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RESOURCE BOOK INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WASTE, WEALTH AND HEALTH FEBRUARY 15TH -17TH, 2013
Jointly organized by INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WASTE MANAGEMENT VIJNANA BHARATI MADHYA PRADESH COUNCIL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Venue MADHYA PRADESH COUNCIL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BHOPAL, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA
In association with
Resource Book International Conference on Waste Wealth and Health Feb 15th -17th, 2013 at MPCST, Bhopal, M.P.
Editorial Team: Dr. K. Balachandra Kurup, Programme Director, IIWM, Bhopal, India Dr. R.K. Singh, Resource Scientist & Group Head-Forestry & Environment Division, MPCST, Bhopal, India Dr. Amiya K. Sahu, President, NSWAI, Mumbai, India Mr. Surendra Sarsaiya, Senior Research Associate, IIWM, Bhopal, India Dr. Jaya Nair, Managing Director, RAUM International & Adjunct Senior Lecturer (Environmental Science) Murdoch University, Australia Ms. Roopali Gour, Senior Research Associate, IIWM, Bhopal, India Mr. Sampath Kumar, Former Chief Water Sanitation & Hygiene (WASH) UNICEF, Sudan Mr. Sumit Gautam, Senior Research Associate, IIWM, Bhopal, India Dr. J.P. Shukla, Principle Scientist & Group Head- Water Resource Management Group, CSIR AMPRI & Secretary, Vigyan Bharati, Bhopal, India Dr. Varsha Nigam, Senior Research Associate, IIWM, Bhopal, India Mr. Griraj S. Mandloi, IIWM, Bhopal, India
ŠInternational Institute of Waste Management, 2013.
Disclaimer All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from IIWM. The information contained in this publication represents those of the respective authors and not those of the publisher, IIWM.
Prepared and Published by
International Institute of Waste Management (IIWM) 64, Samaj Sewa Nyas Building, E-8 Extension, Arera Colony, Bhopal, M.P., India Website: www.iiwm.in; iiwmbpl@gmail.com; Ph.: 0755-2422360
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WASTE, WEALTH AND HEALTH FEBRUARY 15th -17 th, 2013
Conference Organizing Committee CHIEF PATRON Shri. Shivraj Singh Chauhan Hon’ble Chief Minister, Madhya Pradesh, India
PATRONS Shri. Kailash Vijayvargiya, Hon’ble Minister for Commerce & Industries, Science & Technology, Madhya Pradesh Shri. Jayant K. Malaiya, Hon’ble Minister for Water Resources, Housing and Environment, Madhya Pradesh Shri. Babulal Gaur, Hon’ble Minister for Urban Administration and Development, Madhya Pradesh
ADVISORY COMMITTEE Prof. S.P. Gautam, Member of MPPSC, Indore, Former Chairman, CPCB, New Delhi Prof. Pramod K. Verma, Director General, MPCST, Bhopal Dr. N.P. Shukla, Chairman, MPPCB, Bhopal Dr. Tapan Chakrabarti, Chairman, IIWM and Emeritus Scientist, NEERI, Nagpur Dr. Dieter Mutz, Director, giz, New Delhi Dr. Amiya Kumar Sahu, President, NSWAI, Mumbai Shri. Sunny Gour, Managing Director, Jaypee Associates Ltd. Dr. Navin Chandra, Chief Principal Scientist, AMPRI, Bhopal Shri. Anirudhhe Mukerjee, Director, MoEF, New Delhi Shri. P. Hari Kumar, Senior Vice President, BIAL, Bangalore Ms. P. Bineesha,Senior Technical Adviser, giz, Bangalore Shri. A. Jayakumar, Secretary General, Vijnana Bharati
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE Prof. G. Krishnamoorthy, Prof. Emeritus, San Diego State University, USA Dr. Sudhirendar Sharma, Senior Environmental Specialist, New Delhi Dr. S.P. Singh, Head, School of Energy & Environmental Studies, DAVV, Indore Shri. Mike Raghavan, CEO, Biesel GreenTech, USA Dr. Sasipraba, Dean, CWM, Satyabhama University, Chennai Shri. Ravi Raut, Managing Director, Sai Charan Urja Pvt. Ltd., Nagpur Dr. Girija, Professor, Agricultural University, Mannuthy, Kerala Shri. Arun S. Raj, Director, IIWM, Bhopal
ORGANIZING SECRETARY Dr. K. Balachandra Kurup Programme Director, International Institute of Waste Management (IIWM), Bhopal
International Institute of Waste Management (IIWM)
T
he International Institute of Waste Management (IIWM) is a unique institution in the waste management sector established in June 2009 by Vijnana Bharati supported by Madhya Pradesh Council of Science and Technology. In less than three years period, the IIWM has emerged as one and only such institute in the country which has focused mission, vision and action plan on waste management including various environmental issues, in general. During these periods, the IIWM has worked hand-in-hand with DST (GOI, Delhi), GTZ (Germany, through Delhi office), UNICEF- Bhopal, MPCST (Bhopal), MPPCB (Bhopal), BHEL (Bhopal), DAVV (Indore), National Solid Waste Association of India (NSWAI), and many other reputed institutions and organizations. IIWM can play a pivotal role in providing directions, advocacy support, R&D projects, training and capacity development, knowledge sharing & management of waste scenario in different parts of India. We are in the process of establishing satellite offices in other parts of India. Mission “Work with the communities, empower deprived groups to promote sustainable socioeconomic development with focus on waste management, environmental sanitation, water, governance, capacity development and concern for the environment.” • • • • • •
• • •
Objectives To provide advisory and consultancy services to the Government and Non-Governmental agencies, multi lateral and bilateral and corporate sectors on issues related to waste management, sanitation, hygiene, environmental protection and other related areas; To function as a policy advisory body to the Central and State Governments, Local Bodies, industries, and other agencies involved in waste management; To streamline governance in Waste management, Hygiene, Water and Environment sector for maximizing the efforts of all actors involved in similar activities as well as to introduce transparency and accountability mechanisms; To take up CSR activities of corporate & industrial sectors; To collaborate with Government, semi-government and non-governmental agencies in developing strategies, implementation plans, need assessment, feasibility studies, monitoring and evaluation of development programmes; To establish a Reference and documentation centre for networking and dissemination of information on waste management, sanitation, water, hygiene, environmental protection and management and other related topics. Publish Newsletters and monographs on best practices on topics mentioned above; To serve as a Resource Group in carrying out research and development initiatives through participatory research; To develop expertise in the field of waste management through short and long term courses; To organize conferences, seminars, workshops and periodical consultations on issues related to waste management, sanitation, hygiene and environment.
International Institute of Waste Management (IIWM) 64, Samaj Sewa Nyas Building, E-8 Extension, Arera Colony, Bhopal (M.P.) - 462039, India Website: www.iiwm.in; iiwmbpl@gmail.com; Ph.: 0755-2422360
Vijnana Bharati
I
ndia faces critical challenges as a nation in its march towards a welfare state. Considering the nature of the challenges which are so unique, only rapid strides in the sector of science and technology, in resonance with India's heritage can meet those challenges. In this context Vigyan Bharati, a science movement with swadeshi spirit has a great role to play. Swadeshi Science Movement was started in Indian Institute of Science- (Bengaluru) by a few eminent scientists under the guidance of Prof. K I Vasu. This movement gradually gained momentum and emerged as an organization with national presence. In 1991(Oct 20-21) at the Nagpur meet, it was decided, to launch the Swadeshi Science Movement at all India Level and named it as Vijnana Bharati. The state office in Madhya Pradesh was setup by the name of Vigyan Bharati. Aims and objectives of Vigyan Bharati • To champion the cause of Bharatiya Heritage with a harmonious synthesis of physical and spiritual sciences which nourish each other and flourish together • To rejuvenate the Swadeshi Movement in this age of science and technology for the purpose of national reconstruction • To spearhead the Movement for Swadeshi Sciences and technologies such as Ayurveda, Siddha, Meditation, Organic Agriculture, Vastuvidya, Forestry, Astronomy, Environment, Engineering etc. • To activate the Science Movement with a Swadeshi fervor in all the Bharatiya languages and at all levels, also through the mass media • To motivate young scientists towards greater creativity and originality. • To approach educational authorities for the inclusion of the information about the scientific heritage in all text books and curricular syllabi; • To utilize the R&D personnel and Institutions towards development of Indigenous technology and thereby to uphold the identity and dignity of Bharatiya Science in the comity of nations; • To interface with the Government and other agencies for the development of appropriate policies on education, economics, science, engineering, technology, industry and the like; • To encourage the development of appropriate technologies suitable for Bharat, consuming less energy and less capital, but maximum labour with due eco-balance, for meeting the rural needs in a decentralized method to the fullest extent possible • To confer honors and fellowships on persons of eminence and erudition. • To make villages self-reliant by imparting traditional and rural technologies to the people. • To help in giving modern interpretation of various scientific achievements, ancient and modern, by various means. • To publish books and journals, and organize seminars and workshops etc. on the developments in Science & Technology and on policies towards development. • To establish educational Institutions, training centers, and research establishments for the development and propagation of these programmes.
Vijnana Bharati A 357, Defence colony, New Delhi, India
Vigyan Bharati Vigyan Sadan, Kotra, Bhopal, India
Madhya Pradesh Council of Science & Technology (MPCOST)
T
he Madhya Pradesh Council of Science & Technology (MPCOST) was established in 1981 under the Department of Science and Technology, Government of Madhya Pradesh. It is an autonomous body, which has been registered under the M. P. Societies Registration Act of 1973. The General Body of the Council is chaired by the Chief Minister of the State. There are total 56 members in the General Body, comprising of ministers from development departments such as Water Resources, Public Works, Public Health, Forestry, Agriculture, Industries and Technical Education. The Directors of these departments are also the members of the Council. The chairman of the Council also nominates the four Vice-Chancellors of the State Universities, Eminent Scientists, Social Scientists, Doctors, Engineers etc. as the members of the Council. In the General Body there is also representation of National level scientific organizations. The Executive head of M. P. Council of Science & Technology is the Director General. According to State government order the Director General is also the Science Advisor of the government of Madhya Pradesh. Some of the activities of the Council are Remote Sensing Application Centre
Biotechnology Application Centre
Rural Technology Application Centre
Science and Technology Promotion and Popularization Centre
Research and Development Facilitation Centre
Technology Management Centre
Excellence Creation and Capacity Building Centre
Madhya Pradesh Quality Assurance Laboratory
Madhya Pradesh Library of Science and Technology
Prof. T.S. Murthy Science and Technology Centre
Publication and Public Relation
Regional Extension Centre
Madhya Pradesh Resource Atlas Programme
Ujjain-Dongla PlanetariumObservatory Complex
State Spatial Database Infrastructure
Madhya Pradesh Vigyan Network
Madhya Pradesh Telemedicine Network.
Madhya Pradesh Council of Science & Technology (MPCOST) Vigyan Bhawan, Nehru Nagar, Bhopal, M.P., India
Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board (MPPCB)
T
he M.P. Pollution Control Board, constituted in 1974, is a statutory organization with basic responsibility to ensure proper implementation of Environmental Laws within the State territory. The main objective of board is to maintain water, air and soil in healthy and usable conditions for various purposes. An adequate monitoring network has been established in the state to keep a constant vigil on the environmental conditions and related issues. Number of programmes under various national and international schemes, apart from State's own, are being implemented to achieve the objectives.
The Board has been vested with considerable authority and responsibility under various environment legislation to prevent the pollution. M.P. Pollution Control Board presently looks after the implementation of following Acts:
•
Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act,1974
•
Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
•
Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
•
Environment Protection Act ,1986 (certain sections)
•
Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
The main objective of M.P. Pollution Control Board is to maintain water, air and soil in healthy and usable condition for various purposes.12 Regional Offices, 4 Sub Regional , 3 Single Window System, 2 Monitoring Centre equipped with trained personnel and sophisticated instruments, are constantly keeping watch on environmental activities in the state to attain the objectives.
Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board (MPPCB) E-5, Arera Colony, Paryavaran Parisar, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH
G
IZ has been operating in India for 60 years. Currently 250 staff members, including 25 seconded personnel and 10 integrated experts are handling sustainable development measures worth about 25 million euros per annum.
India belongs to the G20. It is a ‘new’ donor and a nuclear power. Yet it is still home to more poor people than the entire African continent. Almost one in five of the world’s poor is Indian. Too few people benefit from the country’s rapid economic growth. Its environment is suffering and greenhouse gas emissions continue to spiral upwards. The government and the administration would like to remedy this state of affairs and are seeking support and advice from GIZ. We aim to live up to this confidence and trust. GIZ is working in areas in which demand in India’s emerging economy is high and in which Germany is particularly strong. Environment: Individual cities, federal states and the central government are implementing ambitious programmes with GIZ to remedy the disastrous environmental conditions in settlements and industrial zones. These include the introduction of economic incentives at national level to adopt activities that conserve natural resources. In rural areas, rural development policy is to be adapted to bring it into line with the threats posed by climate change. Energy: Our advisory services aim to improve energy efficiency in coal-fired power stations and in the use of electricity. One factor is the introduction of efficient refrigeration systems. We are, of course, also promoting the use of renewables. Pilot projects introduce German technologies, while new institutions like associations and specialised authorities are establishing an enabling environment for the use of these technologies. Private sector: GIZ is promoting small and medium enterprises, improving responsible business management and reforming financial systems to make them accessible to poor population groups. The Indian Government is introducing an across-the-board social welfare system in partnership with GIZ. One major component is health insurance for all Indians. We are advising individual federal states in the field of vocational training based on the German model. Our clients are the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU), and increasingly also Indian public sector clients and Indian industry.
Deutsche Gesellschaft Für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (giz) GmbH New Delhi, India
National Solid Waste Association of India (NSWAI)
G
eneration of Solid Waste is a natural attribute of all human activities, including agriculture, domestic and industrial. However if not properly managed, wastes can adversely affect environment, health and safety.
Urban population in India constitutes about 20% of the country’s population and is distributed in large towns and in metropolitan areas. Large industrial complexes have also come up in different parts of the country.The waste generated in these urban areas and industrial complexes is of great concern. The four mega polis of India have a daily per capita generation rate of about half a kg of domestic solid waste. The problems of collection, transport, proper use and disposal have become a gigantic task, straining both financial resources of the civic bodies and their physical capabilities, not to mention the problem of availability of disposal sites. Some of these areas have a population of about 10 million or more and still growing, and the daily production of more than 6,000 tonnes of municipal solid waste is a major management problem. The introduction of new materials, especially packaging materials, plastics and the like pose a different set of problems of disposal due to their inherent non biodegradability, among others. The problems of industrial solid waste are different and the nature and quantity depends on the product, raw materials and the process involved this requires careful consideration of management. Now the time has come when the experts and those interested in solid waste management in the country should come together, examine the practices currently in vogue, assess their suitability in the light of the existing regulations, developed cost effective and environmentally sound techniques and strategies and share such experiences. It is equally important to create awareness among the public on the need for environment sound management of all wastes. With this in mind, an association called “National Solid Waste Association of India (NSWAI)� has been formed on 25th January 1996. The association is also a member of the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), and provides forum for exchange of information and expertise in the field of Solid Waste Management at the international level. A memorandum of understanding between ENVIS through Senior Advisor, Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) Government of India (ENVIS- capacity Enhancement program) and National Solid Waste Association of India (NSWAI) have signed on ENVISCapacity Enhancement Programme on Urban Municipal Waste Management (UMWM) since 2002 and this association has been recognized as NSWAI- ENVIS center sponsored by MoEF.
National Solid Waste Association of India (NSWAI) B-703, Custom's Colony 'A' Military Road, Marol, Andheri (E), Mumbai, India
With Best Wishes from
A to Z Industrial Services (ISO 9001:2008, ISO 14001:2004) 3/26, Vijay Nagar, Indore, (Madhya Pradesh) Ph- 0731-2570372, 4068173 Consultancy Services and Turnkey Project for Sewage and Effluent treatment plant Annual Running Contract for O & M of S.T.P. and E.T.P. Supply of Mechanical Equipment for Sewage and Effluent Treatment Plants. Environment Monitoring (Air, Water, Soil). Testing Laboratory Ambient & Stack Air, Water, Effluent, Sewage, Sludge, Chemical etc.
Contents Messages Foreword Background and Genesis of Conference (ICWWH-2013) Chapter I Policy, Regulation, Reforms and Governance I-1
Technological and systemic challenges in municipal solid waste treatment and policy options for sustainable development in the sector Asit Nema
1
I-2
Policies and regulatory reforms in municipal solid waste management sector P. Prasada Rao
7
I-3
WasteWaste-management miracle in Warangal Almitra Patel
13
I-4
Waste audits – for management and industry development Jaya Nair
16
I-5
Experiencing a movement towards waste free Kerala R. Ajayakumar Varma
21
I-6
Municipal governance with regard to solid waste management Sanjay K. Gupta
28
Chapter II Solid Waste Management II-7
The performance assessment of municipal solid waste management utilities in the urban areas of MadhyaMadhya-Pradesh, India Amit Vishwakarma & Mukul Kulshrestha
31
II-8
Rotary drum composting of institutional organic waste Ajay S. Kalamdhad
38
II-9
Heavy metals study during water hyacinth composting Jiwan Singh & Ajay S. Kalamdhad
43
II-10
Reusing waste strawstraw- The green way Sumedha Puranik
47
II-11
Degradation of human faeces and role of bulking material (domestic ash) Kunwar D. Yadav
51
Chapter III Biomedical and Hazardous Waste III-12
Bio medical waste management (In the Government Hospitals of Madhya Pradesh) S. Fareed Uddin
53
III-13
Biomedical waste management in Kerala V.S.S. Nair
59
III-14
A case study on biobio-medical waste of government district hospital Ujjain MP Jagdish Palsania & Sangeeta Palsania
62
III-15
Assessment of a leachate treatment facility using leachate pollution index Dinesh Kumar & Babu J. Alappat
68
i
III-16
Agricultural utilization of sewage sludge: HM uptake, biochemical, physiological and growth responses of Mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) plant grown at different amendments rates R.P. Singh & M. Agrawal
74
III-17
Biomedical waste management now and then in india Ragini Kumari
88
Chapter IV Technology Innovations in Recycling of Waste IV-18
Waste incineration for urban india: valuable contribution to sustainable MSWM or inappropriate highhigh-tech solution affecting livelihoods and public health? Regina Dube, Vaishali Nandan & Shweta Dua
91
IV-19
A Bacillus subtilis for enhancing aerobic composting of biosolid waste Girija D., Francis Xavier, E. Sunil, Anjaly M. & Sreelakshmy P. Anandan
101
IV-20
E-waste management: issues and challenges in India Namrata Jain, Ashwini Sharma, Upinder Dhar & Santosh Dhar
106
IV-21
CoCo-processing of waste in cement kilns at ACC cement plants: A concrete step towards sustainable development Ulhas Parlikar
111
IV-22
‘Thumburmuzhy’ a new model developed for livestock waste aerobic
116
composting Francis Xavier, Girija. D., Kurien. M.O & Deepak Mathew. D.K
Chapter V Water Pollution and Its Management V-23
Assessing water quality for blue revolution Uday Bhawalkar
120
V-24
Correlation between prevalence of fish helminth infection in relation with the various abiotic parameters of Lentic water bodies Pinky Kaur , T.A. Qureshi & Rekha Shrivastav
123
V-25
Studies on fungal population of Halali Reservior with respect to environmental condition and its impact in fishes Rekha Chauhan & Meena Bankhede
128
V-26
Histopathological changes in the gills of fresh water murrel, Channa striatus (Bolch) exposed to lead lead nitrate Shivani Sharma, Sadhna Tamot & Vipin Vyas
134
V-27
Reduction of optimum alum dose by recirculating waste alum sludge in water treatment process Smita Joshi & Kriti Shrivastava
138
V-28
Technological UpUp- Gradation of Grey Water Treatment System Varsha Nigam, Giriraj S. Mandloi, Roopali Gour, Sumit Gautam & Surendra Sarsaiya
141
Chapter VI Waste to Energy VI-29
Waste wealth and eco health Kurien M.O. & Francis Xaxier
148
VI-30
Biomass: An effective approach for the control of pollution Kuldeep Tiwari & Anjum Ansari
152
From waste to wealth: Biomass hydrolyzing enzymes from the aquatic weedweed-
157
VI-31
Eicchornia crassipes Rajeev K. Sukumaran, Sabira Mohammad & Ashok Pandey VI-32
Waste to Energy: India’s potential and a microeconomic approach Mrinal Chadha ii
168
Chapter VII Case Studies and Best Practices VII-33
Municipal solid waste management: A study on Silchar town Assam Mithra Dey
177
VII-34
Decentralized options in waste managementmanagement- Best practices Mangalam Balasubramanyam
183
VII-35
Managing Waste: A Matter of Attitude Emmanuel D’Silva
189
VII-36
Integrated and sustainable solid & liquid resources management (SLRM) Vellore Model Srinivasan C.
193
VII-37
Improving Solid Waste Management through Service Level Benchmarking - A case study of 9 ULBs in Himachal Pradesh Vaishali Nandan & Shweta Dua
199
VII-38
Feasibility study and modernization of solid waste transportation systemsystem- A case study of Pune Harshul Parekh, K.D. Yadav, S.M. Yadav & N.C. Shah
204
VII-39
Solid Waste Management, a corporate responsibility: A case study of BIA Hari Kumar Parameshwar
208
VII-40
Waste Segregation in a crises management situationsituation-lessons from Bangalore Jaya Dhindaw, Kadambari Badami, T.G. Sitharam & H.N. Chanakya
217
VII-41
Integrated solid waste management issues in emerging economies: A case study of Nigeria (An ongoing project) Brajesh Dubey
227
VII-42
Zero Waste Management in Boras, Sweden Karthik Rajendran, Hans Björk & Mohammad J. Taherzadeh
243
Chapter VIII Sustainability and Knowledge Management VIII-43
Rational for Resource Efficiency in India – A Key for Sustainable Growth Dieter Mutz & Kristin Meyer
248
VIII-44
Sustainable development in waste management in India Sadhan K. Ghosh
250
VIII-45
In search of sustainability of urban solid waste management the emerging second USWM ‘Revolution’ in Bangalore Hoysall N. Chanakya
263
VIII-46
Resource utilization and environmental Management R.K. Srivastava, A. K. Shukla & K. K. Dube
273
VIII-47
Protecting our planet by recycling waste Narendra Jindal
275
VIII-48
ESTs and Empowering Community: As Keys to Sustainability in Waste Wealth and Health V. Jagannatha
280
VIII-49
Training and capacity building for water and sanitation hygiene in Madhya Pradesh, India Rajesh Puranik
286
VII-50
Capacity building and Training for improving Governance and Accountability in Local Government Institutions K.B. Kurup, S. Sarsaiya, R. Gour, V. Nigam, S. Gautam, & G.S. Mandloi
292
Chapter IX Abstracts iii
IX-51
Physicochemical analysis of the domestic waste water and Industrial effluents in Narmada River in Nimar regions Manoj Kumar Patidar & Yogendra Singh Chouhan
298
IX-52
Study of inin-situ growth performance at the early juvenile stages of Mahseer (Tor, tor), under seasonally changing limnological conditions of breeding grounds in Narmada river near Hoshangabad (M.P.) Rajkumari Badkur & Alka Parashar
299
IX-53
PhysicoPhysico-chemical study of water quality of Upper lake, Bhopal Smriti Bhargava & Pradeep Shrivastava
300
IX-54
Biodegradation of dairy effluent by using bacterial isolates obtained from activated sludge Ashish Vilas Mane, Porwal H. J. & S. G. Velhal
301
IX-55
Application of vermicomposted fly ash for plants: Utility of industrial waste Shibani Chaudhury & Debopriya Bhattacharyya
302
IX-56
Wetland: Conservation and restoration for sustainable development Arun Kumar Namdeo & Pradeep Shrivastava
303
IX-57
An Overview to identify polluting industrial clusters: A perspective of developing Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index and its advantage Shubham Gandhi, Gaurav Kumar Singh, Ajay Singh, Bhumika Kaushik
304
IX-58
Municipal solid waste management: A case study of phursungi plant, Pune Parveen Anjum, A. V. Mane, S. S. Chaudhury & R.D. Gaikwad
305
IX-59
Dry flower of China rose rose (Hibisc iscus rosa sien iensis) can be utilize ilized for the coloration of Punt Punti hore, An indigenous fish of Madhya Pradesh ntius sophor Pratibha Bagre, Alka Parashar, &Vipin Vyas
306
IX-60
Phytoremediation: Municipal and waste water treatment Zeba parveen
307
IX-61
A novel energy efficient process for making ceramic wall tiles using red mud and fly ash Jeeshan Khan, S. S. Amritphale & Navin Chandra
308
IX-62
“Eco“Eco-friendly, cost effective technologies on instant control of foul odor of organic waste and value added compost" K. B. Paudel, A. Poudel, P. Sipkhan & S. Mahat
309
IX-63
Volcanic Ash For Permanent Confinement Of Calcium: Calcium: Generation Of Basic Sites And Application To Knoevenagel Condensation Reaction Stuti Katara & Ashu Rani
310
IX-64
Synthesis of fly ash supported TiO2 photophoto-catalyst from coal generated fly ash Renu Hada, Ashu Rani & Vijay Devra
311
IX-65
Synthesis of High Surface Area Adsorbent Using Thermal Power Plant (Fly Ash) Vishwajeet Singh Yadav, Y. K. Mishra & A. K. Chaturvedi
312
IX-66
Development of Activation Techniques for utilization of Fly Ash and Volcanic Ash in Adsorption of Environmental Hazardous Dyes and Heavy Metals Sakshi Kabra & Ashu Rani Solid waste pollution and health Bal Krishan Sharma & Om Prakash
313
IX-67
iv
314
Abbreviations
AMPRI
Advance Material and Process Research Institute
CSIR
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
EST
Environmentally Sound Technology
giz
Deutsche Gesellschaft f端r Internationale Zusammenarbeit (Germany)
GoMP
Government of Madhya Pradesh
GoI
Government of India
ICWWH
International Conference on Waste Wealth and Health
IEC
Information Education of Communication
IIWM
International Institute of Waste Management
LA
Local Authority
LCA
Life Cycle Assessment
MoEF
Ministry of Environment and Forests
MPCST
Madhya Pradesh Council of Science and Technology
MPPCB
Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board
MSWM
Municipal solid waste management
NEERI
National Environment Engineering Research Institute
NIIST
National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science & Technology
NSWAI
National Solid waste Management Association of India
RDF
Refuse Derive Fuel
TPD
Ton per day
TPY
Ton per year
ULB
Urban Local Body
MESSAGE I am very happy to learn that International Institute of Waste Management is organizing an “International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health” on 15 1517th of February 2013 at Bhopal. It is a great privilege for me to be part of this event. The term ‘Waste Management’ includes all issues and processes associated with the generation, processing, and disposal of all categories of wastes produced by the huma humanity. The fundamental objective of waste management programme is to minimize or control the environmental pollution as well as utilize the waste as a resource. The collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of municipal solid waste are considered to bbe a major concern and challenge facing by the municipal corporation now a day day. The problem is even more acute in developing countries, where financial, human, and other critical resources are generally scarce. The local government has a major responsibility responsibility in collection, transportation and processing of waste. But this could be done only through stakeholder participation and strong political will. Here locally specific strategies and approaches play a key role in providing the technical knowhow, capability,, clear roles and responsibilities, dedication and commitment to serve the humanity. I hope the International Conference will be able to evolve a platform to the policy makers, implementers, researchers and academicians to explore innovative technologies aand nd solutions contributing to the development of a cleaner world. I am personally looking forward for creative and tangible approaches and strategies for addressing the critical issues. I express my heartiest est greetings and wish everyone productive and useful ul deliberations.
International Conference on Waste Wealth and Health (ICWWH-2013) Background and Genesis of the Conference
Globally, more than 1.5 billion municipal solid wastes (MSW) is generated every year, excluding the agricultural, forestry and industrial wastes. By 2025 this is likely to increase to 2.2 billion tons per year. Most of these wastes end up in landfills, as this is the most common way to get rid of the waste problem and is a throw-away strategy. However, throwing away leads to health hazards, safety issues and loss of the valuable resources. India is the second largest nation in the world, with a population of 1.21 billion, accounting for nearly 18% of world’s human population, but it does not have enough resources or adequate systems in place to handle the solid wastes. The waste management is intrinsically related to the culture, lifestyle, climatic condition, population density and the industry/residential characteristics of individual cities. Indian cities are fast developing in population densities and lifestyle changes. The per capita waste generation rate in India has increased from 0.44 kg/day in 2001 to 0.5 kg/day in 2011. There are 53 cities in India with a million plus population, which together generate 86,000 TPD (31.5 million tons per year) of MSW at a per capita waste generation rate of 500 grams/day. The total MSW generated in urban India is estimated to be 68.8 million tons per year (TPY) or 188,500 tons per day (TPD). Such a steep increase in waste generation within a decade has severed the stress on all available natural, infrastructural and budgetary resources. Yet reliable data on waste generation and disposal facilities are not readily available to plan and systematically implement the waste management facilities across the country. In Madhya Pradesh, municipalities are implementing the MSW projects in partnership with service providers and the present situation needs to be carefully studied for streamlining the effective implementation. According to the information available, Bhopal generates around 720 tons of MSW per day, Indore (557 tons per day), Gwalior (300 tons per day) and Jabalpur (450 tons per day). In Bhopal the only Municipal Solid Waste recycling organization is MP Agro State Cooperative Private Ltd, Bhanpur. In Indore MSW project is handled by A2Z Pvt. Ltd and they are making RDF and compost manure. In Gwalior, AKC Developers Ltd has been producing organic fertilizers from municipal solid waste. In Jabalpur, Ramky Enviro Engineers Ltd involved in the management of municipal solid wastes. The waste management technologies like land filling and incinerations are not a complete solution to this problem. The situation demands a major departure, a breakthrough from conventional and traditional delivery system, within the government sector, between governmental and nongovernmental sector and between public and private sectors. Despite the increasing use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in waste management policies and strategies in the past two decades, there is still a lack of qualitative review of the role of LCA in waste management sector. The need of adaptation to local conditions and at the same time technology innovation is necessary to be combined. There is a whole culture of waste management that needs to be put in place - from the micro-level of household and neighborhood to the macro levels of city, state and nation. The Ministry of Environment and Forests (GoI) framed “Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000 under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 making it mandatory for all Municipal authorities in the country irrespective of size and population to implement the directions contained in the rules. Most of the ULBs in the country have not been in a position to implement the aforesaid rules and situation has continued to remain highly unsatisfactory in spite of instructions given by the State Authorities and Hon. Supreme courts and High Courts from time to time. The 73rd and 74thConstitutional amendment gives constitutional recognition for Local Self Government institutions specifying the powers and responsibilities. Very few ULBs in the country have prepared long-term action plans for effective disposal of MSWM in their respective cities or towns. The current practice of waste management has serious implications on aesthetics, health, water quality and air quality. Therefore, considerable effort is required by evolving appropriate environmental management plan and implementing it to upgrade the current practices to the environmental regulatory and safety standards. The environmental management plan so evolved need to give thrust
on improving the current practices, especially with respect to open dumping, storage, primary collection, composting practices, street sweeping and fleet operation. It has been observed during various missions that waste management in the local bodies is mostly limited to the occasional removal of heaps of rubbish in roads and some public places. To deliver the statutory responsibility, there is an urgency to build up capacities of LAs in this relatively complex sector. The attitudinal changes of elected representatives and officials in the LAs are a necessary prerequisite to evolve a systematic SWM programme. The waste generator is not made accountable either for disposal or to pay for it. LAs require a strategic policy and direction, and also institutional, social and technical support in strengthening the management capabilities. In this critical situation, understanding the deep rooted implications of the waste management and environmental problems, the International Institute of Waste Management (IIWM) was established in June 2009 by Vijnana Bharati for undertaking tasks for improving governance and to facilitate the effective implementation of waste management programmes. The International Conference on “Waste, Wealth and Health� (ICWWH 2013) is a major step forward to understand, analyze, critically review the issues and challenges, technology innovations, lessons learnt etc in the waste management sector. Deliberations will be held on the existing technological applications and possible solutions in the field of waste management across the globe which lead to sustainability in the field of waste management and impress positively upon the everyday life of citizens. The International Conference (ICWWH-2013) is jointly organized by International Institute of Waste Management (IIWM), Vijnana Bharati, Madhya Pradesh Council of Science and Technology (MPCST), Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board (MPPCB), giz (Germany) and National Solid Waste Association of India (NSWAI) on February 15-17, 2013 at Madhya Pradesh Council of Science and Technology, Bhopal. The main objective of this conference is to bring together policy makers, planners, environmentalists, scientists, researchers, technologists, corporate sectors and industries for sharing knowledge, expertise and experience in subjects of relevance to streamline the effective implementation of waste management programmes. As part of the Conference we are bringing out a Resource book which contains original papers and selected articles on diverse aspects of waste management by eminent experts, policy makers, scientists and research scholars. The resource book is divided into 9 chapters such as Policies, Regulatory reforms and Governance, Solid Waste Management, Biomedical and Hazardous waste management, Technology innovations in recycling of wastes, Water Pollution and its management, Waste to Energy, Case studies and best practices, Sustainability and Knowledge Management and Abstracts. We hope that the resource book and the deliberations in the conference will be beneficial for policy makers, municipal officials, scientists, research scholars, and industries for evolving strategies for improved governance and sustainable waste management programmes. We would like to take this opportunity to express our gratitude to Prof. Pramod Kumar Verma, Director General, Madhya Pradesh Council of Science and Technology, Dr. N.P. Shukla, Chairman, Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board, Dr. A. K. Sahu, President, National Solid Waste Association of India, Mr. A. Jayakumar, Secretary General, Vijnana Bharati, Dr. Tapan Chakrabarti, Chairman, IIWM and Emeritus Scientist, NEERI, Nagpur, Mr. Arun S. Raj, Director, IIWM, Dr. Jaya Nair, Managing Director, RAUM International, Australia and Dr. Dieter Mutz, giz (Germany) for their continuous support and guidance. We gratefully acknowledge the support of Industries, Corporate sectors and other stakeholders. We are also grateful to all the Advisory Committee and Technical Committee members of the ICWWH- 2013 and the Governing Council members of International Institute of Waste Management for extending their support for conducting the conference. Dr. K. Balachandra Kurup Programme Director, IIWM Organizing Secretary, ICWWH - 2013
Chapter-I Policy, Regulation, Reforms and Governance
“Less pollution is the best solution�
With Best Wishes from Tanishi Organo Chem Plot No. 49-B, Sector No. 2, Dhar, M.P., India Tel: 0731-2702481 Email: rathi_rajk@yahoo.com
With Best Wishes from Cipla Limited Plot No. 9 & 10, SEZ Phase II, Pharma Zone, Pithampur, M.P., India Ph: 09009675103 Email: amol.hardikar@cipla.com
With Best Wishes from Belmaks Private Limited Plot No. 9C & 9E, Industrial Area, Sec – II, Pithampur, Dhar, M.P., India www.belmaks.in ptiwari@belmaks.in
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-I-1 Technological and systemic challenges in municipal solid waste treatment and policy options for sustainable development in the sector Asit Nema Foundation for Greentech Environmental Systems, New Delhi, India Email: greentech@airtelmail.in Abstract A large number of MSW treatment plants have been set up in the last two decades and more so in the recent past during the JNNURM in the country. However, irrespective of the technology of treatment the level of mortality among such plants is found to be very high. A rigorous case study from across the country brings out a wide range of systemic risk factors affecting long-term sustainability of such plants. Besides the external upstream and downstream issues, the analysis identifies inherent technological challenges affecting performance of the plants. These challenges pertain to, among others, feedstock quality and delivery system; unavoidable and high wear and tear of the plant and equipment entailing high replacements; poor odour and air pollution control measures inviting host community resistance; high sensitivity of biological processes; low energy recovery potential; poor quality and yield of compost/ biogas; and low to very low overall system efficiencies. Ultimate analysis establishes applicability of the Second Law of Thermodynamics and ascertains that a system characterized by high to very high entropy (disorder) cannot sustain a treatment plant as a financially stand alone facility. There is a need to objectively reappraise the current policy and approaches towards these plants. Instead of viewing them as ‘waste to wealth’ enterprise, they need to be looked as essential municipal infrastructure which are required to minimize municipal liability towards environment and public health. Instead of offering tipping fee corresponding to a small fraction comprising ‘rejects’, there is a need to go beyond and consider transparent provision of adequate ‘gate fee’ corresponding to ‘all accepts’. There is also a need to consider sanitary landfill as an integral part of the overall SWM system which represents a robust, elastic and forgiving backstopping facility.
