IMPROVING THE APPROACH TO WINTER SIDEWALK MAINTENANCE IN WINTER CITIES: A CASE STUDY OF EDMONTON
by
Fiona McGill, BA, McMaster University, 2018 A Major Research Paper presented to University of Alberta in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Urban & Regional Planning
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 2021
© Fiona McGill 2021 Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this major research paper This is a true copy of the major research paper, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I authorize University of Alberta to lend this major research paper to other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research I further authorize University of Alberta to reproduce this major research paper by photocopying or by other means, in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research. I understand that my major research paper may be made electronically available to the public.
ii
[IMPROVING THE APPROACH TO WINTER SIDEWALK MAINTENANCE IN WINTER CITIES: A CASE STUDY OF EDMONTON] © Fiona McGill, 2021 Master of Science in Urban & Regional Planning University of Alberta ABSTRACT The overwhelming presence of sidewalks covered in snow, ice and slush in Edmonton during winter are a public health issue and human rights violation. Ice-covered sidewalks present a pertinent danger to pedestrians in Edmonton. What’s more, they deny individuals access to their community. The number of emergency room admissions for falls on ice in Edmonton increased by 429% between 2002 and 2018 (Alberta Health), indicating that pedestrians in Edmonton are exposed to an increasingly high risk of injury during the winter months. Poorly maintained winter sidewalks create barriers in the built environment and in many cases, spaces that are accessible in non-winter conditions become inaccessible. In spite of this, Edmonton’s ice and snow removal programs continue to prioritize the maintenance of roads while failing to consider the risks and access needs of pedestrians. The contributions to snow and ice control research that does exist in Edmonton have largely focused on road traffic. This research offers the first contribution in support of improved winter maintenance for Edmonton’s pedestrian networks. Available relevant literature, health data, and stakeholder's opinion derived from semi-structured interviews are utilized for qualitative analysis. Recommendations for improved policy and programming are provided.
Key words: An article on winter sidewalk maintenance in Edmonton, used the key words: snow and ice control; pedestrians, Edmonton, winter city.
iii
Acknowledgements I would first and foremost like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Robert J. Summers, for his ongoing support and shared enthusiasm for this topic. I am so grateful for your guidance and mentorship on this project. Thank you to Neal LaMontagne, for your help as a second reader and contagious passion for all things planning. Thank you to all those I interviewed for this research project and everyone else I met along the way. Thank you to all my friends and family, who have encouraged me throughout.
iv
Table of Contents Acknowledgements
4
List of Tables Table 1: Stockholm’s starting criteria for snow removal List of Figures Case Study 1: Snow Removal Programs in Sweden Figure 1: Clarence Avenue, Saskatoon Case Study 2: Winter Emergency Planning in Saskatoon Figure 2: Saskatoon Sidewalk Snow Removal Standards Figure 3: Heated Curb Cuts Figure 4: Building Height Ratio to Prevent Snowdrift Figure 5: Snowmelt System in Saskatoon Case Study 3: Snowmelt System in Holland, Michigan Case Study 4: The Politics of Prioritization in New Brunswick Case Study 5: Activism in Halifax Figure 6: Falls on Ice Admissions in Edmonton (2002-2018) Figure 7: Edmonton’s Sidewalk Snow and Ice Data Summarized Figure 8: Excerpts from the City of Edmonton’s Parks and Roads Services Standard Operating Procedure Figure 9: A Summary of Claims for Slips, Trips and Falls Caused by Icy Sidewalks Case Study 6: Ice Crusher in Montreal & Ottawa Case Study 7: Snow Removal in Montreal Boroughs
21 20 23 24 27 28 29 31 32 35 36 40 42 45 48 49 50
Executive Summary
7
Chapter 1: Introduction The Problem
9 9
Chapter 2: Research Design & Methodology Research Objective and Questions Methodology Report Structure Project Limitations
10 10 11 11 12
Chapter 3: Summary of Sidewalk Snow Removal Literature and Research Background Prioritizing Pedestrians Prioritizing Accessibility The Inequalities of Winter Maintenance Cold Weather Politics Public Health Importance A Hidden Problem: Pedestrian Falls on Ice
13 13 13 15 16 16 17 18
v
Further Research Direction The Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Falls on Ice Policy Approaches Common Snow and Ice Control Gaps Responsibility Government Responsibility Responsibility of Property Owners Enforcement Hybrid Approaches Collaborative Approaches Design Curb Ramps Building Design Snow Storage Co-Design Technology Snowmelt Systems Solar Pavement Autonomous Snow Removal Vehicles Information & Communication Technology Smart Communications Smart Monitoring Conclusion: How is this relevant to planners? Chapter 4: Edmonton Case Study Background Public Health Data Environmental Economic Policy Review Vision Zero Parks and Roads Services Standard Operating Procedure Edmonton’s Snow and Ice Control Policies Enforcement Liability Community Initiatives Recommendations & Conclusion Snow Removal Technology & Research
vi
20 20 21 21 23 23 24 25 26 27 27 27 28 29 29 30 30 31 32 32 32 33 35 36 36 37 38 39 40 41 41 41 43 44 46 48 49
Executive Summary Snow and ice clearing strategies in Edmonton are insufficient to provide a safe and accessible environment for pedestrians, and the situation is likely to become worse with a changing climate. In 2018, the number of injuries from falls on ice in Edmonton reached an all-time high, accounting for a total of 6,445 emergency room admissions; that’s an increase of 429% since 2002 and more than all motor vehicle traffic accidents combined (Alberta Health Services, 2002-2018). Between 2017 and 2018, there were 1,860 hospitalizations for falls on ice in Alberta, which represents a 37% increase in hospitalizations from falls on ice in Alberta (Canadian Institute of Health Information 2017-2018). Pre-existing shortfalls of winter sidewalks maintenance programs are aggravated by Edmonton’s changing climate and increasingly frequent extreme winter weather events. Edmonton’s system for sidewalk snow removal places the responsibility on individual property owners to clear the sidewalks adjacent to their property. For almost half the year, the safety and accessibility of the pedestrian network depends almost entirely on people being decent to each other. Enforcement mechanisms are not consistently applied and are retroactive, resulting in a network of semi-permanent obstructions distributed unevenly throughout the built environment. A winter maintenance system that relies on individual property owners creates connectivity issues, neglects thoroughfares, and contributes to a patchwork effect of sidewalk safety. In winter cities, frequent, efficient and widespread snow removal from sidewalks is a requirement for the freedom of movement. Relying on individual private property owners to create a safe and accessible transportation network inherently denies basic rights by preventing certain members of the community from accessing their share of the public good1. In winter cities, achieving a barrier-free built environment year-round requires an effective approach for the winter maintenance of pedestrian infrastructure. The purpose of this research project is to understand why Edmonton needs to improve winter sidewalk maintenance and how they can go about doing so. This research was guided by the following questions: 1. What barriers and enablers affect winter sidewalk safety and accessibility? 2. How are these barriers and enablers reflected in the current state of knowledge and practices regarding winter city urban design and maintenance? 3. What approaches have been used in other winter cities to encourage sidewalk snow removal and improve pedestrian safety and accessibility in the winter? 4. How are these barriers and enablers reflected in Edmonton’s policies, programs and plans? 1
Sidewalks are not a pure public good because a crowded sidewalk is excludable. Yet it’s non-excludable because it is difficult to prevent pedestrians from using it. Although, a lack of care and consideration for the needs of the public will quickly exclude certain individuals from using the sidewalk. Namely, an enforcement-based system for sidewalk snow removal does just that by not ensuring equal care for all aspects of the pedestrian realm. Inaccessible sidewalks are excludable because the managing body (e.g. a government) responsible for supplying that sidewalk is preventing "free" consumption of the sidewalk by failing to uphold ongoing access to all members of the public.
1
5. What options exist for Edmonton to improve it’s winter city sidewalk maintenance? This research had two overarching goals: To understand why Edmonton needs to improve winter sidewalk maintenance and to understand how they can go about doing so. The first part of this research project is a literature review and is dedicated to answering the question why is a safe and accessible pedestrian realm important during winter? This is accomplished through an exploration of academic research and grey literature. The literature review further seeks to answer the question, what approaches have been used in other winter cities to encourage sidewalk snow removal and improve pedestrian safety and accessibility in the winter? A number of short case studies and academic research are provided to understand how other jurisdictions have gone about improving pedestrian access during winter. The second part of this research project is a case study of Edmonton that seeks to understand how Edmonton can improve its winter sidewalk maintenance program. The policies, programs, plans and perceptions of key stakeholders are explored to identify how the importance of winter sidewalk maintenance is being reflected in practice. Then, drawing on lessons from other jurisdictions as well as other academic research, alternative approaches to winter city sidewalk maintenance are explored. Recommendations are provided to address Edmonton’s specific needs while leveraging existing assets. Through these methods, three deficiencies emerged in relation to the procurement of winter sidewalk maintenance in Edmonton. These included the lack of effective enforcement mechanisms; ambiguity in level of service requirements; and the lack of representation and consideration for the needs of seniors and disabled persons during the design process. Based on my findings from this analysis, I recommend that the City of Edmonton do the following: 1. Create a Winter Maintenance Toolkit as part of the Winter City Strategy 2. Those most impacted by winter must lead decision-makers to solutions. 3. Improve qualitative and quantitative data collection to identify the winter transportation needs of pedestrians. 4. Prioritize pedestrians in snow removal policies, practices, and procedures. 5. Understand Edmonton’s accessible winter design standards While the recommendations are specific to the Edmonton context, they can easily be adapted to other winter cities dealing with similar issues of sidewalk snow and ice control.
2
Chapter 1: Introduction This research was conducted to empower planners, administrators, space planners, winter operations staff, engineers, community members, non-profits, advocates, and students with a collection of best practices for the planning and design of an effective approach for the winter maintenance of pedestrian infrastructure. It was undertaken with the belief that winter’s accumulations of snow, ice, and slush creates challenges to community participation for all citizens who face these conditions. A comprehensive overview of what is known about the knowledge, strategies, resources and tools can be used to improve pedestrian winter challenges and promote community participation and engagement, sustainable active transportation, and multimodal transport.
The Problem For nearly half the year in Edmonton, snow and ice accumulation fundamentally change the spatial features of the urban environment. Without proper winter maintenance practices, spaces that are accessible in non-winter conditions become inaccessible. The presence of snow, ice and slush on sidewalks doesn’t just affect pedestrians - sidewalks are fundamental transportation infrastructure for nearly all personal travel since practically every motorized trip is preceded or concluded by pedestrian activity. In winter cities like Edmonton, where vehicular travel has long been prioritized at the expense of other modes, many of the people who use public transit and rely on sidewalks for multi-modal trips do so because they cannot afford a car (Goldbaum & Cook, 2020). Neglecting the pedestrian realm disproportionately affects those who don’t have access to other modes of transportation. What’s more, obstructed sidewalks discriminate against those that can’t ‘go around’, ‘climb over’ or ‘dismount’ for snow/ice obstructions. Seniors and persons with disabilities are disproportionately affected by snow/ice barriers and made ‘vulnerable’ by policies, programs and practices that have not prioritized their needs. Aside from sidewalks being functional in facilitating community participation, they also support public health goals by providing unstructured recreation opportunities and encouraging physical activity. On the other hand, sidewalks support essential services such as waste collectors, EMS, and the growing delivery economy. With the number of falls on ice continuing to grow in Edmonton, it is pertinent to understand how this is affecting citizens and what can be done to improve the safety and accessibility of the public realm.
3
Chapter 2: Research Design & Methodology Research Objective and Questions Research Objective: The purpose of this research is to develop an understanding of programming and policy alternatives to improve sidewalk snow removal and then to apply that understanding to the City of Edmonton’s situation. Research Questions: 1. What barriers and enablers affect winter sidewalk safety and accessibility? 2. How are these barriers and enablers reflected in the current state of knowledge and practices regarding winter city urban design and maintenance? 3. What approaches have been used in other winter cities to encourage sidewalk snow removal and improve pedestrian safety and accessibility in the winter? 4. How are these barriers and enablers reflected in Edmonton’s policies, programs and plans? 5. What options exist for Edmonton to improve it’s winter city sidewalk maintenance? The report employed a comparative case study design to answer these questions, using qualitative methods for data collection and analysis. Beginning with a literature review, the importance of making progress on winter maintenance of pedestrian infrastructure is examined. Then, the case of Edmonton is used to examine the weaknesses of systems relying upon private landowner sidewalk maintenance enforced through a complaint-based mechanism. Drawing on qualitative data from key informant interviews, grey literature and academic research, as well as lessons from other jurisdictions, alternative approaches to winter city sidewalk maintenance are explored.
4
Methodology This project consists of a literature review focused on winter city sidewalk maintenance in multiple jurisdictions, a document and data review on relevant information, and interviews focused on the City of Edmonton’s winter sidewalk maintenance. The literature review was undertaken to investigate common practices, problems, and solutions related to sidewalk snow removal. This includes brief case studies from other jurisdictions to exemplify the connection between research and effective approaches used in other winter city environments. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with urban planners, health care professionals, legal professionals, snow and ice control operations, bylaw officers, business associations, community leagues, community members, and more. Gaps between research, policy and practice will be identified based on answers received from informal interviews and local policy and grey literature. Key findings are then summarized and recommendations are made.
