An Examination of Indigenous Cultural Keystone Species

Fitzsimmons 1 Emily Fitzsimmons Dr. Gina Stuart-Richard NAS 3313 995 25 November 2020 An Examination of Indigenous Cultural Keystone Species In the past 500 years, colonizers have not only performed systemic genocide on Indigenous peoples but also against the natural American environment. European settlers considered it not only their God-given right but their ethical responsibility to tame the wild to their vision and exploit resources for their benefit. Such brutal campaigns often involved hunting keystone species to near extinction for various reasons. For instance, wolf populations were ruthlessly hunted, severely dwindling their numbers across the continent, even in wildlife preservations. This was done to secure high populations of livestock and wild prey for humans’ own use (Robbins et al. 184-200). Likewise, massive hunting campaigns nearly eradicated bison, an animal upon which many Native American tribes depended. This movement was even more malicious because its intent was to weaken the Indigenous peoples by taking away their primary food source (“InterTribal�). More recently, many tribes have been struggling for their rights to salmon as their numbers have been quickly decreasing due to anthropogenic climate change, dam construction, overfishing, and industrialized aquaculture (Brooks and Columbi 4, 7-8, 200). Such operations not only critically damage natural ecosystems but also social ecosystems because these animals are cultural keystone species, or species that hold great significance for a culture in spiritual, historical, or everyday means.

All components of an ecosystem are interconnected, from the apex predator to plants to the smallest insects; because of this interrelatedness, a change or disappearance of one species

Fitzsimmons 2 will cause ripple effects throughout the ecosystem in varying magnitudes. A keystone species is a species that has considerable influence over the rest of its surrounding ecosystem, so if a keystone species were to disappear, the ecosystem would not simply change but become critically imbalanced. Similarly, a cultural keystone species has particular significance for a group of people; these species’ importance can occur in a culture’s ceremonies, traditions, art, language, histories, diet, medicine, tools, education, or similar components of everyday life (Kaclark). Unfortunately, in addition to the direct offenses taken against Indigenous peoples – genocide, displacement, rape, theft, and forced assimilation – the ecosystems that many tribes are spiritually connected to and depend upon have been damaged, including the eradication of some of the Indigenous cultural keystone species. Such attacks have had incredibly negative effects on Native Americans, including spiritual, material, and nutritional loss.

For example, wolves were a major member of the national American ecosystem until a few hundred years ago when they were aggressively wiped out by European settlers. The government paid hunters and park rangers to kill as many wolves as possible because they deemed the animals too dangerous for national park visitors, livestock, and other wildlife. The last wolf in Yellowstone National Park was killed in the 1920s, which resulted in an unbalanced ecosystem with high numbers of elk, overgrazed plant life, and the loss of other small animals.

When the wolves were reintroduced to the park in 1995, scientists saw just how critical the wolf was to the ecosystem as a chain effect of positive influences occurred: The overpopulation of elk ended along with the regularly occurring famine in their herds; plant life was allowed to properly mature since elks were not overgrazing; this provided more habitats for smaller species like birds and rodents; the returning willows, in particular, attracted beavers back to the area; the carcasses left by the wolves also fed scavengers, including bears. Overall, the reintroduction directly and

Fitzsimmons 3 indirectly provided more food and resources to a wide variety of species in the area and supported the necessary biodiversity (Robbins et al. 184-200). As important as wolves are to the natural ecosystem, they are also a cultural keystone species to most Native American tribes. For some tribes, wolves are part of their origin stories as gods, guardians, or predecessors to humans.

Wolves are considered medicine beings associated with hunting, strength, loyalty, family, and healing. Additionally, many tribes, including my own, have wolf clans (“Native”). In short, the wolf has incredible spiritual significance to many Native American cultures, appearing in their histories and as symbols to their identities.

