3rd SPACE by Finlay McGregor

RD 3

SPACE

FINLAY MCGREGOR

How can public spaces stimulate social tolerance and exchange in our increasingly diverse and online culture?

ABSTRACT In modern Western-Europe public spaces have become less and less relevant in our daily lives, which have become more and more diverse culturally and socially. Information and Communication Technologies are increasingly blurring, traditional dialectics such as ‘public and private’, ‘work and leisure’ or ‘practical and cultural’. Perhaps our public spaces should adopt these ‘third’ ‘in-between’ qualities in order to be communally safe and act as the fundamental tool for cultural exchange within our increasingly diverse populations. In his book ‘The Forth Revolution’ Luciano Floridi identifies four revolutions in our self-understanding. They provide convenient settings in which to briefly discuss resulting aspects of development in the public realm and illuminate concepts and embodiments of ‘third space’ that may work towards its maintenance of safety and ‘otherness’ in a dialectical approach, inspired by the work of Michel Foucault. Within the context of the current ‘fourth revolution’ of ICTs and resulting complex and diverse networks Foucault’s ‘Heterotopology’ provides a condensed framework for notions of a ‘third space’. In December 2015 I visited two suburban settings, regenerated as ‘urban gardens’ geared towards appropriation and exchange, but through differing scales and processes. I have analysed them within this framework as manifestations of ‘other’ spaces; Parc de la Villette, a cultural urban park in Paris designed for the 21st century and completed in 1994 and Windrush Square, a renovated square in London, completed in 2012-2014.

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

PUBLIC & PRIVATE CURRENT CONDITIONS PAROCHIALIZATION

LIMINALITY

RECIPROCITY PORTICOS MARKETPLACE HELIOCENTRICISM

ORDER

MASTERY PARADIGM PLACE DE LA REPUBLIQUE

2.1 pg.7 . 2.2 pg.8 . 2.3 pg.9 .

ANIMATION

EGO & NARCISSISM EXPERIENCE EVENT

3.1 pg.11 3.2 pg.12 3.3 pg.13

THE 4TH REVOLUTION

ICTs MULTI-AGENT SYSTEMS FOUCAULT

4.1 pg.15 4.2 pg.16 4.3 pg.17

HETEROTOPIA

ORIGINS HETEROTOPOLOGY

5.1 pg.19 5.2 pg.19

PARC DE LA VILLETTE

MOVEMENT COMPETITION THREE CONCEPTS HETEROTOPIC ANALYSIS

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

WINDRUSH SQUARE

BACKGROUND DIFFERENCE HETEROTOPIC ANALYSIS

7.1 pg.35 7.2 pg.35 7.3 pg.36

CONCLUSION

PARADOX REMIX

8.1 pg.51 8.2 pg.51

0.1 pg.1 . 0.2 pg.1 . 0.3 pg.2 . 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

pg.3 . pg.4 . pg.5 . pg.6 .

pg.21 pg.21 pg.22 pg.23

INTRODUCTION 0.1 PUBLIC & PRIVATE “There is a rough parallel between the crisis of Roman society after the death of Augustus and present-day life; it concerns the balance between public and private life”1 This is the sentiment with which Richard Sennet introduces his book ‘The Fall of Public Man’. He goes on to explain how the Roman people found their salvation from an apathy of public life and its commitments in the form of secluded, exotic, spiritual and mystic beliefs in which to invest their energies; beliefs that came from various “Near Eastern sects, of which Christianity gradually became dominant”.2

0.2 CURRENT CONDITIONS One can draw parallels in today’s society, of which the ‘experience economy’ is a dominant factor; a society which Jean Baudillard has labelled with Guy Debord’s ‘society of spectacle’. We revere cultural experiences, in particularly those that are ‘different’ or ‘exotic’, yet there is an avoidance of the proverbial ‘other’ in daily life. This is an un-avoidable ‘other’ in the increasingly metropolitan environments we live in in Northern Europe. Maarten Hajer and Arnold Reijndorp site “the tension between [these] two trends [as] especially important for [their] search for the public domain”3. Indeed, it is going to be an increasingly important issue in our societies, with the current developments concerning immigration from the east. “Humour me for a second and imagine a country where the response to Paris involved an urgent debate about how to make public spaces safer and marginalised groups less vulnerable to radicalization.” This is a quote from an article Frankie Boyle’s wrote for the Guardian in November 2015. It speculates about the political developments in response to the ISIS attacks that had just occurred in Paris and captures the essence of the concerns that have directed my research in writing this dissertation.

Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.3 2 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.3 3 Maarten A. Hajer and Arnold Reijndorp, In Search of New Public Domain: Analysis and Strategy (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2001). p.49

0.3 PAROCHIALIZATION In their book ‘In Search of a New Public Domain’ Hajer and Reijndorp outline a possible solution to Frankie Boyle’s concerns. They do away with the general romantic notion of creating neutral public space as a place for ‘meeting’ and point out the need for more passive ‘exchange’ in spaces that can be appropriated by specific groups. This way visitors to those spaces can participate in local variants on their own everyday lives; following a ‘code of behaviour’ due to the dominance of a certain group, which is not impeding the experience of public domain, but rather producing it. They “assume that the concrete physical experience of the presence of others, of other cultural manifestations, and of the confrontation with different meaning associated with the same physical space, is important for developing social intelligence and forming a judgement.”4 Perhaps through this idea of ‘parochialization’ ‘safer’ public spaces that are less exposed and more occupied could be generated. Could these spaces, not strictly public or private, but somewhere in-between, function as vehicles for cultural development in a tolerant, cosmopolitan and sustainable manor? Could they stabilize the imbalance that Sennet laments? Is there a way we can increase an appreciation for ‘otherness’ on our doorstep and bring it more into the ritual aspects of our lives?

Maarten A. Hajer and Arnold Reijndorp, In Search of New Public Domain: Analysis and Strategy (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2001). p.12

LIMINALITY 1.1 RECIPROCITY ‘Liminal’ comes from the Latin word limen for threshold. Culturally it is often associated with ‘rites of passage’ - stages of change in role or position in society. As an ephemeral and intermediate passage between different conditions it was promoted by architect Aldo van Eyck as a design concept that emphasizes the relationship between two phenomena rather than their opposition. In this context, ‘liminality’ refers to transitional space; not one place or another; not one situation or another; a third in-between space constantly affected by the two. “Ritual performances of liminality are crucial to identity formation through the discovery and development of new understandings of the self.”5 Sennet is part of a general consensus among leading figures in urban theory on the importance of liminality. He emphasizes transitions between different spheres marked by ‘weak borders’6, advocating a notion of ‘porosity’ in urban environments that are made by performances of inhabitants that will overlap and affect one another7. This delicate, osmotic indication of space relates to the idea of ‘passive exchange’. 1B 1A

Quentin Steven, Loose Space: Possibility and Diversity in Urban Life; Ed. By Karen A. Franck, ed. by Karen Franck and Quentin Stevens (LONDON: Taylor & Francis, 2006). p.74 6 Maarten A. Hajer and Arnold Reijndorp, In Search of New Public Domain: Analysis and Strategy (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2001). p.128 7 Stavros Stavrides, Loose Space: Possibility and Diversity in Urban Life; Ed. By Karen A. Franck, ed. by Karen Franck and Quentin Stevens (LONDON: Taylor & Francis, 2006). p.175

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1.2 PORTICOS The medieval-renaissance city centre of Bologna is a perfect example. Its streets are lined with beautiful porticos; civic amenities that mediate between dwellings and the city outside. Andrea Palladio observed how this space of a third kind allowed communication and expressed communality. It was an architectural form of sacrifice severing some part of enclosure, yet it was carved out of public realm, in a reciprocal relationship that he took to be a cultural gain. From this he formed his thesis that “there is no communion without renunciation, involvement depends on the allotment of a share, proportioned to the scale and civic importance of the building or institution being designed.”8 Extended thresholds are ‘loose’ in their reciprocal nature and shifting effect on perceptions, yet they give relevance to their environ, providing an increased semi-occupancy.

‘The Sacrifice of Space’ by David Leatherbarrow, Common Ground: A Critical Reader, ed. by David Chipperfield, Kieran Long, and Shumi Bose (Marsilio, 2012).