Report Structure This report is drafted in four chapters, beginning with a short introductory chapter. Then, this current chapter explains research design and the methodologies employed. Followed by two chapters that are meant to represent stand alone reports/papers. The first is a literature review paper on the issues of winter city sidewalk maintenance. The second focuses specifically on the Edmonton situation. First, a broad literature review is conducted about winter sidewalk maintenance to understand challenges that are commonly cited as being poorly addressed by cities. This is accomplished through a document review of archival documents, academic research, white papers, media, activism, and policies. Second, a comparative analysis is conducted by reviewing Edmonton’s sidewalk snow and ice control policies, programs and practices against other winter cities. This portion of the literature review also explores Edmonton’s data on citizen complaints, pedestrian traffic volumes, falls on ice data, and claims management. Case studies are provided throughout to demonstrate how other municipalities have addressed these challenges and to identify alternative approaches for Edmonton. In order to gain a holistic understanding of Edmonton’s situation, informal interviews are conducted to collect perspectives on the factors that are currently influencing the quality of sidewalk snow removal in Edmonton. Stakeholders include urban planners, health care professionals, claims management, snow and ice control operations, bylaw officers, business associations, community leagues, and more. Gaps between research, policy and practice will be identified based on answers received from informal interviews.
5
Project Limitations Winter cities around the world recognize the need for a set of best practices for the planning, design and maintenance of pedestrian infrastructure. While this resource can be helpful as a starting point for winter cities, it does not address the localized challenges and opportunities that are expressed in different winter weather conditions. Winter maintenance should be thought of by decision-makers as an access need2 that requires specific strategies to accommodate the particular needs of the local climate and community members. Since every winter city is different, every winter city has different access needs. It is essential that winter city administrators conduct meaningful consultation, allowing for the leadership of those most impacted by winter, as they tend to know these systems best. Additionally, this research found that there is limited research available that has tested the effectiveness of employing different snow removal strategies. For this reason, much of this research hypothesizes strategies for improved winter sidewalk maintenance, but it is noted that the effectiveness of these strategies has not been tested. The effectiveness of any of the proposed snow and ice control strategies would have to first be tested to determine their effectiveness.
2
Disability activist, Lydia X. Z. Brown (n.d), defines Access Needs as “modifications to the typical environment that a person needs in order for that environment to become accessible.”
6
Chapter 3: Summary of Sidewalk Snow Removal Literature and Research Background There is plenty of research that suggests walkable neighbourhoods support numerous environmental, health, economic and social aspirations, but a lot of this research is being conducted in warmer environments and may not hold in winter city climates. The accumulation of snow and ice fundamentally change the spatial structure of the urban environment. Despite a growing base of literature on planning and designing walkable winter neighbourhoods, there is a paucity of research on how local governments can improve winter sidewalk maintenance. A winter city refers to an urban centre that experiences long, cold, dark, and/or snowy winters (Pressman, 1995). More specifically, the winter city movement aims to position snowy cities in taking “an active role in becoming more appealing and functional in winter, primarily through physical interventions” (Stout et al., 2018, p. 1). Despite a growing base of literature on planning and designing walkable neighbourhoods in winter city environments, there is a paucity of research on how local governments can achieve frequent, efficient and widespread snow removal from pedestrian infrastructure. Furthermore, snow and ice control systems that fail to meet basic mobility needs are frequently cited as a disability rights issue, yet there are persistent challenges to locating winter accessibility regimes within the growing ‘winter city movement’. In the foregoing chapter, policy, urban design, and maintenance that relate to snow and ice control will be considered in depth. The object of SNIC policies has historically been on clearing roadways, but in order to make winter cities more pedestrian friendly, decision-makers need to understand snow and ice control can be used to support safe and accessible urban environments.
Prioritizing Pedestrians Sidewalks that are safe and accessible are an indispensable feature of a walkable neighbourhood. There is extensive evidence to suggest that walkable neighbourhoods contribute to improved physical, mental, and social health, while also improving environmental sustainability and economic performance. There is social capital to be gained from making neighbourhoods more walkable. Those living in more walkable neighbourhoods have been found to trust their neighbors more; participate in more community projects; and are less likely to describe television as their main form of entertainment than those living in less walkable neighborhoods (Rogers et al., 2011). Sidewalks are a fundamental feature of walkable neighbourhoods as they provide thoroughfares which improve network connectivity and improve social connections by increasing opportunities for community members to interact which also decreases isolation (Frantz & Collins, 1999). If the design and condition of sidewalks are unsafe and inaccessible it can discourage individuals
7
from participating in pedestrian activities. There are also environmental benefits to gain from making neighbourhoods more pedestrian-friendly. If there are fewer cars on the road and more pedestrians on sidewalks, that means fewer emissions from cars. Pedestrian-oriented neighbourhoods also increase property value, attract educated individuals, create jobs, and reduce transportation costs related to cars (Speck, 2018). Finally, sidewalks are widely regarded as a tool for promoting public health goals by encouraging physical activity and influencing the walkability of a neighbourhood (Speck, 2018). In particular, walkable neighbourhoods may decrease obesity, health care costs and instances of deaths from car crashes and air pollution (Speck, 2018). In order for winter cities to reap the benefits of pedestrian-oriented development, walkways need to be safe and accessible year-round. The Winter Cities movement, in part, addresses the need to make winter cities more walkable year-round. In many winter cities, the accumulation of snow and ice fundamentally changes the spatial structure of an urban environment.3 To address this, most winter cities perform ongoing snow and ice control (SNIC) operations throughout the winter. In winter cities that lack an effective snow clearing strategy, snow and ice covered pedestrian facilities inhibit positive experiences and affect year-round use of the outdoors. To date, much of the winter cities movement has been oriented towards addressing urban design interventions. In contrast, a study out of Prince George, British Columbia challenged the Winter City Design paradigm and the placement of its priorities (Blewett & Hanlon, 2016). For example, the use of spring-loaded doors are used to prevent cold air from entering buildings but are often inaccessible to many disabled people (Blewett & Hanlon, 2016). The study’s participants revealed that the most inaccessible features of living in Prince George had to do with “insufficient snow clearance, ice patches, and snow build-up on the sidewalk” (Blewett & Hanlon, 2016, p. 51). The two most commonly cited concerns among participants in this study had to do with a lack of consideration for disabled persons in winter maintenance policies. Namely, the potential to slip and fall for those with a cane, and the potential for a scooter or wheelchair to get stuck on snow cover (Blewett & Hanlon, 2016). Wind was considered a layering minor impediment in that it worsens the situation when trip time is lengthened. Frigid temperatures and wind chill would normally be a minor impediment but are made worse by lengthened trip time from the increase of barriers in the built environment (Blewett & Hanlon, 2016). Further research has found that the key factors that decrease winter accessibility are icy sidewalks, puddles at street crossings, and curb ramps (Li, Hsu & Fernie, 2013). Research suggests that cold weather itself has little impact on the frequency of outdoor excursions among adults, but that the existence of snow and/or ice on the ground evidently keeps people, and in particular, older adults at home (Li, Hsu & Fernie, 2013). Ground covered with snow also slows down walking speed (Liang et al., 2020).
3
Pressman, N. Shaping Cities for Winter: Climatic Comfort and Sustainable Design; Winter Cities Association: Edmonton, AB, Canada, 2004.
8
Prioritizing Accessibility The purpose of beginning this paper by defining the importance of accessibility in relation to winter sidewalk maintenance is to position accessibility as the utmost importance in the planning of winter maintenance practices, programs and policies. This paper takes the position that the winter city movement needs to prioritize advocating for basic mobility, safety and accessibility for all. The other piece, that this paper does not address but wishes to draw attention to, is the goal of making winter cities “more liveable” (Friedman, 2020) - this sentiment needs to be taken far more literally. The number of premature deaths resulting from excessive cold-weather exposure is unacceptable.4 For the purpose of this paper, issues relating to winter maintenance of the public realm are provided, focusing on the ways in which snow and ice control policies have habitually made members of the public “vulnerable”. A multitude of perspectives are shared to draw attention to the ways in which many planners in winter cities have not fully considered the most important agenda items of accessibility. Namely, the ways in which winter maintenance regulations and operations fail to address the most pertinent risks to health, safety and accessibility. Physical interventions have to be ongoing in winter cities because winter-sensitive design and maintenance of the public realm is fundamental to providing primary access to the outdoors during winter. Snow, ice and slush actively mediate our relationship to the environment and corporeal capacities in cities, towns and villages. The social, spatial and temporal qualities of winter landscapes are often reflected in snow and ice control regimes. Winter mobility resources are oftentimes distributed unequally among social groups (Adey, 2006). Certain social groups are kept ‘in their place’ by snow and ice control practices favouring the movement of some members of the public while positioning others ‘out of place’ (Kitchin, 1998). For example, when sidewalks are cleared but paratransit pick up and drop off locations are not, this allows some members of the public to quickly regain movement while denying others access. In this way, snow and ice control operates as a form of disablement, as “a complex set of social processes acting to constrain or exclude people via the habituation of ableism in place” (Blewett & Hanlon, 2016, p. 2). It is important to define accessibility, since substantive planning scholarship has come short in this regard. Litman (2003) describes accessibility (or just Access) as “the ability to reach desired goods, services and activities (p. 30).” Winter city theorists have discussed accessibility as an objective but have yet to define what it is and/or requires (Friedman, 2020). In contrast, Lydia Brown’s (n.d.) definition is widely accepted by the disability community and defines accessibility as “How well a person with atypical ways of thinking, communicating, sensing, or moving, can easily navigate an environment” (screen 2). Since winter snow removal concerns how 4
In 2018, there were more deaths from excessive cold-weather exposure than ever before - 36 total. Alberta Health confirmed via email on January 7, 2021 at least 4 of the 36 that died were homeless at the time of their death. However, these numbers could be higher. The registry defines homelessness by “lack of housing” and having no postal code. The homeless registry that was used only related to hospitalizations (inpatient or outpatient) so if a homeless person came from another province, or if they weren’t hospitalized in the past 4 years, then they wouldn’t have been flagged as homeless under the registry. This supports the argument that we (quite literally) need to make winter cities more liveable.
9
individuals can access their needs, it can be described as an access need, “modifications to the typical environment that a person needs in order for that environment to become accessible” (Brown, n.d., screen 2). It is also important to define what is meant by ‘pedestrian facilities’ with regard to snow and ice control. In many snowy cities, winter maintenance policies do not mandate equal care for all aspects of the pedestrian realm. This creates connectivity issues for pedestrians, neglects thoroughfares, and contributes to the patchwork effect5. Some snow and ice control policies focus on sidewalk clearance but do not specify the removal or treatment of all aspects of the pedestrian realm – curb cuts, ramps, crosswalks, pedestrian islands, street furniture, bus stops/shelters, transit routes and boarding areas, trails, parking lots, alleyways and alleyway crossings, parking lanes, bus stops and transit routes, paratransit pick up and drop off locations, or windrow and snow pile placement. Each of these elements have their own accessibility requirement that should be part of snow and ice control policies.
The Inequalities of Winter Maintenance Failing pedestrian snow and ice control regimes are a disability rights issue because they deny individuals’ access to their community and delegitimize their position as a stakeholder in the ‘public good’. In jurisdictions where sidewalk snow removal is the responsibility of property owners, the ability to shovel snow independently is curtailed, unsafe or impossible for people with mobility devices (Ripat et al., 2019). Furthermore, in cities where vehicular travel has long been prioritized at the expense of other modes, many of the people who use public transit and rely on sidewalks for multi-modal trips do so because they cannot afford a car. Neglecting the pedestrian realm disproportionately affects those who don’t have access to other modes of transportation, especially since pedestrians are more likely than other modes to be injured following a snow event (Mills et al., 2020). It's not just the design and maintenance of spaces that are insufficient, it’s the planning of winter events that are exclusionary. Many of the winter festivals and events are exclusionary in that they are designed and implemented without consideration for the needs of certain marginalized groups. Recreation opportunities must be provided for persons with disabilities, and preferably in such a way that isn’t separate from the main event/activity. A rare instance of inclusive investment in winter recreation includes a wheelchair accessible tobogganing in Winnipeg, Manitoba.
Cold Weather Politics Snow and ice control is not just a meteorological phenomenon, but a political one too (Parent, 2018). In participatory democracies, many aspects of the planning and procurement of winter maintenance have historically been at the discretion of city councillors, and thus, up for 5
Patchwork effect: Given what is known about multimodal transportation travel, not clearing one aspect of the transportation network will only create barriers to other parts of the public realm. Snow and ice control policies need to account for clearance from the entire pedestrian network to contravene the patchwork effect and provide access to all aspects of the street network.