Introduction As per the Census 2011 the total urban population of the country is 377 million and there are 6166 urban agglomerations and statutory/census towns. Total municipal solid waste generated in these UAs/towns across the country is estimated to be in the range of 113,000 to 151,000 MT/d. With increasing urbanisation and economic growth, average per capita waste loads are rising and evidently the problem of municipal solid waste management is attaining increasingly complex dimensions in all municipalities. In the chain of integrated operations, among others, the component of treatment has received greater attention, apparently with the premise of it being the most critical element under the resource recovery paradigm. With this premise a number of municipalities in the country have gone about setting up treatment plants prior to and during JNNURM (including UIDSSMT) and many more are planning to establish in the coming years. The technologies that have been attempted during last 3 decades are windrow composting, ‘waste to energy’ - either mass burn or RDF (refuse derived fuel), biomethanation, and couple of large scale and several small scale vermicomposting initiatives. India’s experiments with advanced treatment technologies started in mid-seventies, under a scheme of the Ministry of Agriculture. Under this scheme 13 compost plants - each of 300 MT/d capacity were set up across the country with the objective of generating organic manure out of MSW. However 12 plants had to be closed down within a short period (under 3 years), apparently due to a combination of internal and external factors. The only surviving plant at Bangalore could operate until around 2009-2010 due to favourable institutional arrangements, but had to be shut down and dismantled recently due to environmental considerations. Since then, the list of closed compost plants has been expanding e.g., several under the central scheme for 10 airfield towns launched in 2003; Thiruannanthpuram, Vijaywada, Thane, New Delhi, Devnar/Mumbai, Kolkata, Jagannathpuri, Shimla, Shillong, etc. 1
The Foundation has been promoted by Mr. Asit Nema who is a civil engineer with an M. Tech. (Env. Engg., IIT Kanpur) and M.Sc. (Sanitary Engg., IHE Delft, Netherlands). The Foundation aims to bring sustainability considerations in environmental infrastructure planning and technology initiatives. Contact: D-208, Sarita Vihar, New Delhi 110 076; Web: www.green-ensys.org; e-mail: greentech@ airtelmail.in; blog: http://indiahomecompost.blogspot.com.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Subsequently in 1987 an advanced mass burn technology based plant was set up at Timarpur in Delhi (300 MT/d, 3.75 MW), but that again had to be closed down within a short period of 6-9 months of commissioning. In the late nineties, biomethanation and RDF technologies were piloted under the programme for developing non-conventional energy sources. Under this scheme, the biomethanation plants at Lucknow (300 MT/d, 5MW, 2003) and Chennai (30 MT/d, 260 kW, 2005-06) closed down within one year of commissioning, while the Vijayawada plant (20 MT/d, 150 kW, 2004-07) operated for about 3 years before finally closing down - apparently for want of engine spare parts. Among the RDF plants as well, there are quite a few available references of closed plants in the country viz., Baroda (100 MT/d), Mumbai (80 MT/d), GunturVijaywada (2x200 MT/d, 5 MW, 2003-06), Jaipur (500 MT/d, 2008), etc. These RDF plants experienced several systemic and technological problems and closed down within a period of 1-5 years. Likewise in Mumbai a large-scale (400 MT/d, 1994) plant based on vermin-composting process was developed at Devnar/Mumbai which experienced premature closure within a short period of time. In this context, the case of Vijayawada is most relevant and intriguing as during 2002-06 it established three plants based on different technologies viz., composting, RDF and biomethanation, with a combined capacity of around 520 MT/d. However by 2008-09 all the three plants were dysfunctional, and in absence of the required investment in a sanitary landfill, the city was experiencing systematic open burning of waste at the dump site or indiscriminate disposal on the outskirts as well as along the exit highways. Apparently because these plants produce value added outputs in the form of either compost, biogas, RDF, or electricity, they are perceived to be like typical industrial enterprises and which are expected to sustain themselves through revenues from sale of the output. However, very often it is observed that irrespective of the operator (either the ULB or under a PPP) such treatment plants close down in short- to medium-term due to a plethora of internal and external systemic factors and perforce do not bring the desired environmental and public health benefits, least of all the financial returns. The challenges that all MSW treatment plants face are systemic which can be related to, among others, feedstock, technology, technical issues, institutional arrangements, financial returns, and environmental and social concerns, etc. However, there are a set of challenges which are common to all type of MSW treatment plants while there are others which are specific to a technology. This paper attempts to bring out a range of most critical challenges which can manifest in early stage of a typical MSW plant whereby undermining its operational continuity, and therefore builds a case for (a) adoption of least risky options and (b) provision of a robust ‘gate fee’ as the required incentive for the operator to sustain operations.
The Common Challenges Irrespective of the technology, a typical MSW treatment plant faces challenges related to project development and feedstock. Secondly, an MSW treatment plant by its very nature is a negative externality and thus involves environmental and social issues. These are briefly discussed in this section.
Lack of stakeholder participation Fast tracking of project development and positioning it as ‘waste-to-wealth’ initiative prevents participation of local stakeholders in the process and also creates misunderstanding with regard to the liability of the beneficiaries towards its sustained operations. Among others, the municipal workers and the host community are main stakeholders as they perceive to be adversely affected by the project.
The challenge of source segregation and feedstock quality Above all the technology options, the constraints in source segregation and separation system itself are rather challenging. After 12 years of introduction of the MSW Rules, 2000 it is evident that no municipality across the country can make the claim of achieving segregation of waste at source. Given the diversity of sources of waste and the diversity in socio-economic and educational background (literacy, awareness, concern towards environment/public health) of waste generators from different strata of the society across the country, source segregation is an extremely challenging, if not an impossible task. ULBs do not have the commensurate resources and expertise to provide for sustained awareness creation. Secondly, on their part the city residents do not seem to demonstrate such level of discipline and commitment either on a sustained basis. Further, on a given day over 300 different type of material could constitute mixed MSW stream and their relative fractions can vary on hourly, daily and seasonal basis. At the level of the treatment plant even the best available configuration of pre-processing machinery is unable to handle such variations in quality and quantity of mixed MSW and is therefore unable to produce a consistent quality of feedstock for processing in downstream units. Presence of abrasives e.g., ash, dust, drain silt, stones, construction debris; and corrosive materials e.g., leachate from rotting organics result in high wear and tear and corrosion of the equipment which forces operators to replace plant and equipment once every 5-6 years as against 10-12 years in a typical manufacturing industry. This is a worldwide feature of all MSW plants which entails high recurrent replacement costs.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Environmental, health and social concerns Any MSW treatment plant has an unavoidable adverse environmental footprint and the corresponding social impacts. Among others, odour emissions, impairment of aesthetics and contamination of surface and ground water sources are the main issues. More significantly, the health concerns that arise comprise psychosomatic impacts – giddiness, vomiting, loss of appetite; adverse consequences of flies and insects bites, etc. For the host community as well as those along the long haul routes, these in turn translate into lowering of property rates and very often being ostracised by others. Therefore any project without appropriate environmental and social safeguards stands to encounter significant resistance from the affected communities. As experienced in the case of Thiruannanthpuram, Thane, Vijaywada, Bangalore (KCDC) and several other cities, such resistance can be debilitating and could eventually lead to closure of the facility.
Challenges In Composting Generally it is perceived that the conventional ‘low cost’ technology of windrow composting is the ‘most appropriate’ option under Indian conditions. However, this being a low energy input system, it runs profound risk of adverse environmental, health and social impacts due to odour emissions as listed above. Secondly, with mixed municipal waste there are concerns on quality of compost due to presence of toxic heavy metals, antibiotics, pathogens, weed seeds, glass pieces, sharps, needles, etc. Thirdly, the nutrient value of MSW derived compost is very low and its shelf life is found to be less than three months. Fourthly, while the plant produces compost on daily basis, its demand among farmers arises only at the time of sowing which is typically twice or thrice a year. Thus while on one hand there is low premium on MSW derived compost due to quality concerns, overall sales volumes are also limited due to erratic demand pattern which together limit overall revenue realisation for operators.
Challenges In Vermi-Composting While vermin-compost is a relatively superior product, its production is quite a challenge. First of all it is suitable for only small-scale application and not an appropriate solution for large-scale application e.g., 100-300 MT/d capacity plants. Secondly, the indigenous species of earth worms are not found to be very effective, while the exotic species are found to be costing anywhere between Rs. 500-1000/kg or more. Thirdly, the worms can not be fed raw waste but only pre-digested waste, thus necessitating pre-processing of waste to avoid toxicity. Fourthly, earth worms are very sensitive to temperature (ideally between 20-28°C) and die off due to intrinsic heat build-up in the rotting pile or during summer when a major part of the country experiences temperature above 42°C. Earthworm mortality is also reported during severe winters. In order to prevent heat build-up rotting waste needs to be stacked in shallow ‘vermibeds’ (and adequately insulated during winters). This together with the pre-processing requirement translates into a very large foot print of the facility. Finally the worms also need to be protected from predators such as centipedes, snakes, rodents, birds, hens, and red ants. Because of these reasons, they require great care. In view of these constraining factors, it is found that sooner or later most well intentioned vermincomposting initiatives come to a close. One large scale initiative for 400 MT/d capacity was attempted at the Deonar disposal site in Mumbai during mid nineties and was abandoned within a very short period of time when the above cited challenges became evident.
Challenges In Waste To Energy Systems For the ‘waste to energy’ systems - mainly comprising mass-burn and RDF options, the major constraining factor is low calorific value of the feedstock (800-1500 kCal/kg). Open disposal of MSW on street corners, scavenging of combustible recyclables, high moisture content (especially during monsoon), high presence of inert – particularly road sweeping and construction debris, etc. are the main concerns and the ULBs have no control to guarantee any better feedstock quality. The waste therefore does not burn on its own in conventional boiler/ grate design but perforce requires supplementary fuel e.g., diesel, rice husk, wood chips, etc. Evidently this translates into high operating costs. While improved technology based boiler/ grate designs adopted in the case of the recent WtE plant in Delhi can now achieve self sustaining combustion with low calorie feedstock (~ 1100 kCal/kg), there are still concerns on relatively high plant wear and tear due to high inert content. Secondly, unlike the cold climate countries where the waste heat (from cogeneration systems of waste-toenergy plants) is utilised for district heating, there is very little scope for its utilisation in a warm climate country like India. As a result the net energy utilisation efficiency is merely 22-25% and thereby the revenue model remains weak. Thirdly, there are issues related to toxic emissions, capital and operating costs of pollution control systems (either by maximum achievable control technology (MACT), or best available practicable technology, (BAPT)) and the concurrent monitoring mechanisms.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Lastly, in case of an RDF to energy plant (and for that matter in others involving multistage processing), the overall system efficiency can be as low as 12-15% considering the first step of fluff or briquette making with of 50-60% efficiency, and the second step of power generation (sans cogeneration) offering 25% efficiency. With such a low overall efficiency in a production/ manufacturing operation, return on investments merely from sale of electricity may not be attractive and sustainable.
Challenges In Biomethanation In the case of biomethanation, process sensitivity to temperature variations and ‘low dry solids’ systems (~8-10% solids and 90% water) are seldom perceived as risks but they turn out to be profoundly critical. Temperature variation in the reactor beyond ±2ºC from the optimal (~37 ºC or 55 ºC) can disrupt the biological process, however due to cost considerations necessary technical safeguards are seldom adopted. Secondly, low dry solids technology entails addition of large quantity of water which results in large reactors and capex as well as adversely affects its heat balance, especially in winter. Last but not the least, biomethanation process is also very sensitive to feedstock toxicity, and over or under loading, etc. and which are not easy to avoid while dealing with a mixed MSW stream. Next challenge is with the process product and its usage. Since the biogas so produced is generally corrosive and odorous which together make adverse impacts on the equipment, engine, surrounding structures and the health and well being of the community in the vicinity – the effect of the latter aspect already explained in the context of composting. Next, the biogas engines brought from overseas (until recently were not manufactured indigenously) are found to be expensive both in terms of the capital and repairs and maintenance costs. Apparently the Vijayawada biomethanation plant closed down due to, among others, non-availability of engine spare parts at affordable rates. Finally there are issues related to connectivity with the grid, energy pricing, revenue realisation, etc. The Cost Differentials The cost differentials among different MSW treatment technology options are of an order of magnitude. For instance capital expenditures (ball park estimates in 2012) involved in setting up a 300 MT/day plant based on different technologies are as follows: (a) (b) (c) (d)
Conventional windrow compost technology: Mass burn WtE: RDF followed by WtE: Biomethanation followed by energy gen:
Rs. 8-10 Crore Rs. 37-40 Crore Rs. 65 Crore Rs. 100 Crore
Notwithstanding the comparative advantages of lower ultimate footprint of the WtE options and restricting organics into the landfills, it should be evident that for the same quality and quantity of feedstock, the higher order technologies with their increasing capital investments may not be able to provide commensurately higher level of value addition on the outputs (viz., biogas, RDF or electricity, etc.) and revenue realisation.
The ultimate challenge Finally it all boils down to the fundamental Second Law of Thermodynamics and the field of municipal solid waste management represents one of the most classical examples of its applicability. As per this law any system at a state of equilibrium would tend to move from a state of low entropy (disorder) to high entropy. In the case of solid waste, at the point of generation (household, establishment, etc.) itself the waste acquires a fairly high degree of entropy because of inevitable mixing, and which is resulting due to the entropy from lack of discipline, education, awareness, concern and commitment on the part of urban residents. As the feedstock moves down the collection chain its entropy increases at every stage, i.e., at community waste depots, in the transporting vehicles and at the transfer stations before finally arriving at the pre-processing stage of a treatment plant. Given the large quantities and inherent nature of putrefaction of municipal waste, overall entropy of the feedstock (mixed MSW) can only be considered to be rising. Entry of inert fractions such as construction debris, road sweepings, drain sludge and other contraries/ toxics; and indiscipline on the part of the collection and transport workers only provide a compounding effect. At the treatment plant, entropy in the broadest sense of the term is exhibited in the form of odour and other emissions, leachate discharges, process malfunction, and frequent plant breakdowns due to comparatively higher wear and tear, etc. On the product front it is experienced, for instance in the form of contaminants in compost or corrosive property of biogas, etc. Again in the broadest sense, weak institutional arrangements can also be considered contributing to the systemic entropy. It’s the property of entropy that the values of sub-components of a system do not add up but only multiply, and therefore in the case of a typical municipal solid waste management system it needs to be
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
recognized that its entropy only goes exponentially in one direction and that is upwards. According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, in order to contain entropy of a system, external force/ energy needs to be applied. In this context, limited efforts for segregation at source; and reuse, recovery and recycling by various stakeholders during the process only represent small steps towards reduction of entropy in the system, however in relation to the rapidly rising waste loads these are not significant. Treatment of waste, irrespective of the technology, represents that major stage of external energy input into the system whereby entropy of the feedstock – or let’s call its nuisance and hazard value, is attempted to be reduced significantly. Sanitary landfilling of the waste and the process rejects represents the next stage of significant energy input into the system whereby the putrefying, pathological, objectionable and at times hazardous matter is eventually contained into a comparatively smaller volume, thereby safeguarding environment and public health in the short-, medium- and long-terms.
Policy considerations for sustainable initiatives From the comprehensive analysis presented in preceding sections it is evident that treatment of municipal solid waste – whether mixed or segregated, should be not viewed as ‘value addition’ to a ‘resource’, but only as an effort to minimise environmental, public health and safety liability of a municipality. The value added products e.g., compost, RDF, biogas, electricity and other recyclables should only be considered as incidentals. In view of the high mortality rate among solid waste treatment plants of all types experienced across the country during last three decades, it’s evident that on life-cycle basis the ‘energy input’ and therefore the resources or costs to run them turn out to be much higher than the potential revenues from all possible sources. This is applicable in both the cases - whether the plant is run by a ULB or by a private service provider. In recognition of the overwhelming challenges, uncertainties and financial unviability of a typical MSW treatment plant, progressive municipalities across the world have extended a set of fiscal and financial incentives to the service providers. In absence of such incentives (transparent and adequate), it is understandable that the initiatives in the country with private sector participation could not be sustained in the past. It is encouraging that SWM projects in India in the recent years are being developed under an integrated format (covering collection, transport, treatment and safe disposal) for ‘public private partnerships’ with a provision of ‘tipping fee’ to the service provider. However, tipping fee corresponding only to the ‘process rejects’ and which again are assumed to be unreasonably low at 20-30% of all incoming waste is not sufficient. Experience shows that service providers are increasingly finding it difficult to sustain operations. As a matter of fact international best practice involves payment of ‘gate fee’ corresponding to ‘all accepts’ at the gate of an ‘integrated treatment and disposal facility’ rather than merely for the rejects destined to the landfill. It is also noteworthy that gate fees in such cases are reported to vary in the range of USD 60-200 per MT of waste received depending on local circumstances, and which eventually ensure operational and financial sustainability of the essential municipal infrastructure. Treatment of municipal solid waste is only a means to an end. The end objective of an integrated operation is safeguarding public health, which is to be achieved through a combination of waste reduction, collection, removal, processing and safe disposal in sanitary landfills. However, due to a variety of reasons e.g., desire to recover part of the operating costs, make the initiative attractive for private sector participation, promotion of particular technology solutions, etc. the component of solid waste treatment alone has in general been projected to be an end in itself under the apparently attractive paradigms of ‘waste to energy’ and ‘waste to wealth’. As evident from numerous failed initiatives these paradigms are not sustainable on stand-alone basis and therefore need to be reappraised objectively in the light of cumulative Indian experience of last three decades as well as the international experience.
Technology choices Considering a MSW treatment plant to be only a ‘rendering plant’ for minimising its ‘nuisance’ or ‘objectionable’ nature, one of the first criteria for technology selection would be low capital and operating costs. Evidently composting with adequate environmental safeguards (for odour control) would qualify on this basis. In this respect it would be pragmatic for Indian project developers to consider the option of ‘aerated static pile’ composting technology which represents a slightly improved version of the conventional windrow technology. Where adequate land is available and where the feedstock does not offer comfort in terms of either fuel value or organic content, the option of ‘bioreactor’ type sanitary landfill could be considered. A bioreactor can offer a sustainable solution whereby one can harness landfill gas as energy source without making any investment in sensitive and depreciating processing plant and machinery. It is intriguing that despite having large quantities of predominantly organic MSW and large number of open dumps, we do not have a single landfill methane capture system in the country. The Gorai dumpsite capping project comes closest to it, but since it is more of a restoration intervention, there is limited potential for landfill gas capture there. If the argument of paucity of land and the spiralling land prices in urban areas is too strong, then looking at the growing quantity of waste, spreading open dumps, indiscriminate open burning and intrinsic technical
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
unavailability of any of the technology options discussed in this paper, it is time that we start including the robust option of mass-burn with or without supplementary fuel and accompanied by MACT or BAPT for emission control. In terms of overall system performance, this option offers highest efficiency, has lower footprint, reduces waste volumes by 95% and can be tailored to minimise toxic emissions. To some stakeholders this might appear radical, but after living for more than a decade with non-compliance of the MSW Rules, 2000 across the country, it is time for us to draw lessons and consider appropriate and robust options under demanding boundary conditions as found in all the metros and other rapidly growing cities. However, it is paramount to reemphasise that this option also needs to be offered commensurate and genuine fiscal and financial incentives, i.e., ‘gate fee’ for all ‘accepts’ to be financially sustainable and of interest for serious private sector participation. Finally ULBs needs to recognise that there is no escaping from a well operated and maintained sanitary landfill (SLF) and they need to make adequate provisions for the required area and resources. An SLF needs to be recognised as a robust, elastic and forgiving bedrock for an effective citywide or regional solid waste management system and that needs to be operated and expanded all the time.
References Nema, Asit. A case study of solid waste treatment and disposal technology options. Water and Sanitation Programme – South Asia, January 2007. Nema, Asit. Risk factors associated with treatment of mixed municipal solid waste treatment in the Indian context. Waste Management and Research (Official Journal of the International Solid Waste Management Association), Vol. 27, Issue 10, December 2009, doi : 10.1177/0734242X09102637.
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Chapter-I-2 Policies and regulatory reforms in municipal solid waste management sector P. Prasada Rao Head-Environment & Sustainable Development Division, EPTRI, Hyderabad, India Email: prasad@eptri.com Preamble Municipal Solid Waste is generally defined as “unwanted or undesired� material which includes residential and commercial waste generated in a municipal or notified area either in solid or semi solid form, but excluding industrial, agricultural and hospital wastes. Over the last two decades rapid urbanization, change in life styles and rise household incomes as well as in population has resulted in generation of huge quantities of waste in the country. The municipal solid waste generated is much higher than the rate of waste collected, transported and disposed leading to piling up of uncollected waste on vacant lands, public areas including streets and drains. Even the collected waste is dumped on the outskirts of town/cities, creating serious environmental and public health problems. Studies have shown that individuals, who live near or on disposal sites, are at high risk of infection, particularly gastrointestinal infections. The in-sanitary methods adopted for disposal of municipal solid wastes is, therefore, a serious health concern. The poorly maintained open dump sites cause groundwater contamination and air pollution. Plastic waste has emerged as one of the biggest challenges in municipal solid waste management, leading to an acute problem of choking of the rivers and drains, ruining the landscape and causing death of cattle. Adding to this, the inert material coming from street cleaning, drain cleaning, construction, demolition and renovation are mixed with the normal waste, aggravating the problems. MSW management is engaging the attention of the policy makers in the country against the backdrop of environmental degradation, affecting the community health and failure in capturing the economic value. Environmental sustainability in cities could be ensured by enhancing the waste management practices.
Analysis of the existing policies and regulatory reforms The policy interventions of Government of India in this sector can be traced to as early as 1960s (Union Ministry of Food and Agriculture provided loans for composting of solid waste), focused policy attention in the sector followed by plague epidemic in Surat in 1994, when the J.L. Bajaj Committee, constituted in 1995 made wide range of recommendations including source segregation of waste, primary collection, levy of user charges, use of appropriate equipment and vehicles, focuses on land filling and composting, encouraging private sector participation on a pilot basis. Central Public Health Engineering Organisation (CPHEO) prepared a draft policy paper on funding issue and requirements for MSW management. In late 1990s witnessed the role of private sector in composting, waste treatment and considerable public interest in the sector, as noticed by number of public interest litigation petitions relating to MSW management. The Supreme Court set up a committee under the chairmanship of Mr. Asim Burman with members drawn from Municipal Corporations, Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) and the Union Ministry of Urban Development. The committee submitted this report in March, 1990 with recommendations on institutional, financial, health, legal and public sector participation.
MSW (M & H) Rules, 2000 Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India (MoEF) legislated the MSW (M & H) Rules, in September 2000. These rules are applicable to every municipal authority responsible for collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing and disposal of MSW. The Rules require that the municipal authority shall adopt suitable technology or combination of such technologies to make the use of waste so as to minimize the burden on land. Table – 1 Sl No. Compliance Criteria 1. Setting up of waste processing/ disposal facilities 2. Monitoring performance of above facilities 3. Improvement of existing landfill sites as per the Rules 4. Identification of landfill sites for future use and developing the sites for operation Status: The implementation of the compliance criteria have passed the due dates mentioned in the Rules.
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Time Schedule by 31.12.2003 once in 6 months by 31.12.2001 by 31.12.2002
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
The objective of this rule is to make every municipal authority, within the territorial area of the municipality, responsible for the implementation of the provisions of the Rules, and for any infrastructure development for collection, storage, segregation, transportation, processing and disposal of MSW. The State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) are given responsibility for granting authorisation for setting up waste disposal facilities and monitoring to ensure that disposal of municipal solid waste meets the compliance criteria set out by the Central Pollution Control Board. The Rules contain four schedules viz. Schedules Schedule-I: Relates to implementation schedule, shown in Table - 1 Schedule-II: Relates to specifications on collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing and disposal. Rules lay emphasis on seeking participation of citizens in waste segregation, prohibiting littering of garbage, proper storage of waste and efficient transportation of waste for its processing and final disposal. Status: Inadequate efforts by ULBs in creating awareness among citizens. Schedule-III: Specifications for landfilling indicating site selection, facilities at the site, specifications for landfilling, pollution prevention, water quality monitoring, ambient air quality monitoring, plantation at landfill site, closure of landfill site and post care. Status: Disposal of waste by open dumping continues, and monitoring is not being done systematically. Schedule-IV: Indicate waste processing options including standards for composting, treated leachates and incinerations. Status: There has been a positive movement on setting up of waste processing facilities in the States.
Compliance to MSW Rules As per the performance Audit Report No.14, 2008 of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India, compliance to the MSW Rules in the country is as under: Collection : Waste was regularly collected only in 22 per cent of the sampled municipalities. Segregation
:
Segregation of waste took place only in 10 per cent of the sampled municipalities.
Storage
:
Only 17 per cent municipalities were able to ensure proper storage of waste.
Transportation
:
Covered trucks for transportation of municipal solid waste were being used only in 18 per cent of sampled municipalities.
Processing
:
Only 11 per cent municipalities had waste processing capabilities.
Disposal
:
Only six municipalities out of the sampled 56 municipalities had established a landfill, leading to dumping of waste in open dumpsites. The activity outlined in the Implementation Schedule for the development of landfills was carried out only in 14 per cent of the sampled municipalities.
Roles and Responsibilities The roles and responsibilities and the designated authorities responsible for the management of MSW are shown in Table – 2. Table – 2 Sl. No
Agencies/ Authorities
1
Municipal Authorities
2 (i)
(ii)
State Government Secretary to Government, Municipal Administration and Urban Development Department District Magistrate/ Collector
3
Central Pollution Control Board
Responsibility (i) Ensuring that municipal solid waste is handled as per Rules. (ii) Seeking authorization from SPCB for setting up waste processing and disposal facility including landfills. (iii) Furnishing annual report. (iv) Complying with Schedules I, II, III and IV of the Rules. Overall responsibility for enforcement of the provisions of the Rules in the metropolitan cities. Overall responsibility for the enforcement of the provisions of the Rules within the territorial limits of their jurisdiction. (i) Co-ordinate with State Boards and Committees with
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Sl. No
Agencies/ Authorities (CPCB)
4
State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)
Responsibility reference to implementation and review of standards and guidelines and compilation of monitoring data. (ii) Prepare consolidated annual review report on management of municipal solid waste for forwarding it to Central Government along with its recommendations before the 15th of Dec. every year (iii) Laying down standards on waste processing / disposal technologies including approval of technology. (i) Monitor the compliance of the standards regarding ground water, ambient air, leachate quality and the compost quality including incineration standards as specified under Schedules II,III and IV. (ii) Issuance of authorization to the municipal authority or an operator of a facility stipulating compliance criteria and standards (iii) Prepare and submit to the CPCB an annual report with regard to the implementation of the Rules.
Annual report Local bodies are required to submit a annual report to SPCBs on or before 30th June every year and SPCBs in turn, have to send their consolidated report for the year before 15th September to CPCB.
Mandatory actions Further, the MSW (M&H) Rules, 2000 mandate the following actions from Local Bodies in the country: (i) Prohibit littering of waste on the streets. (ii) Source segregation i.e. segregation of recyclable waste at source. (iii) Arrange primary collection of waste from the doorstep on a daily basis by using containerized tricycles, handcarts, pickup vans, etc., at pre-informed timing using bell ringing system or any other means. (iv) Street sweeping on a daily basis. (v) Abolish all open waste storage sites/bins and provide closed containers of sufficient capacity for the storage of waste so that waste is not exposed to open atmosphere and does not over flow. (vi) Ensure transportation of waste in closed vehicles on a daily basis. (vii) Synchronizing with secondary storage system and avoiding multiple and manual handling of waste. (viii) Set up processor plants such as composting, bio-methanization, WTE etc for the biodegradable waste. (ix) Construct landfills satisfying all the requirements of engineered sanitary landfill, for final disposal of rejects from treatment plants and other inerts. Restrict the quantum of waste disposed in landfill and ensure that no biodegradables are land filled.
Responsibilities of State Governments and Municipal Authorities Rules 4 and 5 of the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) allocate responsibilities to State Governments and municipal authorities of the States for proper management of municipal solid waste. According to Rule 4, every municipal authority shall, within the territorial area of the municipality, be responsible for the implementation of the provisions of the Rules, and for any infrastructure development for collection, storage, segregation, transportation, processing and disposal of municipal solid wastes. In addition, the municipal authority or an operator of a facility has to make an application for the grant of authorisation for setting up waste processing and disposal facility including landfills, from the PCB of the State. According to Rule 5, the State Government shall have complete responsibility for the enforcement of the provisions of the Rules. According to Rule 6, the PCB of the State shall be responsible for monitoring compliance and issuing authorisations for waste processing and disposal facilities. Thus, the Rules only state the specific action to be taken by municipalities and PCBs but do not lay down specific action to be taken by the State Governments. According to the Rules, the State Government shall be responsible only for the enforcement of the provisions of these Rules.
Other policies and initiatives Government of India introduced number of initiatives to support MSW management including the development of technical manual on MSW management, setting up of a Technology Advisory Group on MSW
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
management, constitution of Inter-Ministrial Task Force on Integrated Plant Nutrient Management from urban compost, permissions for issue of Tax Free Bonds by ULBs, Income Tax relief to waste management agencies, guidelines for public sector participation, introduction of commercial accounting systems in Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), development Model Municipal Bye-Laws. Launching of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) and the Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) have triggered the momentum to implement obligatory reforms in ULBs, one of which is to encourage Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) as well as involving NGOs, RWAs, Ward Committees in planning, implementation, operation and maintenance of MSW management services i.e. treatment of waste through source segregation, door to door collection, transfer and transportation, recycling, composting, RDF, WTE and scientific landfill. National Urban Sanitation Policy stipulates that each State in India is expected to develop a comprehensive state strategy for sanitation including MSW management which include:
Enactment of Legislation In order to encourage private sector participation, a few states have notified a well defined regulatory framework which includes defining types of infrastructure facilities, governing authorities, procedure requirements and the scope of the private sector in execution of the project. Andhra Pradesh has enacted an Infrastructure Authority Act which aims to facilitate private developers in securing the administrative approach, provisions for arbitration, and physical regulation.