1.3 MARKETPLACE Piazza Maggiore is the ancient heart of Bologna and its history reveals the more functional emphasis of Sharon Zukin’s ideas on liminality. Dating from the 13th century, it was home to one of the largest international open-air markets in Europe until the middle of the 19th century. This essential sustaining and commercial function provided a stage on which many varying layers of purpose and meaning could emerge and interact so that at its height it was the embodiment of the public domain. Feeding further into this milieu of interests, the Basilica of San Petronio provided for spiritual needs while the Palazzo del Podestà housed the governing bodies, with its balcony, from which they announced their decisions, while intellectually it was home to the oldest university in the world. All these established institutions had however emerged from the economic node that was the market, an example of Jan Gehl’s ‘necessary activities’ that must occur whatever the conditions. After ‘necessary activities’ come ‘optional activities’ which are essentially any form leisure: if these can occur, they will give rise to the ‘social activities’ that can most effectively fuel the safety of and cultural exchange in that place. Gehl contends that spatiality is paramount for this process - of which Piazza Maggiore is the perfect example: its porous perimeter provides a visual enclosure, giving inhabitants a primal inclusive sense of security. Plenty of thresholds and in-between spaces are ideal for a comfortable balance of prospect and refuge “in urban spaces that offered extremely good conditions for life between buildings”. However these ecological conditions were “largely unplanned” and “developed by residents in direct city-building process” that “evolved and adapted over hundreds of years” 9 , primarily in response to the functions required. So this points back again to the importance of liminality in terms of function before form in generating the other interpretations10 that will give a place its vitality. This balance of form and function is a fundamental aspect in design and an idea I will build on later on. 1E

Jan Gehl, Life between Buildings: Using Public Space (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2011) p.11 Maarten A. Hajer and Arnold Reijndorp, In Search of New Public Domain: Analysis and Strategy (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2001). p.128 10

6 1G

1.4 HELIOCENTRISISM Piazza Maggiore in its centrality reflects the medieval localized notion of space where everything had a hierarchical relationship, either an original position where it found its “emplacement and natural rest” or in new position to which it had been “violently displaced”11. It also sets the scene for their displacement in the first major upheaval in ‘self-understanding’, initiated when Nicolaus Copernicus published his treatise ‘On the Revolution of Celestial Bodies’ in 1543. In displacing us from the centre of the universe, he sowed the seeds of secular society and began our “external and comprehensive reflection on our human condition”13, a broader existential questioning of our significance and identity as communities and as individuals. It is the replacing of God with ‘warmth’ in our society, that Sennet highlights as the underlying motivation for what he deems our ‘intimate society’, which has replaced the impersonal public relationships that he contends allowed the public realm to function properly as an arena for exchange.14

Michel Foucault, Of Other Spaces: Utopias and Heterotopias, 1984 <http://web.mit.edu/allanmc/www/foucault1.pdf> 13 Luciano Floridi, The Fourth Revolution: How the Infosphere Is Reshaping Human Reality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). p.88 14 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.259

ORDER 2.1 MASTERY Charles Darwin sparked the second revolution in our self-understanding with his publishing of ‘On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection’ in 1859. His theories of evolution he displaced our central position on earth, above the biological kingdom, as no longer divine but mental. This added to the push instigated by the age of enlightenment to introduce natural order above faith and tradition, but also to restrain nature with that virtuous order -what defined us as the superior species. Jean-Jacques Rousseau had lead in the moral side of these ideas a century earlier. At that time appearances in public were controlled by appropriate codes of dress and conduct according to one’s place in society. “The public was a human creation, the private was the human condition. This was structured by what we now call impersonality; neither in public nor in private were ‘the accidents of individual character’ a social principle.”15 This made for a totally impersonal public realm where interaction followed rules of indirect expression of interests. Sennet points out that although this sterile civility may seem cold to us, it functioned well as a comprehensive system for instrumental interactions, where exchange between strangers was resultantly more predictable, frequent and effective than it is today. For Rousseau corruption in people stemmed from this way in which they acted differently in their impersonal manors to one another according to appearances: “people, in learning how to behave with the ‘delicacy of sentiment’ of actors, would cease having a deep and honest inner life”16 2A In an attempt to bring integrity to the fraudulence that he saw in the public realm of an increasingly secular society, he attacked the cosmopolitan nature of Paris and other European capitals as the root of these ills, a malign mutation of ‘civility’. He detested the city in its squalor and infrastructural mess and in 1757 wrote a treatise to show that these conditions forced men to behave like actors in order to be sociable with each other in public; material disorder was generating emotional and moral disorder all reflected in the make-up of the city a contrived yet obscure landscape functioning on indication in a deceitful manor. 15

Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.98 16 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.116

2.2 PARADIGM Contemporaneously with ‘Origin of Species’ Georges-Eugene Haussmann heeded Rousseau’s indictments with his mass-renovation of Paris. Put simply, he bulldozed the old medieval structure of the city and replaced it with grand boulevards and roads that facilitated public vigilance and formed barriers between homogenized districts and neighbourhoods - a paradigm carried forward into modernism. Before these changes Paris had “an intermixing of diverse classes in neighbouring buildings if not in the same house, and an intermixing of different qualities of stalls, shops, and even little fairs to serve these various clienteles”.17 Any sense of liminality at a human scale was being destroyed. A growing population had lost basic functional contact with each other and were thus becoming more isolated. Unlike in the 1700s, where people dealt with fear of the unknown through control and order of their sociability in public, people in the 1800s simply erased it. From this, a new order has risen in which strangers in public reassure each other through rituals that isolate each other - such as aversion of gaze or apologizing on the advent of talking18. Here Sennet charts the true beginning of the paradox of ‘visibility and isolation’ depicted by cafes that would spill out into Haussmann’s wide streets, but act as silent retreats from everyday life, rather than centres for social interaction. The honest masks Rousseau had desired had come to fruition, but along with a general right to silence.19 On the flip side, at least voyeurism was being catered for. 2B

Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.135 18 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.299 19 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.216-7

2.3 PLACE DE LA REPUBLIQUE Place de la Republique, in central Paris, epitomises the vast exposed public and homogenous spaces Haussmann created. It represents Rousseau’s negative notion of freedom “in not subjecting the will of others to our own”20 to do with distancing and anonymity; a positive situational aspect must follow “where capabilities are developed to enable people to meet their needs”21. The car has exacerbated this ‘negative freedom’ particularly in this instance, generating a ‘glorified roundabout’. But that has changed with its prize-contending renovation in 201022by TVK studio, “based on the concept of an open space with multiple urban uses"23. At two hectares it is now the largest pedestrian space in Paris, reclaiming its sunniest north-eastern side from the traffic and now including a flexible nodal space able to house various public activities in the form of The Monde & Médias Pavilion. Even on my winter evening visit the square felt crowded; bustling with skate-boarders, builders drinking, students socializing and most noticeably mourners of the Paris Attacks gathering around its central monument. The monument was erected in honor of the 90th anniversary of the French Revolution, personifying the Republic at and its three virtues of fraternity, equality and liberty. TVK studio have added a large ledge around its base, which was allowing an appropriation that superimposed the messy vernacular of memory on the ordered ‘officialism’ of history.24 Hundreds of candles on the ledge, below a dense clustering of images and messages, were drawing people in and engaging them in a deeper sense than the mere representational, inducing an active and spiritual closeness uncommon in everyday public life. The many contrasting handmade items had deeper meanings and political and social expression than the stone they were pasted on. Conclusively, a fine example of how pedestrianized animation and grass roots, heterogeneous expression can be brought back into a public space. 2D 2E

Ali Madanipour, Urban Design, Space and Society (United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), Chapter 9: Meaningful Urbanism, Composite Freedom 21 Ali Madanipour, Urban Design, Space and Society (United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), Chapter 9: Meaningful Urbanism, Composite Freedom 22 ‘Place de La République’, Wikipedia (Wikimedia Foundation, 2016) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_de_la_R%C3%A9publique> 23 Amy Frearson, ‘Place de La République Becomes Paris’ Largest Pedestrian Square’, Dezeen (Dezeen, 2014) <http://www.dezeen.com/2014/01/04/tvk-place-de-la-republique-paris/> 24 Karen A. Franck and Lynn Paxson cite Abramson (1998: 78), Loose Space: Possibility and Diversity in Urban Life; ed. by Karen Franck and Quentin Stevens (LONDON: Taylor & Francis, 2006). p.148