10
public debate. As a result, adjusting winter service standards to meet the needs of changing weather conditions has often been decided based upon political motives rather than prioritization by scientific evidence or the consequences of such decisions. If municipalities wish to see increased use of sidewalks as part of active transportation and or multi-modal transportation, there is a need to define a standard for prioritizing multimodal transportation in winter service standards of urban areas. These levels of service standards require a firm basis in scientific evidence while at the same time championing the experiences of those that have historically been most marginalized by failing winter sidewalk maintenance regimes. An issue of misplaced priorities has to do with pedestrian infrastructure not being given the same priority as cycle lanes or roads. Snow and ice control policies typically contain a hierarchy of snow removal priorities which determine the order in which transportation infrastructure is cleared following a snow event. Instead of placing equal priority on all forms of transportation, a person’s ability to participate in their community during winter undergoes a “relational process of differencing” (Crooks & Chouinard, 2006; Kobayashi, 1997). Or what Kim Sawchuk (2014) may refer to as the ways differential forms of mobility are tied to “systems of power which hinder or enable movement by giving preferential access to space that discriminates against those who have an ‘impairment’” (Sawchuk, 2014, p. 414). Snow and ice control policies, practices and programs are “movement-repertoires give preference to bodily norms by creating hierarchies of corporeal differences which are structured into the built environment” (Sawchuk, 2014, p. 413). These hierarchies are re-affirmed by snow and ice control that continuously shapes and re-shape movement-abilities and gestures.
Public Health Importance There are public health reasons to improve winter sidewalk maintenance. Decreased outdoor walking during winter has been associated with decreased physical activity (Barclay et al., 2018; Mizumoto et al., 2015). With an aging population and in support of aging in place, being able to walk outside in winter weather conditions is essential to older adults maintaining physical activity and community participation all year round. Impeded outdoor walking is associated with decreased mobility, reduced ability to care for oneself, social isolation, reduced health and quality of life, and frailty (Kerr et al., 2012; Studenski et al., 2011; Newman et al., 2006). The risks of falls also increases in the winter with icy conditions (Clarke et al., 2015; Kojima et al., 2008). Seniors are disproportionately affected by the dangers of icy conditions, with those over the age of 65 making up approximately half of all hospitalizations from falls on ice (Canadian Institute for Health Information, 2017-2018). What’s more, the effects of a senior falling on ice can be life-threatening, as Parachute Canada (2020) notes, 20% of all seniors die within a year of a fall. Indeed, snow/ice-covered walkways represent a significant threat to residents of winter cities. There are further health and safety reasons to prioritize pedestrians. A study conducted in Waterloo, Ontario found that walking is not safer than driving during winter storms. In fact, there were 64% more injuries from same-level falls on snow and ice than motor vehicle collisions for 24 hours following a winter weather event (Mills et al., 2020). The article speculated that the 11
24-hour marker was related to snow maintenance efforts occurring within 24 hours following a snowfall. It was argued that property owners shouldn’t start shovelling until after it’s stopped snowing to reduce risks of being injured. This would present a problem in climates where if precipitation is followed by a drop in temperature, snow needs to be removed right away to prevent the lasting effects of icy surfaces. Mills et al. (2020) further argued that public service announcements that advise citizens “don’t go out and drive” during a winter storm, should also advise “don’t go out for a walk.” It could further be argued that while many snow and ice control policies operate on the premise that sidewalks need to be cleared to provide thoroughfares for EMS, it also functions to prevent emergencies in the first place. If this is indeed the case, winter sidewalk maintenance activities should be prioritized before or alongside other street segments, and should at least occur concurrently to make the transportation network passable for all necessary forms of mobilities and movements.
A Hidden Problem: Pedestrian Falls on Ice Pedestrian falls, or rather, single pedestrian accidents that don’t involve collisions or crashes with other street users, are not defined as traffic accidents by Vision Zero programs, despite the fact that they present a large problem for pedestrian safety in winter environments (Methorst et al., 2017; Schepers et al., 2017). Moreover, single pedestrian accidents are rarely defined as road accidents, and have been labelled a hidden problem (Oxley et al., 2018). In cities that experience snow and ice accumulation, there are far more pedestrian injuries from falls on ice than there are from pedestrian collisions with motor-vehicles. There is a limited understanding of how these falls can be prevented through effective snow removal practices, but the following research presents a starting point.
12
Table 1: Stockholm’s starting criteria for snow removal (City of Stockholm, 2019)
13
Starting criteria for snow removal Sidewalks, pedestrian and bicycle paths Wet snow / mud
1–1.5 cm
Loose snow
2–3 cm
Road / streets (carriageways) Wet snow / mud
2–2.5 cm
Loose snow
4–5 cm
Thoroughfares Wet snow / mud
1 cm
Loose snow
2 cm
Further Research Direction A research gap is the lack of understanding of the different methods in which pedestrians navigate the built environment presents both a gap in research and policy (Kawchuk, 2014). Moreover, there is a paucity of research on disabled persons’ winter experiences. The classification of snow, ice and slush presents different barriers to pedestrians than motor vehicles in terms of traction, speed, type of precipitation, and type of treatment. Snow and ice control policies evidently do not fully express the difference in treatment towards maintenance of the pedestrian realm versus roadways following a winter weather event. Snow and ice control research and policy have not acknowledged the variety of ways that pedestrians interact with the environment in the winter. There are still unknowns as to how winter can be made accessible for all types of users. Further research is needed to “determine the traction demand required for various tasks under different environmental conditions” (Nemire et al., 2016, p. 315). Technical research often categorizes “people who use wheelchairs or other ambulatory aids” together and thereby ignores (Nemire et al., 2016, p. 310 ) the difference in access needs. Research shouldn’t group individuals who use different mobility aids together as though the way different mobility devices interact with the built environment is uniform. Individuals with multiple disabilities, rare disabilities, conflicting access needs, different types of disabilities, and intersecting sociodemographic characteristics should be consulted on these topics.
The Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Falls on Ice Analyzing the spatial and temporal characteristics of falls on ice, snow and slush may give insights into where these falls are happening, to whom, and other endangering factors. This is what Ceccato and Willems (2019) did in Sweden by assessing the distribution of falls over time and by type of environments. Using GIS, concentrations of falls were visualized by street segment, assessing whether temporal and spatial factors affect the occurrence of falls among older pedestrians. The study found that falls take place in more densely populated areas and are associated with specific characteristics of the built environment (e.g. mixed roads and bus 14
stops). The study ultimately found that 80% of falls among older adults were happening in 5% of the total street segments. Having this sort of knowledge could allow for maintenance services across urban environments to be targeted according to the neighbourhood geography of falls to ensure safety for particular populations. It is important to understand that statistical analyses of cold-weather related injuries and corresponding health outcomes may not acknowledge that which cannot be quantified—i.e. widespread experiences of social isolation and reduced community participation in the winter. That is why qualitative data should be collected to understand the perceptions of risks among particularly vulnerable populations and experiences of social isolation due to winter weather conditions. One might hypothesize that geographic features like a large hill may have a low concentration of falls, not because it is a safe space, but because seniors in the neighbourhood avoid using it due to perceived risks. If this were the case, the quantitative evidence (i.e. where falls are occurring) would differ from the qualitative evidence (i.e. perceived risks), making the case that both are necessary to improve health outcomes.
Policy Approaches In Ottawa, Ontario high priority sidewalks are cleared on an hourly basis. Downtown sidewalks (6 hours), downtown residential sidewalks (12 hours), pedestrian crossings and residential sidewalks (16 hours), and bus stops (24 hours) (Fleury, 2019). Although, one problem with plowing high traffic areas first is that it doesn't account for low traffic areas where individuals are prevented from going outside. Similar SNIC policies exist in Talliaa, Estonia and Iceland. In Burnaby, British Columbia, snow and ice has to be removed from sidewalks by 10 am. In Helsinki, Finland, snow and ice has to be removed from sidewalks by 7 am for commuters (City of Helsinki, n.d.). Interestingly, by prioritizing the working class this policy recognizes walking and pedestrian activity as necessary for commuters and not just as recreational. In Stockholm, the type of snow determines when snow is removed (Case Study 1). This is an evidence-based approach based on the dangers that the snow presents. Wet snow/mud is removed when 1-1.5 cm has accumulated and loose snow is removed when 2-3 cm of snow is accumulated.
Common Snow and Ice Control Gaps There is a need to consider disabled persons needs in preparation for winter weather emergencies, as they oftentimes are missed. Gharebaghi et al. (2018) noted that “altering what is prioritized during snow removal may impact the importance of curb cuts as barrier reductions” and the accessibility of the urban environment (Figure 1). Special attention needs to be paid to enhancing the quality of existing curb cut pavements (width, slope, and surface quality), removing snow from intersections, and relocating existing electricity poles from the sidewalks (Gharebaghi et al., 2018).6 The same could be said about having the responsibility to mow one’s lawn. The difference is that lawn care does not prevent people from accessing their community, 6
The Role of Social Factors in the Accessibility of Urban Areas for People with Motor Disabilities
15
and given how physically demanding snow removal can be, this could be difficult for a large portion of the population. With all this in mind, snow removal support has to be available for those who need it. Other gaps in snow and ice control policies include policies that don’t require clearance or differential treatment for curb cuts, street crossings, parking lots, alleyways; snow removal support for those who need it; timely removal from bus stops; and pedestrian infrastructure not being given the same priority as cycle lanes or roads. Municipal policies commonly note that transit stops are cleared as a priority, but less commonly noted that thoroughfares to transit stops were a priority (Ripat et al., 2019). Furthermore, a common gap in Canadian civic policy is that paratransit users are expected to keep pick-up and drop-off locations clear of snow and ice (Ripat et al., 2019). Many snow and ice control policies will state that bus stops need to be cleared, but do not specify paratransit pick-up and drop-offs.
16
Responsibility The following section will provide a brief overview of the different policy approaches to snow removal and how municipalities place the responsibility on different actors. The following is a brief overview of the different approaches.
Government Responsibility While the majority of snow and ice control policies examined split the sidewalk clearing responsibilities between city administration and property owners, there are some exceptions where the local government is responsible for clearing all sidewalks (e.g. Ottawa, Montreal and Winnipeg). Ripat et al. (2019) found that only one-quarter of Canadian civic policy documents identified sidewalk clearing as solely a city responsibility (Ripat et al. 2019). One downfall to this approach is that it costs more money upfront than relying on property owners to clear sidewalks.
17
Responsibility of Property Owners Many systems rely completely, or in part, on individual property owners to keep pedestrian facilities safe and accessible. In most Canadian municipalities, sidewalks are owned by the municipal government, but maintained by the property owner of the land adjacent to the sidewalk. This approach entails the municipal government delegating their sidewalk snow removal responsibilities to property owners who then become responsible for clearing sidewalks adjacent to their privately-owned land. This approach often lacks consistency and leads to a patchwork effect where some sidewalks are cleared while others are not (Murphy-Lopez and Cox, 2019). This can be attributed to a lack of enforcement, lack of awareness, vacancies, vacationing property owners, and snow removal assistance for those that need it. Ambiguity in regulation may also contribute to the diminished quality of the pedestrian realm. Another problem has to do with municipal governments delegating sidewalk snow removal responsibilities to private property owners, which means disabled property owners may be liable for not removing snow regardless of their ability to do so In order to strike a balance between demands on homeowners and a goal of accessible sidewalks, many municipalities who place responsibility on property owners have lowered their standards which may be problematic. At times, the definition of what makes for safe and accessible winter sidewalk conditions is unclear. Bare pavement is generally described as the desired surface condition. Bare pavement can be more difficult to achieve in some climates, and some northern cities aren’t required to reach bare pavement on sidewalks (Figure 2).7 For example, the City of Saskatoon’s Sidewalk Clearing Guidelines provides examples of compliant and non-compliant sidewalk standards (Figure 2). A 1.2 m wide pathway and less than 3 cm of snowpack is considered an acceptable standard for those “with mobility challenges.” This type of snow clearing method leaves a layer of packed snow that pedestrians are expected to be able to walk on. Some municipalities encourage pedestrians to wear ice cleats to minimize the effects of icy conditions, but wearing ice cleats isn’t an available option to everyone. Packed snow on sidewalks creates barriers for many individuals using wheeled mobility devices as the small caster wheels become embedded in the snow-pack, which may lead to wheelchair tipping and falling (Berthelette, 2020). Moreover, snow buildup, ice, and slush on crosswalks, sidewalks and bus stops impede safe passage and present difficulties for individuals with moderate to severe visual impairments (Achtemeier, 2019). The number of resources required to carry out sidewalk snow clearing varies between cities, and can be especially difficult in northern climates that experience freeze-thaw cycles, large amounts of snowfall, and changing weather conditions. Nevertheless, extreme winter weather shouldn’t justify municipalities prescribing a level of service that denies basic access to the urban environment.
7
As a side note, it’s not really hard to keep sidewalks clear down to the pavement, but it does take persistence. People leave their walks for weeks and then they get packed with ice.What is quite hard though is keeping alleyways (laneways) clear – and of course street crossings.
18
Enforcement Under systems where property owners are responsible for removing snow from sidewalks, there are repercussions when those responsibilities aren’t fulfilled. Enforcement is an important tool for compliance, although there is a lack of research available to understand which enforcement mechanisms are effective and under what conditions. When property owners don’t fulfill their delegated snow removal responsibilities, enforcement mechanisms are used to ensure compliance. Under this system, the municipality will enforce the policy based on specific policies and available staff resources. The use of enforcement mechanisms varies between municipalities. In Tallinn, Estonia, landlords are ticketed automatically if there is more than 3 cm of snow accumulated on the sidewalks adjacent to their property. The fee charged represents the amount paid to the contractor to remove the snow from their property (Petrov, 2021). In Madison, Wisconsin there is an aggressive enforcement process where no warnings are given before fines (Murphy-Lopez and Cox, 2019). In Burnaby, British Columbia, property owners are fined based on their zoning, commercial properties are fined more, and residential property owners are fined less (City of Burnaby, n.d.). In both Minneapolis and St. Paul if homeowners do not clear their sidewalks and the city receives a complaint — workers will clear the sidewalks and eventually bill the homeowners or landlords $150. The process is time intensive. First, the city will write a letter and it takes about three days for the sidewalks to eventually be cleared. In 2019, instead of relying solely on the public reporting snow-filled sidewalks, they're testing a pilot project: Proactive sidewalk clearing enforcement. It's where inspectors go out to random neighborhoods actively looking for areas that aren't clear. This does call into questions what is a more effective use of resources proactive enforcement or pro-active snow clearing. There is a lack of research available that qualifies which is more effective in the case of sidewalk snow removal.