Articulating Policy Karnataka and Odisha announced the Infrastructure Policy for adopting the integrated approach towards infrastructure development with specific incentives and concessions for infrastructure projects including upgradation of the existing facilities and facilitate the private investments.
Setting up of Nodal Agencies Some states have established Nodal Agencies to look after a developmental maintenance of infrastructure facilities in the State with an objective of facilitating flow of funds into the infrastructure sector, encouraging private sector participation and reducing the procedural bottlenecks.
Important funding and policy initiatives Some of the important funding and policy initiatives of Government of India on MSW management are as under: Year Funding and policy initiatives 1960s Ministry of Food and Agriculture offered soft loans to ULBs for promoting composting of MSW 1969 Fourth Five Year Plan provided grants and loans to State Governments for setting up MSW composting facilities 1974 Introduced a modified scheme to revive municipal waste composting in cities with a population over 0.3 million 1975 Constituted the first high-powered committee for a holistic review of municipal waste management problems 1994 Bubonic Plague in Surat (Gujarat) Strategy paper on MSW by NEERI 1995 Constituted high power committee under the chairmanship of Prof. J.S. Bajaj (Member, Planning Commission) CPHEEO drafted a policy paper 1996 Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) initiated pilot programme to promote wasteto-energy projects 1998 Committee formed under the Supreme Court of India to review MSW management in Class – I cities, under the chairmanship of Mr. Asim Burman with members from CPWD, MoEF, MoUD and public representatives 1999 MoEF issued draft rules for Municipal Waste (Management & Handling) 2000 MoUD brought out the manual prepared by an expert group on MSW management 2001 Tax holiday for the project entity for MSW management 2000 Ministry of Urban Development constituted the Technical Advisory Group (TAG) under which the – 04 following three core groups have been formed • Appropriate technologies, research and development • Financial resources and private sector participation • Capacity building, human resource development, information, education and communication
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Year 2005
2006 2008
2010
Funding and policy initiatives As part of 12th Finance Commission, MoUD allocated grants to the tune of Rs. 25,000 million covering 423 Class I towns Launched JNNURM and UIDSSMT to improve the urban governance through various reform measures Strategy and Action Plan for the use of urban compost National Urban Sanitation Mission, MSW management is addressed through a set of instruments on State and city level Service level bench marking in MSW management National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) formulates the Indian strategy towards climate change. It consists of eight missions. One of the missions is the “National Mission on Sustainable Habitat� addresses MSW as one of the relevant issues to be improved in urban areas of the country. MoEF constituted a committee for draw the road map for the management of MSW. The committee consists of senior officers from MoEF, CPCB, representatives from NGOs and environment persons in the field of waste management 13th Finance Commission allocated Rs. 87,519 crores to all the ULBs in the country
In spite of the policies and regulatory reforms initiated in the country since 1960s, compliance with the Rules, however, has been limited and mixed, so far. While progress has been made in the areas of primary collection, secondary storage and transportation of waste, treatment and disposal of waste have only begun to be addressed. Till date, only a handful of treatment facilities or sanitary landfills, as mandated by the Rules are in operation. The main impediment is the weakness at the Urban Local Body (ULB) level, including resources (land and finance), operational / technical constraints and lack of reliable and updated information. As a result, larger municipal corporations, which are relatively better placed to leverage support and tackle the several related issues, have moved towards establishing treatment and scientific disposal facilities, sometimes with private sector participation. Smaller municipalities are struggling to meet the challenge.
The way forward Wealth from waste has been the theme today to harness its potential using the combination of technologies to process each fraction of waste and make the cities bin-less and environmentally safe for the people to live in. MSW management is now emerging as a revenue model and bankable project in the country. However, the successful implementation of projects in this sector veers round its viability on technical, financial, environmental and socially acceptable which is a factor linked to many variables like coordination with a wider set of stakeholders, line departments, innovative management practices and it cannot be seen in isolation purely on a technical angle. Experience shows that lack of commitment, in adequacy in management practices and lack of capacity among working staff in the ULBs are main reasons for not yielding results in this sector. Field-tested combination of technologies is known and the government is committed to deal with the issues. What is further required is to adopt integrated development approach with forward and backward linkages. Existing policies and the institutional framework are required to be assessed to ascertain their suitability to cater the needs of the emerging projects in this sector and the gaps need to be addressed, as MSW management is taking different operational forms with several private entrepreneurs taking part in development of projects without clearly delineated role among them. In addition, there is a need to formulate new policies on the following areas: Informal sector Large number of informal sectors engaged in collection of recyclable materials from MSW and sells them to the recycling market. Most of these informal sectors work in an un-organised manner and therefore, the work of collecting these materials is not effective and sustainable. Hence, there is a need to consider for providing legal recognition to the informal sectors so that recycling work becomes more organised and ensure better working conditions to them. Source segregation State Governments could make waste segregation at source as mandatory and the municipalities could be authorised to levy fines, if segregated waste is not made available for collection. Construction and demolition (C&D) waste
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Growing demand for creation of urban infrastructure and expansion in the housing sector to meet the needs of urban population resulted in huge generation of C&D waste in major towns. There is a need to formulate a separate policy for its transportation, process and marketing of it’s by products. Sale of electricity Policy on long term power purchase agreement (10 to 15 years) and allow the private entrepreneurs for sale of electricity to third party (industrial, ULBs or commercial). Fiscal policies It is required on tipping fee, power tariff, transmission losses, banking of energy generated and tax concessions. Integrate waste to energy projects with other renewable energy projects like solar power, micro hydel, biogas, methane capture so that these can be included in future power sector reforms. Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) RDF is a fuel derived from MSW which will substantiate the usage of fossil fuel. There are no established standards at this point of time to determine the absolute quality of RDF. However, the American Society for Testing and Materials has established an RDF classification system that is useful in manufacturing various forms of fuel. When MSW is processed, the yield of RDF would be around 20 – 30% and this can be used as an alternative fuel in cement processing kilns where the combustion temperatures are above 10000C for better emission norms. Consumption of RDF is a renewable energy source; Government of India should formulate a policy for use of RDF, to replace atleast 10% of their input coal / fossil fuel consumption in all the cement and other boiler based industries in the country. As per the Flue gas treatment & emissions are concerned, the kilns in cement plants are equipped to burn RDF at around 1400 degrees and compliant to meet PCB norms. User fees Fixing of waste collection fee for bulk waste generators (commercial establishments, hospitals, hotels, restaurants etc.) Producer responsibility Policy and regulatory instruments had to be implemented and every step of waste management system in order to encourage the waste generators to adopt the value chain. An example for such an instrument is ‘producer responsibility’ which aimed to develop a value chain for converting waste into resource. Policy at State Level Since the waste management is a local issue, every State need to have its own waste management policy focusing on the new mantra of 5Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recovery, Refuse) in parallel with environmental pollution controls based on the ‘polluter pays principle and ‘extended producer responsibility’. In order to implement the robust waste management policies, Governments must think long term even at the expense of short term gains and requires strong political commitment supported by a sound regulatory framework.
References MSW (M&H) Rules, 2000 Improving Management of MSW in India – Overview and Challenges, Environment Unit, South Asia Region, The World Bank Tool kit for Public Private Partnership frameworks in MSW management, Volume – I: Overview and Process, prepared by ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited, India Management of waste in India (Performance Audit – Report No. 14 of 2008) Thirteenth Finance Commission Recommendations Report, 2010-2015 Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste Management in Indian Cities - Challenges and Opportunities by Dr. (Mrs.) Regina Dube, Mrs. Vaishali Nandan, Mr. Ramana Gudipudi, GTZ IMaCS Analysis.
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Chapter-I-3 WasteWaste-management miracle in Warangal Almitra Patel Member, Supreme Court Committee for Solid Waste Management Email: almitrapatel@rediffmail.com For the first time in India, perhaps in the world, a city achieved 100% door-to-door collection of upto 80% fullysegregated waste discards in its residential areas in just one week ! A daring experiment at Warangal to make waste management exciting saw 240 local teams and 134 teams from 59 nearby cities compete for a dozen personal prizes and glory. This transformation was achieved in a mid-October week in 2012. The enthusiasm and learnings from this capital of the old Kakatiya kingdom will soon be applied in an ever-widening ripple of cleaned-up cities in Andhra Pradesh (AP) and hopefully other States too. Warangal was a typical dirty tri-city of 648,000 population, with garbage overflowing from cement-ring dustbins, steel containers and open dumping spaces and choking its roadside drains. Today it is proudly cleaned-up and aiming to become a near zero-waste city, thanks to an exciting Clean Cities Championship (CCC) Campaign. This unique partnership of the State’s committed Municipal Admistration Directorate with a core team of freelance solid waste experts received Rs 2.4 million funding from the State’s Pollution Control Board, its most cost-effective investment ever. Warangal’s Commissioner led his city officials from the front, winning total citizen support with tremendous help from the media.
The Idea The germ of the idea came from Uday Singh Gautam, a cricket umpire and Suresh Bhandari, both SWM Advisors to small towns in AP, who thought an SWM challenge match could be conducted on the lines of an IPL 20:20 match for SWM teams from different cities, each given one week to convert one allotted Ward of a city to total door-to-door collection of fully-segregated waste, with dry waste going to recyclers and wet waste managed within the city in vermi-beds or decentralized compost units or biogas units. Within a week the host city would become dustbin-free and not need a dumping-ground. The winning team members would get individual cash prizes like cricketers. They shared their concept with S. A. Khadar Saheb, the Jt Dir AP DMA who, as Commissioner of Suryapet in 2004, put his city of 103,000 on the national map as India’s first dustbin-free as well as dumpyardfree city, totally compliant with India’s MSW Rules (Municipal Solid Waste Mgt and handling Rules 2000). They got full support from Mr B Janardhana Reddy, the enthusiastic CDMA famous for holding his regional city meetings in different dumpsites. This had inspired Saluru Commissioner Shaikh Subhani to hold his daughter’s wedding in his town’s cleaned-up dumpsite-turned-park last May 2012, another national and probably global first in the SWM field. Mr Reddy, amazed and supportive, immediately agreed to test their plan of action in a city with half a million plus population. The objective was to clean up the host city in 7 days with its own host team and participants of other municipal teams for whom it should be a practical learning experience, spreading in a ripple effect to many other towns. It should be able to demonstrate that the most critical steps in the MSW Rules can be implemented holistically and scientifically in one week to move towards a “No Dump” city by maximum recycling of dry wastes and composting of wet wastes.
Planning Warangal was selected as host city for this event as it had recently ordered several push-carts for D2D collection and was headed by a dynamic and open-minded young city Commissioner Vivek Yadav. The experiment was launched in a record 20 days of intense planning and training. The media consistently provided positive and supportive coverage for this Campaign, a great help. Joined by Dr Sanjay Gupta from Delhi and communications expert Muthukumaraswamy from Hyderabad, the core team for the effort camped for 3 weeks in Warangal, dividing its Google-mapped streets into about 400 units based on road length and 300-500 households/shops depending on population density of each area. Within each unit the existing SWM Supervisor, based on first-hand knowledge of his beat, prepared detailed route planning for all the participating teams. Unlike conventional awareness methods, the Campaign used several novel and innovative strategies like a Cycle Rally as a curtain raiser for waste management initiatives, Audio Awareness Vans with customized jingles, Hoardings on the Championship with quotes from Gandhiji and Mother Teresa, Kala Jatra / Drums announcement (Dappu), FM Radio as an official partner, an SMS Campaign, Contest Cards etc. Prior to the competition, there was intense training of city sanitation staff and workers, 60,000 self help group workers, 400 NCC youths to monitor and evaluate performance, teams of nurses and teachers to spread
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
awareness of the need and importance of keeping wet and dry wastes unmixed and handing them over separately. Waste collection centres were identified in each Ward of the city. The durable stainless-steel pushcarts were specially designed with four 40-litre unbreakable plastic bins with lids and a double push-handle to support large canvas bags with handles for separate collection of paper, plastic and other dry wastes. Fuel items like copra coir and tree branches were also collected separately during D2D rounds and sent to a nearby crematorium for use by the poorest. All this ensured maximum easy utilisation of all discarded resources (never thought of as ‘waste”).
Action During the competition, each day the wet, dry and fuel buckets and bags were individually weighed at the collection centres before dispatch, for statistical purposes. Wet waste buckets were emptied into a tipper truck or compactor for onward transport to Madikonda, a 39-acre waste-processing site, for windrow composting. Dry waste was sent from all collection centres to a large central hall for baling and sale to recyclers. Market waste was sent to an inner-city nursery for stack composting on ingenious platforms of concrete ventilator grilles or tree guards raised above-ground on concrete blocks, to ensure air circulation through the heaps, which after two weeks were transferred to vermi-beds in an adjacent shed. A biogas unit was nearing completion nearby to accept more wet waste, so that eventually there would be no need to send any wet waste outside the city for windrow composting. Coir waste and garden waste branches were to be sent to a nearby crematorium as free firewood for the poor. Each day, members of the core team fanned out to spend a half-hour with each competing team, to help motivate the residents to give waste to D2D collectors at their doorstep and not throw anything into the traditional cement-ring dustbins, which were progressively removed (for eventual use as tree planters). This removal of dustbins was hugely welcomed by citizens living near them, but greatly feared by the junior inspectors of the city who wondered where the waste would go without them. They were reassured when they saw, by day 3, that hardly any waste was reaching these dustbins. It is planned to place potted plants at each former dustbin spot to beautify them and permanently indicate that these locations are no more meant for disposal of waste. The city commissioner supported the one-time cleanup effort with extra vehicles and manpower on Day One for cleaning out all drains and transporting the waste to Madikonda. On Day 5 a similar mass cleanup removed all small debris heaps to leave all areas thoroughly cleaned. Madikonda itself was beautified overnight with an instant entrance garden complete with lawn and tall palms. The old waste at site was piled into windrows. A garbage sorting unit was rushed there from JK Engineering Works Malegaon in time to demonstrate the simplicity with which an old dumping ground can be cleared. Their Balwan 9000 hopper was hand-loaded with old waste (after a day’s spreading for good drying) and came out as three usable fractions: dust-free plastic suitable for recycling, fine clean organic matter looking like vermin-compost and usable as bio-earth for landscaping and erosion control, and a coarse gravelly fraction suitable for garden paths and road-shoulder improvement. Almost nothing is left onsite after this operation except rags and coconut shells removed during hand-loading. These will be sent as fuel to a power-plant about 100 km away.
Results The key outputs of this championship were that in just 7 days, the corporation segregated and collected over 300 tons of recyclables which would otherwise have ended at the dumpsite. It established waste segregation habits among households, school children and municipal staff. It proved that a majority of the public participates if they trust the municipal collection service to be regular, punctual and sincere about segregated transport and processing as well. It showed the importance of clear and sustained communication and proved that simple methods, simple tools and techniques are more effective than costly technologies and infrastructure.
Winners The winners of the Clean Cities Competition Championship were announced at a large gathering on the morning of October 18th, where prizes were awarded. Khammam’s three-person team shared prize money of Rs 30,000, with second and third-place teams from runner-up Miriyalaguda and Siddipet sharing Rs 18,000 and Rs 12,000 prize money each. Nine other urban local body teams shared Rs 12,000 each. The home teams from Warangal shared similar prize money : Division 5 came first, followed by Divisions 22, 39 and 24. More inspiring than the money prizes, however, was the infectious spirit of participation and competition that lighted up the event and will ensure that Warangal, now clean, stays clean. The AP Pollution Control Board got more than full value for their money, a message to all other Pollution Control Boards on how to proactively control urban pollution in their respective States. The meticulous planning, hard work and attention to detail of the Clean Cities Championship core team was awesome and ensured the phenomenal success of their experiment in such a short time-frame. They are so enthused that at the end of the Campaign they decided to make their
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
team services available to any city that sincerely requests it (See Contacts below) and are planning single-city competitions in two other regions of Andhra Pradesh. Ultimately, any city that adopts this sportingly competitive route to cleanliness is a winner too.
Three Months later 1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
7,
8,
As of writing, it has been three months since the CCC Championship. A telephonic interview with the Commissioner highlighted the following important outcomes. Constant focus on SWM at the topmost level is important and necessary. Cmr Yadav pays daily surprise morning visits to a route picked at random by draw of lots, and rewards good performers with individual cash rewards of Rs 250 to the group. A best-household-per-route reward system will be introduced shortly. Residential areas comprising about 5 lakh (77%) of the total population is still successfully covered by door-to-door collection, and is clean and happy. The remaining 23% population along heavily commercial areas was not covered by the CCC Campaign and still dumps mixed waste into skips lifted by dumper-placers to the compost-yard at Madikonda. Excellent widespread dependable long-term data on waste generation is being daily uploaded on Warangal’s website www.ourwmc.com . It was soon found that waste generation is only 150 tons a day from 5 lac population, or 300 kg per capita, the correct standard for medium-sized towns. Before the campaign, Warangal Corp was being billed for average 360 tons per day, 2.4 times the actual amount. (The Health Officer on deputation was returned to her H&FW Dept). Diesel savings are around 20-30% of previous figures. When tractor payments were restricted to actual weighment and strictly monitored, the 8 private-tractor contractors who were exaggerating trips earlier, went on strike. Luckily Warangal’s own 18 tractors and spare drivers temporarily took up the load. This highlights the importance of every city privatising not more than 50% of its SWM activities, so that the city cannot be blackmailed either by city labour unions or private contractors. No extra labour force is needed to provide full door-to-door coverage to all residential areas. The 200 permanent and 1800 other workers who were “not working” effectively earlier are now working properly and earning their salaries. The local union protested that the workload had increased and more labour should be employed. They were pacified by the Commissioner and promised 5% of sale proceeds of Dry Waste for the Union Welfare Fund. Out of 150 tons a day of waste, 20 tpd (113%) is paper and plastics, awarded by tender to a Hyderabad bidder ACF. His payments (about Rs 1 lakh to date) are being kept in a separate escrow account for distribution to the waste-collection crew. A resolution to this effect is awaited. About 8 tpd (5.3%) is combustible (coconuts, rubber etc) which is collected at site on payment by Shalivahana Power in Karimnagar (70-80 km away) for power generation. The remaining 122 tpd is wet waste. One ton a day of market waste is being vermi-composted and one ton a day fed to a biogas unit, both in a city park. The biogas power is lighting up a playground, park and municipal office nearby. 120 tpd of wet waste is being unloaded at Madikonda in shallow windrows which are not turned. There are plans to treat them with water from a local nala plus 5% by weight of fresh cowdung, as a bioculture. Old compost onsite may be used as temporary cover for fresh heaps for odour, fly and pest control. So all expenses on the Championship were recovered as savings in SWM costs in less than two months. And citizens are happy.
References Urban Connect Special Issue Vol 3 Issue 4 apufidc@yahoo.com Inter Press Service News Agency 22 Nov 2012 Keya Acharya keya.acharya@gmail.com in The Sunday Hindu Bangalore 25 Nov 2012 www.ourwmc.com/clean/ ourwmc@gmail.com +91 87024 24656 www.cleancitieschampionship.org , ccccampaign@gmail.com +91 92466 31969 Dr B Janardhan Reddy, IAS, Cmr & Director Municipal Administration, Govt of A.P. S. A. Khadar Saheb, Jt Director Mpl Admin, khadar_swm@yahoo.co.in 99496 83331 Basheer, Env Engr, Directt Mpl Admin basheer.swm@gmail.com 99661 96325 Vivek Yadav, IAS, Comm’r Warangal Mpl Corp vivekyadav.ias@gmail.com 9701 999 733 Uday Singh Gautam gudaysingh@yahoo.co.in 98493 33311 Suresh Bhandar i suresh_swm@yahoo.co.in 92466 31969 Dr. Sanjay K Gupta sanjayenvi@gmail.com 97172 37111 M J Muthukumaraswamy magantimks@consultant.com 92465 53850 Malegaon: jkengineering.jk@gmail.com Swapnil 93722 54865, Jadhav 93735 78023
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-I-4 Waste audits – for management and industry development Jaya Nair RAUM International Pty Ltd, Australia Adjunct Faculty, Murdoch University, Western Australia Email: raum@raumint.com Abstract Waste audits to quantify the various components in a waste stream are becoming increasingly important for proper solid waste management. As against the general waste assessment comparing developing country vs developed country, the need for understanding the waste stream in a localised town, settlement or business is becoming significant. This is due to the main shift in the overall strategy for waste management where collection and disposal has changed to a segregation and resource recovery policy. However most administrative set up is incompetent to conduct a proper waste audit and to analyse the outputs to incorporate into a recovery and recycle structure. This paper addresses the general need for conducting waste audits and how the data can be interpreted for administrative, technical and commercial outcomes.
Introduction Solid waste management is becoming increasingly challenging and complicated due to the increasing categories of materials coming in the waste stream. Conventional method in developed countries practiced so far is landfilling which has lesser requirement of understanding the composition. Landfilling is now realised as a wasteful practice as it restricts the scope for recycling recoverable resources from the waste stream. Currently a better strategy for solid waste management with maximum resource recovery and recycling adopted by most countries, for which a detailed understanding of the waste stream is highly important. It has been observed that most waste management agencies in both developing and developed countries seldom have up-to-date and comprehensive waste composition and generation data sets (Beigl et al. 2008; Burnley 2007; Chung and Poon 2001; Diaz et al. 2005). The strategies, processes and technologies in most cases are developed from a general understanding of similar situations elsewhere. Cointreau-Levine (1998) reported an average generation based on low-middle-high income countries and against urbanisation (Table 1). Table 1. Global Perspective on Solid Waste Quantities (Cointreau-Levine,1998) Global Perspective on Solid W aste Quantities Low-income country
Mixed urban waste: large city (kg/capita/day) Mixed urban waste: medium city (kg/capita/day) Residential waste (kg/capita/day)
0.50 to 0.75 0.35 to 0.65 0.25 to 0.45
M iddle-income country
High-income country
0.55 to 0.95 0.45 to 0.75 0.35 to 0.65
0.75 to 1.8 0.65 to 1.5 0.55 to 1.0
Global Perspective on Urban Solid Waste Characteristics Composition of raw waste (by wet weight, %)
Vegetable/putrescible Paper and carton Plastic Metal Glass Rubber, miscellaneous Fines (sand, ash, broken glass) Other characteristics: Moisture Density in trucks (kg/cm) Lower heating (kcal/kg)
Low-income country
Middle-income country
High-income country
40 to 85 1 to 10 1 to 5 1 to 5 1 to 10 1 to 5 15 to 50
20 to 65 15 to 40 2 to 6 1 to 5 1 to 10 1 to 5 15 to 40
20 to 50 15 to 40 2 to 10 3 to 13 4 to 10 2 to 10 5 to 20
40 to 80
40 to 60
20 to 30
250 to 500 800 to 1100
170 to 330 1000 to 1300
100 to 1 70 1500 to 2700
Notes: World Bank country categorization by income is based on 1992 gross national product data. Compaction trucks achieve load densities of 400 to 500 kg/cm. For self-sustained incineration, a year-round minimum greater than 1300 kcal/kg lower calorific value is needed; for waste-to-energy plants, 2200 kcal/kg is the minimum calorific value desired; waste weight based on "wet received" (i.e., not dried).
Although those data can be used for a primary assessment, the waste stream is directly linked to the culture, disposal and collection facilities, economic background and climatic conditions. Case-by-case audit is therefore essential for a strategic output oriented assessment. Lack of data in many cases is due to the lack of
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
awareness on the process and significance of collecting data, expertise to conduct solid waste audits and lack of funds. National level data collection and compilation is done in several countries to understand how they progress towards achieving this strategy as done in Hyder Consulting (2009) in Australia. Therefore while considering the data from other audits as a guideline it is important to conduct individual waste audits for any facility planning for a strategic resource recovery process.
What is waste audit? Waste audit is a systematic and quantitative approach to determine the composition of a waste stream from a particular location or activity. Waste audit may be conducted at any levels such as household, individual business, Industrial/commercial to a municipal/ Council level. Audit should ideally be conducted to incorporate seasonal and daily variations and repeated after every major change in the business or activity or after every intervention. This can provide quantitative and qualitative data on the individual components andaudits results can be analysed for multiple outcomes.
Reasons for conducting the audit Waste audit should ideally be conducted with a specific purpose, such as General SWM planning purpose including the design of waste facilities (e.g. landfills & collection systems), Capacity and infrastructure building Design a waste collection program Develop sorting system for better recovery of specific components Explore the potential to recover a particular resource Assess the suitable technology for handling individual waste stream Technology assessment Legislative and administrative intervention Revising waste management strategy, technology or strategic changes for overall efficiency Business development and feasibility studies around waste management Waste audit reports also throw light on the general lifestyle of a community and activities in the community. For a good administrative set up, the data can be used to develop job opportunities and other infrastructure for the community that is locally sourced and a sustainable closed loop approach for resource management.
Procedures for conducting a waste audit Conducting solid waste audits is a challenge because of the heterogeneity of the wastes (Tchobanoglous et al. 1993) and the difficulty in tracking all flows of wastes. WRAPP (2012) has a detailed description on how to conduct a waste audit. Strict statistical procedures are often difficult, and therefore common sense and random sampling techniques may be required in some cases(Tchobanoglous et al. 1993). Mataki (2011) utilised three different methods to get the required data from a waste audit at Honiara City Council, Papua New Guinea. Load-count method was used for trucks entering a landfill area, weight-volume was applied to household waste audits that determined the specific weight of wastes (kg/cubic meter of waste) and material flow analysis from a custom designed space-based audit for a market. Questionnaire or data collection sheet need to set up based on the specific reasons for conducting the audit and what information in particular is sought by that audit. However it is ideal to monitor and audit the waste stream in detail to make use of the effort to the maximum. The waste audit team should include people from the officials from the administrative department, the auditor who understands the technical aspect of data collection, the organisers that facilitates sample collection, the group that sorts the waste according to the categories in quantitative or qualitative manner. Organising sample collection will require some intervention in the routine waste collection process. A prior understanding of the waste collection day, frequency of collection, waste disposal methods used and of the general community and activities will be necessaryto facilitate sample collection. Audits on peak and off peak waste generation days will be useful for a technology implementation and better precision in the process. The audit process should maintain good hygiene and work safety procedures as it involves manual handling of a waste stream that could contain hazardous materials of physical, biological and chemical nature. The audit team should be supplied with and be ensured that they use disposable facemasks, coveralls, rubber gloves (cover up to the elbow) waste picking tools such as tongs/scoops, required number of bins/bags and closed footwear. Municipal waste is more complicated due to the diverse kind of materials that come in the waste stream while commercial waste stream has lesser components but in larger quantities. Planning meetings to discuss the need, process and expected outcome of the waste audit should be conducted and well established before the
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
audit is conducted. These meetings should be used to collect baseline information on the structure of the audit region and waste handling practice. Preparation meetings for waste audit should ensure that the process takes the right sample for assessment. The sample collection method, sample quantities and sampling location should be a representative of the whole system under study.A minimum sample size (100kg) recommended by Diaz et al. (2005) but it could vary as Mataki (2011) took 425 kg samples from market place. A practice or demo audit before the actual audit is ideal for a group who are new to conducting audits to prevent confusion on the day that could affect data collection. It is important to undertake training workshops as WHO (Hoo et al. 1996), SPREP and JICA (SPREP 2006) have conducted for the Honiara region. Most training programs on waste audits are classroom sessions and the officials who attend the workshops are not confident to carry out audits. As a result there will be some inherent capacity gaps to conduct waste audits and the lack of up-to-date data and information about waste composition and generation rates for planning purposes (Mataki, 2011).
Audit for technology selection Resource recycling strategy implementation requires a thorough understanding of the composition, quality and quantity of the materials that can be recovered from a waste stream. This data forms the baseline to assess the feasibility of resource recovery of a particular component in a waste stream. For the application of technology, in a feasible manner, a minimum quantity of raw material in the required quality will have to be recovered from the waste stream. Therefore technology selection and application should be based on the information gathered through a waste audit. Without a detailed audit, this assessment is not possible. Depending on the availability of raw materials, business opportunities can be assessed for different waste streams whether it is for organic or for non-degradable materials such as plastics, aluminium, metals etc. Waste audits could provide innovative ideas on technology and business opportunities. Therefore audits should be planned to get as much detailed data as possible and the values entered in an excel sheet. This will provide options of combining and splitting various data as required for further applications. Mataki (2011) conducted an extensive waste audit in Honiara, Solomon Islands. Honiara is in an Island in a tropical developing country with a western influence and therefore the culture, society, waste generation pattern are very unique. This has been reflected in the audit data and was able to highlight the impact of accumulation of non degradable waste especially EEE waste on an Island.
Case studies The following case studies were conducted with a specific purpose of developing a treatment and recycling strategy either onsite or off site. The solid waste generation directly reflect the activities around the place. They were conducted at different locations but within the same overall political and regulatory arrangements of Australia. The case studies reflect a general municipal waste generation from Councils in the mainland, an Island under the administration of Australia, a remote mining village and a lifestyle village in the suburb. The purpose of all those audits were specifically different, but with a general interest for exploring options for onsite treatment, recycling and waste reduction strategy.
Christmas Island Christmas Island is located 2600 Km North west of Perth in the Indian Ocean with a population of less than 5000 of which, only one sixth is local and the rest transient population. This implies on the high accommodation and food catering needs, all of which sourced from outside the Island. Similarly having a detention Centre on the Island that can accommodate about 3000 people atone time, food waste and packaging waste werehigher than a normal Shire waste. This was reflected in the waste audit conducted at the landfill site on the Island (Table 2). As there were no resource recovery strategies before it gets to landfill, the percentage of mixed waste contaminated with food waste was also high. As some diversion of cardboard has occurred, the total quantity could slightly vary. Table 2 Results of waste audit conducted at the Christmas Island landfill site (Nair, 2011) Components Percentage by weight Food waste 39.07 Contaminated food waste 18.72 Plastic film 5.37 Plastic containers 8.65 Aluminium 1.55 Cardboard 8.64 Milk Cartons 1.11 Textiles 3.35
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Steel cans Glass Green waste Mixed metal Mixed waste Foam cups Misc Total
0.74 6.17 2.07 0.30 3.45 0.01 0.81 100
Lifestyle Village, Council and Minesite village audits A lifestyle village (Bridgewater Lifestyle Village) for retired and semi retired people in Perth, Western Australia was audited for strategic planning and system development for onsite sorting of waste, first level recycling and treatment of organic waste (Nair and Anda, 2007). On comparing with the general municipal waste, audit results conducted by Murdoch University in 1999 for the City of Stirling (WMB, 2003), the lifestyle of such a village was clearly demonstrated with higher percentage of newspaper and magazines, glass bottles (more time to relax) and lesser food waste (Table 3). Minesite village has a different social set up with only adults, no family or children and comprised 100% shift workers. The audit results may not be truly comparable as the conditions under which the audits were conducted were different concentrating mostly on kitchen and cabin waste. The data provided in Table 3 is percentage composition that mostly reflects the activity and llifestyle and does not provide a data for onsite treatment or recycling opportunities. The data should be presented in quantitative form to work out the technology feasibility assessment. The reports have presented the data quantitatively. Table 3. Percentage of different components from various audits in Western Australia Material Bridgewater City of Stirling City of Canning Mining Village lifestyle village 1999 (SMRC, 2002) Canteen/food serving. (Nair&Anda, 2007) (WMB,2003) (Nair et al., 2008) Paper 2.35 2.6 1.8 0.78 Magazines 3.18 8.8 3.2 0.14 Newsprint 26.16 7.4 10.3 Cardboard 3.71 3.7 2.8 4.07 Liquid paper 0.53 0.5 0.1 Glass 6.22 5.8 5.4 20.07 Aluminium cans 0.76 0.7 1.7 4.03 Steel cans 2.65 1.5 2.4 1.82 PET Plastics 0.91 0.7 0.6 3.25 HDPE Plastics 1.82 0.7 0.7 3.07 3.56 Food waste 36.09 49.6 54 49.66 Discarded food 3.50 Hazardous 0.61 0.6 0.6 0.11 Mixed waste 11.45 11.1 12.2 6.72
Conclusion A systematic purpose oriented waste audit can provides vast amount of data for administrative, technical and commercial strategies in waste management. The quantitative audit will provide information on capacity development while qualitative assessment mostly reflects the activities the community/business is engaged in as well as the social and cultural lifestyle of the society. A regular audit and strategic changes made for waste reduction and recycling based on the data collected is the sustainable approach to solid waste management.
References Beigl, P., S. Lebersorger, and S. Salhofer. 2008. Modelling municipal solid waste generation: A review. Waste Management 28 (1):200-214. Burnley, S. J., J. C. Ellis, R. Flowerdew, A. J. Poll, and H. Prosser. 2007. Assessing the composition of municipal solid waste in Wales. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 49 (3):264-283. Chung, Shan-Shan, and Chi-Sun Poon. 2001. Characterisation of municipal solid waste and its recyclable contents of Guangzhou. Waste Management & Research 19 (6):473-485.