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2H 2I

ANIMATION 3.1 EGO & NARCISSISM Haussmann fossilized the notion our mental mastery, stemming from Descartes’ ‘I think therefore I am’ from back in the 17th century. We had the power of “conscious self-selection, fully transparent to, and in control of itself.”25 A tangible notion of psychology reflected in a systemic and communitarian ideologies of the time. Introspection was considered an accurate technique for self understanding, but its was in this new introverted arena that the third revolution in our self understanding occurred. Darwin’s ideas about ‘involuntary disclosure’ through ‘unconscious behaviour’ were concretized by Sigmund Freud. The Ego and the Id published in 192326 revealed a significant subconscious side to our minds, undoing our certainty in them. A uncertainty which he also portrayed in his ideas of society in crisis27. As the intermediate between the self and society, ‘community’ has been a particularly contested and often ambiguous ‘third’ aspect in our culture, especially regarding the nature of ‘tolerance’. Freud pioneered the theories of narcissism as a growing trait in our culture. In narcissism “the personal relevance of other people and outside acts is posed so repetitively that a clear perception of those persons and the events in themselves is obscured”28. This is a main drive for Sennet’s intimate society, where convention is brought into suspicion and “in the name of removing barriers between people”29 distances are in fact created; ‘civilized’ being seen as a snobbish impersonal concept has bourn a distorted idea of the city in which the concept of ‘community’ means a ‘retribalized’ ‘love of the ghetto’ where we have cast ourselves in the ‘chains of localism’. 3A

Luciano Floridi, The Fourth Revolution: How the Infosphere Is Reshaping Human Reality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). p.89 26 wiki Freud ego and id 27 28

Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). Pg. 19

Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.8 29 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.336

3.2 EXPERIENCE “When everyone is creating an individual polycentric urban area it is precisely in the ‘experienced time’ that the challenges for a new public domain lie.”30 Sennet points out that in in our secular society meaning is intrinsic in experience in and of itself.31 This adds to the un-focusable nature of narcissism in that it inhibits the ‘secondary ego function’ - a function which allows us to judge our realities from a distance and see what is in them for us, rather than take them as an absolute that fuels desires we are less able to act upon.32 So, as the focus becomes detracted from what you’ve done and more to how you feel about it, the ‘self’ becomes less an actor or maker, but rather governed by desires and possibilities. Likewise ‘community’ has become less about ‘action’ and more to do with ‘being’; thus more restrictive and less inclusive.33 This is in conjunction with Max Webber’s Protestant view of modernity where meaning and spirituality form the retreat of an inner world opposed to the degenerate meaninglessness of its outer, social counterpart34 which can’t be changed for the better.35 Sennet points to ‘play’ as a means of generating a ‘secondary ego function’ that will allow us to treat our feelings as objective and our realities as more malleable; conditions that allow for the ‘trial and error’ through which our own masks of civility can be created.36 While he supports a primitive view of a ‘community’ stuck in tradition, determined by ‘natural wills’ through highly structured relationships of proximity, family, trade etc. and in line with the Marxist idea of ‘Town vs Country’37 , today ‘community’ can be seen as ‘flexible’ and ‘contested’ where ‘tribalism’ in fact generates civility.38 Victor Turner pioneered this with his ‘symbolic’ stance on community, focussing on liminality in its suspension of normality in form of ‘communitas’. This is the idea of a universal form of antistructure found in all societies, for instance counter-cultural currents, which “ breaks in through the interstices of structure, in liminality; at the edges of structure, in marginality; and from beneath structure, in inferiority”39. Here a community is enacted through rituals that define its difference to other communities. It is seen as system open to changing interpretation which maintains an illusion of it’s ideals and stability, but is in fact changing due to these varying interpretations. 30

Maarten A. Hajer and Arnold Reijndorp, In Search of New Public Domain: Analysis and Strategy (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2001). p.68 31 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.151 32 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.219 33 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.223 and 263 34 35

Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). p.19

Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.295 36 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.264 37

Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). p.22 and 23 Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). p.24 39 (Turner, 1969, p. 128) cited in Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). p.32 38

3.3 EVENT Architect Bernard Tschumi‘s ideas can be seen as a physical counterpart to these antistructural ideas on society. He contends that in the age of pure information ‘shock’ and ‘surprise’ is all that matters as “characteristic of our contemporary condition, and of the dangers of life in the modern metropolis.” This ‘shock’ he sees as key in cultural development, going “against the nostalgia of permanence or authority”. He accepts our current condition and decides that “we may have to say that shock is still all we have left to communicate in a time of generalized information.” For him “In a mediatized world, this relentless need for change is not necessarily to be understood as negative.” In a more literal sense this translates into Tschumi’s fascination with event - one of his most memorable and defining phrases being “no architecture without event, no architecture without action, without activities”. He contends that our cities must strive to be heterotopic so that we can be stimulated by a fusion of diverse experiences with varying scales and meanings, something that architects must aid “by intensifying the rich collision of events and spaces”40. Marx pointed to new events as particularly important in the bringing about of dialectical thought and thus the reformulation of beliefs and uprooting of their personal natures.41 He also criticized commodification as a growing ill of society fuelled by capitalism and consumerism. Hajer and Reijndorp observe how urban space has become a consumed product, indeed “focussed on the massive increase in ‘events’ and positive places” but along with an “equally massive avoidance of all kinds of negative aspects of social progress”, so that “the growing middle class primarily uses the urban field in order to separate itself along social lines” where “an exchange between different social groups occurs less often”.42 Jurgen Habermas saw capitalism as comodifying social relations and thus instrumentalizing community. He proposed communication as the antidote - most important in steering modern society. He rejected communitarian theories which are based on equality, through subjugation of individuality to community principles, and looked to places such as universities, where consensus is reached via personal aspirations.43 This points to the ‘cultural sphere’ as a ‘third space’ between ‘public’ and ‘private’, where strong self expression can bring about wider cultural exchange and development. Increasing public appropriation of these places and their environs can provide the extraordinary experiences that we deem to majorly shape our personalities44 and provide more ritual stages for direct inspiration to be expressed perhaps going further than just social ‘tolerance’ and ‘occupation’ of public spaces.

Andrew Chin, Bernard Tschumi -Six Concepts Excerpt from Architecture and Disjunction CONCEPT I: Technologies of Defamiliarization, 2003 <http://workgroups.clemson.edu/AAH0503_ANIMATED_ARCH/M.Arch%20Studio%20Documents/Tschumi_6_C oncepts.pdf> 41 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.252 42 Maarten A. Hajer and Arnold Reijndorp, In Search of New Public Domain: Analysis and Strategy (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2001). p.53 43 44

Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). p.88

Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.263-4

“If the street could be the city art gallery, then why not a school? No shops but markets? The public realm has the ability to liberate many of our treasured institutions in such a way that they could be redefined. This is the work of the artist and architect, alongside the rest of the community.”45

People Making Places: Imagination in the Public Realm, ed. by Robert J. Powell (United Kingdom: Public Arts, 2004). p26

THE 4TH REVOLUTION 4.1 ICTS So, after three revolutions in self-understanding we still had the special quality of our superior ability in thought itself; no other being on Earth could outsmart us. Computers and Information Communication Technologies have changed this completely and are affecting what Floridi identifies as the 4th revolution in our self-understanding; we are coming to accept that “we are informational organisms (inforgs), mutually connected and embedded in an informational environment (the infosphere), which we share with other informational agents, both natural and artificial, that also process information logically and autonomously.”46 This vast interdependent web is almost stoic in nature, like the consciously interdependent fantasy world in James Cameron’s blockbuster ‘Avatar’. In a sense, it has removed ‘our chains’ of localism bringing about empowerment, democracy and opportunity on a huge level. Increasingly it acts as a ‘third space’ linking the apparently disparate aspects of our lives. Socially, Baudillard argues that it fuels narcissist desire in a “society of spectacle, in which image mediates social relations and production is no more than the accumulation of spectacles, so that social life is limited to the consumption of representations”47, while Will Self highlights its darker fissiparous and anomic nature48. Of course, the convenience and basic security of virtual space means novel perspectives and tolerance of ‘otherness’ can be nurtured to a much greater degree, however this all occurs at a distance, not in the ‘concrete’ conditions that Hajer and Reijndorp deem so necessary for true ‘public domain’ formation. 4A

Luciano Floridi, The Fourth Revolution: How the Infosphere Is Reshaping Human Reality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). p.94 47 Ali Madanipour, Urban Design, Space and Society (United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), Chapter 9: Meaningful Urbanism, Infrastructure of Meaning 48 thinkingindependant, ‘Will Self Internet and Digital Age’, YouTube (YouTube, 2014) <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MCdsKcDY1gQ>