19
Hybrid Approaches Hybrid approaches from local governments take the responsibility for clearing high traffic pedestrian routes and individual property owners clear the sidewalks adjacent to their property in areas with less traffic (City of Toronto, 2017). The municipality may determine high priority routes by using geographic proximity to high volume destinations or special services, like senior centres, schools, transit routes, downtown areas, etc. This is the case in Duluth, Minnesota, where the City plows high traffic pedestrian areas only (City of Toronto, 2017). In Rochester, New York the City shovels the snow after 4 cm of accumulated snow. The municipality charges property owners an “embellishment fee” of approximately $35 for this service (City of Rochester, n.d.).
20
Collaborative Approaches Collaborative approaches include areas where a group of individual property owners or tenants pooled resources to maintain pedestrian facilities. In 2014, property owners in the Water Hill neighbourhood of Ann Arbor, MI did this by raising $20,000 to purchase a snow tractor. The communal snow tractor clears the 20 km of sidewalks in the neighbourhood in about 8 hours on average. The community-led initiative is a volunteer-run non-profit staffed by 15 drivers and maintenance workers that maintain the sidewalks each winter. SnowBuddy receives its funding from over 300 donors in addition to a grant from the Ann Arbor Area Community Foundation. The average expenses each winter amounts to approximately $30,000 in equipment, maintenance and repairs, ice melt costs, operation fees, and insurance. The program has since become a registered non-profit and has expanded to include an additional snow tractor and volunteers for shovelling away snowbanks (Lee, 2015). This group has been acting as a consultant for the City of Ann Arbor, first in 2018 and then again in the spring of 2020, the SnowBuddy team prepared a report for the city, updating options for citywide clear and safe winter sidewalks.
Design The importance of design and winter maintenance is multifaceted, this includes designing away the need for maintenance or designing for maintenance. The following provides a limited overview of design considerations for winter maintenance.
Curb Ramps One problem with the design of the built environment has to do with design being imported from the south where there isn’t snow/ice being applied to winter environments. Take for example curb cuts, some advocates believe them to epitomize universal design. It signifies this idea that laws, programs and streets that are designed and operated to benefit vulnerable
21
groups often end up benefiting all of society (Blackwell, 2017). Curb ramps with drainage issues and improper grading pool with snow and ice in cold weather climates, making them an emblem of inaccessibility for half the year. Indeed, the curb ramp, which was originally designed in Berkeley, California is ineffective in the winter in environments with snow and ice. Curb ramps tend to pool with snow and ice, making it inaccessible for nearly all users (Li et al., 2013). While the need to improve snow and ice removal is present in most literature on the topic, little attention has been paid to curb ramp design (Ripat et al. 2019). One article suggested that a 1:16 grade is preferred for winter ramp navigation, but also notes that for ice ramp navigation, the amount of time at which grit becomes embedded in snow-ice and makes it much less effective, which should be addressed in further research (Lemaire et al. 2020). This suggests
that while design is important, so is the timely maintenance and upkeep of the infrastructure (i.e. snow and ice removal), especially among sloped environments.
Building Design Climate-sensitive urban design can be effective in improving public-space environments and reducing the required snow removal energy in winter cities. In urban centres, higher building height ratio like group A (Figure 4) is better for an urban block as this improves the snow conditions and lowers the total energy needed for snow removal (Watanebe et al., 2017). The taller tower design with the roof area of the podium being larger allows the wind to be 22
deflected from the tower to the ground to be increased, which can be used to blow away snow covering the ground, and the amount of snow that could cover the podium’s roof is greater, thereby reducing the formation of snowdrifts and lowering the snow removal energy required.
Snow Storage A common design concern is the lack of snow storage integrated in the built environment. It’s not just about more snow storage, it’s also about where the snow is stored. The placement of snow storage can significantly impact the accessibility of a space. One might think that clearing a crosswalk is enough, but the placement of a snowpile can impact accessibility even if it may no longer be a physical obstruction in a path. Snowbanks piled next to crosswalks can be particularly difficult for people with visual impairments who navigate neighbourhoods independently by tapping a mobility device on sidewalks (Gillespie, 2019). The tapping produces a unique sound that when memorized can help individuals determine where they are, or, for instance, what bus stop they’re at. Huge snowbanks make that impossible. Furthermore, snow build-up on sidewalks can make it difficult to distinguish where the sidewalk is, at which point walking on the roadway and hoping not to get hit by a car may seem like the safer option (Achtemeier, 2019). With all that in mind, how snow storage is designed and planned for needs to be reassessed. Other design elements to consider include: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Cul-de-sacs Curb ramps Hills Sun shadow Snow drift Materials and surfaces The placement and design of street furniture and other elements Building design
Co-Design During the design process, a co-design methodology may be deployed to address these concerns. Morales et al. (2014) uses a co-design methodology in a small-focus group setting with designers, urban planners, occupational therapists, and adults with motor, visual, and aural disabilities. The goal was to find possible and feasible design solutions for improving the accessibility of sidewalks during winter conditions. Solutions included reorganizing the snow-removal procedure to better consider users’ needs and constraints, which currently prioritize vehicular circulation first, then sidewalks and bus stops. Other recommendations included the development of heated curb cuts (Figure 3), an area where snow accumulation creates difficulties for individuals without disabilities, and may be nearly impossible for those with visual and/or motor disabilities to manoeuvre. As curbs become retrofitted with ramps, snow melting systems could be installed too.
23
Technology Snowmelt Systems Snowmelt systems can be installed beneath pathways to prevent snow and ice accumulation and reduce the need for winter maintenance. They are becoming increasingly popular in planning for winter communities and land uses. Snowmelt systems can use geothermal heat exchange technology to melt snow and ice from sidewalks. In Reykjavik and Akureyri, Iceland, geothermal energy harvested from the underground hot springs are utilized for heating and producing electricity to melt snow from sidewalks. The municipality boasts long term savings from ongoing maintenance costs and healthcare savings from a reduction in injuries. This, however, is a difficult option to retrofit to current sidewalk infrastructure. On the other hand, Helsinki, Finland and Oslo, Norway use electric snowmelt technology. While there are retrofitting options with an electric system, smart-from-the-start designs are more cost effective than retrofits. Local governments may consider buy-in options for new developments so that municipalities can split the capital costs with property owners. In Oslo, Norway, new residential developments are being built with ‘The Snowmelt System’ using extra energy produced from the house. In Niigata, Japan, shosetsu (snow-melting) pipes circulate hot water acquired from solar energy to and also have sprinklers installed in the middle of the streets that shoot hot water bubbles up through holes in the pavement to melt snow. Another snowmelting system is called ryusetsuko, and is a river water channel that runs alongside the roadway carrying chunks of snow away. There are some examples of snowmelt systems being used in Canada. Metrolinx, for example, is a business enterprise owned and operated by the Province of Ontario that provides road and public transport. GO Transit, the regional commuter rail system for the Golden Horseshoe Region, is run by Metrolinx. Go Transit has begun installing snow melt systems on new platforms and retrofitting existing infrastructure (Metrolinx, 2020). The National Research Council of Canada building located in Saskatoon has a snowmelt system located beneath the entranceway (Figure 4). The City of Montreal piloted a snowmelt system near city hall, but the idea was scrapped due to cost concerns. There is also a demand for snowmelt systems among private property owners, and the installation of snow melts systems on driveways are becoming increasingly popular.
24
Sidewalks with snowmelt system in Holland, MI (Holland Area Visitors Bureau, n.d.)
Solar Pavement Solar collecting pavements harvest energy from the sun to alleviate local electrical needs by storing energy (thermal or electric) and secondly, melting the snow or ice. The main applications include heating buildings from a clean and low-cost energy source, domestic hot water, snow and ice melting, and mitigating the heat island effects (Papadimitriou, et al., 2019). Real-world applications that have helped to prevent snow removal accumulation include
25
Amsterdam, Netherlands. In 2014, a 70-metre stretch of solar panels were installed on a cycling lane. The panels contained LED lights to create lines and signage without paint, they also allowed for more flexibility with road signs, like warning drivers when animals are crossing the road ahead. Moreover, they contain heating elements to prevent snow and ice accumulation, making roads safer in freezing conditions. Amsterdam has a mild winter climate and rarely experiences heavy snowfalls. As of 2020, the bike lane seems to have experienced extensive damage. The feasibility of this method should be researched further before being applied in the context of Edmonton. Another example in the Shandong Province in East China. In 2017, a road was constructed with a 2 km stretch of solar panels that have a thin layer of sheer concrete on top of them to protect the surface from mechanical loads like passenger vehicles. The panels were built to transfer energy to electric vehicles passing on top of them and to melt snow. The panels cannot handle heavy truckloads, but may be better used for pedestrian infrastructure and charging electric bikes. The long-term success of these systems has not yet been verified, but it does present an interesting option.
Autonomous Snow Removal Vehicles Autonomous vehicles (AV) rely on numerous sensors to operate safely and efficiently. The AV may have GPA, cameras, radar, and LIDAR technology to detect other vehicles and pedestrians integrated into it. There are currently AV snow removal fleets in Estonia (Wolvers, 2020). The Lumebot is a device that is currently used on a university campus in Estonia (E-Estonia, 2019) Lumebot (Lumebot, n.d.) is meant for snow removal, street cleaning and street sweeping. One robot weighs 500 kilograms, takes 20 minutes to charge, and it can work 2 hours straight, cleaning 5 000 square metres or 12 kilometres of sidewalks. It can work in a fleet and can be equipped with both, a snowplow, Roller brush, Salt/sand/gravel dispenser, Street sweeper + mechanical vacuum cleaner and can steam clean pavement. There are several planning concerns related to municipal preparation for the implementation of autonomous snow plowing, including an assessment of how the quality of service will be affected, how will citizens respond to the change in service and data privacy (Ingram, 2020). Benefits to autonomous snow removal devices including using automated snow clearing devices to plough sidewalks that are too narrow for human-driven vehicles (City of Toronto, 2020).
Information & Communication Technology Smart Communications Additionally, emerging smart city technologies may provide opportunities to assist in promotional efforts as well as increasing public participation to identify unsafe risks. The City of Edmonton has made data available to the public on Open Data Edmonton (City of Edmonton, n.d.). This tool can be used by citizens to see how the City works, by facilitating civic engagement to make improvements and suggestions to the City (Halegoua, 2020). For example, if citizens can see where snow plows go, they can help to make the systems better. The City is already doing this with its widely popular “Know Your Snow Day Tool” which notifies property owners of the residential road blading schedule (City of Edmonton, n.d.). Sadly, there is
26
currently no tool for citizens to know how the City is prioritizing sidewalks. Using smart technology as a public engagement tool supports the idea that smart technologies should be used for socialiability rather than efficiency (Ratti & Townsend, 2011). Aside from Open Data, ICT exists that can be used to manage complaints and lack of services across platforms. Other municipalities allow citizens to make complaints, raise issues and make service requests via apps, text messages, public forums, etc.
Smart Monitoring There are other potential uses of smart technology other than as a catalyst for social networks to emerge. Wireless sensors can be used to monitor foot traffic and inform operations and maintenance on how snow clearing should be prioritized. A problem with this view is that snow on the ground tends to deter individuals from going outside, especially those with mobility challenges, so clearing sidewalks based on how much foot traffic they have may neglect the sidewalks that need clearing the most. As such, qualitative analysis is of equal importance when determining snow removal priorities. The City of Kingston has partnered with Bell for a pilot project that involves installing IoT sensors on snow ploughs, 16 of which are sidewalk ploughs. The sensors track speed, idle time, GPS location and citizens can access the data online to determine where ploughing has occurred and the safest route to their destination (Wray, 2020). That said, it is important to consider concerns being raised with regard to smart technologies being used as data surveillance devices to normalize mass surveillance and potentially compromise individuals’ right to privacy, as well as freedom of expression and association. The Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) has developed a numerical model to predict pavement conditions and to give notice of very slippery days (Hippi et al., 2020). The notice system reduces accidents by informing pedestrians while also helping maintenance personnel to decide when and how to operate. Although the model results have been promising, more research is needed to improve the model and knowledge on this subject.