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Cointreau-Levine, S., Listorti J and C. Furedy (1998)"Solid wastes." Chapter 38. In J. Herzstein et al. (eds), International Occupational and Environmental Medicine, first edition. St. Louis: Mosby Year Book Inc, 1998, pp. 620-63. Diaz, L, F. , G Savage, M., and L Eggerth, L. 2005. Solid Waste Management: Volume 1. United Nations Environmental Program http://www.unep.or.jp/ Ietc/ Publications/ spc/Solid_Waste_ Management/ Vol_I/ Binder1.pdf (accessed 17-12-2012). Hoo, T., K. Sakurai, and H. Ogawa. 1996. Guides for Municipal Solid Waste Management in Pacific Island Countries. Kuala Lumpur: WHO. Hyder Consulting (2009) Waste and recycling in Australia for the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts Mataki, 2012 A critical assessment of the paradigms for solid waste management in pacific island countries, PhD thesis, Murdoch University, Western Australia, 245 pp Nair, J., Lou, XF and Mataki, M (2008) Solid Waste Management at the mining village -FMG, Cloudbreak site In FMG Sustainable Village Design Report on Part 2:Options Analysis Nair, J and Anda, M (2007) Onsite Waste Management in an Urban Village- Treatment of Kitchen Waste through Composting and vermicomposting to minimize waste generation submitted to the Department of Environment and Conservation, Waste Management Board, Western Australia Nair J (2011) Integrated waste management and treatment systems for Christmas Island, Submitted to the Shire of Christmas Island SMRC (Southern Metropolitan Council) (2002). Before and After Waste Audit (introduction of a co-mingled recycling system): Project Evaluation Report. SMRC and WA Waste & Recycling Levy Fund: Perth, Western Australia. SPREP 2006. Solid Waste Management Strategy for the Pacific Region. Apia. Tchobanoglous, G., H. Theisen, and S. Vigil. 1993. Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. WA Waste Recycling and Reduction Policy, 2000 WMB, (Waste Management Board) (2003) Summary Report of Waste to Landfill, Perth Metropolitan Region. WRAPP (2012) WRAPP- Doing a waste audit, http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/wrapp/audit.htm (accessed 17/12/2012)
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-I-5 Experiencing a movement towards waste free Kerala R. Ajayakumar Varma Scientist G, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, India Email: akvarmadr@gmail.com Introduction Waste management is considered as one of the component in the package of sanitation practices. Therefore, it is a critical component of human well being and regarded as an obligation and right of every citizen. It has to come from within the people in their behavior as it is linked to the way of life. Also people have to be facilitated to attain it as their right as it is absolutely essential for a healthy life. This has been the guiding principle of sanitation movement in Kerala, in general and waste management in particular. Accordingly, the state has been highlighting the importance of hygiene, safe drinking water, waste management and toilet coverage. As a result, from the late 50’s, Kerala led the nation in the provision of household toilets. It also achieved the distinction of being the first state to fully do away with the dehumanizing practice of scavenging as the culmination of a people’s movement for basic human dignity. The National Sample Survey 65th Round conducted in 2008-09 indicated that 99% of the Urban Households and 95% of the Rural Households uses toilets in Kerala. Almost 90% of the households exclusively have toilets and the rest uses shared or common toilets. There is significant progress in school and balwadi sanitation and enhanced community sanitation facilities. Consequently, there experienced commensurable improvement in the overall cleanliness and hygiene. There has also been substantial success in the provision of safe drinking water. Kerala has also been one of the first states which initiated actions for complying with Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000. Though these initiatives are yet to catch up with the increasing demand due to increasing population, evolving environment and emerging issues, it is interesting to note that they are conceived in line with the classical zero waste principle and hence sustainable. This paper highlights the initiatives of Kerala on sanitation, in general, and solid waste management, in particular.
Generation of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) There have been a number of studies on the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) in the urban areas of Kerala (CESS, 2001; Padmalal & Maya, 2002; Varma & Dileepkumar, 2004). Broadly, they indicated significant variation in per capita waste generation from 0.034 kg to 0.707 kg for urban centres of different nature and character. Many of the estimates had not been based on standard protocols and the data had been generated based on the left over waste at source, transported waste at the discard site or those of way-side accumulations. Of late, there had been attempt to synthesize the MSW estimate based on the studies available on its generation dynamics (SEUF, 2006) as well as sample studies covering the entire waste route from source to disposal site (KSUDP, 2006). There had also been studies on the rate of increase in per capita generation of MSW in relation to the GNP and other factors which indicated an exponential growth rate of 1.41% per annum. (NEERI, 1996; SEUF, 2006). Based on these, the total MSW generated in Kerala is estimated and given in Table 1. Table 1. Generation of MSW in Kerala No Location Population 2011 1 City Corporation 2450790 2 Urban centres 13481381 3 Rural areas 17455506 Total 33387677
Per capita waste generation (Kg/d) 0.498 0.287 0.200 0.257
Total waste generation (T/day) 1220 3869 3491 8580
This could be considered as a first approximation data as amendments may normally be required when it comes to the local level as the socio-economic and environmental dynamics differs. Further, there are possibilities of floating population in certain regions with respect to pilgrimage, festivals and tourism activities. Therefore, it is crucial to have data generated locally to assess the quantity of waste to be handled at a place and time for evolving a foolproof waste management action. However, the per capita estimate on waste generation did help the local governments to formulate the policy and strategy and initiate action plan on MSW management.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Composition and character of MSW In order to evolve a sustainable MSW strategy, the composition and character of the waste as well as their source are very critical inputs. There have been various studies on this and accordingly the sources of MSW generation, the physical composition of wastes in city corporations and smaller urban centres have been compiled in Figure 1, 2 and 3. The most characteristic feature of waste generation sources is that about 50% of it is generated in households and about 35% in various institutions. The contribution of construction sector and street sweepings are only 15%. Similarly, the waste is dominated by compostable material to the tune of 72-84%, necessitating its instant handling.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
The chemical characterization of waste is important to understand the utilization/ management possibilities as well as the pollution potential of the waste. The MSW of Kerala, in general, is characterized by high moisture content, low calorific value and high nutrient value (Table 2). Therefore, the waste is not burnable and is more conducive for recycling in the form of manure. The heavy metal concentration of MSW is also found high (Table 3). It indicates the possibility of metallic pollution, and hence, the necessity of careful handling especially on putrefaction.
No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Table 2. Chemical characteristics of MSW Parameters Unit Value (Range) Density (Kg/m3) 207-688 Moisture content % 45-79 Calorific value KCal/Kg 923-2664 Organic matter % 27-52 pH 6.6-8.3 Carbon % 13.8-32.7 Nitrogen % 0.33-2.43 Potassium as K2O % 0.37-0.61
Table 3. Heavy metal content in MSW Type of Heavy Unit Value metal (Range) 1 Argon (Ar) Mg/Kg 0.4-5.7 2 Manganese (Mn) ppm 122-247 3 Nickel (Ni) ppm 1.2-4.5 4 Cadmium (Cd) ppm 0.2-2.5 5 Lead (Pb) ppm 2.5-15.9 6 Chromium (Cr) ppm 28-96 7 Copper (Cu) ppm 12- 47.5 8 Zinc (Zn) ppm 24.3-99 9 Mercury (Hg) Mg/Kg <0.1 10 Iron (Fe) % 0.8-1.7 No
MSW Management- Key issues Towards the beginning of 2000, the state recognized the need for improved focus on its economic growth strategy which highlighted the sectors of tourism, healthcare and education as the major engines of growth. The state realized the importance of faster and continual improvement in sanitation sector, especially the need to give improved attention to waste management aspects, the state of which was worsening. The solid waste, mostly, was left to decompose in dumping yards, road margins, drains, canals, water bodies and open space, providing ideal breeding ground for pathogens, flies, rats and mosquitoes. Even more serious was the problem of ground water (a source of drinking water for more than 70% of the population) pollution due to leachate from
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
dumping yards. Windblown debris and burning of wastes invariably caused air pollution. There was an alarming increase in the presence of substances like plastics, which was difficult to degrade or break down, in the waste stream. A review of the MSW management based on the compliance conditions stipulated as per the MSW (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000, then, indicated the following key issues. • Increasing population, enhancing consumerism, increasing waste and changing waste streams • Absence of the process of segregation and storage of waste at source • Lack of informed initiatives for waste reduction and management at source • Adhoc and inadequate primary collection system • Increasing practice of dumping the waste along roadsides and open space • Poor upkeep and piling up of waste in secondary waste collection bins/spots • Inadequate and irregular street sweeping, littering of streets and clogging of drains • Inappropriately designed street cleaning implements and poor system efficiency • Putrefaction of waste in the open, foul smell, spread of leachate, unaesthetics and unhygienic environment • Uncovered transportation of waste resulted in littering enroute to the disposal site • Inadequate and ill designed vehicles, frequent break-downs, delay in repairs, poor transportation management • Lack of or improper waste processing plants and technological inappropriateness • Negligent environmental management and severe lack of environmental safeguards • Absence of sanitary landfills and crude dumping of waste in designated landfill sites • Lack of awareness, poor community involvement, public apathy, severe environmental impacts and increasing NIMBY (Not-In-My-Back-Yard) syndrome and social tension • Weak institutional structure, inadequate technical skills and expertise, insufficient funds allocation, poor prioritization by governments and poor system efficiency The situation demanded the necessity of defining the role and responsibilities of key players/agencies in the waste management sector based on situation analysis and developing a guidance policy and operational strategy on important aspects/concerns of waste management. It required streamlining of the MSW management systems with focus on environmental cleanliness, hygiene and system sustainability.
MSW Management- Adaptable policy and strategy It was understood that almost 50% of the MSW was generated at households and another 35% was at other point sources such as institutions, markets etc. 70-80% of this waste was found as wet recyclables with high moisture content (55-70%), low calorific value (900-2700 Kcal/Kg) and promising carbon-nitrogen ratio (13-42) indicating high biodegradability. A portion of the wet recyclables also contained slowly biodegradable, fibrous and burnable components such as such wood particles, coconut husk, coconut shells etc. More than 10% of the waste was also found to be dry recyclables such as plastics and packaging wastes. In such a waste generation scenario, the strategy of ‘Reduction, Reuse & Recycling’ was found well suitable subject to awareness on waste minimization, attitudinal change for material reuse and technology appropriateness for material recycling. This enabled to evolve a policy of ‘Waste-free Kerala with a new healthy citizenship believing in zero-waste concept and a society inclined to a habit of Reduce, Reuse &Recycle the waste generated for continual improvement in health and environmental outcome. In order to implement the policy, it was necessary to address the need for improved awareness, health and environmental targets and technology challenges. The overall strategy that was adopted for addressing the policy aspects included the following. Popularizing the concept of zero waste and practices of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle Learning from the experience of National missions and International support organizations Generating capacity and capability from academic institutions, non-governmental organizations, expert agencies, etc. Developing and instituting Information, Education & Communication (IEC) campaign Arriving at plausible and appropriate technology options and developing protocolsOrganizing Technical Support Groups at various levels and providing handholding support to local governments Mobilizing and streamlining the support of self-help groups and service providers Expanding the regulatory framework and motivating the enforcement mechanism Facilitating the local governments to comply with the Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 Evolving a management tactics based on source reduction and popularizing and prioritizing the practice of household, institutional and common waste management facilities Formalizing an enabling mission and incorporating waste management as an integral component of total sanitation campaign. The strategy enabled the formulation of an action plan, with an overall target of ‘zero waste Kerala’, involving all the elements of sanitation such as the safe disposal of human excreta, solid waste management, liquid waste management, safe handling of drinking water, food and personal hygiene and environmental upgradation.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Operational Approach and Action Plan Sanitation, which was emerged as an important agenda in the development discourse of the State needed to be pushed into the action phase so that the needs and priorities of the people could be translated into concrete projects and implemented in a time-bound manner. For this to happen, it was necessary to generate people’s movement involving citizens, elected leaders, officials, professionals and activists and give highest priority to comprehensive sanitation. This was possible through the Local Governments, who gained confidence for sustained local action through the then instituted decentralized governance supported by a unique campaign namely the People’s Plan Campaign. In order to operationalize this strategy, a mission approach was essential and adopted. Initially, in 2000, the Kerala Total Sanitation and Health Mission (KTSHM) was launched dovetailing the national campaign on sanitation. Since this mission was focusing on rural areas, a mission namely, Clean Kerala Mission (CKM) was formed in 2003 to attend to the urban sanitation issues dominantly with focus on solid waste management. Primarily, the CKM was to enable the local governments to achieve better compliance to the Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling), Rules, 2000 by facilitating the local governments to establish the facilities for waste collection, transportation, treatment and final disposal. The KTSHM focused on achieving extensive coverage of sanitary latrines, sensitize the need for scientific approach to waste management and popularizing various sanitation practices. Both the missions supported the development of several best practices in environmental sanitation as well as solid waste management. By 2006, it was realized that the activities on sanitation and waste management need to be revitalized and accordingly, a Waste-free Kerala campaign was launched. This was with the objective of mobilizing the people for local action to intensify voluntary cleaning of private and public places for improved environmental upkeep, formulating a vision document on sanitation by each local government based on survey and discussion at the gram-sabha level, organizing a Technical Support Group (TSG) in each district for providing voluntary support to local governments for planning and implementing the actions and placing Health Promotion Teams (HPTs) in each Village Panchayath for facilitating the implementation and monitoring the outcomes. Elaborate consultations, preparations and mobilizations were required up to the grass-root level to succeed and sustain the campaign. In order to facilitate this, detailed evaluation studies on sanitation were carried out involving experts and a sectoral status study on solid waste management was conducted drawing support from an international organization. Further, the missions, KTSHM and CKM, were merged as Suchitwa (Sanitation) Mission (SM) in 2008 and revitalized to undertake the campaign comprehensively. The SM, after developing a network of professional agencies and activists and constituting a Communication and Capacity Development Unit (CCDU), coordinated the formulation and implementation of Waste-free Kerala Action Plan. This was with the support of Working Groups and participatory planning at the local government level and expert consultations, as required and through awareness campaign, capacity building, appropriate technology interventions and strengthening regulatory framework. The action plans involving all the components of sanitation focused on coverage of safe toilets, management of solid and liquid waste at the source itself, as far as possible, regulating the use of plastics, clean upkeep of water sources, cleansing slaughter houses, chicken stalls, hotels, catering centres and markets and overall environmental upgradation. The time-bound outputs and milestones stipulated in the action plan are the following. Total coverage of household sanitary latrines Total coverage of latrines in public institutions like educational institutions and hospitals Putting in place household and institutional waste treatment systems Segregation of household & institutional waste Developing decentralized common treatment facilities Development of common sanitary land-fill sites for inert waste Making colonies clean and neat Introducing litter-free public places Plan for liquid waste management Extending sewerage facilities The action plan also proposed to provide incentives to local governments and institutions based on transparent indicators for realizing the outcome of improved health and overall environmental upgradation. The action plan also indicated the possibility of linkage with the Central and State Government schemes for mobilizing possible resources for the local governments. These included: • Total Sanitation Campaign, a CSS, Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India • Capacity & Communication Development Unit (CCDU) for Sanitation, a CSS, Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India • Integrated Low Cost Sanitation Programme, a CSS, Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation, Govt. of India • Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), a CSS, Ministry of Urban Development, Govt. of India
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
• • • • • •
Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT), a CSS, Ministry of Urban Development, Govt. of India City Sanitation Plan Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT), a CSS, Ministry of Urban Development, Govt. of India Clean Kerala Programme, a State Plan scheme, Local Self Government Department, Govt. of Kerala Modernizing slaughter houses, a State Plan scheme, Local Self Government Department, Govt. of Kerala Improvement of sanitation facilities in schools of minority dominated areas, a State Plan Scheme, Minority Development Department, Govt of Kerala Enhancing sanitation facilities in the catchments of wetlands, a State Plan scheme, Environment Department, Govt. of Kerala
Specific initiatives and salient accomplishments Awareness and capacity building • Enabled all the Grama Panchayats to prepare a Vision Document on Sanitation and waste management facilitated them to evolve and implement follow up actions • Organized a voluntary Technical Support Group (TSG) in all the 14 districts of the State with an overall strength of 420 and trained them to assist the local governments to address the challenges in sanitation, especially the solid waste management • Prepared resource materials on solid waste management and extended training to the TSG on various aspects of solid waste management for capacitating them to support the local governments • Prepared guidelines on specifications, standards, unit costs, operation & maintenance protocols, subsidi norms and contracting conditions for solid waste management plans using bio-technologies for facilitating implementation by local governments • Initiated and organized the activities of Capacity and Communication Development Unit (CCDU) for sanitation based on training need assessment. • Imparted training in solid waste management to the Municipal Engineers, Health Inspectors, sanitation coordinators, voluntary technical personnel, resource persons etc for enabling them to prepare DPR for Solid Waste Management and its implementation • Imparted training on Ecological Sanitation to sanitation coordinators and resource persons • Prepared Detailed Project Report (DPR) for establishing modern slaughter houses incorporating all the technical, hygiene, environmental and regulatory safeguard provisions for the consideration of local governments • Imparted training to the Municipal Engineers to prepare DPR for construction of modern slaughter houses • Capacitated 26 Service Provider Groups for waste management services by imparting field level training to Self Help Groups for installation, operation and maintenance of decentralized solid waste management plants using vermi-composting, aerobic composting and biomethanation technologies • Provided professional technical advisory to local governments on various aspects of sanitation, especially solid waste management • Prepared a Sanitation workbook namely Thelima for school children of Class V-IX and its video version and distributed the book to all students and video to all schools in collaboration with Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. The resource material was used as an informal curriculum for one hour every week • Prepared handbook for School Sanitation Campaign and organized the preparation of school sanitation status and action plan and facilitated their implementation • Prepared handbook for Public Office Sanitation and organized the sanitary upkeep of public offices with employees participation • Prepared handbook on Water Quality Surveillanceand enabled selected Higher Secondary Schools to set up small water quality testing laboratory and trained the science teachers to extend support to the local communities to ensure the quality of their drinking water sources as part of developing a massive water quality surveillance programme • Designed and organized innovative IEC campaign for addressing the new challenges in sanitation making use of print and electronic media with active support of press as well as ICT institutions • Prepared an environmental safeguard mechanism for local governments for enabling them to comply with the environmental management requirements • Produced a unique Reality Show namely ‘Green Kerala Express’ highlighting the green and sustainable development initiatives of the local governments including sanitation and facilitated its telecast in Doordarshan channel. (Programme won the National Urban Water Award for innovative communication).
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Sanitation • Achieved total coverage of household sanitary latrines and continued to be the leading state in the country in implementing the Total Sanitation Campaign, a Flagship Programme of the Govt. of India. • Significant achievements in the target set for School, Balwadi and Community toilets (99%, 95% and 81% respectively) as well as in popularizing Baby-friendly and Girl-friendly toilets in Schools. Organized a special drive for ensuring gender-friendly toilet facilities and water supply in schools of minority dominated areas in the State • Launched Integrated Low Cost Sanitation in 8 municipalities to construct 8272 septic tank toilets or biogas linked toilets • Facilitated 97% of the Grama Panchayats (972) to receive the Nirmal Gram Puraskar (NGP), a national award for eliminating open defecation, ensuring toilet to all households, schools and anganwadis and creating neat and clean environment • Sustained the campaign for pre-monsoon cleaning and dry-day observance for maintaining house, premises and public places without stagnant water and mosquito proliferation to contain the monsoonal outbreak of diseases • Evolved detailed criteria for sanitation rating of urban and rural local governments by considering various aspects of sanitation and waste management in households, markets, schools, hospitals, streets, colonies and common water bodies as well as compliance to regulations, especially on plastics • Implemented environmental upgradation programme for the fresh-water lake of Sasthamkotta Lake by enhancing sanitation facilities in its catchment area • Undertook special sanitation drive for Kuttanad wetland region, a unique low land domain, with innovative initiatives including ecological sanitation techniques. Waste management • Initiated solid waste management campaign in all the urban and local governments and enabled them to prepare detailed project report for integrated municipal solid waste management and extended them partial financial support. 58% urban and 25% rural local governments established waste management systems. Developed model solid waste management programme in urban and rural local governments and promoted remediation of waste dumping yards • Prepared DPR for Integrated Solid Waste Management for 9 Municipalities under the Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) and extended technical support for its implementation • Organized feasibility studies for establishing Resource Recovery Centres and Regional Engineered Landfill facility and planning liquid waste management facilities • Evolved a broad action plan for collection and management of e-waste in the state involving the local governments and accredited agencies • Assessed the problems, prospects and potential of waste to energy plants for Kerala based on the evaluation of various proposals received from the promoters in India and abroad and highlighted the constraints • Streamlined the technical, environmental, health and social safeguard aspects for upgrading the services and service conditions of Self Help Groups involved in solid waste management activities • Facilitated the establishment of model liquid waste treatment plants for institutions and markets proposed by urban local governments • Prepared a status report on the generation, management requirements and present practices of handling septage and fecal sludge matter accumulations in the on-site sanitation systems of Kerala and suggested short and long-term action plan • Enabled and assisted urban and rural local governments for preparing DPR for the construction of modern slaughter houses and their implementation. • Appraised, evaluated and issued technical approval for the DPR prepared by local governments for all types of sanitation projects Though waste management was the key issue to be tackled among various components of sanitation in the context of Kerala, a comprehensive approach was adopted with focus on awareness generation, capacity building, general hygiene and waste management. Though the overall achievement of waste management is slow, the society realized that the practice of managing waste at source, as far as possible, is the only sustainable route and this is being increasingly adopted. Even in the case of major urban centres, where centralized system is unavoidable for managing common waste streams, the pressure on it could be reduced considerably by treating and reducing waste at source. It also inculcates a habit of segregating waste which significantly improves the material and energy value of waste. Since the dominant type of waste generated in Kerala is of
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
biodegradable type, that too in a home-sted type of habitation, the source management could be easily achieved through biological treatment methods such as composting and biomethanation to recover the energy values to the maximum. This also enables the recovery of non-biodegradable wastes with high material values, if collected and segregated appropriately and managed through resource recovery centres for reuse and recycle. This concept is also being accepted increasingly. The experiments of exclusive centralization for waste management failed in Kerala due to failure in adopting environmental safeguards and poor understanding on the scalability of technologies. The attempt to overcome these failures through black-box technologies is also failing miserably in Kerala. It is now being realized that waste could be handled efficiently provided the materials in it are segregated and managed according to their physic-chemical and biological properties.
Conclusion The achievements of the extensive coverage of sanitation and the mixed experiences in waste management initiatives are due to and leading to various positives in the State of Kerala. The achievements in literacy and empowerment, the devolution of power to local governments, their active associations, participative planning etc have contributed to a coordinated effort in achieving significant sanitation coverage in the state. The political and legislative will, proactive media and various judicial directions are now helping in streamlining the waste management initiatives. The strengths of local governments also opened up an effective enforcement machinery. The mission approach in sanitation provides an opportunity for technical handholding of the whole process that requires to address social engineering as well as the appropriateness of technology. On the whole, sanitation and waste management are now very much a component in the development agenda of the state and the initiatives are progressing in the right directions with minor hick ups.
References CESS, 2001. Carrying capacity based development planning of Greater Kochi Region (GKR)., Rep. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram. p. 269. KSUDP. 2006. Solid waste management of Kollam, Kochi, Thrissur and Kozhikkode Corporations of Kerala. Dft. Detailed Project Report. Local Self Government Department, Government of Kerala & Asian Development Bank (Personal communication) NEERI, 1996. Municipal solid waste management in Indian Urban Centres. Rep. National Environmental Engineering Research Institute. Nagpur. Padmalal, D., Narendra Babu, K., Maya, K., Rajesh Reghunath., Mini, S.R., Sreeja, R. and Saji, S. 2002. Municipal solid waste generation and management of Changanasseri, Kottayam and Kannur Municipalities, Kerala. Rep. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram. CESS PR- 02- 2002. p. 47. SEUF, 2006. Sector assessment of Municipal Solid Waste Management in Kerala. Consultancy to support Clean Kerala Mission (Government of Kerala) to develop policy and institutional reform guidelines. Final Report. Socio Economic Unit Foundation, Thiruvananthapuram. p. 224. Varma, Ajaykumar and Dileep Kumar. 2004. A handbook on solid waste management. Clean Kerala Mission, Govt. of Kerala. p. 78. Varma, Ajaykumar. 2007. A database on solid wastes of Kerala for initiating programmes for prevention of land pollution and upgradation of environment. Proc. Natl. Workshop. Fertility evaluation for soil health enhancement (Ed. Premachandran, P.N.). Soil Survey Organization, Govt. of Kerala. pp. 330-338.
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Chapter-I-6 Solid waste generation in India - Myths and Realities Sanjay K. K. Gupta Senior Consultant, Water, Sanitation and Livelihood, New Delhi, India Email: sanjayenvi@gmail.com Abstract “What cannot be measured cannot be managed properly”, cannot stand much truer than waste management in India. Though the government of India has initiated a series of urban governance reforms, to strengthen locallevel governance yet desired or even minimal results are still illusive. The main purpose of this paper is to describe the major issues of governance at the local level particularly dealing with urban services with a focus on solid waste management waste generation data. This assessment is based on data collected from six towns of India of different sizes, on perceptions (and realities) of solid waste generation and composition. This paper does not look at the waste composition disparities but only waste generation data. The findings of this study show that urban local governments in India continue to remain plagued by numerous problems, which affect efficiency and reliability of the waste management services. The key problem relates to having reliable and credible data on waste generation and composition so that both existing man power and financial resources could be utilized appropriately to provide adequate services through transparency in the planning and implementation of solid waste management services and at the same time enhancing level of efficiency in various municipal management and financial practices. It is concluded that atleast in waste management a mandatory weigh machine by a third party or through a foolproof system of municipality on its own be made mandatory for above two lakh population. Just by installing or making arrangements of foolproof weighing arrangements, municipalities could save huge resources in waste management collection and transportation and reduce corruption at all levels.
Introduction Deficit in Governance more visible in Municipalities in SWM The 74th Constitutional Amendment has accorded constitutional status to the municipal bodies by initiating a process of democratic decentralisation with the objective of making urban governance and services more responsive. In order to meet the growing aspirations and expectations of people and to meet the daunting challenges of urbanization, the new schemes of Government of India like JNNURM and UIDSSMT, governance in the urban local bodies has been emphasized upon but needs to become more efficient, effective, responsive, citizen friendly, transparent and accountable. Absence of these features, contributes to “governance deficit” to varying degrees in the urban local bodies and lack of credible data on solid waste management is one such strong indicator of this. It is estimated that about 1,15,000 MT of Municipal Solid Waste is generated daily in the country. Per capita waste generation in cities varies between 0.2 – 0.6 kg per day and it is again estimated that it is increasing by 1.3% per annum. Except in few cases there are not any comprehensive and credible data generation on the so-called waste generation rate either at per capita or household level or at the final disposal site through a foolproof scientific method. Name of Population Claimed before Reality Per Annum City/Town (2011) actual weighing Claimed Reality Eluru 214000 145-160 60-65 52925-58400 21900-23725 Surat 4462000 NA 1200-1250 NA 5036635 Warangal 620000 300-350 130 109500-127750 47450 Bobili 57000 30 22-24 10950 8760 Suryapet 105000 45 22-25 16425 9125 Kanpur 2767000 1300 700-800* 474500 292000 *The data of Kanpur in the reality column is estimated by Author based on observation at the landfill site and is on the higher site as the company and municipality both refused to share the weigh bridge data sheet. The Context of Surat, Kanpur and Warangal Surat with a population of 46 lakh produces 1200-1300 tons of waste per day. In 1994, Surat was struck by an outbreak of a virulent disease somewhat like the plague. The disease caused panic countrywide and while the citizens blamed the municipality, the civic authorities in turn blamed the citizens for their lack of civic sense
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
with regard to solid waste mismanagement. It was a harsh reminder of what negligence in the area of solid waste management can lead to. But what was most amazing was that within a span of 18 months the city made a complete reversal from a dirty, garbage-strewn city to become one of the cleanest cities in the country. This transformation was possible thanks largely to the initiative by the Commissioner who not only institutionalised the good practices but also fixed the role and accountabilities of different level of officials responsible for waste management. Kanpur with a population of 32 lakhs claims to produces 1500 tons of waste with records up to 1700 tons collected in a day. In Kanpur the city's waste collection, processing and disposal system was expected to get a facelift in 2010 with the launch of solid waste management system by Kanpur Municipal Corporation through a public private partnership. Kanpur has been traditionally considered a dirty city and the need for a private sector was supposed to clean up the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s waste problem, but that did not happen. Growing mismanagement, scams and shortage of manpower and fleet created even worse situation than what municipality used to maintain in spite of a huge cost it has been currently occurring. The estimate was based on a DPR prepared by an institution and it calculated per capita waste generation of 437 gram per person per day. An estimated 1,200 tons of garbage is collected everyday (KNN estimates 1500 tpd), which is to be lifted by the company and rest is supposedly not lifted. The company has also been found submitting bills of waste collection and transportation beyond 1500 tons. A special drive of the municipality carried out for three days along with the private companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s after huge protest from the citizens during Eid ( a Muslim Festival)could not cross 1366 tons which also picked uncollected waste lying for months together. In Warangal Municipal Corporation, a special campaign called Clean Cities Championship Campaign (CCCC) initiated a 100% door to door collection system from 10th October, 2012. The waste generation averages around 130 tons (or less) a day since then. But Warangalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s City Development Plan estimates waste generated in the city to be 360 tons per day. Typically the domestic waste generation in Indian cities are estimated to be in the range between 0.2-0.6 kg and for Warangal it works out to 480 grams per capita per day. It also calculated that in the surrounding 42 villages the total estimated waste generation is 43.8 tons/day, calculated based on the empirical formula for per capita waste generation. Therefore, it calculates that the Greater Warangal generates waste of 403.8 MT every day at 400 grams per capita per day. But since the day 100% door step collection has been started with other comprehensive cleaning, it never crossed the mark of 130 tons.
Myths and Realities of Waste Generation in Surat, Kanpur and Warangal The alleged bubonic plague of 1994 in Surat resulted in significant loss of life and severe financial losses to the city and the country as a whole. This episode, however, served to focus attention on public health and, in particular solid waste management of the city. Accordingly, the Surat Municipal Corporation immediately undertook a number of urgent steps to improve its management of solid waste collection and disposal and other urban environmental services including credible waste data generation. Since last 10 years, the MSW collected from nearly 90% of the area through primary collection by motorised vehicles are unloaded at nearby transfer stations where it is weighed and from there it is loaded into large container trucks of 16 ton capacity and is again weighed and disposed at Khajod. This gives a cross checking of the waste generation both at the transfer station level as well as at the disposal and processing site. The weigh bridge has camera installed from all side to prevent any unscrupulous activities. In Kanpur, the Municipality gave the integrated solid waste management contract of collection, transportation, processing and disposal to a single company including the operations of the weigh bridge at the plant. Since the company operates everything related to solid waste management including the weigh bridge, the municipality has no idea of waste generation either zone wise or at the level of the different parts of the city. What the company reports, is taken as the final waste generation data. The municipality does not have system to verify the waste collection and generation quantity reported by the company. There was also no credible baseline of waste generation to check whether the city ever produced the quantity of waste claimed by the institution that prepared the detailed project report and also reported by the company. In Warangal the city claimed to produce 300-360 tons of waste everyday with its 6.2 lakh population. Resources were budgeted and spent on this basis since a decade. In October 2012, the Warangal Municipality decided to hold Clean Cities Championship Campaign (CCCC), to quickly implement the MSW Rules 2000. After a planning and preparation of 3 weeks it held the clean cities championship campaign. Under this 100% door step collection was started with each push cart doing the door step collection which was also provided with a spring balance weigh machine to weight their waste everyday and sent the information. After that the collected waste is transported in bigger vehicles and weighed at a private weigh bridge before it enters the dumpsite. This started giving the credible data on waste generation. The arrangement was made with a private weigh bridge because the municipality did not have a weigh bridge of its own. Since then the waste generation quantity has not crossed 130 tons inspite of 100% door step collection system. The stories of Eluru, Suryapet and Bobili are
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
no different, where they started carrying out actual weighing of waste instead of calculating it on the basis of per capita waste generation rate or multiplying it by per trips.
Lessons in Waste Generation and Composition Most waste generation and composition data in India, wherever it has been done is based on the sample population and without a proper weigh bridge. It is not only inaccurate but also in all case hugely exaggerated. This is not to say that this is an inadvertent mistake but it also shows that there are severe unscrupulous practices allowed both under PPP projects as well as where the municipalities are carrying it on their own. The DPRs and CDPs prepared for cities also commit the same mistake of multiplying waste generation per capita data with population or copying another data from a similar size city population. As a result municipalities are not only losing huge amount of financial resources on this, but it also prevents from preparing a reliable planning and budgeting exercise. For example the Kanpur ISWM facility is supposed to process 1500 tons of waste though it generates only nearly 50% of the estimated waste. The Timarpur waste to energy plant of Delhi failed precisely because of grossly inaccurate data provided. The case of Kanpur and Surat/Warangal show that state government should make it mandatory to have fully computerized weigh bridge with camera’s installed all sides. It costs less than 800000 rupees but saves more than this every month in any city with a population of more than 200000. The cumulative corruption that can be prevented both within the municipal structure and in cases of private sector and PPP run projects, per year would be more than 10.2 million rupees per year for 200000 + population towns. Also the system of payment for the waste collection and transportation should be changed to per household and not on the tonnage basis as this will prevent many unscrupulous practices. Generating such accurate data by installing the weigh bridge will also help in better planning and use of existing resources particularly for processing waste. It is also recommended that if a city intends to make a DPR or CDP for SWM, it should tie up with a private weigh bridge (in case the municipality does not have one), to get credible data for preparing tender documents either for PSP or PPP.