4.2 MULTI-AGENT SYSTEMS “we are moving from being part of the political consensus to taking part in it, and such partaking is increasingly ‘just in time’, ‘on demand’, ‘goal orientated’ and anything but stable, permanent or long term.”49 In charting the downward spiral for the public realm and arriving at television as the embodiment of “the paradox of visibility and isolation”50 where we receive in depth information about our society, but are unable to act on it, Sennet did not for see the power of ICTs and their multidirectional properties. Floridi identifies our shift from a ‘historical’ where less information was recorded and was used retrospectively to ‘hyper-history’, “where ICTs and their data-processing capabilities are not just important, but essential conditions for the maintenance and any further development of societal welfare, personal wellbeing, and overall flourishing”51 For these reasons the internet has been seen as a major contributor to capitalist traits of dependency inequality and individualism that undermine involvement and change in communities.52 However, in these forms of individualism lie new possibilities for ‘reapropriation of meaning’, expression and ‘communal activism’53 Floridi concludes that “It is no accident that concepts such as civil society, public sphere, and community become increasingly important the more we move into a hyper-historical context. The problem is to understand and design such social space where agents of various kinds are supposed to be interacting and which give rise to the political multi-agent system”54. This unstable nature is precisely what public spaces must match, but also make up for. There is a liminal aspect of varied physical environments that virtual space can’t recreate. Convenience and dependence along with instant gratification and the fact that everything can be accessed on one screen can be seen to minimise reflection on information, correlating with narcissism. Will Self points out how “if you are spoon fed everything, everything is plausible, everything is within the same patina of reality” in an environment that doesn’t follow social codes all of these diverse aspects gain “the same kind of ontological status” and can “seem equivalently real”55. 49

Luciano Floridi, The Fourth Revolution: How the Infosphere Is Reshaping Human Reality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). p.183 50 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.284 51 Luciano Floridi, The Fourth Revolution: How the Infosphere Is Reshaping Human Reality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). p.188 52 53 54

Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). p.148-9 Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). p. 95

Luciano Floridi, The Fourth Revolution: How the Infosphere Is Reshaping Human Reality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). p.185 55 thinkingindependant, ‘Will Self Internet and Digital Age’, YouTube (YouTube, 2014) <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MCdsKcDY1gQ>

4.3 FOUCAULT Ahead of their time, Foucault’s methods, in their multidimensional nature seem very appropriate in the conditions of this ‘4th Revolution’. Dismissed by many of his contemporaries as somewhat of a maverick, he took an a-historic stance on culture, purposely avoiding interpretation and opting for commentaries in which he constantly and miscellaneously added to and shifted his trails of thought. With single works that referenced as many as 21,000 different sources 56, it is clear just how widespread and thorough Foucault’s research was. His extensive scholarship meant he could combine diverse and obscure sources in order to decipher the answers to his central inquiries into the interconnected formation of knowledge and power. This inter-temporal and multi-disciplinary approach has made him one of the most intriguing intellectual figures of recent times. Foucault’s work revolved around episteme - the bodies of ideas and understandings that gave shape to the knowledge and outlooks of certain times. For him ‘meaning’ was “a sort of surface effect, a shimmer, a form, and that what ran through us, underlay us, and what was before us, what sustained us in time and space, was the system”57 This goes some way in explaining the almost spatial quality of his discourses, working like “open archaeological and genealogical sites”58 into which he would draw his various sources to address problems from changing perspectives. His idea of Heterotopias provides insights into how physical public spaces could provide some support for the instability of virtual spaces and cater for ‘expresivist’59 notions of individualism and community. In reflecting virtual spaces perhaps these places can provide a more direct stage on which cultural differences can play out countering the loss in the public’s capacity to judge60 and in the doubt in its own expressive powers that Sennet observes, thus providing safer and more tolerant conditions.61

Gordana Fontana-Giusti, Foucault for Architects, ed. by Adam Sharr (London: Routledge, 2013). p.52 Gordana Fontana-Giusti citing (Quinzaine litteraire 15 April 1966), Foucault for Architects, ed. by Adam Sharr (London: Routledge, 2013). p.6 58 Gordana Fontana-Giusti, Foucault for Architects, ed. by Adam Sharr (London: Routledge, 2013). p.1 57

59 60

Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). p.94

Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.209 61 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man: [on the Social Psychology of Capitalism] (New York, NY: Random House USA, 1988). p.266

HETEROTOPIA 5.1 ORIGINS The word heterotopia is made up of the Latin word hetero meaning ‘other’ or ‘different’ and the ancient Greek word topos meaning ‘place’. It is no surprise that Foucault took the term from its original medical definition as the misplacement of an organ or formation of a tissue in a place where its presence is abnormal. He talked about it for the first time in a radio broadcasts in 1966 as ‘localized’ attempts at ‘utopias’ and ‘counter spaces’ “which adults create to efface, neutralize or compensate or purify spaces they oppose”.62 In 1967 he gave a lecture to the Parisian Circle of Architectural Studies, the notes from which would form the article ‘Des Espace Autres’ or ‘Of Other Spaces’, first officially published three months after his death in 1984. These are the six principles of Heterotopology – to which I have given my own simplified titles:

5.2 HETEROTOPOLOGY63 UNIVERSAL They are a universal phenomenon found in every culture and are thus hard to define exactly, however there are two general kinds. In primitive societies there are ‘Heterotopias of Crisis’. These are fixed spaces, but they are liminal in the sense that their populations are constantly changing, as individuals only reside in them while they undergo a transition in terms of their place in society; examples are menstruating or pregnant women, adolescents and the elderly. Foucault states that these places are being replaced by ‘Heterotopias of Deviance’. These are also fixed places, but with predominantly fixed populations made up of the odd members of society. Examples are rehabilitation centres, mental hospitals and prisons. He argues that retirement homes fall under both categories, as idleness is considered deviant in society.

ADAPTABLE They all have a “precise and specific operation” within society, but are prone to shifts in this nature. This is because of their very essence as places of ‘otherness’, which therefore change when society forces them to adopt novel functions and new meanings. The cemetery is a clear example: “Certainly a place unlike ordinary cultural spaces”, it has undergone a major shift from the sacred resting place of forefathers of society, in a central position around the church, to the suburban city of the dead’, on the periphery of society - due to the developing association of death with disease in our culture.

M. Christine Boyer Heterotopia and the City: Public Space in a Post Civil Society, ed. by Lieven De Cauter and Michiel Dehaene (London: Taylor & Francis, 2008). p.53 63 All quotes in this section are from Michel Foucault, Of Other Spaces: Utopias and Heterotopias, 1984 <http://web.mit.edu/allanmc/www/foucault1.pdf>

VARIED They have “the ability to juxtapose in a single real place several emplacements that are incompatible in themselves”. This is what truly defines them and makes them so relevant as a framework for a ‘third space’. In blending, yet contrasting “private space and public space, family space and social space, cultural space and useful space, the space of leisure and that of work”, they can foster otherness and its exchange effectively and acquire their distinctiveness.

INTER-TEMPORAL They also entail “temporal discontinuities” open to “heterochronias” that are linked to the transitory and precarious - as opposed to the traditional and continuous. “Heterotopias are most often linked to slices in time” in the sense that they break up conventional time, for example festivals or fairgrounds. Foucault also cites museum or libraries: “the idea of accumulating everything, of establishing a sort of general archive, the will to enclose in one place all times, all epochs, all forms, all tastes, the idea of constituting a place of all times that is itself outside of time and inaccessible to its ravages, the project of organizing in this way a sort of perpetual and indefinite accumulation of time in an immobile place, this whole idea belongs to our modernity” This practically preempts the internet in it’s increasingly universal function.

OPEN & CLOSED They “presuppose a system of openness and closing that both isolates them and makes them penetrable”. Often some form of concession must be made in order to enter - be it registration, worship, identification or simply conformity once within.

CONTROVERSIAL FUNCTIONALITY Finally, heterotopias "have a function in relation to the remaining space” or “creating a different space towards these known spaces”. This is particularly relevant in a liminal sense. By having a reciprocal relationship to the contested surrounding space or culture they can call into question the reality of those more ordinary environments, through illusion or perfection, in a dialogue that can bring about tolerance and cultural development in a bottom up and inclusive way.