Similarly, white settlers attempted to eradicate the bison and almost succeeded. As settlers rapidly moved westward, millions of bison died from disease and excessive hunting; even worse, much of the hunting done by non-Indigenous people was solely for sport (“InterTribal”). Railroads even offered rides in which everyone on board would shoot at buffalo herds as the train sped by, leaving the dead animals behind. This vicious onslaught’s purpose was largely to decimate and subjugate the Native American tribes through theft of resources as well as the murder of spiritual family (“InterTribal”). Like the wolves, bison are also in Indigenous creation stories; since the beginning, the bison and humans have had a covenant that they would care for the other in a symbiotic relationship. Native Americans and the bison have a close, spiritual relationship based on respect. Additionally, many tribes have historically relied on bison for everyday life, including food, tools, clothes, and building materials. As a cultural keystone species, many Indigenous people have suffered from the cruel acts against the bison.

Fortunately, similar to the reintroduction of wolves in the past twenty years, tribes have worked very hard and finally succeeded in getting their own bison herds from Yellowstone, which will help restore their long-standing relationship (“Return”).

Fitzsimmons 4 Meanwhile, many Native American tribes, especially those in the north, have a similar relationship to salmon that those from the Great Plains have with the bison. On a survival level, salmon has historically been a major part of these tribes’ diets for 7,000 to 8,000 years, at least (Brooks and Columbi 185). Today, these tribes still heavily rely on salmon for food and income, for most of the members are fishers. Furthermore, the salmon holds significant cultural value, as it is commonly used in ceremonies, especially for milestones throughout one’s life (116-117, 187). Additionally, much of their foundational and generational knowledge about survival and religion come from water and salmon, the two most important beings to these tribes (185-186).

The interconnections within the tribe are based on their connections with nature, particularly the water and the salmon (117, 187). Like the wolf and the bison, salmon are also part of their creation and morality stories (189). However, also like the wolf and bison, this cultural keystone species has been decreasing in numbers due to actions by non-Indigenous stakeholders; compared to historical numbers, wild salmon returns are one-tenth of what they should be (xiv, 200). This decline is largely due to hydroelectric and irrigation dams, overfishing, habitat destruction, migration interference, climate change, and the heavy influences of industrial agriculture (4, 7-8, 200). The tribes have been fighting for their sovereign rights to locally manage the salmon for decades, especially in the face of community crises surrounding lack of economic independence, flexibility, and opportunity (110-115).

To summarize, cultural keystone species are species that carry extraordinary significance to a people; these species may be relevant in the people’s diet, material objects, rituals, stories, art, or other aspects of everyday and spiritual life. This report only examined the wolf, the bison, and the salmon as sociocultural keystone species; however, there are many more, even in just the Indigenous cultures. As Native Americans have been systematically targeted by white people, so

Fitzsimmons 5 have their cultural keystone species, whose elimination was used as brutal political and economic tools. Even so, the tribes have not been passive; they have worked diligently over the years to protect these animals, restore their relationships, and bring balance back to their natural and social ecosystems.

Fitzsimmons 6 Works Cited Brooks, James F., and Benedict J. Columbi, editors. Keystone Species: Indigenous Peoples and Salmon across the North Pacific. School for Advanced Research, 2012.

“InterTribal Buffalo Council Ships 40 Yellowstone Buffalo to 16 Native Nations in First Transfer of its Kind.” Press Release, InterTribal Buffalo Council, 6 Aug. 2020. PDF. Kaclark. “Cultural Keystone Species.” ANT 382/BIO 366 Renewable Natural Resources: Science and Policy Seminar, Davidson College, 9 Feb. 2016, https://naturalresources.anthroseminars.net/case-studies/reflections/cultural-keystone-species/. Accessed 26 Nov. 2020.

“Native American Wolf Mythology.” Native Languages of the Americas, 1998-2020, http://www.native-languages.org/legends-wolf.htm. Accessed 26 Nov. 2020.

“Return of the Native: The 25 Year Story of the Inter-Tribal Buffalo Council.” Youtube, uploaded by InterTribal Buffalo Council, 24 Aug. 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AeZ4lrb4-hs. Accessed 26 Nov. 2020.

Robbins, Paul, et al. Environment and Society: A Critical Introduction. 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2014.