27
28
Conclusion: How is this relevant to planners? Planners are lacking more than just technical knowledge about winter maintenance. Engineers, planners, and operations need to further address different modal uses and climates. Research needs to go beyond “walkability” or how people that walk experience traction on different surfaces and with different treatment, and should include a variety of mobilities and movements, in different climates, participating in a variety of activities. Localized access needs should be assessed to determine accessibility in that given environment. Lindsay et al. (2014) emphasizes the need to consider the particularities of geographies since the impacts of winter vary from one city to another. Given the “multiple layers of obstacles that are encountered by disabled people in this city, the distance of a (Edmonton) mile is subject to change” (Parent, 2018, p. 175). The spatial and temporal factors of winter access should be considered through a variety of processes, including, age, exercise, illness, accident or injury. Based on what has been learned from the previous sections and in recognition of the massive issues that failing sidewalks snow removal programs create, this paper takes the position that people deserve safe and reliable access to the outdoors, all year-round. In this sense, effective sidewalk snow removal is required in fulfillment of basic mobility rights. Any system of snow removal that relies on enforcement to uphold basic rights is already failing in that the right is only realized/upheld retroactively. The next section will discuss the Edmonton situation and make recommendations on how the City can better support its people all year long.
29
Chapter 4: Edmonton Case Study The implications of poorly designed and maintained urban environments on pedestrian mobility and comfort during winter have been explored in winter cities and urban design literature around the world (Pressman, 1995; Matus, 1988; Givoni, 1998). The need for improved snow and ice removal policies and procedures have been identified in many studies, because minimal investigation has been conducted in this area (Ripat et al., 2019). While this topic is gaining more attention and there is some Canadian literature on the topic, most of the research was conducted in regions with warmer climates and milder winters than experienced in the Canadian prairies. Edmonton is one of the few cities that has incorporated climate responsive design principles into their decision‐making framework (Ryser & Halseth, 2008), but most of the design measures account for thermal comfort and protection from the wind, and show little regard towards snow and ice control. In the auto‐oriented culture of Edmonton, most of the attention and resources are devoted to keeping roads and highways clear of snow and ice for vehicles, while neglecting pedestrians in winter time (Coleman, 2001). The City of Edmonton lacks evidence-based guidelines on how to provide a safe, accessible, and comfortable pedestrian environment in winter. This research will be useful to the City of Edmonton and anyone that has an interest in achieving safe and accessible winter conditions for pedestrians. This resource will inspire municipalities to improve their services, spaces, and facilities by: 1. Making the case for why snow and ice control operations need to better consider the needs for pedestrians. 2. Identifying and articulating the needs of Edmonton while making the case for other jurisdictions to improve snow and ice control for pedestrians. 3. Outlining the importance of progress and exploring alternative pathways forward, this is helping to bridge the gap between policy and practice with regard to winter sidewalk maintenance. The purpose of the foregoing case study is to develop an understanding of programming and policy alternatives to improve sidewalk snow removal in Edmonton.
Background Poorly maintained winter sidewalks are commonly regarded as a barrier to pedestrian accessibility and safety. Winter conditions create challenges to community participation for those living in northern regions. Residents in cold-weather climates experience decreases in physical activity during the winter months, increases in social isolation and higher rates of depression (Rosenthal et al., 1984; Lingjaerde et al., 1985; Levitan, 2007; Praschak-Rieder et al., 2008; Gagne & Hebert, 2011). Build ups of snow, ice, slush and water on the ground have been described as the worst barrier to the pedestrian experience (Chapman & Larsson, 2020). Comparatively, the removal of snow from pavement has been identified as a major enabler to
30
soft mobility (Chapman & Larsson, 2019). In spite of this, winter planning documents often provide minimal consideration for winter conditions such as snow and ice covered surfaces (Chapman & Larsson, 2019). Participants from a series of interviews conducted in Edmonton indicated that the presence of ice build up on sidewalks make them very difficult to use, and that when sidewalks are covered in water and ice, walking on the street is easier than walking on the sidewalk (Zembal, 2019). This same study found that the accumulation of snow overtime created increasingly difficult positions for pedestrians, demonstrating why more frequent and immediate snow removal would be helpful (Zembal, 2019).
Public Health Data It has already been mentioned that the risk of falls also increases in the winter with icy conditions (Clarke et al., 2015; Kojima et al., 2008) and Edmonton is no exception. According to Karen Gill of the University of Alberta’s Injury Prevention Centre, falls on average kill 219 Albertans each year, and about four per cent of those deaths are falls on ice or snow, that is approximately 9 deaths per year in Alberta (Alam, 2018). It is becoming increasingly dangerous for Edmontonians to spend time outdoors in the winter. In 2018, the number of injuries from falls on ice in Edmonton reached an all-time high, accounting for a total of 6,445 emergency room admissions; that’s an increase of 429% since 20028 and more than all motor vehicle traffic accidents combined (Alberta Health Services, 2002-2018). Between 2017 and 2018, there were 1,860 hospitalizations for falls on ice in Alberta, which represents a 37% increase in hospitalizations from falls on ice in Alberta (Canadian Institute of Health Information, 2017-2018). That means that for every thousand Edmontonians, approximately five were admitted to emergency rooms for falling on ice. That is slightly more emergency room admissions from falls on snow/ice than from all motor vehicle-related collisions (i.e. drivers, passengers, motorcyclists, passengers on motorcycles, cyclists, and pedestrians) combined (Alberta Health Services, 2018). While this data does not indicate where these falls are taking place on public or private sidewalks, or on pavement or other surfaces, qualitative data from local healthcare professionals cite poorly maintained sidewalks as contributing to these types of injuries. In a study conducted in Stockholm, Sweden, 59% of self-inflicted falls took place on pedestrian paths and 42% of all falls took place in winter (Ceccato & Willems, 2019). An intensive-care physician in Edmonton contends that more rigorous maintenance practices and perhaps more stringent enforcement mechanisms in place could mean a reduction of slip and fall injuries in Edmonton (Fletcher, 2017). Moreover, a healthcare professional that was interviewed for this research recalled treating a young patient that had suffered from a brain hemorrhage after falling on ice.
8
2002 is the year that Alberta Health first started recording falls on ice data.
31
Figure 6: Falls on Ice Admissions in Edmonton (2002-2018)
Environmental There has been a recent push to make Edmonton a more walkable city year-round. In Edmonton, auto-oriented culture and increasing instances of extreme winter weather events further compound pedestrian mobility problems in winter. There seems to be a clash between what is environmentally responsible (avoiding carbon emitting transportation by walking) and what is safe (driving is safer than walking during winter weather events). The increasing prevalence of extreme winter weather events in Edmonton is leading to increased strains on the healthcare industry and snow removal services. As Edmonton’s climate changes, snow and ice clearing strategies need to adapt. The City of Edmonton has experienced an onslaught of winter-related injuries in recent years, in part, due to the increasing prevalence of extreme freeze and thaw patterns (Paquette, 2020). Other Canadian cities use salt on sidewalks to ensure safe use, but in temperatures below -20 °C salt cannot melt ice and sand does not stick. There are many contributing factors to unsafe streets, including, changes in weather patterns,
32
freeze and thaw cycle, 5,200 km of sidewalks to clear, and the design elements of some older neighbourhoods (Paquette, 2020). Common methods and best practices for snow removal like salting do not work in Edmonton’s climate because it is too cold for salt to stick to pavement. There are environmental benefits to not using salt9, but the lack of sufficient means for addressing icy sidewalks is affecting the health and safety of Edmontonians.
Economic In 2018, falls on snow and ice made up 3.5% of all injuries in Alberta (Alberta Health Services), which equated to approximately $175 million in direct healthcare costs and $269,500,000 in indirect costs for falls on ice alone (Injury Prevention Centre, n.d.). Snow and ice clearing strategies have not adapted at the rate of Edmonton’s changing climate, which has a compounding effect of decreasing winter walkability while increasing strains on the healthcare industry and snow removal services. In the case of Edmonton’s changing climate, pre-existing shortfalls of winter sidewalks maintenance programs are aggravated by increasingly frequent and extreme winter weather events. While the safety and accessibility of Edmonton’s winter sidewalk users is heavily impaired by uncleared streets, there are also other indirect economic costs associated with inadequate winter sidewalks maintenance, including healthcare costs from falls on ice, litigation fees from slip and falls claims, insurance premiums, and productivity losses.
9
A study from the University of Toronto recently found chloride concentrations in freshwater resulting from the use of road salts show concentrations sufficient to cause significant negative impacts to aquatic communities (Lawson & Jackson, 2021).
33
Policy Review A review of municipal snow and ice control policies found that cities snow clearing priorities tend to favour road maintenance exclusively (Perrier et al., 2006; Sylvestre, 2016). This tendency to favour roads over sidewalks is observed even in the City’s efforts to improve pedestrian safety. And was a common theme of interview conversations. Interviewees suggest that road clearing has improved in Edmonton over the years but “haven’t noticed any changes to the sidewalk program”. While the City of Edmonton has been active in their efforts to reduce certain types of pedestrian injuries, the problem of pedestrian injuries is framed exclusively in relation to motor-vehicles. For example, the City undertook a snow and ice control pilot as part of Edmonton’s Vision Zero strategy. The pilot involved testing the effectiveness of different road maintenance techniques as a means of supporting safety for pedestrians (and other modes), but didn’t explore different sidewalk maintenance techniques as a means of supporting safety for pedestrians (Duncan et al., 2020; City of Edmonton, 2019). In reality, there are far more pedestrian injuries from falls on ice than there are from pedestrian collisions with motor-vehicles (Gyllencreutz et al., 2015). Knowing this makes it difficult to spout winter city ideations for greater use of the outdoors when statistics indicate it is safer for Edmontians to go for a drive
34
than to spend time outdoors. Planning goals that aim to get fewer people driving year-round haven’t accounted for the fact that walking is more dangerous than driving during and 24 hours following a winter storm (Mills et al., 2020). In spite of this, Edmonton’s ice and snow removal programs favour the safety of vehicular traffic and ignore the most pertinent risks to pedestrian safety.
Vision Zero Edmonton’s Vision Zero program has proven successful, with pedestrian injuries declining by 21% since the initiative’s inception in 2015 (City of Edmonton, 2018). What this number does not include are other types of pedestrian injuries that are occurring.10 There are 11 times more injuries due to falls on ice than there are pedestrians in motor vehicle accidents (Alberta IHDA, 2002 - 2018). Pedestrian falls, or rather, single pedestrian accidents that don’t involve collisions or crashes with other street users, are not defined as traffic accidents by Edmonton’s Vision Zero program or Safe Mobility Strategy, despite the fact that they present a large problem for pedestrian safety (Methorst et al., 2017; Schepers et al., 2017). As discussed, single pedestrian accidents are rarely defined as road accidents, and have been labelled a hidden problem (Oxley et al., 2018). This research hopes to draw attention to the fact that the most pertinent risk to pedestrian safety is not being discussed at an institutional level.
Parks and Roads Services Standard Operating Procedure An interviewee mentioned that “Roadways have a timeline for snow removal but sidewalks do not.” This was verified by obtaining a copy of the Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for the City of Edmonton’s SNIC program. Roadways have a timeline for snow removal but sidewalks (and other active pathways) do not (Figure 8). The Roadway priorities and the timeframe for clearing is clearly defined. The priorities for Active Pathways (Figure 8), state that winter walking clearing locations should be cleared first, but are only guidelines for best practices and do not have any time requirements. This implies that there is no firm standard that the City of Edmonton complies with regarding sidewalk snow removal.
Edmonton’s Snow and Ice Control Policies Several interviewees stated there is confusion among property owners as to whether they have 48 hours to clear the snow from their sidewalks. While the Snow and Ice Control Policy #C409J is a directive rather than a legislated rule. It states that “Property owners are required to clear snow from sidewalks adjacent to their property (frontage and flankage) within 48 hours of the end of snowfall to meet the requirements of the Community Standards Bylaw #14600.” The Community Standards Bylaw does not state a timeframe for snow removal. The City of Edmonton’s website states that “Snow and ice is to be removed from the sidewalks as quickly as possible” (City of Edmonton, n.d.). Conversations with bylaw enforcement confirmed that there is no legislated rule requiring property owners to remove snow from the sidewalk by a
10
This is not meant to undermine the success of Edmonton's Vision Zero program, but to encourage the City to extend that success in helping to address other dangers experienced by pedestrians.
35
certain time, but rather, “It is more so at the (bylaw) officer’s discretion when the bylaw is enforced.” When asked why bike lanes are cleared before sidewalks11, a participant responded that bike lanes are cleared first because “snow packs down faster” than on walkways which “creates more difficulties” in the long run. Another reason provided was that when bike lanes are well maintained, “they become multi-use pathways” and “end up benefiting a wider range of people”. However, clearing bike lanes before sidewalks does not serve to co-benefit pedestrians and cyclists equally. Forcing pedestrians to use bike lanes in place of sidewalks is not a way of accommodating the access needs of sidewalk users - it’s quite the opposite. This implies an expectation that all pedestrians can travel in bike lanes. However, some cannot get into the bike lanes if the sidewalk itself is impassible. Mounting an uncleared sidewalk, ramp or windrow first can be a huge challenge or impossible. Bikes/cars also travel far faster than other sidewalk users, which can make pedestrians feel unsafe. Not only that, but bike lanes have their own barriers as well. Much of the City’s bicycle infrastructure isn’t designed for other types of cycles, and are often designed exclusively for two wheeled bikes. It may require users to ‘dismount and walk’ and when travel is impeded individuals are expected to “go around” the obstruction, which makes both sidewalks and cycle lanes completely inaccessible for some. This so-called approach inevitably prevents some from reaching the bike lane. Moreover, disability advocates have noted that it is discriminatory when bike lanes are cleared before sidewalks (Onley, 2019). The Disability Justice Network of Ontario has petitioned Hamilton city council to take on snow removal responsibilities on the basis that snow removal is a human right (Disability Justice Network of Ontario, 2021). The solution to the problem of uncleared sidewalks is not to expect pedestrians to use bike lanes, but rather, to improve winter maintenance in such a way so that all users have their access needs met, regardless of whether they’re using a road, sidewalks, paved trail, cycle lane, etc.