PARC DE LA VILLETTE 6.1 MOVEMENT In the early postmodern architectural scene of the late 70s London, Bernard Tschumi found himself opposed to the retrospective school of thought. Instead of looking at the 17th and 18th century, he was on the search for a new exciting and dynamic direction for architecture. Tschumi looked to the art scene for inspiration and it was the work of Bruce McLean and his ‘pose band’ Nice Style which largely captivated him to express movement through drawings. Between 1976 and 198164 he produced ‘The Manhattan Transcripts’ - diagrammatic drawings mostly inspired by obscure movies that illustrated their events and mapped the movement of characters in scenes. Through this he “developed a vocabulary and a definition of architecture that was not about facades, proportions and harmony (as one used to say), but rather about spaces, movement and events”65 6A

6.2 COMPETITION Parc de La Villette was part of the Grand Projects program initiated by president Mitterrand in 1981 in order to provide modern monuments for the city of Paris66. The park was to occupy a space, 800 meters across and 1 kilometre from top to bottom, that had previously housed the huge Parisian abattoirs (slaughter houses) and the national wholesale meat market. The design competition ran from 1982-8367 and was a winning chance for Tschumi to test his hypothesis for the first time; “those arrows of movement, those movement vectors and those points of intensities”68. 64

‘The Manhattan Transcripts’ <http://www.tschumi.com/projects/18/> Kester Rattenbury and Samantha Hardingham, Bernard Tschumi - Parc de La Villette: Supercrit #4 (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2011). p.49 66 ‘Grands Projets of François Mitterrand’, Wikipedia (Wikimedia Foundation, 2015) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grands_Projets_of_Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand> 67 ‘Parc de La Villette’, Wikipedia (Wikimedia Foundation, 2015) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parc_de_la_Villette> 68 Kester Rattenbury and Samantha Hardingham, Bernard Tschumi - Parc de La Villette: Supercrit #4 (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2011). p.53 65

6.3 THREE CONCEPTS Along with the point grid, a system of paths directing circulation sits on top of what for Tschumi was the most important conceptual element of the design: the horizontal planes in the park. These are the spaces “to be appropriated by future users; through out them, there are points of intensity and points of actions, specific locations where things ‘happen’” 69 The superimposition is shown best in the iconic exploded axonometric diagram. “three autonomous independent logics … brought together as heterogeneous systems, [that] rather than trying to coordinate, reconcile, or harmonise … brought about extraordinary tension [where] the logic of each plane might be resolved internally, but the juxtaposition would result in something entirely different that took the action or event that occurred in space as an integral part of the architecture”70 6C

Kester Rattenbury and Samantha Hardingham, Bernard Tschumi - Parc de La Villette: Supercrit #4 (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2011). p.57 70 Kester Rattenbury and Samantha Hardingham, Bernard Tschumi - Parc de La Villette: Supercrit #4 (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2011). p.59

6.4 HETEROTOPIC ANALYSIS UNIVERSAL The predominant function of the park is as a field of movement between Le Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrieat one end and the Cité de la Musique at the other. This is most evident in its main ‘movement vector’ intersecting thoroughfares, one connecting the two ‘cities’ - the other running along the bank of the Canal Saint Martin. The scenic cinematic promenade takes a less practical route that reveals the many crooks and crannies of the Park. Here it can be seen to have its deviant function encouraging loitering and earning its reputation as a haunt for drug dealers, particularly at later hours.71 My brother observed explicit sale and consumption of marijuana during his visit in July 2015 , but at the same time the presence of many happy picnickers also revealing its multiplicity and tolerant nature. However, does the park function further than just an interesting picnic spot on a summers-day and as a cultural urban park year round? How far does its intriguing form combine with the established cultural institutions to this end? 6E

Ruth Blackmore, James McConnachie and Imogen Fortes, The Rough Guide to Paris, 14th edn (London, UK: Rough Guides, 2014). p.210

ADAPTABLE Le Grande Halle has been successfully transformed from an epic slaughterhouse, advocated by Haussmann during his projects, into a world famous multi-use venue, hosting “renowned national and international events” from a “variety of industries”72; the red folies however, have not been as successful in adaptability… They are the park’s most iconic features, occupying the emplacements of the grid. Visually, they certainly act as the intended ‘points of intensity’; their bright colour and sculptural forms drawing one in, like a bee to a flower. Consequently, I find them more obvious indications of appropriation than Tschumi’s intended planes. Their emphatically open-ended nature is what really attracted me to the park in the first place and what distils its intention as an inhabitable and expressive environment for the public. They are all based on a 12 by 12 meter red cube, within which a simple structural kit of parts was developed and then “subjected to permutations and combinations and intersected by the different movement vectors”73 i.e. ramps, stairs, elevators in order to achieve the variations within the ensemble. In their wacky nature Tschumi refers to Foucault’s discourse on madness and its necessity in society. His concerns are mostly to do with an ‘otherness’ in typology, that questions the relevance of the various dogmatic movements and –isms we have seen in recent times and “illustrates a characteristic situation at the end of the twentieth century – that of disjunction and dissociation between the use, form and social value”74 . But what about catering for ‘otherness’ in a more social sense? Several have been appropriated more permanently, in a sense privately, as cafes, one as a health centre. Some of these more permanent fixtures seem abandoned and are thus completely inaccessible. One hopes they are undergoing adaptation - otherwise they are melancholy exhibits. In fact, the majority of the folies appear rather run down and paradoxically fixed in form; inaccessible, either due to maintenance or just initial design and more sculptural than anything else. 6G

‘BIOMEDevice Europe’, 2012 <http://10times.com/venues/grande-halle-de-la-villette> & ‘Grande Halle de La Villette’, Wikipedia (Wikimedia Foundation, 2015) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_halle_de_la_Villette> 73 Kester Rattenbury and Samantha Hardingham, Bernard Tschumi - Parc de La Villette: Supercrit #4 (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2011). p.59 74 Gordana Fontana-Giusti, Foucault for Architects, ed. by Adam Sharr (London: Routledge, 2013). p.68 citing ‘Madness and Combinative’ by Tschumi 1996 (175)

29 6J

VARIED The briefing programme Tschumi had to address was five hundred pages long, written by five separate and non-cooperating committees with various interests added to by several political bodies also involved. Where some were concerned with “the old people in their wheelchairs, taking in the sunshine”, others with “the kids playing football” and others with “continuing the European city and the creation of urbanity”75, the point grid was the first definitive design decision that was made. This worked as a common denominator and strategy to deal with the often-opposing demands of the many involved, a network of emplacements that “anybody could read anything into”76. Tschumi has done very well in accommodating for all these needs, at the same time this points to the fact that he was initially only meant to be the master planner for the project77. If he had remained in this role, allowing for wider outside involvement in design a richer milieu for the project may have allowed for more ‘incompatible’ juxtaposition of ‘emplacements’ and more vibrant result. The various gardens along the cinematic promenade do provide differing atmospheres, however surely the ‘points of intensity’ should be chief actors of varied stimulation. 6L

Kester Rattenbury and Samantha Hardingham, Bernard Tschumi - Parc de La Villette: Supercrit #4 (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2011). p.55 76 Kester Rattenbury and Samantha Hardingham, Bernard Tschumi - Parc de La Villette: Supercrit #4 (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2011). p.55 77 Kester Rattenbury and Samantha Hardingham, Bernard Tschumi - Parc de La Villette: Supercrit #4 (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2011)

INTERTEMPORAL Le Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie as the largest science museum in Europe can be seen as an epic accumulator of time documenting the developments concerned, however along with the other cultural institutions around the park it operates more on a special ‘slice of time’ basis. These places are extraordinary providing special settings that revolve around unusual experiences. The park reflects this to a degree with its mystical nature providing an escape from ordinary daily life. As a lived space, the park also fluctuates unexpectedly;; one moment it is peacefully and silent, interwoven with the strides of ritual joggers;; the next it is animated by the excited laughs and shouts of thousands of children pouring out of the Zenith arena, their freshly fuelled imaginations running rampant in its landscape. 6M

6O**

OPEN & CLOSED Due to Tschumi’s request the park is the only major one in Paris to remain open twenty-four hours a day.78 Due to many spaces partially enclosed yet open to the rest, there is many a cave-like embodiment of prospect and refuge in the park. The gardens and routes act similarly, restrictive in certain places, so that Hajer and Reijndorp’s notion of ‘fences for public access comes to fruition where “symbolic orderings … demarcate particular spheres, without harsh isolation or exclusion”. This way the ‘actor-spectator’ effect can cater for the indirect exchange that produces a truly ‘public realm’79.