Acronyms CCCC – Clean Cities Championship Campaign CDP – City Development Plan DPR – Detail Project Report ISWM – Integrated Solid Waste Management JNNURM – Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission MSW – Municipal Solid Waste PSP – Private Sector Participation PPP – Public Private Partnership SWM – Solid Waste Management UIDSSMT – Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns
References Urban issues, reforms and way forward in india, chetan vaidya, 2009 Challenges for Urban Local Governments in India, Dr. Rumi Aijaz Asia Research Centre Working Paper 19 – 2006 Report of the working group on urban governance, of The Planning Commission constituted a Working group on Urban Governance for formulation of the 12th Five Year Plan (2012-2017) Authors Personal visit to Kanpur, Warangal, Surat, Eluru, Suryapet and Bobili and interaction with the Commissioner and field level officials. http://theviewspaper.net/waste-disposal-in-india/ 6.http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-08-24/kanpur/33365981_1_garbage-collection-wastecollection-a2z-workers.
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Chapter-II Solid Waste Management
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Chapter-II-7 The performance assessment of municipal solid waste management utilities in the urban areas of MadhyaMadhya-Pradesh, India Amit Vishwakarma* & Mukul Kulshrestha** * Department of Civil Engineering, University institute of Technology, R.G.P.V., Bhopal, M.P., India ** Environmental Engineering Division, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, MANIT, Bhopal, M.P., India Email: amitvishi@gmail.com Abstract Municipal Solid Waste Management is an obligatory function of the urban local government but also at the same time this is one service that remains a major problem for urban centers of all sizes (CPHEEO, 2005). There are 342 local bodies (municipal corporations, 14; municipal committees or municipalities, 86; Nagar Panchyats, 237; and cantonment boards, 5) responsible for the implementation of the MSW, in the State of Madhya Pradesh, India. The present paper uses Scorecard methodology to estimate the Performance Scores of Municipal Solid Waste Management utilities of selected 110 municipalities in urban cities/towns in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. Municipality of 54 urban towns scores less than 50% while municipality of Sarangpur and Sironj shows worst performance and scores less than 20%. MSWM managers need to initiate reforms in order to make these utilities more efficient. Keywords: Benchmarking, Scorecard, Municipal Solid Waste Management, Performance Scores.
Introduction Municipal Solid Waste Management is an obligatory function of the urban local government but also at the same time this is one service that remains a major problem for urban centers of all sizes (CPHEEO, 2005). There are 342 local bodies (municipal corporations, 14; municipal committees or municipalities, 86; Nagar Panchyats, 237; and cantonment boards, 5) responsible for the implementation of the MSW, in the State of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is estimated that around 4500 Mt day-1 MSW is generated from all the 342 local bodies (Patel et al., 2010). An assessment of the status report of the implementation of the Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling), Rules, 2000 in the State of Madhya Pradesh has been done by Patel et al. 2010 and they found that the local bodies of the State are not well equipped for the proper management of the MSW, the local bodies are not financially and technically capable for the proper implementation of the Rules, the collection of the waste is only around 60â&#x20AC;&#x201C;70%. According a study done by WHO-UNICEF (2002), there has also been a significant increase in MSW generation in India in the last few decades. This is largely because of rapid population growth and economic development in the country, and Solid Waste Management has become a major environmental issue in India Over the last decade industrial waste and the municipal solid waste (MSW) have emerged as the leading causes of the pollution of surface and groundwater. According to Solid Waste Management Issues and Challenges in Asia (2007), the amount of solid waste generated in the cities is much higher than in rural areas. The generation rate in rural areas can be as low as 0.15 kg/cap/day, while in the urban areas the rate can be above 1.0 kg/cap/day. In India, in Delhi MSW generation rate is 0.47 (kg/cap/day). Realising the need for proper and scientific management of solid waste, the Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules (2000) were notified by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India. Table 1 shows the status of Sewage generation in the class I and Class II towns of the Madhya Pradesh, India in Year 2009. According to a report WSP (2011), the annual economic impacts of inadequate sanitation amount to US$53.8 billion. Report illustrated facts that India lost US$48 (`180) on a per capita basis, showing the urgency with which India needs to improve sanitation. The report estimates that comprehensive interventions (use of toilets, hygiene promotion, improved access to safe water, and proper waste management) can save India US$32.6 billion (`1.48 trillion) or US$29 (`1321) per capita. Most Urban Local Bodies are unable to cope with the challenging task of collection, transportation and disposal of solid wastes not only due to rapid urbanization and rising incomes but also due to the non-availability of required open-spaces near urban centers for landfilling, (CPHEEO, 2005). Now there is a need to assess the performance and efficiency evaluation of MSWM utilities in the urban areas of Madhya Pradesh, India.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
The objective of the study is to evaluate the efficiency and the performance assessment of Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) utility of selected urban cities of Madhya Pradesh, India. Sample urban cities are based on the classification according to CPHEEO (2005), as Metropolitan city, Class-I and Class-II cities1.
Methdology The work involves the identification and use of a set of key indicators with their weighted integration to obtain performance scores. The indicators were categorized in terms of three broad clusters are as follows: 1 Operational efficiency (1) Efficiency of collection of municipal solid waste (%) 2 Service efficiency (1) Household level coverage of SWM services (%) (2) Efficiency in redressal of customer complaints (%) 3 Financial efficiency(1) Extent of cost recovery in SWM services (%) (2) Efficiency in collection of user charges (%) Relative weights (wi) were assigned to various indicators on the basis of the conducted Delphi study such that indicators were awarded a total weight of 100. Also the indicator value scores (si) were obtained on a scale of 0–10 based on the designed scale for each indicator according to the actual data value of the indicator. For every utility, these scale scores were subsequently integrated with the indicator weights to obtain the weighted scores (wisi) for each indicator. These scores were then summed up for every cluster to give cluster scores Si, and for all the indicators to give the utility Performance scores (S) for every utility. This methodology was then employed to assess the relative performances of the MSWM municipalities in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. Performance Indicators associated with three Clusters 1. Operational efficiency indicates about the smoothly functioning of a utility and effectively operates the work and serves the people effectively. Because of lack of data only one main indicator in this cluster has been classified namely Efficiency of collection of municipal solid waste (%). 2. Service efficiency gives the description of a MSWM utility by covering two main indicators, Household level coverage of SWM services (%) and Efficiency in redressal of customer complaints (%). These indicators directly influence the consumers and decide their satisfaction levels. 3. Financial efficiency are includes two main performance indicators namely Extent of cost recovery in SWM services (%) and Efficiency in collection of user charges (%). Assigning a score to performance Indicators • Efficiency of collection of municipal solid waste (%)- Efficiency of collection of municipal solid waste (%) is equal to (b/a)*100, where, ‘a’ is defined as total wastes that is generated and which needs to be collected and ‘b’ is defined as total quantum of waste that is collected by the ULB authorized service providers. Collection efficiency in ideal case should be 100%, hence score of 10 is awarded if collection efficiency is 100% and 0 if collection efficiency is nil. • Household level coverage of SWM services (%- Household level coverage of solid waste management is equal to (b/a)*100, where ‘a’ is defined as Total number of households and establishment in the service area and ‘b’ is defined as total number of households and establishment with daily door steps collection. Coverage of sewerage network services scores 10 for 100% coverage, and score 0 if area covered by service is Nil. Intermediate values calculated by linear interpolation. • Efficiency in redressal of customer complaints (%)– Efficiency in redressal of customer complaints (%) is equal to (b/a)*100, where ‘a’ is defined as total number of SWM related complaints received per month and ‘b’ is defined as total number of SWM related complaints redressal within the month. Score 10 for 100% efficiency and 0 for nil. • Extent of cost recovery in SWM services (%) – Extent of cost recovery in SWM services (%) is equal to (b/a)*100, where ‘a’ is defined as total annual operating expenses (INR) and ‘b’ is defined as total annual operating revenue (INR).Score 10 for 100% efficiency and 0 for nil. • Efficiency in collection of user charges (%)- Efficiency in collection of user charges (%) is equal to (b/a)*100, where ‘a’ is defined as current revenue collected in the given year (INR) and ‘b’ is defined as total operating revenue billed during the given year (INR). Score 10 for 100% efficiency and 0 for nil.
1
Indian cities are classified as Metropolitan with population greater than 1,000,000, as Class-I cities with population between 1,00,000, and as Class-II cities with population between 50,000 and 100,000.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Sampled Urban Cities in the State of Madhya Pradesh, India Selection of urban cities to assess the performance depends on availability of data of selected performance indicators. Urban Administration & Development Department of Madhya Pradesh (UADD, MP), India is the source of data of MSW management of urban cities/towns in the state of Madhya-Pradesh, India. Because of lack of data selection of cities, selection of performance indicators has been limited.
Data Analysis and Results Table II exhibits the weights and scale scores for various indicators. Table II also shows the percentage of performance Scores of the MSWM utilities. Each cluster was evaluated for a maximum possible score of 1000 (weight * scale = 100*10), hence each cluster score Si represents performance out of 1000 and total performance scores (S) of each utility out of 3000. Performance Scores as shown in Table II represent Shahdol Municipality is the best performer with a total performance score of 2199 (73.3%) within a sample urban towns. The Metropolitan city ‘Indore’ performs relatively well in the sample with a score of 1980.74 (66%). Shahdol, Sendhwa, Chhindwara, Begumganj and Shajapur are the top five Municipalities performing well on the basis of the assumed clusters and within the 110 sampled urban towns. Table III shows the number of efficient utilities according to scored performances. Table I: Status of sewage generation in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India State of India Class of City Population in Sewage Generation Year 2008 (MLD) Madhya Pradesh Class-I city 10795000 1248.72 Class-II Towns 1745050 130.9
Sewage Treatment Capacity (MLD) 186.1 9
(Source: CPCB, 2009) Table II: Performance scores of MSWM urban utilities Performance Clusters →
Operational efficiency
Performance indicators →
Efficiency of collection of municipal solid waste (%)
Assuming weights (wi)_ 100 → S.No. MSWM Municipalities ↓ 1 Aagar (distt. 2.80 Shajapur) 2 Alirajpur 7.70
Service efficiency Efficiency in redressal of customer complaints (%)
Financial efficiency Extent of cost recovery in MSWM services (%) 35
Efficinecy in collection of user charges (%)
Total Performa nce Scores of all clusters for MSWM Utilities (S)
Perfor mance Scores (%)
Household level coverage of solid waste managemen t services (%) 40
60
0.00
Scores (si) 8.00 0.17
5.40
1116.95
37.23
0.00
0.00
0.90
6.90
1250
41.67
65
3
Amarwada
8.60
0.00
7.50
0.65
6.40
1748.75
58.29
4
Ambah (distt. Morena) Amla (distt. Betul) Anuppur
7.00
0.00
5.60
0.13
2.34
1192.74
39.76
6.21
0.00
6.00
0.30
7.20
1459.1
48.64
7.00
0.00
6.80
0.24
0.94
1177.5
39.25
Ashoknagar (distt. Ashoknagar) Ashta (distt. Sehore) Balaghat
5.70
0.00
8.00
0.20
5.00
1382
46.07
9.40
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
940
31.33
9.00
3.00
9.50
0.85
1.50
1717.25
57.24
6.00
0.00
0.25
5.00
3.50
1017.5
33.92
6.00
0.00
8.00
0.22
4.80
1399.7
46.66
8.50
0.00
8.00
0.14
5.00
1659.9
55.33
10.00
0.00
8.00
0.31
5.00
1815.75
60.52
5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13
Baraseoni (distt. Balaghat) Barnagar (distt. Ujjain) Barwah (distt. Khargone) Barwani
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013 14 15 16 17 18
Begumganj (distt. Raisen) Berasia (distt. Bhopal) Betul (distt. Betul) Bhind
9.05
0.00
10.00
0.48
8.00
2041.8
68.06
4.90
0.00
7.00
0.40
3.20
1132
37.73
9.00
1.00
9.30
0.24
4.50
1798.9
59.96
6.60
0.00
7.00
0.70
1.40
1195.5
39.85
6.50
0.00
7.00
0.10
0.77
1123.55
37.45
9.33
0.00
7.42
0.00
3.84
1627.73
54.26
5.00
0.00
6.00
0.18
0.00
1805
60.17
21
Bijuri (distt. Anuppur) Bina (distt. Sagar) Biora (distt. Rajgarh) Burhanpur
9.04
0.00
10.00
0.56
1.33
1610
53.67
22
Burhanpur
8.30
9.50
3.00
10.00
1.00
1267.5
42.25
23
Chanderi (distt. Ashoknagar) Chatarpur (distt. Chatarpur) Chhindwara
5.30
0.00
8.00
0.30
3.80
1441.25
48.04
5.80
2.00
8.00
0.25
4.50
2051.02
68.37
9.00
6.50
10.00
0.37
4.28
1685
56.17
Chourai (distt. Chhindwara) Dabra (distt. Gwalior) Damoh (distt. Damoh) Damua
9.00
3.20
9.50
1.00
0.80
1658.32
55.28
8.50
1.00
8.00
0.25
4.30
1315.25
43.84
6.50
0.00
9.80
0.35
1.00
1552.5
51.75
7.00
0.00
7.30
3.30
4.60
1001.55
33.39
Datia (distt. Datia) Deori (distt. Sagar) Dewas
6.20
0.00
4.00
0.33
2.00
1262.07
42.07
4.00
0.00
7.00
0.00
6.80
1678.38
55.95
8.47
1.21
10.00
0.20
2.70
1326.24
44.21
Dhanpuri (distt. Shahdol) Dhar
5.00
0.00
6.00
0.36
6.98
1034.9
34.5
2.70
0.50
8.00
0.14
4.00
1346.4
44.88
Gadarwara (distt. Narsinghpur) Ganjbasoda (distt. Vidisha) Garhakata (distt. Sagar) Guhad (distt. Bhind) Guna (distt. Guna) Gwalior
7.70
0.10
8.00
0.04
1.40
1303.08
43.44
8.80
0.00
7.00
0.09
0.00
990.95
33.03
3.30
0.00
5.50
0.17
5.00
1274.5
42.48
6.00
0.30
7.00
2.10
2.60
1395.08
46.5
8.00
0.00
6.00
0.59
3.30
1815.5
60.52
9.50
7.00
9.00
1.30
0.00
1786.56
59.55
9.00
0.20
10.00
0.12
4.22
1372.1
45.74
6.00
0.00
10.00
0.46
2.40
1936
64.53
43
Harda (distt. Harda) Hattah (distt. Damoh) Hoshangabad
8.10
2.00
10.00
0.30
6.70
1980.74
66.02
44
Indore
6.67
2.80
10.00
9.59
4.10
1320.34
44.01
45
Itarsi (distt. Hoshangabad) Jabalpur
7.14
0.00
8.00
0.35
1.75
1376.19
45.87
8.61
0.09
8.25
0.26
0.12
1601.88
53.4
Jaora (distt. Ratlam) Jhabua
7.36
0.00
8.00
0.31
5.77
1544
51.47
8.00
0.20
7.00
0.30
4.70
1357.5
45.25
19 20
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
36 37 38 39 40 41 42
46 47 48
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013 49
6.00
3.00
6.00
0.50
4.00
1622
54.07
10.00
0.50
10.00
0.02
0.02
1811.33
60.38
9.40
0.00
7.50
0.59
6.17
1979.07
65.97
52
Junnardeo (distt. Chhindwara) Kareli (distt. Narsinghpur) Khachrod (distt. Ujjain) Khandwa
8.33
9.51
10.00
2.78
1.05
1864.75
62.16
53
Khargone
9.50
0.00
8.00
0.35
6.50
1316.49
43.88
54
Khurai (distt. Sagar) Kolar (distt. Bhopal) Kotma (distt. Anuppur) Maihar (distt. Satna) Malajkhand (distt. Balaghat) Manavar
7.98
2.78
5.27
0.30
1.24
1505.5
50.18
5.50
0.70
7.70
0.30
7.00
1225.75
40.86
8.00
0.00
6.00
0.30
0.85
1723.05
57.44
9.00
0.00
8.00
0.33
5.10
985.5
32.85
6.00
0.00
0.00
2.10
4.80
1498.13
49.94
4.00
6.00
10.00
0.88
3.50
1537.3
51.24
Mandideep (distt. Raisen) Mandla (distt. Mandla) Mandsaur (distt. Mandsaur) Mhirpur (distt. Ujjain) Morena (distt. Morena) Multai (distt. Betul) Nagda (distt. Ujjain) Nainpur (distt. Mandla) Narsinghgarh (distt. Raisen) Narsinghpur (distt. Narsinghpur) Neemuch (distt. Neemuch) Nepanagar (distt. Bhurhanpur) Nowgong (distt. Chatarpur) Panagar (distt. Jabalpur) Pandurana (distt. Chhindwara) Panna (disst. Panna) Parasia
8.90
0.00
7.00
1.48
2.70
1453.01
48.43
8.40
0.00
9.60
0.98
0.04
1656
55.2
5.50
0.35
10.00
0.50
7.30
1560.4
52.01
3.40
5.00
9.00
0.54
7.10
1589.8
52.99
9.00
0.17
8.00
0.09
3.08
966.5
32.22
2.50
0.40
5.00
0.30
6.00
1731.48
57.72
7.50
0.19
8.00
0.20
7.50
1962.75
65.43
8.00
5.00
10.00
0.15
5.50
1369.5
45.65
6.00
0.00
7.00
0.70
5.00
1406
46.87
7.80
0.00
10.00
0.26
0.26
1477.5
49.25
7.90
0.20
8.00
0.50
2.80
1780.7
59.36
6.60
0.00
10.00
0.02
8.00
1522.8
50.76
9.50
0.00
9.50
0.08
0.00
1009.5
33.65
7.00
0.00
0.00
0.30
4.60
1224.72
40.82
4.17
0.83
7.50
0.00
5.00
1881.55
62.72
9.44
9.44
9.00
0.57
0.00
1608.5
53.62
7.00
0.00
6.60
3.50
6.00
1534.89
51.16
Pasan (distt. Anuppur) Pipariya( distt. Hoshangabad) Pitampur
7.00
0.00
7.00
0.71
6.00
1512.61
50.42
5.30
0.00
10.00
0.35
5.70
1692.18
56.41
6.60
2.22
6.00
0.88
8.50
1057.25
35.24
Porsa (distt. Morena) Raghogarhvijaipur (distt.
5.20
0.00
8.00
0.41
0.66
1431
47.7
8.06
0.00
6.50
0.60
3.30
1040.4
34.68
50 51
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
70 71
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81
35
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013 Guna) 82
5.00
0.29
6.25
1.80
1.40
1680.5
56.02
83
Raisen (distt. Raisen) Ratlam
8.40
1.58
8.00
0.00
0.00
1383.04
46.1
84
Ratlam
7.80
7.00
6.00
0.20
3.90
1694
56.47
85
Rehli (distt. Sagar) Rewa
6.42
5.30
7.50
0.00
6.00
970.5
32.35
6.00
3.00
4.00
0.30
0.00
1088.5
36.28
6.00
0.00
7.00
0.10
1.00
1498.25
49.94
88
Sabalgarh (distt. Morena) Sagar
7.22
0.04
9.00
0.12
3.55
1791.95
59.73
89
Sanawad
7.70
0.00
10.00
0.17
6.40
600
20
90
Sarangpur (distt. Rajgarh) Sarni (distt. Betul) Satna
6.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1575.5
52.52
6.00
0.00
7.00
3.80
6.50
1552.66
51.76
9.00
0.00
9.40
0.00
1.36
1815.75
60.53
Sausar (distt. Chhindwara) Sehore (distt. Sehore) Sendhwa
7.70
7.00
6.00
0.45
6.00
1107.15
36.91
5.20
0.00
8.00
0.35
1.46
2075.5
69.18
10.00
0.00
8.00
0.30
9.00
1058.5
35.28
Seoni (distt. Seoni) Seonimalwa (distt. Hoshangabad) Shahdol
4.50
0.50
6.00
0.40
3.30
1872.6
62.42
10.00
0.00
10.00
0.36
4.00
2199
73.3
10.00
6.15
8.00
0.70
6.90
2026.5
67.55
Shajapur (distt. Shajapur) Sheopur (distt. Sheopur) Shivpuri (distt. Shivpuri) Shujalpur (distt. Shajapur) Sihora (distt. Jabalpur) Singraouli
9.40
9.40
5.00
0.40
6.10
1884.25
62.81
8.00
0.00
10.00
4.55
5.00
1473.95
49.13
9.00
0.03
7.50
0.35
1.70
1899.1
63.3
8.00
2.50
10.00
0.26
6.00
1651.08
55.04
7.20
0.00
7.10
0.25
7.64
1026.8
34.23
7.00
0.67
5.00
0.00
0.00
1688.3
56.28
2.60
0.00
5.00
0.00
0.00
560
18.67
7.99
0.00
7.00
2.27
5.99
1683.63
56.12
8.60
2.90
8.00
0.38
3.30
1574
52.47
108
Sironj (distt. Vidisha) Sidhi (distt. Sidhi) Tikamgarh (distt. Tikamgarh) Ujjain
7.20
0.60
10.00
1.00
3.00
1307
43.57
109
Umariya
6.20
0.00
8.00
0.35
2.30
1261.75
42.06
110
Vidisha (distt. Vidisha)
6.60
1.00
6.00
0.20
5.00
1392
46.4
86 87
91 92 93 94 95 96 97
98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Table III: Efficient mswm utilities Scored Performances Up to 50% 50 to 70% 70-90% >90<100% 100%
Efficient MSWM utilities of Urban Cities or Towns 55 54 1 0 0
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Conclusion The present research work is an attempt to evaluate the performance score of selected MSWM utilities of the urban city/towns in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. The scorecard shows the performance of the MSWM utilities in terms of selected performance indicators and various clusters and can be used by the decision makers and utility managers to identify the shortcomings and flaws in the operation of the utilities. The results of the scorecard methodology shows that Operational efficiency cluster of MSWM utility of Kareli, Sendhwa and Shahdol towns scores highest (100%) while in Operational efficiency cluster Municipality of Khandwa scores highest (980.28). MSWM utilities of Indore city scored highest (602.08), in financial efficiency cluster but MSWM utilities of Shahdol city scored highest (73.3%) in total Scores of performance. Municipality of 54 urban towns scores less than 50% while municipality of Sarangpur and Sironj shows worst performance and scores less than 20%. MSWM managers need to initiate reforms in order to make these utilities more efficient.
References CPCB, 2009. Status of water supply and wastewater generation and treatment in Class-I cities and Class-II towns of India. Central Pollution Control Board. Available on <http://www.indiawaterportal.org>. CPHEEO, 2005.Status of Water Supply, Sanitation and Solid Waste Management in urban Areas. Research study series No. 88, Central public health and environmental engineering organization, Ministry of urban Development Government of India. Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000. Available online <http://www.kerenvis.nic.in/legislation/Municipal%20Solid%20Wastes%20_Management%20and%20Handlin g_%20Rules,%202000.pdf?. Patel Munna Lal, Jain Rajnikant and Saxena Alok, 2010. Assessment of the Municipal Solid Waste & Status of Implementation of Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling), Rules, 2000 in the State of Madhya Pradesh, 2008 - A Case Study. Waste management & research, Available online <http://wmr.sagepub.com/content/early/2010/06/16/0734242X10372662.abstract>. Solid Waste Management Issues and Challenges in Asia, 2007. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo. Available online http://www.apo-tokyo.org/00e-books/IS-22_SolidWasteMgt/IS-22_SolidWasteMgt.pdf. UADD, MP., 2010. Urban Administration & Development Department of Madhya Pradesh, India. WSP, 2011. The Economic impacts of inadequate sanitation in India. Available at < http://www.wsp.org/wsp/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/wsp-esi-india.pdf>, accessed on 10/02/2011. WHO-UNICEF, 2002.A Sponsored study on Water Supply & Sanitation India Assessment. Planning Commission Government of India.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-II-8 Rotary drum composting of institutional organic wastes Ajay S. Kalamdhad Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati (IITG), Guwahati, Assam, India Email: kalamdhad@gmail.com Abstract Earlier study recommended that instead of setting up single large compost plants, it would be beneficial and more effective to set up several small composting plants. Decentralized composting at a neighborhood or community scale provides small groups to pursue it at a relatively low cost. An efficient and promising technique in decentralized composting is the rotary drum composter. Rotary drum provides agitation, aeration and mixing of the compost, to produce a consistent and uniform end product. Therefore, to understand the process (compost dynamics) and operational aspects of a rotary drum composter, a full-scale rotary drum composting plant under continuous flow developed to simulate what happens on an industrial scale. Institutional waste i.e. vegetable wastes and tree leaves were utilized as waste materials for drum composting. Composting was examined by measuring changes in temperature, moisture content and total organic content (TOC). Long term monitoring (150 days) suggest that organic wastes were composted successfully within 7 days of composting period. Continuous maintained higher temperature (60 to 70oC) at inlet and (50 to 60oC) at middle portion, resulted higher degradation possible within the drum. This could be possible when the material was retained at inlet after turning serve as an inoculum for the incoming material. Therefore, TOC was decreased during drum composting. Keywords: Decentralized composting, rotary drum composer, organic waste, temperature
Introduction UNDP study (UNDP/WBRWSG-SA 1991) recommended that instead of setting up single large mechanical compost plants, it would be beneficial and more effective to set up several small composting plants. Decentralized composting at a neighborhood or community scale provides small groups to pursue it at a relatively low cost. Since the 1990s, there is a trend towards smaller, manually operated composting plants at community level, initiated primarily by citizens initiatives or non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and also supported by international funds. Decentralized composting allows reuse of organic waste where it is generated, thereby reducing waste quantities to be transported as well as transport costs. This has a positive effect on the overall municipal waste management costs. An efficient and promising technique in decentralized composting is the rotary drum composter. Rotary drum provides agitation, aeration and mixing of the compost, to produce a consistent and uniform end product. In warm, moist environments with ample amount of oxygen and organic material available, aerobic microbes flourish and decompose the waste at a quicker pace. The composting time is drastically reduced to 2-3 weeks. Rotary drum of appropriate capacity can be placed at the site of organic waste generation. It can be designed to handle continuous flow of waste and can be applied for composting diverse organic wastes such as cattle manure, swine manure, municipal biosolids, brewery sludge, chicken litter, animal mortalities and food residuals (Vuorinen and Saharinen, 1997; Smith et al., 2006; Aboulam et al., 2006). The above mentioned investigations generally dealt with the rotary drum composting of particular kind of wastes. But very limited investigations have been made of composting in controlled and repeatable conditions on continuously working rotary drum composting systems. Further studies are needed to identify parameters necessary to shorten the time to reach thermophilic temperatures and this technology needs to be evaluated under continuous flow rather than batch operating conditions (Smith et al., 2006). In addition, information on operational aspects and compost dynamics for the mixed organic wastes in a rotary drum composter are rather limited. To understand the compost dynamics during high rate composting and operational aspects of a rotary drum composter, we developed a demonstration plant under continuous flow to simulate what happens on an industrial scale. It is then possible to compare the process occurring and the product generated by the drum composting system under repeatable conditions. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the evolution of some parameters during high rate composting of vegetable waste, cattle manure, dry tree leaves and saw dust in a rotary drum composting system.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Materials and Methods In order to study the compost dynamics, a rotary drum composter of 3.5 m3 capacity was installed in Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee campus, India (Fig. 1). The main unit of the composter, i.e. the drum is of 3.7 m in length and 1.1 m in diameter, made up of a 4 mm thick metal sheet. The inner side of the drum is covered by anti-corrosive coating. The drum is mounted on four metal rollers attached to a metal stand. A 7.5 kW motor turned the drum in clockwise direction at 2 rpm. In order to provide the appropriate mixing and agitation, 400 mm angles are welded longitudinally, resulting tumbling action inside the drum generally moves material through the drum. With regards to the composting process, the main function of rotation is to expose the material to air, add oxygen and release the heat and gaseous products of decomposition. There are two opening in the drum i.e. inlet for waste feeding and compost outlet. A 2.5 kW air blower used to suck the air towards inlet from outlet to aeration and escaping the foul gases from the drum. In addition to that, two holes/ports at middle and outlet are made on bottom of the drum to drain possible excess water and to collect compost samples. The shredded mixed organic waste is loaded into the drum by the means of plastic container on daily basis. The drum was preferably sized to process the waste material within approximately seven days. While the loading of waste material into the inlet of the drum may be substantially continuous, actually on a periodic basis during the day, compost could be discharged in the same manner. Two rotations at a time on daily basis were made to ensure that the material on the top portion moved to the central portion, where it will be subjected to higher temperature. Thereafter aerobic condition was maintained by opening the air blower. Cattle (Buffalo) manure, student hostels green vegetables waste (uncooked) and dry tree leaves collected from various places of Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee campus, India. Sawdust was purchased from nearby saw mill. Prior to composting; the maximum particle size in the mixed waste was restricted to 1 cm in order to provide better aeration and moisture control by means of mechanical shredder equipped with 3.5 kW motor.
Speed = 2 rpm
Sampling ports
Air Loading
Unloading
Rollers Dia = 1.1
Length = 3.7 m
Fig. 1. Rotary drum composter of capacity 3.5 m3 for institutional wastes The drum composted material was tested for different chemical parameters in different seasons including winter (0-70 days), spring (70-120 days) and summer (120-150 days). Compost temperature was monitored at
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
24 h hour interval. Temperature readings were taken directly using handheld analog thermometer, inserted into the composting mass in three different locations. Three grab samples from inlet, middle and outlet ports were collected every other day and used for determination of moisture contents (105oC for 24 h). Sub-samples were air dried immediately, ground to pass to 0.2-mm sieve and stored for further analysis. Each sub-sample was analyzed for total organic carbon (TOC) determined by Shimadzu (TOC-VCSN) Solid Sample Module (SSM5000A).
Results and Discussion In the present study initially vegetable waste and saw dust were used for composting along with cattle manure for enhancing the microbial activities. Proportions of wastes were kept on changing on the basis of utilization of institutional waste mainly vegetable waste and dry leaves. Thus cattle manure stopped after 80th day of loading and saw dust fully replaced by dry leaves. In addition, retained compost from 0.6 mm sieve contained mainly tree leaves was recycled as initial composting material. • Temperature Under properly controlled conditions temperatures are known to rise beyond 70oC in aerobic composting. As the compost heats up above 40°C, thermophilic bacteria take over. The microbial populations during this phase are dominated by members of the genus Bacillus. The diversity of bacilli species is fairly high at temperatures from 50-55°C but decreases dramatically at 60°C or above. When conditions become unfavorable, bacilli survive by forming endospores, thick-walled spores that are highly resistant to heat, cold, dryness, or lack of food. They are ubiquitous in nature and become active whenever environmental conditions are favorable. Once the compost cools down, mesophilic bacteria again predominate. The numbers and types of mesophilic microbes that recolonize compost as it matures depend on what spores and organisms are present in the compost as well as in the immediate environment. In general, the longer the curing or maturation phase, the more diverse the microbial community it supports. Microbial activities started during the first hours of operation caused an increase of the temperature. The observation was started from the beginning of the winter season (November month), so temperature increased up to initial 20 days followed by the decrease up to 60 days along with the decrease in ambient temperature. Furthermore, the temperature increased up to 70oC by the starting of the summer season. In general, temperatures in the inlet zone of the drum varied between 60 and 70°C depending upon the ambient temperature. During drum composting the temperature occasionally increased over 70°C. Temperatures from 52 to 60°C are considered to maintain the greatest thermophilic activity in composting systems and in continuously thermophilic composting systems, carbon dioxide evolution has been found to be submaximal at 64°C and higher temperatures. Temperature in the middle zone of the drum varied between 50 to 60oC indicated the lower microbial activities compared to inlet. Temperature at the outlet zone of the drum was equal to ambient or slightly more (4-10oC) indicated the ending of active thermophilic phase (Fig. 2).
80 Temperature (oC)
70 60 50
Inlet zone Middle zone Outlet zone Ambient
40 30 20 10 0 0
15
30
45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 Loading period (Days)
Fig. 2. Temperature pattern of rotary drum composter •
Moisture content Moisture loss during the high rate composting can be viewed as an index of decomposition rate, since the heat generation which accompanies decomposition drives the vaporization. However, the composting material should have certain moisture content in it for the organism to survive. Moisture content in the outlet zone was about the same as that of the inlet zone (except for the exceptionally dry outlet by the 90 days, Fig. 3), thus, indicating that during the controlled composting process in the drum the air supply was adjusted to the stoichiometric demand in order to remove the extra water from the process. Therefore, the time period of
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
aeration through air blower was increased up to 24 hours during the whole study period. After thorough mixing due to the turning of drum, the differences in the moisture content leveled out and the temperatures rose again, which indicated that composting process were still proceeding very actively.