11
According to Edmonton’s SNIC policy, all bike lanes are cleared within 24 hours, but only high priority sidewalks are cleared within 24 hours. All sidewalks and all bike lanes should be cleared within 24 hours.
36
Enforcement Several participants discussed a lack of enforcement as a big issue with the SNIC program. The ineffectiveness of enforcement could be due to the lack of policy direction. The lack of sidewalk snow removal standards that the City has set for itself means that the City can’t enforce a definite standard upon property owners. Indeed, without a clearly defined standard to comply with, the ‘duty’ for property owners to remove snow is more of an obligation, and it becomes relatively easy to ignore the legal and moral responsibility to remove snow from the sidewalks. There is no specific timeline for the enforcement of commercial and residential properties, or for sidewalks adjacent to public land. Since there is no strictly enforced 24 or 48 hour rule, it is largely at the discretion of the bylaw officer when the bylaw is enforced. As a bylaw officer mentioned, “it’s a myth that private property owners have 48 hours to clear their sidewalks. There is no 24 or 48 hours rule for clearing sidewalks. It is more so at the officer’s discretion when the bylaw is enforced.” This has been noted before by Ranila & Mitchell (2016),“the unofficial monitoring of winter sidewalk conditions has turned property owners’ sidewalk responsibilities away from questions of liability to questions of morality” (Rannila & 37
Mitchell, 2016). With very few repercussions for not clearing sidewalks, in many ways, pedestrians are relying on private property owners to create a safe and accessible transportation network. The network depends almost entirely on people being decent to each other. An interviewee also noted that several factors are used to consider whether a fine or warning should be issued, including, how much snow is on the sidewalk in relation to the last snowfall, whether it’s a repeat versus first-time offender, or whether it’s the only property on the street that hasn’t cleared their sidewalks. A bylaw officer mentioned that discretionary power is used to hold commercial properties to a generally higher standard of care than residential property owners, based on the perception that there are generally more pedestrians using their sidewalk. A bylaw officer further mentioned that the City is supposed to be held accountable to the same standard as private property owners. Discretionary power may be exercised differently upon different types of property owners (i.e. commercial vs. residential), but it is unclear what discretionary power is used to decide how or when the bylaw is enforced upon the. A representative from bylaw enforcement noted that due to the “sheer volume of sidewalks” that the City takes care of, it is more difficult to enforce the bylaw upon the City”. It would be helpful for Open Data Edmonton to provide distinctions between fines made to the City versus fines made to private property owners to better understand the disparities between the two. A community member stated that “sidewalks next to construction sites are poorly maintained” and that enforcement seems to be missing in that regard. This was also brought up by the City’s internal staff, stating that it can take up to a month or two before a construction company is notified of their violation. At times, 311 Citizen Services will notify the Parks department instead of the developer and this can end up taking one to two months for Parks to process the request and notify the developer. A lot of the time the developers “won’t think about snow removal until they get the tickets.” Other issues that were mentioned include single family home rentals, in newer neighbourhoods where “property owners aren’t as familiar with the rules”, and student areas. On the other hand, seniors tend to do a good job of snow removal.
Liability Public sidewalks are owned by the City but the City delegates their winter maintenance responsibilities to private property owners, and then punishes private property owners for not fulfilling that responsibility. Since the sidewalks are city-owned, the city is technically liable for injuries obtained on public property. However, the standard for proving the City is liable is gross negligence. Proving that the City was grossly negligent is based on whether the City followed out the procedures they created for themselves. And without a codified standard requiring the City to clear sidewalks by a certain time, it becomes difficult for a Claimant to establish that the city was grossly negligent. Comparatively, property owners can’t be held liable for not clearing public sidewalks either, so there is very little legal recourse available to those affected by uncleared sidewalks and very few repercussions felt by those responsible. If the City is rarely found liable for the state of the sidewalks, there is very little incentive to change the sidewalks clearing procedures or to increase the level of service for sidewalk snow removal. This also
38
represents an issue around instigating institutional change based on fiscal responsibility rather than moral duty. In particular, the motivation to improve sidewalk snow removal is based on the liabilities resulting from insurance claims rather than liabilities resulting from human rights infringement. This creates a culture of tolerance rather than accommodation and acceptance. In this sense, the goal of winter sidewalk maintenance is to protect the City, rather than to protect its citizens. Nevertheless, claims filed against the City have affected changes to the sidewalk clearing program. One interviewee brought up the example of how some transit drivers used to stop between bus stops for elders in the winter time so that they didn’t have to walk as far. Until one day, a patron fell while getting on the bus because the area wasn't cleared as it did not fall within the City’s snow removal responsibilities. The individual that fell ended up filing a claim against the City for damages. Since then, transit drivers have been instructed not to stop anywhere other than designated bus stops to avoid liabilities. While this seems to be an example of good intentions gone awry, sometimes claims filed against the City can draw attention to areas that require more attention. For example, the City uses a heat map of where falls were occurring to identify hot spots for injuries. When two falls were found to have occurred on the same set of stairs, this led to the stairs being put on a higher routing priority.
12
12
Personal email correspondence dated October 26, 2020.
39
Community Initiatives Community initiatives refer to support programs for seniors and/or persons with disabilities to assist them in fulfilling their sidewalk snow removal responsibilities. These programs are common in regions where sidewalk snow removal is the responsibility of property owners. The City of Edmonton currently has the Seniors Home Supports Program, which is a referral service that screens service providers that offer snow removal, yard help, home repair and maintenance, and more (Senior Home Supports Program, n.d.). SnowBusters Strathcona matches seniors or individuals with disabilities to volunteers who shovel their sidewalks within 36 hours following a snowfall (SnowBusters: Volunteer Strathcona, n.d.). WalkABle by Alberta Health Service is led by the provincial government and partners municipalities with community stakeholders and local walkability champions to build more walkable communities (Alberta Health Services, n.d.). Although, the City of Edmonton is not currently a part of this program.
40
The City of Edmonton previously had a Snow Angel’s 13 program which encouraged neighbours to shovel for those who need it. The City of Edmonton had a rewards program that allowed neighbours to nominate Snow Angels in recognition of their efforts. However, Edmonton’s program was cancelled in 2016 (Stolte, 2019). It is unclear why the snow removal program ended. One interviewee speculated that it had to do with a Provincial Legislation that went into effect that year which made it more difficult to hire volunteers. The City of Edmonton still receives hundreds of inquiries to 311 Citizen Services every year regarding the snow angels program (Open Data Edmonton, 2020). With an enforcement-based system like Edmonton, it is essential that free, prompt and easy to use services are available to help those who need it fulfill their snow removal responsibilities. There are paid snow removal services that property owners can hire to maintain sidewalks, but these tend to be expensive and place the burden exclusively on property owners that can’t shovel snow themselves. The City of Edmonton could partner with a company like Yardly14 to subsidise readily available services to those who need it in Edmonton (Kirkwood, 2019).
13
Snow Angel’s Canada is a volunteer-based program that started in London, Ontario but has expanded across communities in Canada. It is a way for Canadians to request assistance for shoveling or to find others in need of assistance.
Yardly is an Edmonton start-up that allows customers to order snow removal services online. Since being founded in 2015, the company has since expanded its services to 6,000 property owners in three provinces and 25 municipalities across Canada (Kirkwood, 2019). 14
41
Recommendations & Conclusion 1. Create a Winter Maintenance Toolkit as part of the Winter City Strategy A major success of Edmonton’s Winter City Strategy has been its ability to gain cross-departmental support. It has been cause for climate sensitive considerations in the procurement of snow and ice control operations. One interviewee mentioned that Edmonton’s Winter City Strategy influenced winter maintenance to undertake a pilot program meant to improve maintenance of on-street bike infrastructure in 2015 (Winter City Blog, 2015) This legitimizes the Strategy’s agenda-setting powers across departments at the City. That said, the Strategy needs to prioritize meeting basic winter mobility needs before creating winter sport and recreation opportunities. The City of Edmonton has come to be a proud leader of winter city design, exemplifying how to embrace the outdoors in the wintertime through climate-sensitive urban design (City of Edmonton, 2016). What’s missing, is a strategic plan to improve pedestrian access through effective winter maintenance. After all, winter design is in many ways useless without proper winter maintenance. A winter city maintenance toolkit would help communities to identify best practice and support active transportation during winter. This toolkit, however, cannot be crafted by designers, operation planners, public health professionals, and engineers alone. Of course, their expertise and technical knowledge is necessary to determine the feasibility of potential solutions, but those most impacted by winter must lead decision-makers to solutions, or better yet, be the decision-makers. To enable active transportation year-round and support the mental and physical health of Edmontonians, policies, programs, practices, plans and perceptions that shape the spatial characteristics of the public realm must fully consider the needs of those most marginalized by winter. Most importantly, the perceptions of marginalized groups like older adults must be prioritized in SNIC policies since they know winter barriers best. 2. Improve qualitative and quantitative data collection to identify the winter transportation needs of pedestrians. Analyzing the spatial and temporal characteristics of falls on ice, snow and slush may give insights into where these falls are happening, to whom, and other endangering factors. This is what a study Ceccato and Willems (2019) did in Sweden by assessing the distribution of falls over time and by type of environments. Using GIS, concentrations of falls were visualized by street segment, assessing whether temporal and spatial factors affect the occurrence of falls among older pedestrians. The study found that falls take place in more densely populated areas and are associated with specific characteristics of the built environment (e.g. mixed roads and bus stops). The study ultimately found that 80% of falls among older adults were happening in 5% of the total street segments. Having this sort of knowledge could allow for maintenance services across Edmonton to be targeted according to the neighbourhood geography of falls to ensure elderly safety. There is potential to duplicate this study in Edmonton. Alberta is one of the only provinces in Canada that tracks emergency room admissions for falls on ice. Alberta 42
Health should be contacted to determine whether this study could be duplicated using available health data. On the other hand, statistical analyses of cold-weather related injuries and corresponding health outcomes may not acknowledge that which cannot be quantified—i.e. widespread experiences of social isolation and reduced community participation in the winter. That is why qualitative data should be collected to understand the perceptions of risks among marginalized groups like older adults must be prioritized in SNIC policies since they know winter barriers best. Marginalized groups like older adults must be prioritized in SNIC policies since they know winter barriers best.