CONTROVERSIAL FUNCTIONALITY During my visit to the park, while walking along the cinematic promenade, I came across some children enacting a ‘localized utopia’ of sorts, in the form of a BB gun shootout. This was taking place in the ‘mirror garden’ - which forms an appropriate example of how heavily visual Tschumi’s park is in its achievement of heterotopia. Of the mirror Foucault made the analogy: “I see myself there where I am not, in an unreal, virtual space that opens up behind the surface; I am over there, there where I am not, a sort of shadow that gives my own visibility to myself, that enables me to see myself there where I am absent: such is the utopia of the mirror. But it is also a heterotopia in so far as the mirror does exist in reality, where it exerts a sort of counteraction on the position that I occupy”80. This is a form of Heterotopia that will have very little effect on the opposite space in terms increasing its occupancy or its tolerance for ‘otherness’, something in which Parc de la Villette can be seen as also lacking. Tschumi employed Peter Eisenman and Jacques Derrida to collaborate on a design for a garden within the central circle of the park. The concept for their project was khora, - Plato’s theory of a third space between our utopian ideals and intentions and the physical world in which we project imperfect versions of them - “the receptacle of becoming”.81 Over the course of several meetings ideas for its representation were debated, such as “a quarry, a palimpsest and a labyrinth” or “opportunities for users of the park to transfer imprints from one part to another”82; however, nothing constructive was ever agreed upon. Instead the space has remained a blank lawn, popular for football games or outdoor cinema screening on summer evenings83. As a monument the park is certainly a vessel for imagination; however, there seems to be an overriding obsession with representing this space in which Tschumi has become so absorbed in “creating the architecture for conditions” that he has paradoxically created a heavily conditioned environment. The largely homogenous result can be intimidating at times, in its ambiguity, as well as in its epic inhuman scale. To an extent this prevents the sense of safety I am searching for and limits any contesting dialogue with its surroundings. 78

Kester Rattenbury and Samantha Hardingham, Bernard Tschumi - Parc de La Villette: Supercrit #4 (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2011). p.59 79 Maarten A. Hajer and Arnold Reijndorp, In Search of New Public Domain: Analysis and Strategy (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2001). p.121 80 Architecture /Mouvement/ Continuité October, 1984; (“Des Espace Autres,” March 1967 Translated from the French by Jay Miskowiec) pg.4 81 Richard Coyne, Derrida for Architects, ed. by Adam Sharr (New York: Taylor and Francis(Routledge), 2011). citing (Plato, 1965, p. 67) p.48 82 Richard Coyne, Derrida for Architects, ed. by Adam Sharr (New York: Taylor and Francis(Routledge), 2011). p.49 83 Kester Rattenbury and Samantha Hardingham, Bernard Tschumi - Parc de La Villette: Supercrit #4 (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2011

WINDRUSH SQUARE 7.1 BACKGROUND Brixton is a pioneering example of multi-cultural society in Britain - inhabited by the first members of British Afro-Caribbean Community upon their arrival in England aboard the Empire Windrush. The area was hit particularly hard by recession in 70s, leading to the famous racially incited Brixton Riots in 1981. It has slowly recovered from its precarious state in the 80s and received The Great Neighborhood Award by The Academy of Urbanism in 2013. However, many believe this is merely due to its gentrification - as demonstrated by the recent Reclaim Brixton protest catered for by its recently renovated central square.84 Windrush Square was one of the 10 major Greater London Authority initiatives to improve public space in the capital, completed with the opening of Raleigh Hall as the Black Cultural Archives (BCA) in 2014. Formerly known as ‘Brixton Central Square’, it included three separate public spaces: Tate Gardens, Windrush Square and St Matthew's Peace Garden. The spaces were loosely defined by a series of important civic buildings including the Town Hall, St Matthew's Church, Raleigh Hall, the Ritzy cinema and the Tate Library. The project has been considered a success by locals and obtained the New London Architecture Award for the conversion of Raleigh Hall into the BCA only last year. Similarly to the renovation of Place de La Republique, the main intervention involved reclaiming ground for pedestrians. By doing this and removing street fencing and the enclosure of the previous public spaces it has allowed all of these institutions, with their heterotopic qualities, to be more readily available for the general public to easily access and use, towards a wider, general heterotopic atmosphere in itself. 7A

7.2 DIFFERENCE As our societies become an increasing mix of diversities established forms of Multiculturalism can be seen as out of date. In our cosmopolitan condition tolerance as equality often leads to a paradoxical assimilation of minorities into the majority. In a sense this can be seen as a natural process over time, however in this intended secular equilibrium difference can lead to ghettoization or radicalization in the yearn for identity.85 Gentrification has entailed similar issues in Brixton - where regeneration has been argued as part of the process.

‘Brixton’, Wikipedia (Wikimedia Foundation, 2016) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brixton>

Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). p.82

7.3 HETEROTOPIC ANALYSIS UNIVERSAL Before its renovation Brixton Central Square itself was more of a heterotopia in the deviant sense. It had an almost permanent population of unemployed, rough sleepers, street drinkers and drug users mainly occupying the centre of Tate Gardens and relegating normal people to its fringes. The flower beds and other foliage that enclosed this space had been reduced to grass or gravel in order to allow for CCTV surveillance and deter anti-social behaviour - this only making it less attractive to ordinary people and attracting more deviants. Policeman, drug dealer and street drinker had become icons for the space, which became associated with hate and stigma in the local community as a stage for un-progressive ‘otherness’ 86 “The ship is the heterotopia par excellence. In civilizations without boats, dreams dry up, espionage takes the place of adventure, and the police take the place of pirates.”87 The Brixton Forum was set up following the riots in 1981, allowing a direct grass roots involvement of the community in the formation of spaces and running of institutions, that has been the key to the success of the project. Although the deviants have been dispersed, they still regularly use Windrush Square and St Matthew’s Peace Gardens, but are now more integrated among ordinary people and other locals, in an arrangement that has breathed new life into the centre of Brixton and made it a safer place89 - a more universally integrated hub for Brixton. 7C

Shuhei Okadd, Transformation of Spaces and Places in Inner Cities: The Case of Gentrification in Brixton since the Riot in 1981(London: Royal Holloway, University of London) <https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/portal/files/23310523/javascript:;> p.252-4 87 Architecture /Mouvement/ Continuité October, 1984; (“Des Espace Autres,” March 1967 Translated from the French by Jay Miskowiec) pg. 9 89 Shuhei Okada, Transformation of Spaces and Places in Inner Cities: The Case of Gentrification in Brixton since the Riot in 1981(London: Royal Holloway, University of London) <https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/portal/files/23310523/javascript:;> p.272-4

ADAPTABLE St. Mathew’s Peace Gardens went through the change Foucault described when in 1953 it ceased being a burial site and its northern and southern ends were handed over to Lambeth council in 195890. The original proposal for the redevelopment also intended the joining of the gardens to the other spaces through the pedetrianisation of Effra Road, but was prevented by the authority of the St. Mathew’s Church.91 As a result, when the other two spaces became inaccessible due to the restoration works it became heavily occupied by the displaced deviant groups, who congregated around its central fountain. Those benches have since been removed, the remainder turned to face outwards and proper pedestrian access catered for with similar effects as in Windrush Square.92 St. Mathew’s Church was saved from demolition in the 1970s and instead underwent major internal structural changes dividing it into several spaces to provide facilities for the local community. Having undergone several further changes in structure and management it is now run by The Brix, established in 1992. The Brix has organised local consultations in the recent years in order to organise plans for re-landscaping more amenities in the surrounding gardens once funding is secured93 The church has provided for a variety of contesting emplacements over the years, which I will elaborate on shortly. Raleigh Hall has seen many different uses, including two different schools, a liberal club, the first motor-coach station in London’s headquarters and a furniture workshop. During the 1960s it fell into disrepair under the ownership of the Lambeth Council, housing a squatter community, until its renovation as the BCA. The cubic extension added to the front brings it in line with the other frontages onto Windrush Squares; enhancing its influence on the space and creating a partially enclosed space, which the institution’s café can spill out into. The Windrush Square development has brought about liminality in general, effectively extending the frontages of the other institutions as well and providing a flexible surface on which various festivals, markets and also spontaneous events can take place.

