 2019. https:// intercontinentalcry.org/ indigenous-corn-keepersare-helping-communitiesrecover-and-reunite-wit h-their-traditional-foods/.

20 Bleir, “Indigenous Corn Keepers”.

21 Bleir, “Indigenous Corn Keepers”.

22 Xavier, Adrianne Lickers. “Longhouse to the Greenhouse.” In Food Leadership, edited by Catherine Etmanski, 3–16. Rotterdam: SensePublishers, 2017. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-94-6351050-9_1.

23 Mt. Pleasant, Traditional Iroquois Corn, 18.

24 Ferdman, “How Corn Made Its Way into Just about Everything We Eat.”

25 Xavier, “Longhouse to the Greenhouse”, 10.

26 Xavier, “Longhouse to the Greenhouse”, 8.

27 Kimmerer, “Corn Tastes Better on the Honor System”. all aspects of Haudenosaunee life; however, in both cases, the increasing commodification of maize as a foodstuff has caused a large movement away from traditional agricultural methods and the rituals involved.

THE GROWTH AND CONTRADICTIONS OF INDUSTRIALIZED CORN PRODUCTION

As described in detail above, maize has been a staple food and spiritual sentient being for many Indigenous communities for thousands of years, yet the more recent developments of industrialized corn agriculture directly contradict and subvert the importance of maize. In the 1920s and 1930s, U.S. scientists began to breed hybrid strains of corn, with the goal of having all plants becoming genetically identical instead of the significant variability in genetic makeup seen with naturally pollinated plants23. These continued research projects and efforts to control nature have led to strains of corn that are able to grow more closely together, creating a higher yield for the same amount of original land. Alongside increased hybridity and genetic modification, newer fertilizers and more “efficient” farm tools like tractors have been developed in an effort to mechanize the harvest24 . Modern genetically modified sweet corn is also a health concern, especially amongst many Indigenous communities, as it has a dramatically higher sugar content than the traditional varieties25. The goal of corn production from a U.S. capitalist lens is to receive a maximum yield while expending the least amount of work, time, or money, completely contradicting the nature of the plant and eliminating a cultural connection to food. Open-pollination and other selection techniques have allowed thousands of maize varieties that can withstand varied environments to be brought to life over the course of its history. Some may argue that genetic modification of corn is just a further extension of Indigenous methods of selection, yet the reality is that seeds that are modified are direct contradictions to the traditions and values of the communities that care for them26. As author Robin Wall Kimmerer notes, the technology of modification “uproots the original agreement between maize and people and makes corn subservient to the needs of agribusiness. The genetic integrity of The Wife of the Sun [maize] has been contaminated”27. Growing corn is vastly different from nurturing maize, as the traditional practices are focused on more than just nutritional needs. Maize is more than food; it is a teacher of values and the interdependence and symbiotic relationship between communities and plants. The goal of the system of industrialized agriculture, as

mentioned previously, has been financial gain since its inception. For communities within the Hopi Nation and the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, as well as other Indigenous nations, the goal is about how people are “going to benefit from that connection to the land and community… our agriculture is based on spiritual gain”28. Growing and caring for maize into its maturity is a reciprocal relationship between people and plants that cannot be replicated by industrial monocultures and machines; as such, “modern’’ agriculture techniques regarding corn are a perversion of Indigenous methods and often directly contradict many Indigenous values.

RECLAIMING MAIZE AND COMMUNITY

Many Indigenous nations and communities across Turtle Island are working to reclaim traditional foods, whether that be through agriculture, fishing, hunting, foraging, gathering, or most often a combination of many methods. This reconnecting to food is not just about providing healthier and nutrient-rich food to the people; it also is part of community-building, reconnecting to the land, and more broadly, increasing sovereignty and self-determination efforts. Both Hopi and Haudenosaunee communities are designing ways to reconnect with traditional maize varieties and practices, while also reconnecting with each other and their broader cultural traditions. In the Hopi Nation, both the Pueblo Farming Project and the Natwanit Tu’sawyungqam, or the Natwani Coalition, are fostering spaces where traditional agricultural knowledge will be gathered and shared with the broader community. The Pueblo Farming Project was implemented in 2005 as an initiative between Hopi farmers, the Hopi Cultural Preservation Office (HCPO), and the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center29 with the goal of examining and cataloguing Hopi maize varieties and educating the community on traditional farming practices. This project is led by Hopi farmers, who alongside educators are working to utilize the growing project to produce lessons on the continuance of Hopi lifeways, as well as the importance of maize to Hopi identity and culture30 . The project is also revitalizing and documenting the traditional dry-farming techniques through written records, storytelling recordings, photography, and video in an effort to make the knowledge more accessible to community members. Similarly, the Natwani Coalition is home to a variety of projects to promote and preserve traditional farming practices, and to promote sustainable wellness within the community31 . They maintain a grant program to help community members work to launch their own food and farming initiatives on the