Moisture content (%)
85
Inlet zon e M idd le zo ne
80
O u tlet zon e
75 70 65 60 0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105 120 135 150
L oading period (D ays)
Fig. 3. Moisture content of rotary drum composter â&#x20AC;˘
Carbon Decomposition TOC is useful for estimating the age and physical properties of the compost. During the composting process, carbon dioxide is emitted from the composting mass as a metabolic end product. Thus, the content of organic carbon decreased as the decomposition progressed. Change in TOC content during the drum composting is detailed in Fig. 4. Initially, the amount of total organic carbon at inlet zone was 30 to 37% up to 60 days of loading, which then reduced to 27 to 30% due to proper conditions for microbial degradation achieved at inlet. Material was retained at inlet after turning serve as an inoculum for the incoming material. Similarly organic carbon at outlet zone was reduced from 18-23% to 15-18%. It can be observed that the organic carbon content decreased with the drum composting, which reflects a notable mineralization of organic matter.
Conclusions Long term monitoring (150 days) suggest that most of the organic waste combinations were composted successfully within 7 days period. Adequate air supply was provided in the form of exhaust fan in the drum, as the biological degradation process is aerobic in nature, and the drum was maintained at a temperature of approximately 60 to 70oC even in cold weather conditions (Ambient Temperature : 6oC). A steep temperature gradient exists horizontally inside the drum. Very high degradation takes place at inlet zone resulting high thermophilic temperature (68-75oC), subsequently the temperature reduces gradually in middle portion and lowest in the outlet zone. Sustained higher temperature at inlet zone has transformed the quality of waste material immediately after feeding into the drum. Two rotations caused 60-70% previously added waste material at inlet to move forward in the drum while remaining material is mixed with the incoming new waste material. This remaining material could possibly serve as an inoculum for the incoming material resulting in higher degradation. Instead of classical mesophilic phase, the incoming material directly enters into thermophilic phase, resulting in rapid TOC reduction.
42 37 TOC (%)
32 27 22 17 Inlet zone Middle zone Outlet zone
12 7 2 0
15
30
45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 Loading period (Days)
Fig. 4. TOC during 150 days of loading period
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Acknowledgment The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation and Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India.
References Aboulam, S., Morvan, B., Revel, J-C., 2006 Use of a rotating窶電rum pilot plant to model the composting of household waste on an industrial scale. Compost Science & Utilization 4(3), 184-190 National Solid Waste Association of India, 2003. Urban Municipal Solid Waste Management. Special Bulletin of the National Solid Waste Association of India (Inaugural issue), Mumbai, India. Sharholy, M., Ahmad, K., Mahmood, G., Trivedi, R.C., 2008. Municipal solid waste management in Indian cities-a review. Waste Management 28, 459-467. Smith, D.R., cawthon, D.L., Sloan, J.J., Freeman, T.M., 2006. In-vessel, mechanical rotating drum composting of institutional food residuals. Compost Science & Utilization 14(2), 155-161. UNDP/WB RWSG-SA, 1991. Indian experience on composting as means of resource recovery. Workshop on Waste Management Policies, UNDP/WB Water Supply and Sanitation Program South Asia. Singapore, July 15. Vuorinen, A.H., Saharinen, M.H., 1997. Evolution of microbiological and chemical parameters during manure and straw co-composting in a drum composting system. Agriculture, Ecosystem & Environment 66, 19-29.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-II-9 Heavy metals study during water hyacinth composting Jiwan Singh* & Ajay S. Kalamdhad Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati (IITG), Guwahati, Assam, India Email: jiwansingh95@gmail.com Abstract The potential toxicity risk from heavy metals depends on their water solubility and chemical speciation. Therefore, studies were carried out on bioavailability and speciation of heavy metals (Mn, Fe, Pb and Cd) during 30 days agitated pile composting of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). The Tessier sequential extraction method was employed to investigate changes in heavy metals speciation during composting. The water solubility of Mn was reduced and Fe was increased, but Pb and Cd were not detected during the composting process. The F3 and F4 fractions of Pb and Cd were not detected during the water hyacinth compost process. The maximum reduction in F1 and F2 fractions of all metals were found during the process, which are more toxic and easily bioavailable fractions. The cattle manure addition significantly reduced easily available fractions (F1 and F2) due to better humification. The residual fraction is more stable form and considered as unavailable for plant uptake. Keywords: Composting, heavy metals, bioavailability, speciation r Paper Title: Assessment i
Introduction Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a free floating macrophyte and most commonly used plant in constructed wetlands because of its fast growth rate and large uptake of nutrients and contaminants (Rai, 2009). Composting followed by land application represents one of the most economical ways for the treatment and final disposal of water hyacinth because it combines material recycling and biomass disposal at the same time (Villasenor et al., 2011). However, the presence of non-biodegradable and high level of toxic heavy metals in the compost frequently hinders agricultural land application. Uptake of heavy metals by plants and subsequent accumulation along the food chain is a potential threat to animal and human health (Wong and Selvam, 2006). The bioavailability of metals in soil is a self-motivated process that depends on explicit combinations of chemical, biological and environmental parameters. These include soil properties such as pH, organic matter (OM) content, redox potential, cation exchange capacity, sulphate, carbonate, hydroxide, soil texture and clay content (Prabpai et al., 2009; Guala et al., 2010). The pH, OM content and bioavailability of heavy metals are the major critical factors for heavy metal accumulation by both plants and animals (Li et al., 2010). The water soluble fractions are positively more biologically dynamic and it has the highest prospective of contaminating food chain, surface water and ground water (Iwegbue et al., 2007). Metals in the water-soluble fraction may be readily leachable and bioavailable in the environment (Liu et al., 2008). The total metal concentration obtained after strong acid digestion of compost sample is useful as an overall pollution indicator, but it does not provide useful information about the risk of bioavailability, which depends on their chemical form (Walter et al., 2006). Chemical speciation or sequential extraction of heavy metals from compost is a useful technique for determining the chemical forms in which these are present (Walter et al., 2006). The objective of this work were to evaluate the water solubility and plant availability of heavy metals (Mn, Fe, Pb and Cd) and to assess the chemical forms of heavy metals accordance with sequential extraction method in the course of 30 days water hyacinth composting.
Materials and Methods Feedstock materials Water hyacinth, cattle (cow) manure and sawdust were used for the preparation of different waste mixtures. Water hyacinth was collected from the Amingoan industrial area near Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati campus. Cattle manure was obtained from dairy farm near the campus. Sawdust was purchased from nearby saw mill. Prior to composting, the maximum particle size in the mixed waste was restricted to 1 cm in order to provide better aeration and moisture control. Agitated pile composting Different waste combinations were formed into trapezoidal piles (length 2100 mm, base width 350 mm, top width 100 mm and height 250 mm, having length to base width (L/W) ratio of 6. Agitated piles contained
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
approximately 150 kg of different waste combinations (90kg water hyacinth, 45kg cow dung and 15kg sawdust) and were manually turned on 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27 and 30th day. Composting period of total 30 days was decided for agitated pile composting. Homogenized samples were collected from five different locations in the pile on 0, 6, 12, 18, 24 and 30th day. Analysis of physical and chemical parameters of the sample Temperature was monitored using a digital thermometer throughout the composting period. About 500 g of each grab samples were collected from five different points. Finally all the grab samples were mixed thoroughly to make a homogenized sample. Triplicate samples were collected were dried at 105oC in oven for 24 hours and moisture content was calculated, dried samples were ground to pass to 0.2 mm sieves and stored for further analysis. Each sample was analyzed for the following parameters: pH, conductivity (1:10 w/v waste: water extract), organic matter (Kalamdhad et al., 2009). Water-soluble heavy metals are determined after extraction of 2.5 g of sample with 50 mL of distilled water (sample:solution ratio = 1:20) at room temperature for 2 h in a shaker at 100 rpm (Ciavatta et al., 1993). Total metals (Zn, Cu, Mn and Ni) were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Varian Spectra 55B) after the digestion of 0.2g sample with 10 ml of H2SO4 and HClO4 (5:1) mixture in block digestion system (PELICAN EQUIPMENTS Chennai-India) for 2h at 300oC. Methodology of sequential extraction The conventional method was designed and developed by Tessier (Venkateswaran et al., 2007) for heavy metal speciation into five species. The extraction was carried out with an initial mass of 1.0 g oven dried sample in polypropylene centrifuge tubes of 50 mL capacity. After each successive extraction, the supernatant liquid was removed with a pipette after centrifugation at 10,000 rpm for 5 min and made up to required volume for analysis of heavy metals. The residue was washed with 20 ml of Milli Q water by shaking for 15 minutes followed by centrifugation without loss of solids. The extracts were stored in polythene bottles for metal content determination. All extractions were performed in triplicate and the mean value was presented with standard deviation. The following steps were adopted: (1) Exchangeable (F1): About 1 g sample was extracted at room temperature with 8 mL of 1 M MgCl2 (pH 7) with continuous agitation for 1 h. (2) Carbonate (F2): Residue from above step (1) was leached at room temperature with 8 mL of 1 M of NaOAc (pH 5 adjusted with conc. HOAc) with continuous agitation for 5 h. (3) Reducible (F3): Residue from (2) was extracted with 20 mL of 0.04 M NH2OH.HCl in 25% (v/v) HOAc agitated for 6 h at 96ºC. (4) Oxidizable (F4): To the residue from (3) was added with 3 mL of 0.02 M HNO3 and 5 mL of 30% H2O2 (pH 2, adjusted with conc. HNO3); heated at 85 ºC for 2 h with occasional agitation. A second 3 ml aliquot of 30% H2O2 was added and heated at 85 ºC for 3 h with occasional agitation. After cooling, 5 mL of 3.2 M NH4OAc in 20% (v/v) HNO3 was added; diluted to 20 mL; agitated for 30 min and centrifuged. (5) Residual (F5): Residue from (4) was digested with 10 ml of H2SO4 and HClO4 (5:1) mixture in block digestion system (PELICAN EQUIPMENTS Chennai-India) for 2h at 300oC.
Results and Discussion Physicochemical analysis The composting pile temperature went through three typical phases (heating, thermophilic and cooling phase) and ranged from 26oC to 56oC during the entire period of composting. However, the cattle manure affected the temperature during different composting phases. Moisture loss during the composting process can be viewed as an indicator of decomposition rate, because the composting material requires optimum moisture content in it for the organisms to survive (Kalamdhad et al., 2009). Thus the organic matter content of the composting mass decreases as composting proceeds (Singh et al., 2009). Table 1 shows the moisture loss, organic matter loss, conductivity reduction and enhancement of pH during the process. Table 1 Physicochemical parameters during the composting process Moisture content (%) Conductivity(dS/m) Days 0 6 12 18 24 30
83.9±0.06 82.8±0.02 72.7±0.04 59.6±0.57 54.4±0.04 37.6±0.06
6.4±0.04 6.3±0.00 6.1±0.03 5.7±0.04 5.8±0.06 4.7±0.04
pH 6.4±0.03 7.3±0.01 7.2±0.01 7.3±0.00 5.5±0.30 7.3±0.01
Organic matter (%) 78.3±0.05 74.7±0.01 73.3±0.00 69.6±0.64 65.4±0.05 60.3±0.06
Heavy metal study during composting Table 2 illustrates the total concentration of metals (Mn, Fe, Pb and Cd) during the composting process. These heavy metals were concentrated during the composting process due to weight loss in the course of
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
composting. Water soluble fractions of metals are the most readily bioavailable in compost applied to soils (Hsu and Lo 2001). Water soluble Ni, Pb and Cd contents in all trials were not detectable. The concentration of Mn was reduced from 3.2 % to 1.2 % of total Mn on other hand concentration of Fe was increased from 0.2% to 0.6% of total Fe at the end of the composting period. It had been observed that water solubility of Fe increased in all five trials, it might be due to poor complexity of Fe with humic substances (Table 3). Table 2 Total heavy metals concentration during the composting process Heavy metals concentration Days Mn (mg/kg) Fe (g/kg) Pb (mg/kg) 0 572.5±10 7.9±0.1 872.5±12.5 6 626±6 7.7±0.32 1032±27 12 906±11.5 11.03±0.02 1387±2.5 18 776.5±16.5 12.4±0.54 1372±58c 24 892±50 11.6±0.01 1250±0.0 30 1105±27.5 13.3±0.03 1537±12.5
Cd (mg/kg) 43.8±1.3 71.8±0.3 69.5±0.5 70±0.5 60.3±0.8 83.8±1.3
The F1 and F3 fractions of Mn was decreased however the F2, F4 and F5 fractions were increased of the total fraction of Mn during the composting process (Fig. 1). This rise in pH can decrease Mn mobility by precipitate formation, thereby increasing the number of adsorption sites and decreasing the competition of H+ for adsorption, followed by increase in metal stability with humic substances (Achiba et al., 2009). The F1, F2, F3 and F4 fractions of Fe was decreased from 0.37, 0.9, 21.6 and 59.3% to 0.36, 0.2, 16 and 50% respectively; however the F5 fraction was increased from 18% to 33.4% of the total fraction of Fe during the composting process (Fig. 1). The concentration of Fe was mainly present in F4 fraction during the composting process. In trials 4 and 5, F1 and F2 fractions of Pb were reduced whereas F5 fraction was increased of the total fraction of Pb during the composting process (Table 5 and 6). The maximum reduction of F1 and F2 fractions of Pb were observed during the composting process. The F5 fraction of Cd was increased but F1 and F2 fractions were declined during the composting process (Fig. 1). One possible explanation for reduction of F1 and F2 fractions and raise in F5 fraction may be due to the ability of Cd to chemically bond strongly with organic materials (Haroun et al., 2007). Table 3 Water soluble heavy metals concentration during the composting process Heavy metals concentration (mg/kg) Days Mn Fe Pb 0 15.8±0.35 42.08±1.1 ND 6 12±0.02 126.4±2.02 ND 12 12.72±0. 57.8±0.92 ND 18 9.9±0.3 77.5±1.7 ND 24 6.8±0.04 93.5±0.78 ND 30 12±0.0 126.4±2 ND ND- Not detected
Cd ND ND ND ND ND ND
Figure 1 Speciation of heavy metals during water hyacinth composting
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Conclusion The water solubility of Mn was reduced and Fe was increased, but Pb and Cd were not detected during the composting process. The F3 and F4 fractions of Pb and Cd were not detected during the water hyacinth compost process. The maximum reduction in F1 and F2 fractions of all metals were found during the process, which are more toxic and easily bioavailable fractions. The cattle manure addition significantly reduced easily available fractions (F1 and F2) due to better humification.
References Achiba, W.B., Gabteni, N., Lakhdar, A., Laing, G.D., Verloo, M., Jedidi, N., Gallali, T., 2009. Effects of 5-year application of municipal solid waste compost on the distribution and mobility of heavy metals in a Tunisian calcareous soil. Agriculture Ecosysstem Environment 130, pp. 156–163. Ciavatta, C., Govi, M., Simoni, A. and Sequi P. 1993. Evaluation of heavy metals during stabilization of organic matter in compost produced with municipal solid wastes. Bioresource Technology, 43, pp.147 – 153. Guala, S.D., Vega, F.A. and Covelo, E.F. 2010. The dynamics of heavy metals in plant–soil interactions. Ecological Modeling, 221, pp. 1148–1152. Haroun, M., Idris, A., Omar, S.R.S., 2007. A study of heavy metals and their fate in the composting of tannery sludge. Waste Management 27, pp. 1541–1550. Hsu, J.H. and Lo, S.L. 2001. Effects of composting on characterization and leaching of copper, manganese, and zinc from swine manure. Environmental Pollutution, 114, pp.119 – 127. Iwegbue, C.M.A., Emuh, F.N., Isirimah, N.O. and Egun A.C. 2007. Fractionation, characterization and speciation of heavy metals in composts and compost-amended soils. African Journal Biotechnology, 6, (2), pp. 067-078. Kalamdhad, A.S., Singh, Y.K., Ali, M., Khwairakpam and Kazmi, A.A. 2009. Rotary drum composting of vegetable waste and tree leaves. Bioresource Technology, 100, pp. 6442–6450. Li, L., Xu, Z., Wu, J. and Tian, G. 2010. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the earthworm Eisenia fetida in relation to bioavailable metal concentrations in pig manure. Bioresource Technology, 101, pp. 3430–3436. Liu, S., Wang, X., Lu, L., Diao, S. and Zhang J. 2008. Competitive complexation of copper and zinc by sequentially extracted humic substances from manure compost. Agricultural Science of China, 7 (10), pp. 12531259. Prabpai, S., Charerntanyarak, L., Siri, B., Moore, M.R. and Noller B.N. 2009. Effects of residues from municipal solid waste landfill on corn yield and heavy metal content. Waste Management, 29, pp. 2316–2320. Rai, P.K., 2009. Heavy metal phytoremediation from aquatic ecosystems with special reference to macrophytes. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science Technology 39, pp. 697–753. Singh,Y.K., Kalamdhad, A.S., Ali, M. and Kazmi, A.A., 2009. Maturation of primary stabilized compost from rotary drum composter. Resource Conservation and Recycling, 53, pp. 386–392. Venkateswaran, P., Vellaichamy, S. and Palanivelu, K., 2007. Speciation of heavy metals in electroplating industry sludge and wastewater residue using inductively coupled plasma. International Journal Environmental Science and Technology, 4 (4), pp. 497-504. Villasenor, J., Rodriguez, L. and Fernandez, F.J. 2011. Composting domestic sewage sludge with natural zeolites in a rotary drum reactor. Bioresource Technology, 102 (2), pp. 1447-1454. Walter, I., Martinez, F. and Cala, V. 2006. Heavy metal speciation and phytotoxic effects of three representative sewage sludge for agricultural uses. Environmental Pollution, 139, pp. 507-514. Wong, J.W.C. and Selvam, A., 2006. Speciation of heavy metals during co-composting of sewage sludge with lime. Chemosphere, 63, pp. 980–986.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-II-10 Reusing waste strawstraw- The green way Sumedha Puranik Department of Botany, Shri Shivaji Science College, Nagpur, India Email: sumedhadpuranik@gmail.com Abstract Straw is an agricultural by-product, the dry stalks of cereal plants, after the grain and chaff have been removed. Straw makes up about half of the yield of cereal crops such as barley, oats, rice, rye and wheat. It has many uses, including fuel, livestock bedding and fodder, thatching and basket-making. Paddy straw mushroom is commonly grown on paddy straw and cotton waste, which are available in abundance and at a very low cost in India. Mushroom cultivation using straw is a good way to generate self employment and better revenue out of the easily available agro-waste, thus, cleaning the environment. Keywords: mushroom cultivation, waste management, reuse of waste
Introduction Waste Management refers to the collection, processing, recycling, transport, and monitoring of waste products. Green waste management is a term used to describe any environmentally friendly way of processing the products that has been discarded. In this waste management focus is to find ways that could help to reuse or recycle the discarded articles. It also aims at disposing the toxic waste in a way that does not disturb the environment. The key approach in green waste management is recycling. One of the ways of recycling the usually discarded straw is to use it in the cultivation of mushrooms. Mushroom cultivation is increasingly becoming popular because it not only meets the dietary requirements but also adds to the income, especially of growers with insufficient land. Mushrooms are classic example of fungi. They lack the sacred pigment of autotrophic viz., chlorophyll and hence live as saprophytes as weak parasites occurring on organic decays on living plants in nature. As members of Basidiomycetes they have the ability to degrade cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and in turn produce fruit bodies which are directly edible and possess appreciable flavor, texture, better values and health benefits too. A project work on waste management, one month certificate course organized by Department of Botany, Shri Shivaji Science College is being conducted successfully for the past 8 years. As a part of additional academic curriculum, and with a view of providing complete knowledge of mushrooms which is beneficial for the students in terms of self employment with little investment. Mushrooms are characterized by 2 main phases in their life cycle i.e. first is Vegetative phase represented by the mycelia growth and second is the prominent stage constituted by the fruit body. In nature the mycelium occurs hidden in the substrate, soil or wood and the fruit bodies appear only under the optimum climatic conditions. Usually rainy season gives the best crop. Primarily the fruit bodies are meant for production of large number of spores that would be dispersed by natural agents like wind or water. Some of the species, being cultivated on large scale are: • Agaricus bisporus (Button mushrooms) • Lentinus edodes (Shitake) • Pleurotus sajorcaju (Oyster mushrooms or Dhingri) • Volvariella sp. (Straw mushrooms) • Flammulina velutipes (Enoritate) Cultivation of Edible Mushroom (Pleurotus Sajorcajur) Requirements Soybean straw/wheat straw/rice straw, thick transparent polythene bags, spawn, bavistin (fungicide) needle, thread.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Introduction Cultivation of mushrooms demands work under sterile conditions. Hence all the things which we are using in the cultivation should be sterilized. The room which we are using for this purpose should also be free from rats, rodents, insects. Compost â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A good compost is the basis in mushroom cultivation. We can either use soybean straw, wheat straw or rice straw as compost. The compost should be free from fungal or bacterial infection. Preparation of spawn Growers receive mushroom strains as spawn, which is a medium impregnated with mushroom mycelium. It is prepared in various spawn laboratories under sterile conditions on a variety of substrates. Grain spawn Spawn can be made from wheat grain. The formula is based on 10 kg. of wheat grains in 5 liters water, are boiled for 15 minutes and after this they are allowed to soak for 15 minutes without heating. Then the water is poured off and the grains are put on sieves to dry slightly. During this time the wheat should be turned over several times with wooden spoon. When the grains have cooled, 9 kg cooked grains are mixed with 120 gms. Gypsum (Ca SO4 2H2 O) and 30 gms whiting (CaCO3). Gypsum prevents the grain from sticking together and whiting is necessary to adjust to the correct PH. The grains are filled into bottles and sterilized in autoclave. After sterilization the material should have a dry matter content of about 50% and a ph of 6.5 to 6.7. The bottles are inoculated with grain spawn or with pieces of agar medium colonized with mycelium. After 7 days of the inoculation they are shaken to spread the mycelium among the grains. Other grains which are often used to inoculate are rye and millet. Procedure 1. Take the compost i.e. either soybean straw/wheat straw/rice straw. This straw should be free from fungal infection. 2. Take 100 l water in a big bucket and add 7.5 gm of Bavistin in it also add 125ml formaldehyde in the water. Bavistin and formaldehyde acts as an insecticide and prevents the growth of harmful fungus in the straw. After dissolving them, soak the straw in it for 10 12 hrs. 3. After the completion of soaking period, sterilize the straw by autoclaving i.e. at 121c for 15lb pressure for 15-20 minutes on by boiling (boiling 1 to 11/2 hrs). 4. After sterilization 70 80% moisture should be present in the straw. 5. After sterilizing the straw, spread the straw on a sterile table for cooling. 6. Preparation of bags: - Take thick, transparent polythene bags and sterilize them by Dettol. Open the bag and put a 3 4 inch layer of straw, then spread the spawn on it. Then again put a 1-2 layers of straw and spread the spawn evenly on it. Simultaneously apply pressure on the straw beds. Repeat it till the bag fills up. After filling, the bags should be tightly pressed to evacuate the air in the bag and tie the bags with thread. Then with the help of sterile needle puncture the bags. Keep the bags in a clean place and the temperature should be between 25-30oC. Humidity of about 70-8-% should be maintained in the room. Observations After 16 days the whole bags turns white due to the mycelial
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
growth. After 16 days when the bags turn white, cut or tear the bags and sprinkle good amount of water on the beds of mycelium. The mushroom begins to come up within 1-2 days after tearing of bags. The mushrooms continue to appear for about 7 days. Harvesting and Marketing Dhingri or Oyster mushrooms should be harvested when the cap starts becoming folded and has attained a diameter of 1012 cm. For free sale, the Oyster mushrooms should be sent to the market in perforated polyethylene bags. It can be dried easily either in sun or mechanical dehydrator. This dried product can be conveniently stored in the polyethylene bags for quite a long time. Advantages of Growing Dhingri A) Pleurotus sp. Can be produced on both fermented and non fermented types of substrate. B) Pleurotus sp. Does not require that much handling or exacting conditions as Agaricus bisporous. C) This mushroom grows on a substratum with low nitrogen content and form fruiting bodies with much higher nitrogen content. D) Dhingri has quite a long shelf life as compared to Agaricus bisporus and can easily be kept in refrigerator for 7-10 days without any change either in color or flavour. E) As compared with oyster mushroom, Agaricus bisporous or button mushroom demands much more maintenance and care regarding factors like temp., humidity, air circulation and strict hygienic conditions. Nutritional Value of Edible Mushrooms A) Mushrooms like P.Sajorcaju and P. flabulantus are rich in lysine and essential amino acids such as isoleucine, valine, and threonine. It can help in overcoming the lysine deficiency in particulars and overall protein deficiency in general. B) The carbohydrate in mushrooms is present as trehalose, glycogen, mannitol. Fructose, glucose and sucrose are present in free form. Pleurotus sp. Contains 4.2% soluble carbohydrates 1.66% pentosans and 32.6% hexosans on dry weight basis. C) The fat content in different sp. Of Pleurotus from 1.08% to 9.4% on dry wt. Basis. On an average it contains 2.85% of fat. The major fatty acid is Oleic acid white Palmitic and linoleic acids are present in minor amount. D) The vitamins present in mushrooms are Thiamine, Niacin, ascorbic acid, vitamin B 12, riboflavin folic acid and high concentration of ergosterol But Mushrooms are devoid of vitamin A. Mushroom synthesize a variety of other vitamins i.e. Pantothenic acid, Biotin, Pyridoxine and Vitamin D. E) Mushrooms have a high content of minerals and salts like Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Iron, Copper content is also higher in Pleurotus sp. Mushrooms also absorbs metal better than other organisms Use of Waste in the Eco-friendly Mushroom Cultivation Process The spent substrate left after harvesting the mushrooms which is entangled with innumerable mushrooms mycelia will have been bio chemically modified by mushroom enzymes into simpler and more readily digestible form which is more palatable to livestock, when used as a livestock feed supplement. It will significantly have been enriched with protein, by virtue of the remains of the protein rich mycelia, left after harvesting the mushrooms fruiting bodies. The residue is also utilized as organic mulch which is good for soil. Mushroom mycelia produce a group of complex extra cellular enzymes which can be degrade and utilize the lignocelluloses wastes in order to reduce pollution. The mushrooms mycelia play a significant role in restoration of damaged environment. The potential of mushroom farming is generating new employment opportunities. Mushroom farming became a very important cottage industry activity in the integrated rural development program which leads to the economic betterment of not only small farmers but also landless laborers and weak sections of communities. The one of major advantages of mushrooms cultivation is reducing environmental pollution. Mushroom cultivation can be a labor intensive activity, hence generates employment. It can also be a short return agricultural business and can be an immediate benefit to the community. Mushrooms are environmentally friendly. They biosynthesize their own food from agricultural crop residues which would cause health hazards. And their spent compost/ subtracts used as animal feed biofertilizers.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Conclusions and Discussions It is the need of the hour is to better manage the available natural resources. One of the effective of doing this is to reuse wastes from the farms for activities like mushroom cultivation. Straw, a waste from farming activities is used extensively in the process of mushroom cultivation. The paper provides a detailed description of the procedure of mushroom cultivation and also enlists the use of wastes. The straw used in the process is organic and used as compost. The residue is also utilized as organic mulch which is good for soil. Mushroom cultivation is environmentally friendly and a good example of waste management that generates selfemployment. The spent compost/ subtracts are used as animal feed bio-fertilizers.
References Ahlawat OP (2003). Survivability of paddy straw mushroom cultures on storing under different conditions. Indian Journal of Mushroom XXI (1&2): 13-18. Chang ST (1965). Cultivation of the straw mushroom in S.E. China. World Crops 17: 47-49 Chang ST (1974). Production of straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) from cotton wastes. Mushroom J 21: 348-354. Tam S C, Yip. Fun & Chang (1986). Hypertensive & renal effects of an extract of the mushrooms. Pleurotus sajor caju: Life Sciences 38:1155-1161. ********
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-II-11 Degradation of Human Faeces and Role of Bulking Material (Domestic Ash) Kunwar D. D. Yadav Dept. of Civil Engineering, SV National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India Email: kdjhansi@gmail.com Abstract Ecological sanitation symbolizes a vision of sustainable sanitation systems based on a systematic material-floworiented recycling process of nutrients and water as a hygienically safe, circular and holistic alternative to conventional solutions. Ecosan concept is based on the wisdom of isolating the water bodies from human and animal excreta and recognise the facts that human faeces and urine is valuable resources for supporting agriculture. This paper focused on the degradation aspects of the human faeces. The results are indicating the degradation rate of human faeces alone is very slow and indicating the need of mixing/covering of bulking material to enhance the degradation process.
Introduction Ecological sanitation applies the fundamentals of ecology, and takes the non-hazardousness, decrement as well as resources recovery of human excreta as guiding principles for the construction of ecological facilities. Basis of ecological sanitation systems lies on the separate collection, storage and processing of urine and faeces. Human faeces are processed either by dehydration or by composting method. The preferred method depends on climate, groundwater tables, amount of space and intended purpose of reuse of sanitized faeces. Composting of human faeces or faecal matter and utilizing the nutrient value of human urine is seen as the most attractive proposition to sustain agricultural production. The literature review suggested that composting is one of the best approaches to dispose off the organic wastes. The end product of compost is considered to be a good soil conditioner possessing good water holding capacity and plant nutrients. It is known that the human faeces are a very good source of organic matter and plant nutrients. In the dry/compost toilet generally human faeces are stored with or without bulking material and used as compost. Domestic ash (residue of burned cattle dung and wood) is very good bulking material with high surface area and pH and it help in reducing the moisture content and also to suppress the odor. Present paper is to study the degradation of human faeces with or without bulking material (domestic ash).
Material & Methods Experiments were performed in plastic bucket at controlled temperature (25Âą2OC) in an incubator that simulated the drop and store type of dry toilets without permitting leaching of dissolved/very fine colloidal substances including microorganisms. The buckets were covered with lids having numerous 2 mm perforations that allowed escape of gases out of the bucket. First bucket filled with fresh faeces only and another bucket filled with faeces along with alternate layer of domestic ash. Quantity of domestic ash was 30-50 % of dry weight of faeces. Four replicates were prepared for both combinations. The samples were collected after homogenizing at one month interval for 12 months but results are reported only for last month and were analyzed for moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity, volatile solids, and oxygen uptake rate. Attempts were made to start the analysis immediately after collection/preparation of the samples. However, wet (without loss of moisture)/dried samples were preserved at low temperature (4-6OC) whenever required.
Result & Discussion A summary of the changes occurred in one year period in some typical parameters, namely pH, electrical conductivity, volatile solids, moisture content, carbon content, nitrogen content, and oxygen uptake rate is reported in Table 1. The gas production started within an hour after filling the bucket with fresh human faeces. The gas production was significantly higher in the first four days and was negligible after one month of incubation. The gas production was mainly due to favourable environmental condition for anaerobic process inside the bucket. Top surface of faeces was black and cracks were developed due to gas formation. The fungal growth was also observed on the surface. Reduction in the volatile solids is one of the indicators used to assess the stabilization of organic matter and compost maturity. Volatile solids decreased from 91 to 76% (15%) and 41%, respectively in without ash and with ash during the experimental period. Slow degradation in faeces due to anaerobic condition; presence of high organic matter content and moisture in the human faeces is favourable for anaerobic conditions to develop.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
The variation in the respiration activity/oxygen uptake rate was reduced slightly from initial 71.8 to final 42.7 mg O2/g VS/h within 12 months. This high demand of oxygen uptake rate even after one year period in faeces bucket reveals that the residues need to be further stabilized and cannot reused. Generally the microbial activity slows down and oxygen uptake rate gets reduced significantly after the stabilization/mineralization of waste. Iannotti et al. (1993) co-composted poultry waste with municipal solid waste and found an oxygen uptake rate from 2 to 0.5 mg O2/gVS/h for high stability. Lasaridi and Stentiford (1998), and Willson and Dalmat (1996) also reported that respiration activity is the most appropriate method to check the status of composting process. During 12 months of composting/dehydration, pH of the waste gradually increased from 5.6 to 9.4 and 8.2 in only faeces and faces with flyash bucket, respectively while electrical conductivity decreased from 151 to 43 and 35 mmho/cm respectively. Daniel et al. (2007) reported that an increase in pH is observed as organic acids get degraded. During the process of mineralization of proteins, amino acids and peptides, ammonium or volatile ammonia is released and this also contributes to the increase in pH. Tie and He (2007) reported that during the early stages of composting, rapid growth of microbes reduced the pH value due to formation of organics acids. The pH value of composting materials then increased gradually due to increase in NH3 generated by the biochemical reaction of nitrogen containing materials. Zhang and He (2006) reported that electrical conductivity value reflects the degree of salinity in the compost, indicating its possible phytotoxic/phytoinhibitory effects on the growth of plants if applied to soil. Table 1: Changes in Some Typical Parameters on Decomposition of Human Faeces after 12 Months S No Parameter Initially Only Faeces Faeces & Fly Ash 1
pH
5.6±0.2
9.4±0.2
8.2±0.2
2
Electrical Conductivity, mmho/cm
151±18
43±17
35±17
3
Volatile Solids, %
91±3
76 ±4
50±4
4
Moisture Content, %
79.8±2
67.5±2
30±2
5
Carbon Content, %
45.5±3.0
38.5±1.5
30±1.5
6
Nitrogen Content, %
4.0±0.4
3.2±0.2
3.5±0.2
8
Oxygen Uptake Rate, mgO2/gVS/h
71.8±5.7
42.7±3.2
13.7±3.2
Conclusion In summary, results of this study indicate that decomposition of human faeces is very slow with only 15% reduction in volatile solids after a year and it increased to 41 % after addition of bulking material domestic ash. The study reveals that degradation of human faeces can be enhanced by mixing of bulking material and also to suppress/reduce the odor.