‘History - the Brix at St Matthews’ <http://www.thebrix.org/history2.html> Shuhei Okada, Transformation of Spaces and Places in Inner Cities: The Case of Gentrification in Brixton since the Riot in 1981(London: Royal Holloway, University of London) <https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/portal/files/23310523/javascript:;> p.263 92 Shuhei Okada, Transformation of Spaces and Places in Inner Cities: The Case of Gentrification in Brixton since the Riot in 1981(London: Royal Holloway, University of London) <https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/portal/files/23310523/javascript:;> p.298-303 93 ‘History - the Brix at St Matthews’ <http://www.thebrix.org/history2.html> 91

VARIED The buildings around Windrush Square cater for a variety of people and operate on differing terms. The Tate Library is a very popular study and workspace, but also has a social function for locals, some of whom I overheard complaining about a hotel opening up as a sure sign of gentrification. Next door the Ritzy provides leisure activities with its screenings and its bar. There is also the historical BCA and of course St. Mathew’s. At the moment the old church houses d’Gremio an atmospheric Spanish restaurant in its crypt space. Across from this is the entrance to The Brix, which houses 14 offices for various charities and small businesses on its top floor along with a professional looking “Hub” space on a lower level - offering more workspaces at affordable rates. A large hall space caters for a wide range of regular community activities including sports, education and religious events. Before this it functioned as the famous Mass Nightclub, also comprising the large space on the floor above, which is now The School of Communication Arts 2.0, providing higher education and work experience in advertising for young adults, with a relaxed classroom set up around a pulpit, including a café and lounge space. The Crypt space also used to house a bar hosting late night music events; the local parish has kept a space for worship on the first floor at the front of the building throughout these transformations94 So all in all this is a very varied environment with elements of work and play, public and private, transcendent and mundane etc. ; a far cry from Haussmann’s segmented city!

‘History - the Brix at St Matthews’ <http://www.thebrix.org/history2.html>

INTERTEMPORAL Windrush Square and its surrounding institutions are much more places of daily life than the festive Parc de La Villette. Temporally, one could observe that it had more of an ‘other’ time before its renovations, when deviants used it in an idle manor throughout weekends and weekdays. However, the Tate Library and BCA are both acting examples of Foucault’s ‘accumulation’ of time, while the square can now host many special ‘time slicing’ events, including festivals and fairs, throughout the year. In line with Parc de la Villette, the square now works more as a movement vector between institutions and modes of public transport, this constant fluctuation of activity throughout the day effectively animates the space. 7U

OPEN & CLOSED Windrush Square is now a fairly exposed space. However, several features help to loosely define spaces. Clusters of permanent chairs, providing spaces that can be appropriated by certain groups, along with other subtle demarcations, work to the effect of Hajer and Reijndorp ‘fences for public access’; however, this new set up of clusters allows a balance, so that pedestrians can still travel through the centre of the square even when the seats are occupied. The sculptural bench in front of the library provides a less defined perch, on which complete strangers sit comfortably in close proximity, usually for shorter periods of time than on the chairs. All the civic institutions around the square are open to all, yet enforce at least some sense of compliance which will undoubtedly involve user in a cultural sense. St. Mathew’s is open to the public, but the activities within are considered private: I was asked to be considerate of it’s operations on entry… 7W

CONTROVERSIAL FUNCTIONALITY Under the London plain tree, with its scatter of chairs and playful blob and water fountain, Windrush square stands out with its bright and elegant pedestrianized surface. It has a whimsical and reflective atmosphere, that contest the hustle and bustle of the surrounding environment, and is still used in an idle manor, in all conditions, to watch the busy street that runs adjacent to it. Although its ‘otherness’ is less marked than Villette, here universal functions come before form, allowing for ‘otherness’ to arise through the varying interpretations and activities, in a testament to Zukin’s ideology. ‘Shock’ certainly is not a structural property of Windrush Square , however it has served aptly as an arena for protests and expressions of controversy and ‘otherness’, such as passing JayDay cannabis festival marches in the past, more recently, celebrations after the death of Baroness Thatcher in 2013, protests against Israeli food products in 2014, the antigentrification Reclaim Brixton protests in 2015, as well as campaigning for refugee assistance. 7X

INSIDE THE BCA

CONCLUSION 8.1 PARADOX Parc de la Villette is a wonderfully imaginative and creative tour de force and can be seen to have had a massive impact on an area of Paris that desperately needed regeneration. It acted in the early 1980s as a test bed for left leaning ideas that could challenge the more conservative orthodoxy of the day, portrayed by Regan in the USA and Thatcher in Britain, and countered the growing conservative historiographical hegemony that was beginning to dominate the West towards the end of the Cold War. However, as a leading example of Deconstructivism, it shows a recurring unintended paradox that “in spite of the claims to pluralism, difference, ‘a war on totality’ and defence of ‘otherness’, this hermetic work is often monist, elitist, intolerant and conveys ‘sameness’.” 95 In a sense it can be seen to paradoxically reflect the French Republican multicultural ideology, stemming from the Enlightenment, where the public domain as expressly neutral, thus often indirectly and indiscriminately coercive.96 For these reasons, it was unable to break the mould and become a beacon of 21st century, caught at exactly the moment that would restrain it and lock it into the 20th Century. One could pose a Freudian instance of ego that has caused Tschumi rather than allowing ‘Khora’ or other spaces to develop to actually create such a strong uniformity that it could not develop; arguably a similar reason for the failed Eisenman and Derrida project. This seems a prevalent phenomenon these days with a proliferation of spectacular buildings in the cultural sector created by ‘star architects’ and catering for very specific social spheres and functions.

8.2 REMIX Individualism has flourished since the Enlightenment and within our competitive market. ICTs and Social media have brought about pluralist systems where, despite Sennet’s, worries personalism can act in a two-way flow, and individuals can use communities for selfbetterment but also constantly contribute to and reshape them, rather than striving to maintain them. This is a development we must nurture in our physical public spaces as well in order to counteract the inequality, segmentation and withdrawal that the internet also exacerbates. Liberalism with its laissez faire philosophy can be seen as outdated, in the instance of Tschumi’s ‘intense’ folies that in their extremely open-ended nature aren’t particularly useful or stimulating or in a wider multicultural sense where minorities should perhaps be specifically empowered or privileged so as to reach an equal footing with the majority. At Windrush Square we see how heterotopic places can evolve in many ways in a less plainly visible, yet more conducive sense. We need to look further into creating the conditions for ‘khora’ to emerge rather than, as at La Villette, trying to create this from scratch.

Richard Coyne, Derrida for Architects, ed. by Adam Sharr (New York: Taylor and Francis(Routledge), 2011). citing (Jencks, 1989, pg. 131) pg. 47 96

Gerard Delanty, Community, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 2009). p.76

‘Order’ shouldn’t mean homogeneity and top down implementation, but rather mere indication and coaxing of a natural process of involved ordering by those who dwell in and use the places concerned. At such a time when our population is expanding at an incredible amount, migration is becoming of paramount importance and the quantum of work facing the architectural profession is so massive that we need to seriously take stock of what we have rather than always thinking to build afresh. The 4th revolution is happening and its outcome is still unclear. It has however precipitated a paranoia of globalisation, invasion of privacy and a level of Orwellian state sponsored surveillance that was previously purely fiction. At the same time, it has allowed expression, collaboration and reproduction like never before. Maybe by looking back at the father of philosophy Socrates and at his famed avoidance of actually writing anything down, we could translate this into architecture as the means of adapting universal objects that we already have around us. Maybe the discussions we need to really embrace are with these existent objects. The challenge is to embrace the best aspects of the 4th revolution, move past the ocular, sensationalist, visually dominant egotistical Freudian state that we have found ourselves in and prioritise working with what we have rather than constantly seeking to throw away, build afresh, remove, obliterate and revolutionise.