28 Onondaga Traditional Corn Grower Angela Ferguson in Bleir, “Indigenous Corn Keepers”.

29 Colwell, Ferguson, and Kuwanwisiwma, “The Genetic Diversity of Hopi Corn”, 159.

30 Colwell, Ferguson, and Kuwanwisiwma, “The Genetic Diversity of Hopi Corn”, 160.

31 Natwani Coalition – Natwanit Tu’sawyungqam. “Projects,” n.d. https:// www.natwanicoalition.org.

32 Waterman Gray, Lisa, “An Indigenous Corn Makes a Comeback” Civil Eats, 2018. https://civileats. com/2018/04/20/anindigenous-corn-makes-acomeback/. reservation, as well as an heirloom seed library for traditional Hopi varieties of maize, beans, and squash. A bit of a larger initiative, the Natwani for Youth Project is a project running within local schools to educate kids on the importance of maize to their cultural identity, and the traditional farming practices of the area. The curriculum itself is structured around the twelve lunar cycles within the Hopi calendar, which allows for the integration of ceremony and the maintenance of traditional planting times. The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, much like the Hopi Nation, is seeing the strong development of a variety of initiatives to return, safeguard, and teach traditional maize and plant-related knowledge to community members. The Iroquois White Corn Project, founded originally in the 1990s, is a project meant to encourage Haudenosaunee farmers to grow white maize and make it something they eat every day, rather than just on special occasions or for ceremonies. Growing this type of maize in the traditional way is both labor and time intensive, but that is part of the beauty of the initiative. It brings community members together and they see the seasonal process through planting, hand-picking, dehulling, roasting, and often grinding the corn. People are asked to come to the gardens with a good mind and good intentions, to bring respect and understanding to the process. Community husking bees are held during harvest time, where community members come together and braid the ears of maize together so that they can dry32. The whole process fosters a space for interpersonal connection, as well as connection with maize, a plant of such great importance in the community. The Onondaga Nation Farm Crew is another organization working alongside “Braiding the Sacred” to protect and share cultural corn varieties and agriculture techniques. The Farm Crew, as well as “Braiding the Sacred”, were founded by Angela Ferguson, a traditional Corn Grower from the Onondaga Nation working to reunite communities with their sacred maize varieties. She initially was given a collection of heritage seeds, which she, alongside community members, cleaned, sorted, washed, and held ceremonies to honor either their return to their lands or the return that the organization would make possible. This seed work, along with the efforts to educate the community, started initially out of an effort to provide traditional foods to Elders with less access, and thus maintain connections between traditional agriculture and Elder knowledge. The act of providing traditional foods has fostered such a community connection that the Farm Crew is now able to provide traditional vegetables, meat, and berries to community members for free. However, it is much more than the food itself. The initiative is working to educate younger community members on traditional Haudenosaunee gardening tech-

niques such as mound agriculture, and Elders are sharing and teaching traditional recipes so that everyone can fully utilize the harvest. Just like the other three initiatives, it is always brought back to tending and caring for the seeds, the land, and each other – not solely about consumption.

CONCLUSION

Indigenous communities across Turtle Island are making concerted efforts to revitalize and restore traditional food varieties and practices, often with the goals of disentangling themselves from the dominant corporate-run food economy, and subsequently working towards sovereignty. In order to explore this, I have looked at the significance of maize in two communities – the Hopi Nation, and the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. By establishing a basis of maize’s cultural importance in origin and creation stories, as well as the connection of its cultivation to ceremony and lifeways, we are able to see more clearly the results of industrialized and mechanized corn farming. Additionally, by providing examples of efforts within these communities to revamp culturally-significant agriculture practices, we can understand the development of the larger effort for food sovereignty. On a broader scale, this effort extends far beyond maize. Food sovereignty initiatives are multiplying, as Indigenous people fight to reclaim their foods and identities. It is critical that we keep highlighting the work being done in community to gain food – and full – sovereignty. 

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