References Daniel, Said-Pullicino., G. Flora Erriquens and G. Giovanni, 2007. Changes in the chemical characteristics of water–extractable organic matter during composting and their influences on compost stability and maturity. Bioreso. Technol., 98: 1822-1831. Iannotti, D.A., T. Pang B.L. Toth D.L. Elwell, H.M. Keener and H.A.J. Hoitink, 1993. A quantative respirometric method for monitoring compost stability. Comp. Scien. Utili., 3: 8-15. Larasiridi, K.E. and E.I. Stentiford, 1998. Biological parameters for compost stability assessment and process evaluation. In: Szmidt. R.A.K (Eds). Procedding IS Composting and use Composted Materials. Acta Hort., 469: 119-128. Tai Hua-Shan and He Wei-Hsiung, 2007. A novel composting process for plant wastes in Taiwan military barracks. Res. Conser. Recy., 51: 408-417. Willson, G.B. and D. Dalmat, 1996. Measuring compost stability. Biocycle, 27: 34-37. Zhang Yun and He Yong, 2006. Co-composting solid swine manure with pine sawdust as organic substrate. Bioreso. Technol., 97: 2024-2031.
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Chapter-III Biomedical and Hazardous Waste
â&#x20AC;&#x153;Recycle takes little effort on your part , for a big difference to our world.â&#x20AC;?
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-III-12 Bio Medical Waste Management (in the Government Hospitals of Madhya Pradesh) S. Fareed Uddin SWASTI Health Resource Centre-CMS Group National Trainer (Hospital Waste Management), Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Bhopal, M.P., India Email: fareedjicamprhp@gmail.com Abstract Bio-Medical Waste is the waste generated in the Hospitals during the prevention, treatment, diagnosis and investigation of human beings and animals. Its improper management can lead to spread of diseases such as Cancer, Hepatitis B/C, TB etc. and have adverse Public Health effects, if not properly managed. The Ministry of Environment & Forest, Government of India has framed a well defined set of rules for Management and Handling of Bio Medical Waste since 1998. Central and State Pollution Control Boards appointed as implementation and enforcement agencies. Bio Medical Waste Management (BMW) Management especially in government hospitals in state of Madhya Pradesh has been a weak point. Though Department of Public Health & Family Welfare of the state made efforts through training / orientation of staff and paid huge amount as Authorisation Fee to MPPCB but effective management is still a challenge. The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) - an over arching programme by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India made financial provisions to ensure hygienic and safe health facilities and issued Infection Management & Environment Protection (IMEP) Guidelines. The BMW disposal may be through any suggested methods but the key is - the proper segregation of Blood/Body-Fluid stained Cotton/Bandages, solids, liquids, sharps, laboratory, anatomical or chemical waste at the point of generation. Awareness to those who generate, handle, manage and treat this infectious waste i.e. the Doctors, Nurses, Compounders and other staff including patients and attendants are most likely to get infected. Keywords : Treatment, Hygiene, Infection, Quality, Waste
Background Every system in nature progresses towards disintegration and contributes to creating waste. A hospital is a complex multidisciplinary system which consumes thousands of items for delivery of medical care and is part of physical environment. All products consumed in hospitals have some unusable left over i.e. Hospital Waste. Health-care services in rural or urban settings inevitably generate wastes that may be hazardous to health or have harmful environmental effects. Some of them, such as sharps, cultures from medical laboratories or infected blood, human parts etc., carry a higher potential for infection and injury than any other type of wastes. The absence of or improper management measures, to prevent exposure to hazardous Bio-Medical Waste (BMW) results in health risks to the general public, in and outpatients as well as the medical and ancillary staff. Furthermore, improper treatment or disposal of BMW, such as open-air burning, can constitute a significant source of pollution to the environment through the release of substances such as dioxins, furans or mercury. Safe management of BMW is the key issue to control and reduce nosocomial infections inside a hospital and to ensure that the environment outside is well protected. Keeping in view inappropriate Bio-Medical Waste Management, the Ministry of Environment and Forests notified the “Bio-Medical Waste (management and handling) Rules” in July 1998. In accordance with these Rules, it is the duty of every “occupier” i.e. a person who has the control over the institution and or its premises, to take all steps to ensure that waste generated is handled without any adverse effect to human health and environment. Handling, segregation, mutilation, disinfection, storage, transportation and final disposal are vital steps for safe and scientific management of BMW in any establishment.
Introduction This paper focuses on the status of the Bio Medical Waste Management in the Government Health Facilities especially in the rural areas of the Central Indian State - Madhya Pradesh. Common producers of biomedical waste include Hospitals, Health Clinics, Nursing Homes, Medical Research Laboratories, Clinics of Physicians, Dentists, and Veterinarians, Home Health Care, and Funeral Homes.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Indiscriminate disposal of infected and hazardous waste from hospitals, nursing homes and pathological laboratories has led to significant degradation of the environment, leading to spread of diseases and putting the people to great risk from certain highly contagious and transmission prone disease vectors. This has given rise to considerable environmental concerns. Initial Actions by the Government of Madhya Pradesh Government of Madhya Pradesh (GoMP) started acting very promptly. The chronology of actions taken is given hereunder:1. In 1999 MP Pollution Control Board taking a lead decided that the Department of Local Self Government will be the lead Agency and will undertake a survey to quantify the waste. 2. In 1999 itself an Indo-Italian Project was initiated for Financial Assistance. 3. The incinerators were installed at Medical Colleges, Bhopal and Gwalior in 1999 and in Ujjain in 2003 for the disposal of the BMW. 4. WHO initiated ToT in the state through the PSM Department of the Medical Colleges but there was no ownership of the process by the Department of Health & Family Welfare and no budget was allocated for the activity. Rogi Kalyan Samiti (RKS) took initiative and installed incinerators in Satna, Mandsaur and Shivpuri. The above initiatives were not enough to provide the thrust and desired forward movement due to no ownership by the Dept. of Public Health & Family Welfare (DoPHFW). Lack of funds and the coordination / miscommunication between MPPCB and DoPH&FW created confusions which further deteriorated the situation. Bio Medical Waste disposal was being implemented only in few district hospitals by their respective Patient Welfare Committees According to the rules Each hospital has to apply, pay the required Fee to obtain Authorisation for Handling, Management and Disposal of BMW from the State Pollution Control Boards (PCB). The disposal should be done through incinerators of the Common Waste Treatment Facilities (CWTF) in the Urban Areas. The rules suggest that the waste should be segregated at the point of generation and chemically treated/disinfected/mutilated before its disposal. For defaulters the rules have provision of upto 5 years imprisonment and fine upto Rs. 1 lakh. Bio Hazard and Cytotoxic Symbols should be put on all bags/bins/containers used for segregation / transportation including the trolleys and the vehicles. (See Fig-1)
For Rural areas below 5 lakh population disposal of BMW in Deep Burial Pit and Sharp Pit is suggested. (Figure showing Deep Burial and Sharp Pit Specifications)
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
For Segregation of BMW different colours i.e. Yellow, Red, Blue and Black have been prescribed in the rules. (See Table-1)
When we talk of infection free and hygienic hospital, the term Bio-Medical Waste comes to our mind. As the name suggests, it is the waste generated during the activity of medical care of the living organisms. It is only 15%-20% of the total Hospital Waste while the 80%-85% waste is general waste which does not need any special attention and can be disposed in the municipal. Precautions for keeping the two kinds of wastes unmixed should be taken as an immediate step. Biomedical Waste consists of solids, liquids, sharps, and laboratory waste and is potentially infectious and should be disposed within 48 hours. If we do not dispose-off the General Waste also within 48 hours it may also become harmful and will start emitting bad smell – polluting the environment, and would attract flies which would lead to spread of infections. Proper management of BMW is a must for the benefit of the community at large and specifically Healthcare and Sanitation workers who are regularly exposed to BMW. This waste differs from other types of hazardous waste, in the sense that it comes from biological sources or is used in the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. Whenever the word - “waste” is attached, the first person that comes to the mind is the sweeper and the same is the case in hospitals. Though it is the duty of everyone who generates the waste but apathy attached proves to be a mental block.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Opportunity provided by National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) NRHM got initiated in Madhya Pradesh from April 2005 which promoted Infection Management and Environment Protection (IMEP) and even provided the guidelines for the states. Financial provisions were made for making the hospitals hygienic and infection free. As per the guidelines the much needed training in BMW handling & disposal was to be given to the grass-root level staff and Coloured Bins, Protective Gear and IEC Material was provided to District, Sub-district hospital & CHCs but it did not happen owing to the disinterest and lack of awareness amongst all the cadres of the health service providers. In the year 2007-08 the GoMP also provided some funds for BMW management and w.e.f. 2008-09 a separate Head of Account for BMW has been created in the DoPH&FW regular budget with a provision of Rs. 5 Crore. During last three years the state has deposited to the MPPCB a sum of Rs. 85 Lakhs (Rupees Eighty Lakhs) towards the Authorisation Fee for 50 District Hospitals, 54 Civil Hospitals, 333 Community Health Centres, 86 Primary Health Centres (6 bedded & above) 80 Civil Dispensaries, Many Maternity Homes & other miscellaneous Health institutions. Sufficient funds are also disbursed for proper & scientific disposal. With the provision of trainings & funds though solid BMW of all district & some civil hospitals is now being disposed of by out sourcing, in majority of civil hospital & in rural health care settings i.e. in CHCs & in PHCs much is desired. The present scenario is still not very encouraging as can be seen from the table-2 given hereunder:-
- August 2011
With the above scenario and to comply with the requirement of BMW (M&H) Rules 1998 in totality i.e. taking into account the waste disposal requirement of both Public & Private Sector, initiatives are being taken under NRHM to develop a comprehensive, cost effective and environment friendly State Biomedical Waste Management System. A study is being envisaged on the following points: 1. 2.
3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
General information: types of waste generated in the medical & health care establishment, number of beds, occupancy rates, number of medical departments etc. Waste generation survey i.e. waste composition, waste quantity, sources of generation and number of beds in use, average daily quantity (kg) of waste generation in each biomedical waste category from each department. Assessment of potential for peak loading, when extraordinary quantities of waste may be produced. Estimates to account past experience of epidemics and other emergencies that affect the quantities of waste generated. Critical review of existing waste management practices i.e. segregation, storage, collection, transport, mutilation/treatment and disposal. Inventory of existing waste treatment and disposal facilities and an evaluation of their capacities and efficiencies. Identification of the cost related to biomedical waste management. Assessment of existing practice/opportunities for waste minimization, reuse and recycling (if any). Assessment of existing safety (e.g. protective gear) and security measures (e.g. in case of spills and chemicals accidents).
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
9. 10. 11.
Identifying the responsibilities and roles of staff involved in hygiene control and waste management and their skills. Evaluation of contingency measures applied in case of a breakdown of Common Bio Medical Waste Treatment Facility treatment units or during close down for planned maintenance. Development of a training and awareness-raising programme.
Proper management of BMW is a must for the benefit of the community at large and specifically Healthcare and Sanitation workers who are regularly exposed to BMW. This waste differs from other types of hazardous waste, in the sense that it comes from biological sources or is used in the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. The Doctor, Nurse, Paramedical or Laboratory staff, sweeper are all generators and they are the people who are at most danger of getting affected by the improper BMW management (See Fig-2)
It is also important that Protective Gear waste is provided to the staff handling BMW and bi-annual vaccinations is given to the people involved in handling and disposing it (See Fig 3).
Its improper management can lead to spread of diseases such as Cancer, Hepatitis B/C and TB etc. and have adverse Public Health effects, if not properly managed.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Fig 4 - depicts the Basic Principles of BMW management.
The absence of proper waste management, lack of awareness about the health hazards for BMW and since now the financial arrangements have been made by the government assigning/identifying human resources and fixing the responsibilities and poor control of waste disposal are the most common problems connected with health care wastes. There is another issue of the waste water from the hospital which is supposedly infected and the pharmaceutical residue in drinking water and food chain due to improper disposal of waste results in the pharmaceutical waste ending up in the ambient environment. The liquid waste may be divided into two components: (a) liquid reagents/chemicals discarded and (b) the cleaning and washing water channeled into the drain. The first component can be easily measured by a measuring cylinder or other suitable measuring device before discarding each time and keeping suitable records. The second component can be derived from the total water used in the hospital or by using appropriate flow-meters. No efforts have yet been initiated for Liquid BMW Disposal. People come to the hospitals to get themselves treated of diseases; in exchange they get infected by the infections due to improper handling and management of Bio Medical Waste. With NRHM giving an impetus to the burning issue of BMW management, the sudden high case load coming into the government hospitals the awareness created by the media the government officials and institutions will have to shift focus from achieving (numbers) Quantity to including Quality as a pre cursor. The community at large has become demanding not only for the quality services but also look forward to have neat, clean and hygienic health facilities. The government has become committed towards promoting the infection control activities. Apart from going ahead with making the requisites available and sporadic training programmes, outsourcing for disposal of BMW upto the district level but at the sub-district level still the management of BMW is in shambles. There is an immediate need for making a practical strategy to implement the Bio Medical Waste Management in the government sector. With personal experience through working extensively on the issue in the state, it is clear that the change can only happen from within i.e. an internal training and monitoring mechanism has to be developed upon where external/professional help may be sought for capacity building purposes. If the state plan as mentioned above is developed and properly implemented then Madhya Pradesh would be the first state to have this kind of initiative. Not only will the community be benefitted by properly managing the Bio Medical Waste but also the hospital staff will be able to performance better as they would be then serving without any danger of getting infected while doing their duty.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-III-13 Bio medical waste management in Kerala V.S.S. Nair Biomedical Engineer-Consultant, Kerala, India Email: vssnair@gmail.com Introduction Campaign to curb environmental pollution in Kerala was mostly limited to some couplets from poets against cutting trees. An occasional action by the Pollution Control Board used to get the headlines. Visibly smoggy skies and murky streams caught the eyes of a few. But not hazardous wastes; they remained, though not out of sight, out of mind. Relatively slow pace of industrialization has mercifully insulated Kerala against the most common source of pollution, barring pockets like Cochin-Alwaye belt. However no state, not even Kerala enjoying a high sense of cleanliness and hygiene, was protected against a potential mass killer, hazardous wastes from the guardians of health â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the hospitals.
Categories of Hospital Waste Hospitals generate wastes which can be broadly categorized into: â&#x20AC;˘ Wastes which are supposedly harmless â&#x20AC;˘ Wastes which can transmit infection The first category of wastes is mainly packing materials, kitchen wastes, garbage and other domestic types of wastes. These wastes can safely go into the municipal waste system; care should, however, be taken to transport them quickly and carefully to the municipal disposal sites. The second one consists of the following: 1. Pathological wastes, including tissues, and body parts that are removed during surgery or autopsy. 2. Cultures and stocks of infectious agents and associate biological including cultures from medical and pathological laboratories, vaccines etc. 3. Waste human blood and products of blood including serum, plasma, and other blood components. 4. Sharps that have been used in patient care including hypodermic needles, syringes, pipettes, broken glass, and scalpel blades, blood vials, needles with attached tubing. 5. Wastes from autopsy that were in contact with infectious agents, including soiled dressing, sponges, drapes, tubes, drainage sets, under pads, and surgical gloves. 6. Laboratory wastes from medical or pathological research, such as slides, disposable gloves, laboratory coats and aprons. 7. Dialysis wastes that were in contact with the blood of patients undergoing hemodialysis, including contaminated disposable equipment and supplies such as tubing filters, disposable sheets and towels. 8. Discarded medical equipment and parts that were in contact with infectious agents. 9. Biological waste and discarded materials contaminated with blood, excretion, exudates or secretion from human beings. Hazards from Hospital wastes In most developed countries, there are no epidemiologic evidences to suggest that hospital wastes have caused diseases in a community as a result of improper disposal. In most such countries, the medical wastes are properly taken care of through stringent regulations for their effective disposal. Hence, specific studies on this issue are not available to compare the situation between developed countries and developing countries. As far as the situation in developing countries like India, we can only guess at the likely adverse impact of leaving this issue unexplored. Probable health hazards from these wastes and their improper disposal can be the transmission of the following diseases: 1. AIDS 2. Hepatitis B 3. Most common bacterial infections including Cholera, Dysentery and Typhoid 4. Plague, Tuberculosis 5. Many Parasitic infections
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Studies have proved that Bacteria originating out of the hospital environment are highly resistant to many commonly used antibiotics. Hence, it may become extremely difficult to treat these patients who acquire bacterial infections from the hospital waste sources. Magnitude of the Hospital waste in Kerala On the basis of the number of hospitals and available beds, a tentative estimate of the quantum of wastes generated is arrived at. No. of beds i. Government Sector 1. Major hospitals including Medical College hospitals, TB and Leprosy Hospitals 2. Community Health centres
45,000
3. Primary Health centres ii. Private Sector Total
85,000 (approx.) 1,30,000
The quantity of infectious wastes produced per bed, per day is reckoned at 2 kgs. Thus, the hospitals in the state generated more than 260 tonnes of infectious wastes every day or 95,000 tonnes annually.
The Present Scenario If there is anything more deadly than the potential danger caused by infectious hospital wastes, it was the lack of concern about the danger. The clinical wastes were being fed into the municipal wastes system by almost all the government and private hospitals, doctor’s consulting rooms, clinics and laboratories till 2003. Waste disposal systems were woefully inadequate or non-existent in most hospitals. The dangerous wastes dumped into landfills next to the hospitals resulted in land and ground water pollution. The workers handling these wastes were themselves blissfully unaware of the danger of these hazardous body wastes. The health care workers in the hospitals were often inadequately protected because of the lack of appropriate protective clothing and equipment. Again, there are the people who run and ‘informal’ recycling service and thereby, exposing themselves to the hazards. They rummage through the wastes for plastic, cardboard and tin. There are also instances when the discarded disposable syringes and needles came back to the shops packed as new.
An Agenda for action It would be safer to incinerate every bit of waste. It is an ideal goal. But to provide incinerators to each and every hospital is unrealistic both economically and ecologically. A practical disposal strategy, to minimize risks, can be operated in a sustainable way and do not present long term hazards. The general strategy can be: 1. Permanently minimizing contact with waste by patients and their relatives, other personnel and population potentially affected; for this purpose, plastic bags and bins should be provided to all the wards in the hospitals. The workers handling these wastes must be provided with protective garments such as coats and gloves. 2. Awareness and education programmes for medical and lay persons to apprise them of the possible dangers posed by the inappropriate and careless handling of medical waste. This must include orientation and continuing education programmes and training for all health care workers. 3. To instill the importance of tracking and disposal of infectious wastes in hospitals not only in the minds of the medical personnel but hospital administrators and the government. 4. Thus the project “IMAGE” was initiated by Indian Medical Association, Kerala. IMAGE – IMA Goes Eco-friendly The project “IMAGE” – IMA Goes Eco-friendly was initiated in 2000 to assist Government and Private Hospitals in Kerala to manage and dispose the hazardous wastes produced in their premises. An office was set up in the Headquarters of IMA in Trivandrum. Continuous correspondence with the managements of all hospitals in Kerala was initiated. Meetings were organized all over Kerala by IMA through which the need for
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
proper waste management was promoted. The support of the Kerala State Pollution Control Board was very helpful. Member Secretary Mr. Indulal, Engineer Mr. Vijayabhas and others helped in initiating this process. At that point of time, anyone could start a hospital – the rules were not very strict. The result – there was very little information about the hospitals – their location, number of beds etc. Addresses of hospitals from newspapers and other publications were collected and handed over to State PCB to initiate action notices. The plan was to start 5 Central Waste Management Plants in Kerala – two acres of lands for each with an Incinerator, Autoclave, Shredder, and an Effluent treatment Plant. A plot was purchased in Parippally near Kollam and the proposal was approved by Kerala State PCB. But due to the opposition from local people, it had to be shelved. The same happened to the plans in Kannur. Finally, the present site was located near Kanjikode, Palakkad. With the approval of the Pollution Control Board, Municipal Corporation etc., the Plant was started with one Incinerator, one Autoclave, Shredder, ETP etc. Training programs for Hospitals in Waste Segregation was started. Color Bags and Bins were supplied to all hospitals with necessary instructions, posters etc. Suppliers for all these items were contacted. Hospitals were requested to provide needle destroyers in all necessary locations. A private organization, GJ Multiclave was selected for collection of wastes and the operation of the Plant. This was planned as a common facility for the entire State and a Co-operative Project where the hospitals will have to pay an Affiliation Fee and a per bed per day fee for waste collection and disposal. The estimate for such a Project was Rs. 1 Crore to start with including the cost of the land, building, Incinerator, Autoclave, Shredder, ETP etc. This was to cater to >10,000 beds. Thus the Affiliation fee was decided as Rs. 1000 per bed and the treatment charges at Rs. 3.50 per bed per day. Soon with the initiative of the IMA and the PCB, several hospitals were made to join the project. Of course, there were objections from many fronts. Environmentalists bringing experts from as far as USA against incineration, enemy organizations advising ‘better’ treatment plants etc. But IMAGE survived and is making a huge net profit for IMA apart from undertaking a useful activity. Meanwhile, a study was conducted to find out the wastes created by the hospitals, clinics, dental clinics, diagnostic centers in the entire Kollam district. From the present data available from IMAGE reports, it shows that only about 60% of the hospitals etc. are affiliated to IMAGE. Only a couple of hospitals have their own waste treatment plants.
Conclusion We have so far escaped a major health disaster. But we are at risk of making a bad situation worse. Biomedical waste management rules, 1998 requires the hospitals to track, handle the wastes from generation to disposal. They should be closely monitored for any infringement. While IMAGE has been a success to the extent to which it has been implemented, there is need to take it further, to spread awareness about the need for bio-medical waste management and extend the facility for all hospitals in Kerala.
References Census of India. 2011, Health facilities in Kerala Hospital Waste Disposal – Environmental Pollution Control Board, Kerala, India. Forder, A. A. Infection Control, A Challenge in a land of contrasts, Journal of Hospital infection; June 1993. Halbwachs, H. Solid Waste disposal in district health facilities – World Health Forum, No. 4, 1994. Mathew Gandy, Recycling and politics of Urban waste. Shanmugham, J. Antibiotic susceptibility pattern of Coagulase Negative Staphylococcus strains against type of Penicillin. Journal of International Medical Science. Seymour Bakerman, Understanding AIDS. Sherkdar A. V., Solid wastes from Establishment, NEERI, INDIA. Solid waste Disposal Act of 1988, USA, International Digest of Health Legislation, 1989 & 1990. Biomedical Waste Management study, Kollam district – V. S. S. Nair, 2002
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Chapter-III-14 A case study on biobio-medical waste of government district hospital Ujjain M.P. Sangeeta Palsania & Jagdish Palsania* Dist. Hospital SRMH Ujjain, M.P., India *Head-Civil Engg. Dept., Government Engineering College, Ujjain, M.P., India Email: palsania_j@yahoo.co.in Abstract Government District Hospital like one at a medium size town Ujjain is a contributor of hazardous waste this waste falls under regulatory reforms of Bio Medical Waste Management and Handling Act. Present work is a case study on Bio Medical Waste Management and Handling at Ujjain District Hospital Ujjain M.P. Keywords: Bio Medical Waste, Incinerator.
Introduction Quick and stringent steps need to be taken before we reach to a point on no return. This global concern has reached into framing of various international and national laws to deal with this crucial field. To deal with Hazardous (infectous) Bio Medical Waste which has assumed a great importance in view of increased health care programs in government and private sectors. This new threat from clandestinely repackaged medical waste can hardly be underestimated. Health workers point to numerous serious infections that can spread as a result, like tuberculosis, hepatitis, and bacterial diseases HIV. Worse the medical fraternity attitude to the problem has so far been largely apathetic. Much of the danger is hidden. A large number of medical items i.e. disposable syringes and gloves, blood and uro-bags, soiled cotton and bandages, IV sets and catheters etc. ideally meant to be used only once, are hitting market again, washed cleaned and repacked and much cheaper than the original stuff. Experts say that the problem of hospital waste disposal is very complex and serious and one that needs to be tackled urgently nation wide. The Union Ministry of Environment has finally woken up to the threat. The Government and Private sectors are obeying to Bio Medical Waste Management and Handling Act which is to be monitored by taking case studies by researchers, engineers and doctors as well. The same is presented here for District Hospital Ujjain as a case study.
Literature Review Medical waste incineration may be largest dioxin source in the United States as much as 5,100 g/yr toxic equivalent of Dioxin as reported by U.S.EPA and issued a press release on 13.09.1994 that 95% of Dioxin emission is from medical and municipal waste combustion. Doucet and Mainka surveyed and conclude that it is only 140.9 g/yr1 The plastic content of the hospital waste stream has grown from 10% to 30% in last decade3. Odours may be effectively controlled through the oxidation of all hydrocarbons to CO2 and water. A combustion retention time of 0.5 seconds at 7600C or greater is sufficient to eliminate hydrocarbons.4,5 BMW is a clean fuel from the point of sulphur content.6 PCDD and PCDF are formed due to combustion of Chlorine and Bromine containing ingredients.7 Dust particles play an important role in the formation of Dioxin and Furan.8 Incineration is attractive as an alternative hazardous waste disposal method to disinfect, reduce, make unrecognizable and make unusable9-12 US EPA made some standards to incinerate BMW.13-14 Ash of incinerator contain maximum Dioxin15-16 Alternative to PVC for making blood bags and other medical accessories exist.18Pure PVC is 42% Chlorine by weight.19 On an average about 520 kg of non-infectious and 101 kg of infectious waste is generated per day about 2.31 kg per day per bed, gross weight comprising both infectious and non-infectious waste.20 Before 1990 clinical waste in Malaysia was handled in a similar manner as any other solid waste within the hospital. This practice together with the lack of adequate disposal sites resulted in various unfortunate incidents, such as abuse of needles by drug addicts and scavenging of body parts by stray dogs. Such incidents and increasing concerns about HIV spurred the Malaysian Ministry of Health and Department of Environment to have clinical waste regulated under the Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989. The Ministry of Health also developed Guidelines on the Management of Clinical Waste and Other Related Wastes. A decision was taken in 1993 to privatise this service for the Ministryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 127 hospitals and institutions throughout the country. With privatisation, the country has one of the best managed clinical waste management services in the region with dedicated vehicles and treatment facilities in place. The services have also been extended to all private hospitals and other government hospitals in Malaysia. With the experience gained in providing services in Malaysia, the Contractors are also selling their services and expertise abroad.21
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Overview of Hospital waste in India The Ghatkopar-Mankhurd link road, the bio-medical waste treatment plant of the municipal corporation Mumbai looks like an innocuous small factory with its chimney spewing gentle, white fumes. But a surprise inspection of the plant abutting the Deonar dumping ground recently. Dr Sandip Rane of the high courtappointed committee to curb air pollution from the dump showed how mistaken the notion is. At the heart of the plant is an incinerator, which burns hazardous waste from hospitals, and the gases produced could end up in the hospitalisation of those living within a radius of a kilometer22 No civic hospital in Pune has ever obtained the permission to generate bio medical waste because the PMC authorities never knew they need it. PMC has been running its 34 dispensaries, 14 maternity hospitals and an infectious disease hospital without seeking the consent of the MPCB. "We were under the impression that civic hospitals do not require such a permission and only private hospitals need authorisation. According to PMC's medical officer of health S T Pardeshi they have taken subscription of the common bio medical waste treatment facility at the Kailas Crematorium for scientific incineration of bio medical waste generated by all PMC-run hospitals. PASSCO Environment Solution Pvt. Ltd, a service providing company runs this facility. The agency lifts the waste every day and disposes it scientifically," Pardeshi said. Dispensaries need to have one-time undertaking from the board for generating bio medical waste while hospital, maternity homes need to have the board's authorisation which is required to be renewed every three years.23 Yenepoya Medical College, Yenepoya University will organized the 12th Annual Conference of Indian Society of Hospital Waste Management (ISHWM) 'ISHWMCON 2012' at Deralakatte , Mangalore on Dec. 1-2. The conference attempt at facilitating discussions on the critical issues and challenges facing the Hospital Waste Management Moving Towards Sustainable Solutions'' will provide an opportunity for exchange of information among different stake holders - Government, Scientific community, Hospitals, NGOs, medical fraternity, managers, health planners, international donors and policy makers. They observed that health care waste or hospital waste management is receiving lot of attention in the recent past because of growing evidence of rise in incidences of Hepatitis B, C and HIV/AIDS as a result of mismanagement of hospital waste especially used syringes and needles. Among the waste produced by urban local bodies, 10 per cent of the solid waste is produced by healthcare sectors, said Dr S Kumar, president of Medical Education, MS Ramaiah Academy of Health and Applied Sciences, in developing countries 200 to 300 million injections per annum are through resold unsterilized syringes. Every year, more than 6,000 healthcare professionals in the world get infected with Hepatitis B due to lack of proper precautions while treating patients.24 Former chief environmental engineer V J Vijayabhas at a seminar on, 'the present status of biomedical waste management in Kerala, organised in collaboration with IMA. "Some hospitals are still not making use of needle burners to dispose the used needles. On an average, a bed in one hospital generates 2 kg waste per day and of this 300 grams are biomedical waste," according to the WHO statistics in 2000, injections with contaminated syringes resulted in 21 million hepatitis B virus infections, two million hepatitis C virus infections and 2.6 lakh HIV infections across the world.
Big hospitals comply with medical waste norms Karnataka is the highest producer of bio-medical waste in the country. Over 62,241 kg of medical waste and 43,971 kg of disposable medical waste are produced daily in the state, according to a survey. A 2012 BBMP survey of 1,844 private health units revealed that only 30% have obtained No Objection Certificate from the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board. The survey sample represented 80% of the private health units in the city. Worse, only 706 (38%) hospitals had BBMP licences in 2010. But since then, BBMP has pursued the matter with many private healthcare units and has now covered over 70% of the health sector. Manipal Hospital produces about 25 tonnes of medical waste a month. All waste is segregated at source into colour-coded disposal bags. These bags are collected from the generation point, sealed and taken to a central collection area where they are put into colour-coded rooms and kept locked. The authorized disposal agency collects the bags daily.25 Ujjain A case study on bio medical waste management at Ujjain was planned by the authors in running year. For this numbers of hospital in Government and Private sectors at Ujjain are located and listed in table 1. Government District Hospital has installed incinerator for proper disposal of bio medical waste and private sector are taking services of other agencies. Therefore Government hospital is chosen for this case study. Table 1 Hospitals in Ujjain Government Hospitals
Source NIC
Hospital Name
Address
Civil Hospital
Agar Road,
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Sankhya Raje Prasuti-Grah
Agar Road
Freeganj Hospital Mahakal Prasuti-Grah
Madhav Nagar, Sandipani Chauraha Near Mahakaleshwar Temple
T.B. Hospital
Agar Road
Civil hospital Jivajiganj
Piplinaka
Civil Dispensory Chhatrichauk
Chhatrichauk
Civil Despensory, Kartik Chauk
KartikChaik
Bima Hospital
Agar road
Bima Hospital
Laxminagar
Private Nursing Home and Hospital Ujjain Charitable Hospital
Bhudhwaria Chauraha
G.D.Birla Hispital Pushpa Mission Hospital
Mahananda Nagar, Dewas road Azad Nagar Dewas road
S.S.Hospital Saluja Nursing Home Shinde Nursing Home
Shahid Park Dewas road, near PWD Rest House Indore Road
Dr. Rakesh Agrawal Nursing Home Sevalaya Nursing Home Vishal Nursing Home
Alakdham Colony, Indore Road Indore Road, Dinesh petrol Pump Free Ganj
Kanwal Nursing Home
Bafna Tower, Sahid Park
Pendnekar Nursing Home
Near Asharay Hotel
Mungi Nursing Home
Mungi Chauraha, Freeganj
Ujjain Heart Care Hospital
Tower Chauk
Mukhia Nursing Home Adinath Eye Care Hospital Saurabh Eye Nursing Home
G.D.C. Road, Dashahera maidan Near Ujjain Public School, Dewas Road Bafna Tower, Sahid Park
Arpan Eye Hospital
Tower chauk Free Ganj
Atal Nursing Home
Hiramill road,
Tiwari Nursing Home
Kotwali road
Chaudhary Nursing Home
Satigate
Shinde Nursing Home
Mahakal Road
Avniya Nursing Home
Kshirsagar Nai sadak
Grasim Jan Seva Trust
Grasim nagar, Nagda
Jai Medical Centre
Freeganj
Government District Hospital Ujjain The Civil Surgeon cum Medical Superintend of District Hospital Ujjain MP has taken renewal of authorization27 for operating a facility for handling, generation, collection, storage, transportation, treatment and disposal of BMW.issued under rule 7 (4) of Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) rules 1998. Wide application No 3507 dated 29.06.2011 and dated 21.09.2011 with file no BMW/Auth/Ujjain-33 from Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board Paryawaran Parisar E-5, Arera Colony Bhopal MP vide letter no 228/BMW/MPPCB/2012 dated 5.11.2012 Table 2 Cat 01 7300 kg/year
Authorization for waste category and total quantity of BMW generation for 700 beds. Cat 03 Cat 04 Cat 05 Cat 06 Cat 07 Cat 08 Cat 09 36 1800 180 7200 700 50,000 1200 kg/year kg/year kg/year kg/year kg/year litre/year kg/year
For case study of BMW of District Hospital of Ujjain, Sankhya Raje Maternity Home SRMH is a major contributor of BMW. Hence study is focused on SRMH
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Table 3 Salient Features of Sankhya Raje Maternity Home (SRMH) Ujjain Sr No Description 1. Number of Sanctioned Beds 2. Numbers of Extra Beds 3. Numbers of Total Beds 4. Numbers of Indoor Patient/year 5. Numbers of Minor operation/year 6. Numbers of Major operation/year 7. Numbers of Delivery/year Data are of Dec 2011 to Nov 2012
Numbers 130 250 380 26,477 3000 1800 12,000
Result and Discussion The disposable items indent by SRMH, Bio Medical Waste generated from SRMH, Characteristic features of Incinerator installed at Civil Hospital Ujjain MP as outcome of this case study are presented from table 04 to table 06 Table 04 Sr.No 1. 2. 3. 4.