IMAGES 1A. the-liminal-space.com, ‘Liminality’ <http://www.the-liminal-space.com/images/homepage-img08.jpg> 1B. My own photograph ‘Balcony portico, Bologna’ 2015 1C. My own photograph ‘Portico, Bologna’ 2015 1D. My own photograph ‘Street panorama, Bologna’ 2015 1E. il Resto del Carlino, ‘Piazza Maggiore’ <http://www.ilrestodelcarlino.it/bologna/cronaca/2012/05/16/713338/images/1245968-piazza_maggiore.jpg> 1F. Dr. Irene S Levine, ‘Palazzo d’Accursio , Piazza Maggiore’, 2010 <http://images.huffingtonpost.com/2010-0716-PiazzaMaggioreDSC03385.jpg> 1G. My own photograph ‘Piazza Re Enzo, Bologna’ 2015

2A. http://marie-antoinettequeenoffrance.blogspot.co.uk/, ‘Le Pont Neuf, A Day In 18th-Century Paris’, 2015 <http://3.bp.blogspot.com/SYXgq8bdwdE/VEHaCuVefXI/AAAAAAAAJbQ/9x6cYUFlgmY/s1600/Paris_congestion_Guerard.jpeg> 2B. Charles Marville, ‘Rue Fresnel’, 2013 http://www.unjourdeplusaparis.com/files/2013/11/rue-des-sept-voies.gif 2C. Maciek Tomaszewski, ‘Haussmann’s Plans Mimicked in the Construction of Szczecin’, 2015 https://s-mediacache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/3b/c2/15/3bc215da76059f3d1eb3d1e72a46b3a4.jpg 2D. ‘2011, Histoire de La Place de La République’ <http://www.v2asp.paris.fr/commun/republique/> 2E. Clement Guillaume, ‘Place de La République Becomes Paris’ Largest Pedestrian Square’ (Dezeen, 2014) <http://www.dezeen.com/2014/01/04/tvk-place-de-la-republique-paris/> 2F. Clement Guillaume, ‘Place de La République Becomes Paris’ Largest Pedestrian Square’ (Dezeen, 2014) <http://www.dezeen.com/2014/01/04/tvk-place-de-la-republique-paris/>

3A. Salvador Dali, ‘Metamorphosis of Narcissus’ (Pays de poésie, 2013) <https://paysdepoesie.wordpress.com/2013/10/16/narcisse/>

3B. Alee Denham, ‘The Planning Observer – Temporary Places: Pop-up Urbanism’, 2014 <http://www.planningobserver.com/index.php/temporary-places-pop-up-urbanism/> 3C. moimrestaurant.com <http://moimrestaurant.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/StreetFair-2.jpg>

4A. James Cameron, ‘The Indigenous Na’vi Connect to the Tree of Souls to Save a Life in Avatar’ <http://vignette2.wikia.nocookie.net/jamescameronsavatar/images/b/b6/Saving_grace.jpg/revision/latest?cb=201 00127190510> 4B. ‘Foucault’, 2013 <http://www.critical-theory.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/foucault2.jpg> [accessed 19 January 2016].

6A. Bernard Tschumi, ‘MT4’, 2013 <http://4.bp.blogspot.com/yU88RacDoBo/UUB5wfszwXI/AAAAAAAAGwI/zeuIOHBUS14/s1600/byronlast-tschumi-3.jpg> 6B. publicspace.org, ‘La Villette Before’, 1996 <http://www.publicspace.org/timthumb.php?src=/app/webroot/files/urbanps/projects/W02302B.jpg&w=1000&h=713&zc=1&q=95> 6C. Bernard Tschumi, ‘Exploded Axonometric of the Three Concepts’, 2013 http://www.metalocus.es/content/en/system/files/file-images/metalocus_La%20Villette_07_900.png 6D. lavillette.com, ‘Parc de La Villette En 1995’, 2010 http://lavillette.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/20Parcde-la-Villette-en-1995-achvement-des-travaux-sauf-le-jardin-des-quilibres-EPPGHV-Phillippe-Guignard.jpg 6E. My own photograph, Thoroughfare, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6F. My own photograph, Thoroughfare 2, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6G. My own photograph, folie P5, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6H. My own photograph, Bridge folie, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6I. My own photograph, Philharmonic folie, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6J. lavillette.com, ‘La Halle Aux Boeufs’, 2010 http://lavillette.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/6La-halle-auxboeufs-marche-aux-bestiaux-de-la-Villette-img_0005-fx.jpg 6K. My own photograph, grand hall, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6L. My own photograph, central, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6M. My own photograph, zenith, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6N. My own photograph, science city, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6O. My own photograph, darth vadar kid, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6O** . My own photograph, inside the city of science, 2015 6P. My own photograph, mirror garden, Parc de La Villette, 2015 6Q. flickr, ‘Football’ <http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2421/3990071637_743d6c18a7_m.jpg> 6R. paris-is-beautiful.com, ‘Open Air Cinema’ <http://cityguide.paris-is-beautiful.com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/02/4192-FESTIVAL-CINEMA-PLEIN-AIR.jpg> 6S. My own photograph, first folie, Parc de La Villette, 2015

7A. GETTY, ‘empirewindrushgett_3347461b’, 2015 <http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/03347/empirewindrushgett_3347461b.jpg> 7B. GETTY, ‘empirewindrushgett_3347461b’, 2015 <http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/03347/empirewindrushgett_3347461b.jpg> 7C. Shuhei Okadd, Tate Garden before renewal, 2005, Transformation of Spaces and Places in Inner Cities: The Case of Gentrification in Brixton since the Riot in 1981(London: Royal Holloway, University of London) 7D. Shuhei Okadd, Tate Garden just before refurbishment, 2009, Transformation of Spaces and Places in Inner Cities: The Case of Gentrification in Brixton since the Riot in 1981(London: Royal Holloway, University of London) 7E. My own photograph, 7F. History - the Brix at St Matthews’ <http://www.thebrix.org/history2.html> 7G. Shuhei Okadd, Is this a public or private space?, Transformation of Spaces and Places in Inner Cities: The Case of Gentrification in Brixton since the Riot in 1981(London: Royal Holloway, University of London) 7H. ‘Raleigh Hall, Brixton – Scenes of Dereliction from the 2000s’ (Brixton Buzz news, features and listings for Brixton, London, 2013) <http://www.brixtonbuzz.com/2013/08/raleigh-hall-brixton-scenes-of-dereliction-fromthe-2000s/> 7I. My own photograph, St.Mathew’s Peace Gardens, 2015 7J. My own photograph, Raleigh Hall, 2015 7K. My own photograph, Windrush Square chairs, brixton 2015 7L. londontown.com, ‘Mass Nightclub’ <http://cdn.ltstatic.com/2008/April/CM316888_942long.jpg> 7M. londontown.com, ‘Mass Nightclub’ <http://cdn.ltstatic.com/2008/April/CM316888_942long.jpg> 7N. My own photograph, the hub at the brix, 2015 7O. My own photograph, communication arts school, the brix, 2015 7P. designmynight.com, Gremio-de-Brixton-Babalou-1, 2013 http://static.designmynight.com/uploads/2013/06/gremio-de-brixton-babalou-1-optimised.jpg 7Q. My own photograph, st..mathew’s parish space, brixton, 2015 7R. My own photograph, d’Gremio, brixton 2015 7S. My own photograph, Brixton Library entrance, 2015

7T. My own photograph, The Ritzy, 2015 7U. brixton, ‘Brixton-Splash-2014-Pics-26’, 2014 <http://www.brixtonsplash.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/01/brixton-splash-2014-pics-26.jpg> 7V. Brixton Night Market Brings a Halloween Street Party to Windrush Square, Fri 30th-Sat 31st Oct’ (Brixton Buzz news, features and listings for Brixton, London, 2015) http://www.brixtonbuzz.com/2015/10/brixton-nightmarket-brings-a-halloween-street-party-to-windrush-square-fri-30th-sat-31st-oct/ 7W. My own photograph, Windrush Square Chairs, 2015 7X. demotix, ‘Protests’, 2015 http://i1.mirror.co.uk/incoming/article5582873.ece/ALTERNATES/s615/PAYBrixton-protest.jpg 7Y. Brixton Campaigners Assemble in Windrush Square ahead of the London End Austerity March’ (Brixton Buzz news, features and listings for Brixton, London, 2015) <http://www.brixtonbuzz.com/2015/06/photos-brixtoncampaigners-assemble-in-windrush-square-ahead-of-the-london-end-austerity-march/> 7Z. Metro, ‘Rejoice’ <https://metrouk2.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/ay107495645london-united-kie1365448460535.jpg> 7*. http://cdn.c.photoshelter.com/img-get/I0000.b4qAQaewDM/t/200/I0000.b4qAQaewDM.jpg INSIDE THE BCA , my own photographs, from the public exhibition.

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Many thanks to Daniel Armelle Mum & Dad for all their advice!

JANUARY 2016