Snow Removal Technology & Research An interesting pilot project that is being tested out in Edmonton is an autonomous snow removal device that doubles as an autonomous lawnmower in the summer. It’s being trialed on sidewalks and requires on-site standby personnel for the time being. To my knowledge, there aren’t any local governments that use autonomous sidewalk snow removal devices on a large scale. Continued research and development is needed in this regard. In a sprawled city like Edmonton with vast amounts of sidewalks that need to be cleared quickly and frequently to prevent snow from quickly turning into ice, autonomous snow removal would be a great solution. The City of Edmonton should continue researching and trialing the potential of AV sidewalk snow removal. Infrastructure would need to be designed to accommodate the AV, and planners and city operations should consult with engineers to gain a better understanding of what this technology requires. Other types of snow removal technology are being tested but not officially. Performing internal pilots unofficially may be good for creating a hypothesis or an idea for a pilot project, but shouldn’t be used in place of official pilot projects approved by council. There have been pilots performed to test different icing agents, this involved trying out different products on small scales to inform internal knowledge (e.g. non-chloride de-icers). A research collaboration between the City of Edmonton and the University of Alberta was completed in 2019, but this only tested for vehicular responses to calcium chloride applications. There has also been research into the corrosive effects of municipal winter road maintenance programs for anti-icing and de-icing programs in Edmonton (Duncan et al., 2020). While this research may be helpful to determine what is effective for winter road maintenance, as it has been discussed, pedestrians have different traction requirements than cars. Comparatively, it was also mentioned that piloting ice services can lead to an increase in claims. To combat this issue of trialing different techniques in a public setting, another approach may be to pilot methods in a climate-controlled laboratory that can mimic Edmonton’s freeze-thaw cycles. This could help to avoid liabilities and may even qualify for provincial or federal research funding if the argument could be made that it could reduce healthcare costs for falls on ice. Using smart technology as a public engagement tool supports the idea that smart technologies should be used for socialiability rather than efficiency. Data collection, open data and hackathons could be used to foster collaboration between citizens, stakeholders and city
43
officials to spark dialogues and brainstorm innovative solutions for the problem of sidewalk snow removal. 3. Prioritize pedestrians in snow removal policies, practices, and procedures. Provide a criterion for when snow removal begins based on the amount of snowfall, the type of snowfall, the amount of traffic, and the type of streets and its users. Clearly communicate these snow removal priorities to the public using localized climate evidence. It is important for SNIC policies to define what is meant by ‘pedestrian facilities’ since many snow and ice control policies focus on sidewalk clearance but don’t specify treatment for all aspects of the pedestrian realm. In addition to sidewalks, SNIC policies should require clearance or differential treatment for curb cuts, ramps, hills, crosswalks, pedestrian islands, street furniture, bus stops/shelters, transit routes and boarding areas, trails, parking lots, alleyways and alleyway crossings, and parking lanes; windrow and snow pile placement. Another common policy gap is pedestrian infrastructure not being given the same priority as cycle lanes or roads. Further, municipal policies commonly note that transit stops are cleared as a priority, but less commonly note that thoroughfares to transit stops are a priority. Another problem has to do with municipal governments delegating sidewalk snow removal responsibilities to private property owners, which means disabled property owners may be liable for not removing snow regardless of their ability to do so. Snow removal support has to be available for those who need it. 4. Understand Edmonton’s accessible winter design standards The archetype of accessibility in planning practices from around the world is often termed ‘universal design’. This has undergone scrutiny from disability theorists. Morgan Rowe (2013) has argued that universal design “seems to inherit from the Enlightenment a rational paradigm of universalism that may not be sufficiently sensitive to the need to accommodate individual differences” (p. 5).Planners in winter cities should be mindful of approaching universal design concepts as a fixed value since it is far more fluid in practice and should be applied to the situation (and climate) at hand. In Edmonton’s particular climate, freeze-thaw cycles and extreme temperature changes are increasing in severity. Under these conditions, 2 centimetres of snow can quickly freeze into a dangerous layer of ice that cannot easily be removed by commonly used anti-icing agents or manual snow removal technologies. Climate trends indicate an increasing frequency of rain on snow, freezing rain, and more frequent and intense extreme weather events (Climate Resilient Edmonton, n.d.). In Edmonton, prompt and widespread snow removal is needed to prevent icy sidewalks from having a lasting effect on the built environment. In contrast to Edmonton’s approach, Stockholm has a criterion for when snow removal begins based on the amount of snowfall, the type of snowfall, the amount of traffic, and the type of streets and its users (City of Stockholm, 2019). The City of Edmonton should consider adopting this approach to fully consider the needs of its changing climate. Categorizing snow removal this way and sharing this
44
information with the public also increases transparency by clearly communicating snow removal priorities using Edmonton-specific evidence. 5. Those most impacted by winter must lead decision-makers to solutions. In conclusion, it is pertinent for the City of Edmonton to better understand the variety of mobilities and movements that pedestrians employ and the corresponding levels of service they require in Edmonton’s climate. Achieving goals tied to increased pedestrian traffic in winter cities requires taking a winter lens to mobility challenges. While much of this research has focused on physical disabilities,15 accessibility requires a comprehensive consideration for how people with atypical ways of thinking, communicating, sensing or moving experience and navigate the built environment. This goes beyond simply including persons with access needs in the design process; it requires the leadership of those most impacted throughout the process from start to finish (and beyond). It is likely that conflicting access needs will arise in the pursuit of universal design, but this should not discourage attempts at instigating change. Proposed designs (and designs for maintenance) should strive for an infinite array of ways to communicate and connect—not to segregate or exclude by design, but to maximize opportunities for actual participation and engagement by all people, on their own terms. Accessibility is striving to fully consider and prioritize the numerous aspects of accessibility. These include the needs of physical, cognitive, sensory and motor disabilities, multiple disabilities, conflicting access needs, and intersecting sociodemographic characteristics. Technologies that mediate and assist interactions with the environment must be considered. Further, design must prioritize different experiences of space and time and the ways in which people travel at different paces and employ a variety of capabilities in their interactions with an environment. There is still so much to learn about what accessibility requires. Design solutions for full accessibility may not have even been conceived because interactions with inaccessible environments actively mediate our ability to perceive what is even possible.
15
Mostly due to the fact that there is a paucity of research about how those with non-physical disabilities experience hostile winter environments.
45
References Achtemeier, J. (2019). The Impact of Weather Conditions and Infrastructure Design on the Mobility of People with Impaired Vision. http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/208914 Adey, P. (2006) ‘If mobility is everything then it is nothing: towards a relational politics of (im)mobilities,’ Mobilities, 1: 75–94. Alam, H. (2018, January 31). Albertans among most likely to end up in hospital from slips and falls on snow, ice. Edmonton Journal, https://edmontonjournal.com/news/local-news/albertans-among-most-likely-to-end-up-in-hospital -from-slips-and-falls-on-snow-ice Alberta Health Services. (2002-2018). Alberta Interactive Health Data Application (“IHDA”). Retrieved February 18, 2021, from https://www.albertahealthservices.ca/ Alberta Health Services (n.d.). WalkABle Alberta. Alberta Health Services. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from https://www.albertahealthservices.ca/info/Page7282.aspx Barclay, R., Webber, S., Ripat J., & Tate R. (2018) Factors Associated with Community Ambulation in adults aged 45-85 – the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging. An nual Conference of the International Society for Quality of Life Research (ISOQOL); Dublin, Ireland 2018. Berthelette, M., Mann, D. D., Ripat, J., & Glazebrook, C. M. (2020). Assessing manual wheelchair caster design for mobility in winter conditions. Assistive Technology, 32(1), 31–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400435.2018.1464080 Bissell, D. (2009) ‘Conceptualising differently-mobile passengers: geographies of everyday encumbrance in the railway station,’ Social & Cultural Geography, 10: 173–195. Blackwell, A. G. (2017). "Equity: Not a Zero-Sum Game", "Curb-Cut Effect", published in Stanford Social Innovation Review. Retrieved from https://ssir.org/articles/entry/the_curb_cut_effect# Blewett, J., & Hanlon, N. (2016). Disablement as inveterate condition: Living with habitual ableism in Prince George, British Columbia. The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe Canadien, 60(1), 46–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12254 Brown, L. X. Z. (n.d.). Definitions. Retrieved April 18, 2021, from www.autistichoya.com/p/definitions.html Canadian Institute for Health Information (2017-2018). Hospital Morbidity Database. Government of Canada. Retrieved from https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/search-recherche/rd-dc/index-en g.cfm?GeographyReferenceID=2016A00054811061&PID=2 CBC News. (2020a, November 19). Saint John’s cuts to sidewalk snow clearing worry people with disabilities. CBC News New Brunswick, from
46
https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/disability-wheelchairs-snow-sidewalks-1.58078 86 CBC News. (2020b, December 15). City of Saint John restores snow clearing for Silver Falls, cuts one side of 3 other streets. CBC News New Brunswick, from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/saint-john-winter-plan-2020-1.5841452 CBC News. (2019, April 24). Moncton proposes sidewalk removal policy in bid to cut costs. CBC News New Brunswick, from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/moncton-sidewalks-removal-policy-cost-1.5107 960#:~:text=Moncton%20is%20considering%20removing%20sidewalks,suggests%20cutting%2 058%20per%20cent Ceccato, V., & Willems, O. (2019). Temporal and spatial dynamics of falls among older pedestrians in Sweden. Applied Geography, 103, 122–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2018.12.007 Chapman, D., & Larsson, A. (2019). Toward an integrated model for soft-mobility. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(19), 3669. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193669 Chapman, D. & Larsson, A. (2020). Perceived impact of meteorological conditions on the use of public space in winter settlements. Int J Biometeorol, 64, 631–642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-019-01852-5 City of Edmonton. (2016). Vision Zero: Edmonton Road Safety Strategy 2016-2020. Retrieved from https://www.edmonton.ca/transportation/VisionZero_EdmontonRoadSafetyStrategy_2016-2020. pdf City of Edmonton. (2016). Winter Design Guidelines: Transforming Edmonton into a Great Winter City. Retrieved from https://www.edmonton.ca/city_government/documents/PDF/WinterCityDesignGuidelines_draft.p df City of Edmonton. (n.d.) Snow on Sidewalks Enforcement, from https://www.edmonton.ca/city_government/bylaws/snow-on-sidewalks-enforcement.aspx City of Edmonton. (2019). Breaking the ice on Edmonton’s snow and ice pilot project. Transforming Edmonton, from https://transforming.edmonton.ca/breaking-the-ice-on-edmontons-snow-and-ice-pilot-project/ City of Rochester. (n.d.). Embellishment Fees on the Property Tax Bill. City of Rochester. Retrieved April 20, 2021, from https://www.cityofrochester.gov/article.aspx?id=8589936477 City of Saskatoon. (n.d.). Sidewalk Snow Clearing – Pictorial Reference: Transportation & Utilities Department. https://www.saskatoon.ca/sites/default/files/documents/transportation-utilities/public-works/road ways/snow-ice/sidewalk_snow_clearing_guidelines.pdf
47
City of Stockholm. (2019). Snow and Slipperiness. Trafikkontoret, from https://trafik.stockholm/gator-torg/sno-halka/ City of Toronto. (2017, November 17). Clearing Snow & Ice from the Sidewalk (Toronto, Ontario, Canada). City of Toronto. https://www.toronto.ca/services-payments/streets-parking-transportation/road-maintenance/wint er-maintenance/clearing-snow-and-ice-from-your-property/ Clarke, P., Yan, T., Keusch, F., & Gallagher, N. (2015). The Impact of Weather on Mobility and Participation in Older US Adults. American Journal of Public Health. 2015;105:1489094. Coleman, P. (2001). “Pedestrian mobility in winter”, Winter Cities 20(1) 10–13 Crooks V. A. and Chouinard, V. (2006) ‘An embodied geography of disablement: chronically ill women’s struggles for enabling spaces of health care and daily life,’ Health and Place, 12: 345–352. City of Burnaby. (n.d.). Your Role as a Resident or Business. Retrieved April 20, 2021, from https://www.burnaby.ca/City-Services/Roads---Traffic/Be-Snow-Smart/Your-Role-as-a-Residentor-Business.html City of Edmonton. (n.d.) Climate Resilient Edmonton: Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan. Retrieved from https://www.edmonton.ca/city_government/documents/Climate_Resilient_Edmonton.pdf City of Edmonton. (n.d.). Residential Snow Clearing Schedule. Edmonton’s Open Data Portal. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from https://data.edmonton.ca/browse?q=Residential%20Snow%20Clearing%20Schedule&sortBy=re levance City of Edmonton. (2021, April 20). Winter Roads (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada). The City of Edmonton. https://www.edmonton.ca/transportation/on_your_streets/snow-ice.aspx City of Helsinki. (n.d.). Kadut ja liiken. Retrieved April 20, 2021, from https://www.hel.fi/helsinki/fi/kartat-ja-liikenne/kadut-ja-liiken City of Saskatoon. (2020a, November 27). City Council to consider neighbourhood snow removal plan. Saskatoon.ca, from https://www.saskatoon.ca/news-releases/city-council-consider-neighbourhood-snow-removal-pla n City of Saskatoon. (2020b, December 10). Residential snow removal proceeding on schedule. Saskatoon.ca, from https://www.saskatoon.ca/news-releases/residential-snow-removal-proceeding-schedule City of Saskatoon. (2020c). Information Report: Snowstorm 2020 Local Roadway Snow Removal Initiative. Saskatoon.ca, from https://pub-saskatoon.escribemeetings.com/filestream.ashx?DocumentId=125338 City of Toronto. (2017, November 17). Clearing Snow & Ice from the Sidewalk (Toronto, Ontario, Canada). City of Toronto; City of Toronto. 48
https://www.toronto.ca/services-payments/streets-parking-transportation/road-maintenance/wint er-maintenance/clearing-snow-and-ice-from-your-property/ City of Toronto. (2020). Automated Vehicles Tactical Plan. City of Toronto. https://www.toronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/7ec4-TS_AV-Tactical-Plan_Technical-Report .pdf Disability Justice Network of Ontario. (2021, February). City funded Snow Removal is a Human Rights issue. Change.Org. https://www.change.org/p/hamilton-city-council-city-funded-snow-removal-is-a-human-rights-issu e Duncan, K., Gibson, S. B., & Goulden, W. (2020). "Corrosion Effects of Municipal Anti-Icing and De-Icing Programs." Paper presented at the CORROSION 2020, physical event cancelled, June 2020. Drisdelle, E. (2019, March 11). City of Moncton to remove all sidewalks because they’re pointless. The Manatee, from https://themanatee.net/city-of-moncton-to-remove-all-sidewalks-because-theyre-pointless/ E-Estonia. (2019, November 8). Autonomous snow-shovelling robots coming to a street near you. E-Estonia. https://e-estonia.com/autonomous-snow-shoveling-robots/ Fletcher, R. (2017, December 26). Falls on ice seriously injure Albertans at triple the rate of people in Ontario. CBC News Calgary, from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/alberta-falls-ice-serious-injuries-rate-cihi-data-1.44606 51 Fleury, M. (2019, April). Winter Operations in the City of Ottawa: Public Works and Envrionmental Services Department. Frantz, D., & Collins, C. (1999). Celebration, U.S.A: living in Disney’s brave new town (1st ed). Henry Holt & Co. Friedman, A. (2020). Accessibility and Livability in Winter Cities. In Fundamentals of Sustainable Urban Design (pp. 213–221). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60865-1 Gagne, A.M. & Hebert, M. (2011). Atypical pattern of rod electroretinogram modulation by recent light history: a possible biomarker of seasonal affective disorder. Psychiatry Res, 187: 370-374. 10.1016/j.psychres.2010.08.010 Gillespie, A. (2019, January 29). Snow removal in cities prioritizes cars and often ignores people with disabilities. Roads: Greater Greater Washington. https://ggwash.org/view/70643/why-are-cars-prioritized-over-people-walking-and-using-transit-w hen-it-snows Givoni, B. (1998). Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design (Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York).
49
Goldbaum, C., & Cook, L. R. (2020, March 30). They can’t afford to quarantine. So they brave the subway. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/30/nyregion/coronavirus-mta-subway-riders.html Gyllencreutz, L., Björnstig, J., Rolfsman, E., & Saveman, B.-I. (2015). Outdoor pedestrian fall-related injuries among Swedish senior citizens—Injuries and preventive strategies. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 29(2), 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12153 Halegoua, G. (2020). Smart Cities. The MIT Press. https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/smart-cities Hippi, M., Kangas, M., Ruuhela, R., Ruotsalainen, J., & Hartonen, S. (2020). RoadSurf-Pedestrian: A sidewalk condition model to predict risk for wintertime slipping injuries. Meteorological Applications, 27(5), e1955. https://doi.org/10.1002/met.1955 Holland Area Visitors Bureau. (n.d.). Snowmelt: A Snow-Free Holland. Holland.org, from holland.org/snow-free-holland Ingram, K. (2020, February 4). What does it take to implement a municipal autonomous vehicle plan? Electric Autonomy Canada. https://electricautonomy.ca/2020/02/04/lessons-from-a-north-american-first-torontos-new-av-tact ical-plan/ Injury Prevention Centre. (n.d.). Economic Burden & Human Toll: Injuries Cost Us All, University of Alberta, from https://injurypreventioncentre.ca/burden/ Kerr J, Sallis J, Salelens B, Cain K, Conway T, Frank L, et al. Outdoor physical activity and self rated health in older adults living in two regions of the US. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity. 2012;9(89) Kirkwood, I. (2019). Lawn Care, Snow Removal Platform Yardly Raises $1 Million Seed Round. Betakit. Retrieved April 18, 2021, from https://betakit.com/lawn-care-snow-removal-platform-yardly-raises-1-million-seed-round/ Kitchin, R. 1998. ‘Out of Place,’ ‘Knowing One’s Place’: Space, power and the exclusion of disabled people. Disability and Society 13(3): 343-356. Kobayashi, A. (1997) ‘Paradox of difference and diversity (or, why the thresholds keep moving),’ in J. P. Jones III, H. J. Nast and S. M. Roberts (eds) Thresholds in Feminist Geography, London: Routledge, 3–9. Kojima S, T F, Ikeda N, Nakamura M, Y S. Falls among community-dwelling elderly people of Hokkaido, Japan. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2008;8:272-7 Kurjata, A. (2019, December 20). 'Snow-bot' automated Plow rolls into service for the 1st time in Canada. CBC News. Retrieved April 19, 2021, from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/self-driving-snow-plough-grande-prairie-1.540 2713 Josephson, A. (2018). Attractive winter spaces Maximizing the opportunities for social gathering.
50
Lawson, L. & Jackson, D. A. (2021). Salty summertime streams—road salt contaminated watersheds and estimates of the proportion of impacted species. FACETS. 6(1): 317-333. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2020-0068 Lee, L. (2015, February 6). A Community Approach to Clearing Snow From Sidewalks. Bloomberg CityLab. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-02-06/a-community-approach-to-clearing-snow-f rom-sidewalks Levitan, R.D. (2007). The chronobiology and neurobiology of winter seasonal affective disorder. Dialogues Clin Neurosci, 9: 315-324. Li, Y., Hsu, J. A., & Fernie, G. (2013). Aging and the use of pedestrian facilities in winter—The need for improved design and better technology. Journal of Urban Health, 90(4), 602–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-012-9779-2 Liang, S., Leng, H., Yuan, Q., Wang, B., & Yuan, C. (2020). How does weather and climate affect pedestrian walking speed during cool and cold seasons in severely cold areas? Building and Environment, 175, 106811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.106811 Lindsay, S. & Yantzi, N. (2014). Weather, disability, vulnerability, and resilience: exploring how youth with physical disabilities experience winter. Disability and Rehabilitation, 36(26), 2195–204. Lingjaerde O, Bratlid T, Hansen T. (1985). Insomnia during the “dark period” in northern Norway. An explorative, controlled trial with light treatment. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 71: 506-512. 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1985.tb05064.x. Litman, T. (2003), “Measuring Transportation: Traffic, Mobility and Accessibility,” ITE Journal, (www.ite.org), 73(10), No. 10, pp. 28-32; Retrieved from www.vtpi.org Lumebot – Made to work. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2021, from https://lumebot.com/ Matus, V. (1988). Design for Cold Climates (Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York) McKenzie-Sutter, H. (2019, January 30). A new Canadian city flirts with the dream: Heated downtown sidewalks. CityNews Montreal. https://montreal.citynews.ca/2019/01/30/a-new-canadian-city-flirts-with-the-dream-heated-downt own-sidewalks/ Meschke, J. (2019, January 14). Michigan City’s Heated SIdewalks Make it a Running Winter Wonderland. Runner’s World, from https://www.runnersworld.com/races-places/a25349263/holland-michigan-snowmelt-system-run ners/?utm_medium=social-media&utm_source=facebook&utm_campaign=socialflowFBRW&fbc lid=IwAR2uYvmaP_GDliBZI_BFacJYTigNmhqftD-HmvLG3Fhikix0n9z0KACngHQ Methorst, R., Schepers, P., Christie, N., Dijst, M., Risser, R., Sauter, D., & Van Wee, B. (2017). “Pedestrian falls” as necessary addition to the current definition of traffic crashes for improved public health policies. Journal of Transport & Health, 6, 10–12.
51
Metrolinx. (2020). Glycol Solution Snow Melting System. Metrolinx: Capital Projects Group, 2, 45. Mills, B., Andrey, J., Doherty, S., Doberstein, B., & Yessis, J. (2020). Winter storms and fall-related injuries: Is it safer to walk than to drive? Weather, Climate, and Society, 12(3), 421–434. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-19-0099.1 Mizumoto A, Ihira H, Makino K, Saitoh S, Ohnishi H, T F. Physical activity changes in the winter in older persons living in northern Japan: a prospective study. BMC Geriatrics. 2015;15(43). Morales, E., Gamache, S., & Edwards, G. (2014). Winter: Public Enemy #1 for Accessibility. Journal of Accessibility and Design for All, 4(1), 30-52. https://doi.org/10.17411/jacces.v4i1.57 Murphy-Lopez, S., & Cox, C. (2019). Winter Maintenance: Resource Guide. Toole Design. https://tooledesign.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Winter-Maintenance-Resource-Guide.pdf Nemire, K., Johnson, D. A., & Vidal, K. (2016). The science behind codes and standards for safe walkways: Changes in level, stairways, stair handrails and slip resistance. Applied Ergonomics, 52, 309–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2015.07.021 Newman A, Simonsick E, Naydeck B, Boudreau R, Kritchevsky S, MC N. Association of long-distance corridor walk performance with mortality, cardiovascular disease, mobility limitation, and disability. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2006;295:2018-26 Onley, D. C. (2019, January). Report of the Third Review of The Accessibility For Ontarians with Disabilities Act, 2005 [Review]. Retrieved from https://www.ontario.ca/page/2019-legislative-review-accessibility-ontarians-disabilities-act-2005 Open Data Edmonton. (2020). Bylaw Complaint Details. City of Edmonton, from https://data.edmonton.ca/Community-Services/Bylaw-Complaint-Details/ypje-j649 Oxley, J., O’Hern, S., Burtt, D., & Rossiter, B. (2018). Falling while walking: A hidden contributor to pedestrian injury. Accident; Analysis and Prevention, 114, 77–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2017.01.010 Papadimitriou, C. N., Psomopoulos, C. S., & Kehagia, F. (2019). A review on the latest trend of Solar Pavements in Urban Environment. Energy Procedia, 157, 945–952. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.261 Parachute Canada. (2020, July 31). Falls in seniors. From, https://parachute.ca/en/injury-topic/fall-prevention-for-seniors/ Parent, L. (2018). Rouler/Wheeling Montréal: Moving through, Resisting and Belonging in an Ableist City, PhD thesis, Concordia University, from https://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/984980/9/Parent_PhD_S2019.pdf Perez, C.C., (2019). Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men. London: Chatto & Windus, Pages 29-66.
52
Perrier, N., A. Langevin, and J. F. Campbell. 2006. A survey of models and algorithms for winter road maintenance: Part I, system design for spreading and plowing. Computers and Operations Research, 33(1): 209–238 Pressman, N. (1995). Northern Cityscape, (Winter Cities Association, Yellowknife, North West Territories). Petrov, P. (2021, January 4). Tallinn charges passive landlords for snow removal. The Mayor. https://www.themayor.eu/en/a/view/tallinn-charges-passive-landlords-for-snow-removal-3690 Praschak-Rieder, N., Willeit, M., Wilson, A.A., Houle, S., & Meyer, J.H. (2008). Seasonal variation in human brain serotonin transporter binding. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 65: 1072-1078. 10.1001/archpsyc.65.9.1072. Rannila, P., & Mitchell, D. (2016). Syracuse, sidewalks, and snow: the slippery realities of public space. Urban Geography, 37, 1070 - 1090. Ratti, C., & Townsend, A. (2011). The Social Nexus: The best way to harness a city’s potential for creativity and innovation is to jack people into the network and get out of the way. Scientific American, 7. Ripat, J., Sibley, K. M., Giesbrecht, E., Curtis, B., Touchette, A., Borisoff, J., Ethans, K., Li, Y., & Morales, E. (2020). Winter mobility and community participation among people who use mobility devices: A scoping review. Archives of Rehabilitation Research and Clinical Translation, 2(1), 100018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arrct.2019.100018 Rogers, S. H., Halstead, J. M., Gardner, K. H., & Carlson, C. H. (2011). Examining walkability and social capital as indicators of quality of life at the municipal and neighborhood scales. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 6(2), 201–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-010-9132-4 Rowe, M. (2013). Exploring disability identity and disability rights through narratives: Finding a voice of their own. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Rosenthal, N.E., Sack, D.A., Gillin, J.C., Lewy, A.J., Goodwin, F.K., Davenport, Y., Mueller, P.S., Newsome, D.A., & Wehr, T.A. (1984). Seasonal affective disorder. A description of the syndrome and preliminary findings with light therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 41: 72-80. 10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790120076010 Ryser, L., & Halseth, G. (2008). Institutional barriers to incorporating climate responsive design in commercial redevelopment. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 35(1), 34–55. https://doi.org/10.1068/b32066 Sawchuk, K. (2014). Impaired. In P. Adey, D. Bissell, K. Hanman, P. Merriman & M. Sheller (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of mobilities (pp. 570–84). London : Routledge. Seniors Home Supports Program. (n.d.). Seniors Home Supports Program. Retrieved November 14, 2021, from http://www.seniorshomesupports.com/ SnowBusters: Volunteer Strathcona. (n.d.). Retrieved October 14, 2020, from https://volunteerstrathcona.ca/snowbusters/
53
Speck J. (2018) Sell Walkability on Equity. In: Walkable City Rules. Island Press, Washington, DC. Stolte, E. (2019, January 21). Elise Stolte: Worst walk on my commute is city-owned. A winter city doesn’t have to be this painful. Edmonton Journal. https://edmontonjournal.com/news/local-news/elise-stolte-worst-walk-on-my-commute-is-city-ow ned-a-winter-city-doesnt-have-to-be-this-painful Studenski S, Perera S, Patel K, Rosano C, Faulkner K, Inzitari M. Gait speed and survival in older adults. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2011;305:50-8 4. Stout, M., Collins, D., Stadler, S. L., Soans, R., Sanborn, E., & Summers, R. J. (2018). “Celebrated, not just endured:” Rethinking Winter Cities. Geography Compass, 12(8), e12379. https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12379 Sylvestre, G. (2016) An icy response to the collective need for winter walkability: mobilities research and the Surefoot winter walking conditions bulletin. Prairie Perspectives: Geographical Essays 2016, 18, 24–31. Available at: http://pcag.uwinnipeg.ca/Prairie-Perspectives/PP-Vol18/Sylvestre.pdf Vision Zero Edmonton. (2020). Vision Zero: Edmonton Road Safety Strategy 2016-2020. City of Edmonton, from https://www.edmonton.ca/transportation/VisionZero_EdmontonRoadSafetyStrategy_2016-2020. pdf Watanabe, N., Setoguchi, T., Maeda, K., Iwakuni, D., Guo, Z., & Tsutsumi, T. (2017). Sustainable block design process for high-rise and high-density districts with snow and wind simulations for winter cities. Sustainability, 9(11), 2132. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9112132 Winter City Blogging. (2015, January 19). Edmonton reclaiming the joy of winter! Retrieved from https://wintercyclingblog.wordpress.com/2015/01/29/edmonton-reclaiming-the-joy-of-winter/ Wolvers, R. (2020) January 28, 2020. Available at https://twitter.com/WolversRob/status/1222084313635835906 (Accessed: December 18, 2020). Wray, S. (2020, January 23). Kingston kicks off IoT pilot with smart snow plough service. Smart Cities World. https://www.smartcitiesworld.net/news/news/kingston-kicks-off-iot-pilot-with-smart-snow-ploughservice-4962 Zembal, V. (2019). The only thing you need to know about winter in Edmonton is that it’s cold: Using lived experience to inform how urban spaces are designed, planned, and governed for winter conditions. https://doi.org/10.7939/R3-S2PX-YT49
54