Total Indent made from Dec 2011 to Nov 2012 for SRMH Ujjain OPD only Description of item Quantity Disposable Syringes 1600 boxes Cotton Bundles 38 cartoons Disposable Gloves 26000 numbers Cotton Gouge 38 than
Table 5 Sr.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Total Indent made from Dec 2011 to Nov 2012 for SRMH Ujjain OT only Description of item Quantity Disposable Syringes 60,000 Cotton Bundles 1175 of 250 gm each Cotton Gouge 11,500 of 10 m each Catheter 1875 IV set 1875 Maternity Pad 36,000 Bandage than 1200 10 m each
Table 6 Sr No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Total waste generated from SRMH Description Quantity Sharp waste 12610 Soiled waste 12800 Disposable waste 12600 Liquid waste 48600 Human Body waste N/A Micro Biological waste N/A Disposable medicine N/A Chemical waste N/A
Table 7 Sr No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Waste Cat IV VI VII VIII I III V X
Remark Needle Cotton Gouge Syringes
Hypochlioride solution
Characteristic features of Incinerator of District Hospital Ujjain Description Detail Make Multifab Gujarat Year of Installation Aug 2002 Capacity 20 kg/hr Power/Fuel Diesel Consumption 14 liter/hr Chimney Height 30 m
Systematic schedule of Bio Medical Waste Management is as follows: • Segregation of waste as per norms in wards it self • Collection of waste 08 AM to 10 AM daily • Incineration timing 10 AM to 3 PM • 20 kg to 40 kg BMW incinerated per day
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• About 2 kg of Ash generates per day.
Conclusion District Hospital Ujjain MP is taking due care of Bio Medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rule 1998 honestly with all legal formalities and social responsibility. The data presented are authentic and to be used only for academic purpose.
Acknowledgement The Authors are thankful to district hospital authority particularly CHMO Dr. M.K.Dixit and CS Dr N.K. Trivedi for their permission to present this paper and others to help from time to time. We are also thankful for considering our request to give kind consent to publish data of BMW of Ujjain with special context to scenario of BMW in India as presented in literature review cited above. So that efforts of District Hospital Ujjain for management of BMW are known to world, through this international conference.
Future Scope The method of incineration involves lot of investment, power and operation and maintenance skill and technology is highly sophisticated. Incineration do not ends to no-waste technology. Problems of Dioxin Furans and residual ash are always associated with incineration. Further studies are required to degrade much of the organic waste by composting and faster by vermincomposting an attempt was made by the authors in this respect specially on obstetric waste placenta with excellent result and same is to be incorporated in BMW (M&H) Rules 1998. Because presently the Rule and IS Code 12625 on Solid Waste – Hospital Guidelines and Management29 do not speak about composting and vermincomposting for BIO Medical Waste Management.
References Doucet and Mainka P.C., “Cleaning the Air on MWI Dioxin Emissions,” Peekskill, New York, 1995 Biomedical Waste Incinerators, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, “Incinerator Design and Operating Criteria,” Vol.II, October, 1986. Brunner, C.R. and Brown, C.H., “Hospital Waste Disposal by Incineration,” APCA, Vol.38, No.10, October, 1988. Baun and Parker, “Incineration and Landfill,” Vol.I, 2nd Edn., Ann Arbor Science Publisher Inc., USA, 1974. Glyson, E.A., Packard, J.R. and Barnes, C.H., “The Problems of Solid Waste Disposal,” Ingender 9, College of Engineering, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA, 1972. Acharya, D.B., “Options for Medical Waste Disposal : Incineration Vs Microwaving,” National Seminar on ‘Bio-Medical Waste,’ Organized by M.P.P.C.B., October 7, 1997. Bradshaw, A.D., Southwood Richard and Frederick, W., “The Treatment and Handling of Waste,” Champan & Hal, London, 1992. Kohnke Bernt, “Waste Incineration – An Important Element of the Integrated Waste Management System in Germany,” Waste Management and Research, 10(4), 1992. WHO, “Report of a Consultation on Medical Wastes Management in Developing Countries,” (Sept., 1992), Pub. 1994, Ed. Dr. Adsian Coad, 1994. Oppelt, E.T. & Dempsey, C.R., “Incineration of Hazardous Wastes : A Critical Review Update,” Air & Water, 43:27-71, 1993. Nissien, W.R., “Combustion and Incineration Processes,” Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1978. Munoz, J.H., Tessitore, J.L. & Cross, F., “PCB Destruction by Incineration,” Pollution Engg., 19(8):70-75, 1987. US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, “Finding the RX for Managing Medical Waste,” Sept., 1990. Newswire Association Inc., “Disposal Sciences Inc. Achieves Certification of the DSI 2000,” October 17, 1994. Clarke, M.J., Maarten de kadt & David Saphire, “Burning Garbage in the US : Practice Vs State of the Art,” Infors Inc., 1991. Oliver Tickell and Alan Watson, “Medica Waste : A Case for Treatment,” New Scientist, March 28, 1992. Martin, E.D. & Johnson, J.H., “Hazardous Waste Management Engineering,” Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, NY, 1987. Fact Sheet No.6, Citizen’s Environmental Coalition, “Managing Medical Waste,” Albany, NY, (1991) and E. Harion and G. Kaczmarczyk, “Management and Utilization of Hazardous Waste – Medical Waste,” Kiekrz Pozhan, Poland, 14-15, April, 1994. Philip, F. Coppinger, “The Hospital’s Dilemma : The Incineration of Infectious Waste; A threat to Public Health,” p.53, Winter, 1996. Patil G.V., Pokhrel K., “Biomedical solid waste management in an Indian hospital: a case study.”, Waste Management 25(6) p 592-599, 2005
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Debbie Siru, M.S. Pillay, Kazal Sinha. “A National Approach to Clinical Waste Management” Jr. of Solid waste and Management (4)2006 Anil Singh TOI 12.10.2009 Umesh Isalkar TOI 12.09.2012 Times of India 2.12.2012 Rhik Kundu TOI 27.10.2012, Prasad Kulkarni TOI 29.11.2012 Hospitals in Ujjain MP nic.in letter no 228/BMW/MPPCB/2012 dated 5.11.2012 IS Code 12625 on Solid Waste – Hospital Guidelines and Management
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Chapter-III-15 Assessment of a leachate treatment facility using leachate pollution index Dinesh Kumar* & Babu J. Alappat** *Department of Environmental Management Services, North Delhi Municipal Corporation, New Delhi, India **Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India Email: dkathpalia@yahoo.com Abstract Designing landfill leachate management system is one of the important steps in the design of a landfill facility. The design of leachate collection and treatment system depends on the leachate quantity and quality. The leachate quantity and quality varies considerably from one landfill to another and for a given landfill, it varies with time. Leachate is required to be treated prior to its discharge into surface waters or land application. The leachate treatment method depends on the leachate composition and required discharge standards. Efficiency of any leachate treatment system depends on its design and operation. Leachate Pollution Index is a quantitative tool by which the leachate pollution of landfill sites can be reported uniformly. Sub-Leachate Pollution Indices are more descriptive and informative tools to describe the leachate pollutants. In this paper, efficiency of a leachate treatment facility designed for an Irish landfill has been assessed using Leachate Pollution Index and sub-Leachate Pollution Indices. Based on the results it is concluded that the leachate treatment facility used for the Arthurstown landfill in Dublin is efficient in reducing the leachate pollution potential. Keywords: Municipal Landfills, Leachate treatment, Leachate Pollution Index, Sub-Leachate Pollution Index, and Leachate management
Introduction Landfill is the most common waste disposal method in many countries around the world. The landfilling of millions of tonnes of wastes in landfills has the potential to have a major impact on the environment (Lo, 1996). Leachate generated from landfills is a source of threat to the groundwater and environment even in arid countries like Kuwait, where huge amount of waste is being deposited in landfills (Al-Yaqout and Townsend, 2001). Treatment of leachate is one of the important issues in management of a landfill. Conventionally, the leachate is pumped out of the landfill units and led into the anaerobic or aerobic treatment plants. The processes for leachate treatment are always very complex and the costs are usually quite high (Zhao et al., 2000; Zhao et al., 2002). Traditional methods for leachate treatment include stabilization ponds, activated sludge process, upper anaerobic sludge beds, sequencing batch reactors, ozone oxidation, land treatment, etc.; and their combinations (Pohland, 1980; Ragle et al. 1995; Zhao et al. 2002; Henry and Prasad, 2000). Several previous studies have shown success with the biological treatment of landfill leachates using aerated lagoons (Robinson and Grantham, 1988; Robinson and Barr, 1999). The Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) technology has also been successful in leachate treatment (Robinson, 1996; Robinson and Barr, 1999). A technique to quantify the leachate contamination potential of landfills on a comparative scale by using an Index known as Leachate Pollution Index (LPI) has been developed and reported by Kumar and Alappat (2003). Leachate Pollution Index is an increasing scale index and is useful in summarizing the leachate pollution data on a comparative scale. In an effort to make the Leachate Pollution Index more informative and useful for the field professionals and researchers, Kumar and Alappat (2005) sub grouped the LPI into three sub leachate pollution indices (sub-LPIs) based on the leachate contaminants categorization. In this paper, the efficiency of the leachate treatment facility used at an Irish landfill has been assessed using the Leachate Pollution Index and Sub-Leachate Pollution Indices. Based on the LPI and sub-LPI values it has been concluded that the leachate treatment method used at the Arthurstown landfill is effective and efficient in treating most of the contaminants and reducing the pollution potential.
Arthurstown landfill leachate treatment technology South Dublin County Councilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Arthurstown landfill site in Dublin is receiving baled wastes from Ballymount Bailing Station since October 1997 at a rate of about 200,000 tonnes per annum. The leachate is produced due to decomposition of the waste and percolation of rainwater. The leachate is collected by a drainage blanket above the landfill liner system, from where it is pumped for treatment and disposal (Robinson
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
and Harris, 1999; Robinson and Dornan, 2000). The main consideration for leachate management was to minimize the leachate head on the landfill liner system. Leachate quality was anticipated by the consultants for the Arthurstown landfill based on the ‘Review of the composition of the leachates from domestic landfill sites’ a study prepared for the UK Environment Agency (Robinson, 1996). The leachate treatment plant designers estimated leachate quantities based on the water balance method for this landfill. The landfill has a modern leachate treatment plant, which is, perhaps, the most advanced in Ireland. It is an extended aeration treatment scheme, based on modified Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) technology, with the pretreated effluent being discharged off-site for final treatment in combination with domestic sewage (Robinson and Dornan, 2000). The treatment plant was commissioned in November 1998 and had initially been operated to achieve full nitrification of ammonical nitrogen to nitrates; but it had been designed in such a way that full denitrification of nitrates to nitrogen gas could be incorporated as required as a part of the enhanced treatment process (Robinson and Dornan, 2000). Leachate treatment comprise of two identical buried, roofed, circular concrete tanks each with a capacity of 1800 m3. Tank 1 is used to provide treatment, operating as an SBR, and treating the primary feed of leachate, with automatic addition of nutrients, and pH buffering within an optimum range for treatment. The second tank was being used to store the leachate feed but ultimately was to be used for leachate treatment. Effluent is being pumped into a third, smaller, concrete tank, from where it can be tankered off site into Dublin sewerage system, or can be recirculated into the landfill to encourage and accelrate decomposition of the emplaced solid waste (Robinson and Dornan, 2000). Typical results for composition of raw leachate and treated effluent analyzed during August 2000 are reported in Table 1 (Robinson and Harris, 1999; Robinson and Dornan, 2000). These results have been used to calculate the LPI and sub-LPIs of the raw and treated leachate.
70 60
LPI Value
50 40 30 20 10 0 Overall LPI
LPI-Organic
LPI-Inorganic
Leachate Pollution Index
LPI-Heavy Metal
Raw Leachate Treated Leachate
Figure 1 Overall LPI and Sub-LPIs of Raw and Treated Leachate from Arthurstown Landfill in Dublin
Leachate pollution index Leachate Pollution Index (LPI) is a quantitative tool of summarizing the leachate pollution data of landfills on a comparative scale. It comprises of 18 pollutant variables and the 18 pollutants have been assigned weights based on their relative importance. The pollutant variable rating curves for all the 18 pollutants have been developed (Kumar and Alappat, 2003; Kumar and Alappat, 2005). The rating curves express leachate pollution (Pollutant Sub Index Score) from ‘0’ to ‘100’ with respect to the various level of strengths or concentrations of the particular variable up to the maximum limits reported in literature (Kumar and Alappat, 2003; Kumar and Alappat, 2005). The 18 pollutants included in the LPI have been aggregated using the weighted linear sum aggregation function. The weighted linear sum aggregation function was selected following the sensitivity analysis of the six
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
aggregation functions (Kumar and Alappat, 2004). The Leachate Pollution Index is calculated using the equation: n
LPI = ∑wi pi
(1)
i =1
where LPI = the weighted additive leachate pollution index, th w i = the weight for the i pollutant variable, th p i = the sub index score of the i leachate pollutant variable,
n = number of leachate pollutant variables used in calculating LPI n
and
∑w =1. i =1
i
However, when the data for all the leachate pollutant variables included in LPI is not available, the LPI can be calculated using the concentration of the available leachate pollutants. In that case, the LPI can be calculated by the equation (Kumar and Alappat, 2004): m
∑w p i
LPI =
i
i =1 m
∑w
i
i =1
where
(2)
m is the number of leachate pollutant parameters for which data is available, but in that case
m < 18
i =1
and
∑w < 1 i
.
m
Table 1 Sub Leachate Pollution Indices Parameters with Sub Index Weight Factors (Kumar and Alappat, 2004) Sub-Index Parameters Weight Factor COD 0.267 BOD 0.263 LPI Organic LPIor Phenolic Compounds 0.246 Total Coliform Bacteria 0.224 pH 0.214 TKN 0.206 LPI Inorganic Ammonia Nitrogen 0.198 LPIin Total Dissolved Solids 0.195 Chlorides 0.187 Chromium 0.125 Lead 0.123 Mercury 0.121 Arsenic 0.119 LPI Heavy Metals Cyanide 0.114 LPIhm Zinc 0.110 Nickel 0.102 Copper 0.098 Iron 0.088 Sub leachate pollution indices To make LPI more informative and useful, LPI has been subdivided into three sub indices. The three subleachate pollution indices are based on the categorization of the 18 pollutants included in LPI. The three sub indices indicate the dominant pollutants present in a given landfill leachate (Kumar and Alappat, 2005). The three sub-LPIs are:
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
LPI Organic (LPIor): The pollutants selected in this sub-LPI are BOD5, COD and Phenolic Compounds. Since only one biological pollutant, total coliform bacteria, is included in LPI, this is also included in this subgroup. The weights factors for the pollutants in LPIor calculated on a scale of one as if LPIor is an absolute index and are presented in Table 2. 1. LPI Inorganic (LPIin): The LPI Inorganic component constitutes of Chlorides, pH, Ammonia Nitrogen, and Total Kjeldhal Nitrogen. One of the physical constituents of the LPI, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is also included in this subgroup. The weights factors for the pollutants in LPIin calculated on a scale of one as if LPIin is an absolute index and are reported in Table 2. 2. LPI Heavy Metals (LPIhm): Many heavy metals such as Chromium, Lead, Zinc, Nickel, Copper, and Mercury are important constituents of the leachate produced from landfills. Two non-metal priority pollutants, Arsenic and Cyanide have also been included in this sub group. The weight factors for the pollutants included in this sub index calculated on a scale of one as if LPIhm is an absolute index and are reported in Table 2. The three sub-LPI scores can be calculated separately as individual indices using equations 1 and 2 depending on the availability of the leachate characteristics. The value n and m in equation 1 and 2 now correspond to the number of pollutants included in the sub LPI and number of pollutants for which the data is available. The summation of the three sub-LPIs results in the formulation of the overall LPI (Kumar and Alappat, 2005). Table 3 Leachate composition of raw leachate and treated effluent from Arthurstown landfill in Dublin, August 2000 (values in mg/l except where stated) (Source: Robinson and Dornan, 2000) Determinand Raw Leachate Treated Effluent pH value 8.1 8.6 COD 10 3000 578 BOD5 7 290 9 TOC 3 230 211 Volatile Acids (as C) 3 136 14 Suspended Solids 580 23 Ammonical Nitrogen 1 180 1.0 Nitrate-N <0.03 59 Nitrite-N <0.01 9.5 Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 10 220 1 782 Sulphate 87 Chloride 2 140 1 460 Sodium 1 850 1 250 Magnesium 232 165 Pottassium 1 650 1 020 Calcium 230 28 Manganese 0.19 0.03 Manganese 1.78 0.31 Iron 19.9 <0.6 Nickel 0.71 0.59 Copper 0.04 0.04 Zinc 0.31 <0.03 Cadmium <0.01 <0.01 Lead <0.04 <0.04 Mercury (Âľg/l) <0.1 <0.1 Arsenic (Âľg/l) 27 47
Calculation of overall leachate pollution index The calculation of overall Leachate Pollution Index consists of three steps: (1) Calculation of sub index scores for each of the parameters: The Sub index scores (pi) of all the pollutants included in LPI are noted from the sub index rating curves with respect to the concentration of pollutants in the leachate. The sub-index rating curves are reported elsewhere by Kumar and Alappat (2005). (2) Aggregation of the sub index scores for organic, inorganic and heavy metals sub-LPIs: The three subLPI values are calculated using the weight factors given in Table 2 and using the aggregation function given in Equation 1 and 2. It has been observed that LPI values can be calculated with marginal error
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using equation 2, when data for some of the pollutants (which are not biased towards either high or low concentration) is not available (Kumar and Alappat, 2005a). (3) Aggregation of the three sub-LPIs to get the overall Leachate Pollution Index: The three sub LPI values are aggregated to calculate the overall Leachate Pollution Index using the equation: LPI = 0.232 LPIor + 0.257 LPIin + 0.511 LPIhm (3) where LPI = Overall Leachate Pollution Index, LPIor = Sub Leachate Pollution Index Organic Component value, LPIin = Sub Leachate Pollution Index Inorganic Component value, LPIhm = Sub Leachate Pollution Index Heavy Metal Component value. The equation 3 has been derived based on the weight factors of the eighteen pollutants included in overall LPI and their contribution to each sub-LPI.
Sub-LPI and overall LPI of raw and treated leachate The composition of the raw leachate and treated effluent during August 2000 has been reported by Robinson and Dornan (2000). These leachate composition details have been used to calculate the LPI and subLPIs of the influent and the effluent and the results are reported in Table 3. The results of the LPI-organic, LPIinorganic, LPI-heavy metal and overall LPI value of the influent and effluent leachate streams are shown in Figure 1 using bar charts. Table 2 Three sub-LPIs, overall LPI of the raw leachate and treated effluent of the Arturstown landfill leachate Index
LPI Organic LPIor
LPI Inorganic LPIin
LPI Heavy Metals LPIhm
Parameters
COD BOD5 Phenolic Compounds* Total Coliform Bacteria* Summation LPIor pH TKN* Ammonia Nitrogen Total Dissolved Solids* Chlorides Summation LPIin Chromium Lead Mercury Arsenic Cyanide* Zinc Nickel Copper Iron Summation LPIhm
Overall LPI
Weight Factor wi 0.267 0.263 0.246 0.224 1.000
Raw Leachate Pollutant Sub Index Conc. Value pi (mg/l) 103000 97 7290 60 2 7 1000 70
0.214 0.206 0.198 0.195 0.187 1.000
8.1 1240 1180 4500 2140
5 43 100 10 17
0.125 0.123 0.121 0.119 0.114 0.110 0.102 0.098 0.088 1.000
0.19 0.04 0.0001 0.027 0.8 0.31 0.71 0.04 19.9
6 5 5 5 8 5 6 6 5
0.232. LPIor + 0.257. LPIin + 0.511. LPIhm
wi.pi
25.899 15.78 1.722 15.68 59.081 59.081 1.07 8.858 19.8 1.95 3.179 34.857 34.857 0.75 0.615 0.605 0.595 0.912 0.55 0.612 0.588 0.44 5.667 5.667 25.561
Treated Effluent Leachate Pollutant Sub wi.pi Conc. Index (mg/l) Value pi 578 24 6.408 9 5 1.315 2 7 1.722 2 8 1.792 11.237 11.237 8.6 5 1.070 30 6 1.236 1 5 0.990 2000 7 1.365 1460 10 1.870 6.531 6.531 0.03 5 0.625 0.04 5 0.615 0.0001 5 0.605 0.047 6 0.714 0.4 6 0.684 0.03 5 0.550 0.59 6 0.612 0.04 6 0.588 0.6 5 0.440 5.433 5.433 7.062
*Assumed concentrations based on the other studies
Results and Discussion The overall LPI value of the raw leachate is 25.561. The overall LPI value in itself indicates that the leachate is quite contaminated but the nature of the leachate is explained only by three sub-LPI values. The leachate generated from the landfill has high LPI-organic value (59.081) indicating a possibility of adopting a biological treatment method. The LPI-inorganic value of the raw leachate is moderate (34.857) indicating that the due consideration is also required for removal of inorganic contaminants while deciding leachate treatment system. However, the LPI-heavy metals value of the raw leachate is very low (5.667) showing that heavy metals present in the raw leachate do not pose any potential threat. The low value of LPI-heavy metal also ensures that the heavy metals shall not pose threat to the biological treatment of raw leachate. For this site, a biological treatment method using modified sequencing batch reactor is being used to treat the raw leachate (Robinson and Dornan, 2000). The LPI and sub-LPI values of the effluent leachate are also calculated and reported in Table 3. The low values of the overall LPI (7.062) and the three sub-LPIs (LPI-organic - 11.237, LPI-inorganic - 6.531, and LPI-
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heavy metals - 5.433) of the treated effluent show that the leachate treatment system adopted is quite effective in treating almost all the contaminants in the leachate stream and in reducing its pollution potential. The slightly high sub-LPI value of LPI-organic component (11.237) of the effluent indicates that the contaminants in this sub group have not reached the acceptable limits, and therefore some additional treatment may be required. The slight high value of LPI-organic is due to the high values of COD in the treated effluent. Therefore the treated leachate may be required to undergo some secondary treatment before final discharge. For the Arthurstown landfill, the treated leachate is being discharged to the domestic sewage for final treatment as reported by Robinson and Dornan (2000).
Conclusions Sub Leachate Pollution Indices scores gives an insight of the pollutants present in the leachate, and is more informative and useful to the scientific community. The overall LPI value, and the three sub-LPI values of the raw leachate of the Arthurstown landfill indicate the leachate has high organic load, while the heavy metals are low in concentration and do not pose any possible threat to the environment and biological treatment of leachate. The LPI value and the three sub-LPI values of the treated effluent show that the treated leachate is no more contaminated and do not pose any potential threat to the environment. The slight high value of LPI-organic component of treated leachate does indicate that all the contaminants have not been treated to the maximum, for which a secondary treatment may be required.
References Al-Yaqout, A.F., and Townsend, F. (2001). “Startegy for Landfill Design in Arid Climates.” American Society of Civil Engineers - Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic and Radioactive Waste Management Vol. 5 (1), Pp 2-13. Henry, J.G., and Prasad, D. (2000). “Anaerobic Treatment of Landfill Leachate by Sulfate Reduction.” Water Science Technology, Vol. 41(3), Pp 239-245. Kumar, D. and Alappat, B.J. (2005). “Analysis of Leachate Pollution Index and Formulation of Sub - Leachate Pollution Indices.” Waste Management and Research, Vol. 22, Pp 230-239. Kumar, D. and Alappat, B.J. (2005a). “Errors Involved in the Estimation of Leachate Pollution Index.” American Society of Civil Engineers - Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic and Radioactive Waste Management – April, Pp 103-111. Kumar, D. and Alappat, B.J. (2004). “Selection of Appropriate Aggregation Function for Calculating Leachate Pollution Index.” American Society of Civil Engineers - Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic and Radioactive Waste Management. October, Pp 253-264. Kumar, D., and Alappat, B.J. (2003). “A Technique to Quantify Landfill Leachate Pollution.” Ninth Waste Management International Landfill Symposium, October 2003, Cagliari, Italy, Proceedings Ninth Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, Paper No. 400, Pp 241-242. Lo., I. M. C. (1996). “Characteristics and Treatment of Leachate from Domestic Landfills.” Environment International, Vol. 22(4), Pp 433-442. Pohland, F.G. (1980). “Leachate Recycle as Landfill Mnagement Option” American Society of Civil Engineers – Journal of Environmental Engineering Division, Vol. 106(6), Pp 1057-1069. Ragle, N., Kissel, J., Ongerth, J.E., and Dewalle, F.B. (1995). “Composition variability of Leachate from Recent and Aged Areas within a Municipal Landfill.” Water Environment Research, Vol. 67(2), Pp 238-243. Robinson, H., and Dornan, G., (2000). “Leachate Treatment at the New Arthurstown Landfill Site in Dublin.” Waste Management, Pp 40-41. Robinson H.D., and Harris, G.R., (1999). “Arthurstown Landfill: An Internationally State-of-the-art Leachate Treatment Plant.” Local Authority News (Ireland). Vol. 17(6), Pp 11-15. Robinson, H.D. (1996) “A Review of the Comparisons of Leachate from Domestic Wastes in Landfill Sites.” Report No. CWM 072/95published by the Wastes Technical Division of the Environment Agency, in the series “The Technical Aspects of Controlled Wastes Management” 550 pp. Robinson, H.D., and Barr, M.J. (1999). “Aerobic Biological Treatment of Landfill Leachates.” Waste Management and Research, Vol. 17, Pp 478-486. Robinson, H.D., and Grantham, G. (1988). “The Treatment of Landfill Leachates in On-site Aerated Lagoon Plants: Experience in Britain and Ireland” Water Research, Vol. 22, Pp 737-747. Zhao, Y., Li, H., Wu, J., and Gu, G. (2002). “Treatment of Leachate by Aged-Refuse-Based Biofilter.” American Society of Civil Engineers –Journal of Environmental Engineering Division, Vol. 128(7), Pp 662-668. Zhao, Y., Liu, J., Huang R., and Gu, G. (2000). “Long Term Monitoring and Prediction for Leachate Concentrations in Shanghai Refuse Landfill” Water, Air Soil Pollution, Vol. 122(3-4), Pp 281-297.
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Chapter-III-16 Agricultural utilization of sewage sludge: HM uptake, biochemical, physiological and growth responses of mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) plant grown at different amendments rates R.P. R.P. Singh*1 & M. Agrawal2 1 Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India 2 Ecology Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Email: rajeevprataps@gmail.com Abstract Agricultural utilization of sewage sludge, a biological residue from sewage treatment processes, is an alternative management technique of this waste. To study the heavy metal uptake, biochemical and growth responses of mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) plants grown on different sludge amendments rates a field experiment was conducted by amending sewage sludge at 0, 6, 9 and 12 kg m-2 rates in agricultural soil. Chlorophyll and carotenoid content increased due to sewage sludge amendment (SSA) as compared to unamended control. Protein contents of mung bean plants also increased due to SSA. Thiol and phenol content decreased, however, Lipid peroxidation, ascorbic acid, peroxidase activity and proline content increased in plants grown at different SSA rates as compared to control one. Bioconcentration concentration factor in different plant parts was also less than 1. Concentration factor value in seed increased with increasing SSA rates. The study concludes that sewage sludge amendment in soil may be a good option for mung bean plant as plant has adequate heavy metal (HM) tolerance mechanism shown by increased rate of chlorophyll and carotenoid content and various antioxidant levels. Keywords: Sewage sludge amendment; Vigna radiata; Heavy metals; Chlorophyll content; Carotenoid content; Lipid peroxidation; Bioconcentration Factor: Concentration factor.
Introduction Due to rapid urbanization, industrialization and uncontrolled population growth, management of urban wastes is problematic and may result in environmental pollution if not dealt properly. Waste especially solid waste generated in these urban centers is of great concern for the environmental quality. Unprecedented growth of urban population have put tremendous pressure on the quality of life including housing, water and power supply and resulted in deterioration of environmental quality. About 48 million tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) is generated annually in India (Agrawal et al., 2005). The urban local bodies spend approximately Rs. 500 -1500 per tonnes on solid waste collection, transportation, treatment and its disposal. With increasing urbanization and consequent increase in urban population, wastewater generation had increased tremendously. Sewage sludge is the solid portion removed from the wastewater during its treatment processes. The safe disposal of the sewage sludge (SS) is one of the major environmental concerns worldwide. Land application of SS are suggested to be a more preferred option owing to high economic and environmental costs of incineration and land filling (Singh and Agrawal, 2008, 2010b,c; Singh et al. 2011). Several studies have reported that land application of SS benefits the crop production (Wong et al., 2001; Singh and Agrawal, 2009, 2010b, c; Singh et al., 2011), but the problem is mainly due to presence of toxic metals such as Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn resulting from the mixing of industrial wastewater with sewage (Singh and Agrawal, 2008; Singh et al. 2011; L贸pez-Valdez et al. 2011). In addition to these toxic heavy metals, other harmful toxics such as pharmaceuticals, various salts, pesticides, toxic organics, flame retardants and hormone disruptors can also be present in the sewage sludge (Singh and Agrawal, 2008, 2010c; De la Torre et al., 2012; Cincinelli et al., 2012). The transfers of toxic metals from sewage sludge to soil and subsequently to plants pose potential health risks because they can enter the food chain and the environment (Singh and Agrawal, 2007, 2009, 2010b, c; L贸pezValdez et al. 2011). Uptake of metals by plant is one of the major pathways by which sludge borne heavy metals enters the food chain and can cause risk to human health (Chaney 1990; Singh and Agrawal, 2008). Excess of both essential and toxic heavy metals (HMs) has been found to be associated with enhanced generation of free radicals (FR) or reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are generated as toxic by-products at low levels in non-stressed plant cells in chloroplasts and mitochondria and also by cytoplasmic, membrane-bound or
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
exocellular enzymes concerned in redox reactions (Ahmad et al., 2009). Generation of FR and ROS in plants has been stimulated by HM stress (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 1993; Gallego et al., 1999). Existence of free radicals in plant cell may disrupt the normal metabolism through oxidative damage to plant cellular components as these species bear strong oxidizing property and can attack all types of biomolecules (McCord, 2000; Ahmad et al., 2008). By means of inducing lipid peroxidation or interruption of electron transport chain ROS are known to spoil cellular membranes (Smirnoff, 2000). Smeets et al. (2005) reported in activation of lipoxygenase, an enzyme that arouse lipid peroxidation after cadmium exposure. Normally generation as well as elimination of ROS is in balanced state, but under stressed conditions cellular balance is disturbed due to various environmental factors which results in enhanced production of ROS (Singh and Agrawal, 2010a). To sustain metabolic functions and efficiency both under normal as well as stressed conditions balance between ROS formation and their destruction are required. To lessen and repair the damage initiated by ROS, plants have a defense system that helps in eliminating ROS before any damage to susceptible parts of the cells may occur (Moller, 2001; Ahmad et al., 2008). Gupta and Sinha, (2009) reported significant increase in total chlorophyll content of sesame white (Sesamum indicum L. var. T55) plants (leaves) grown on lower tannery sludge (TS) amendments (upto 35% TS at 30 d and 25% TS at 60 d) over their respective controls. Carotenoid content also increased in the leaves of sesame plants grown upto 50% TS at 30 d and 35% TS at 60 d as compared to their respective control followed by decrease (Gupta and Sinha, 2009). An increase in carotenoid and total chlorophyll contents in leaves of Brassica juncea grown in TS amendment @ 10, 25, 35, 50, 75 and 100 % at 30 and 60 DAS was reported by Singh and Sinha, (2005), however, these pigments decreased at and beyond 35 % TS amendments at 90 DAS. Lou et al. (2004) reported increments in protein content of plants under HMs stress. Singh and Sinha, (2005) reported that protein content in leaves of B. juncea increased at 10 to 100 % TS amendments at 30 and 60 DAS, however, at 100 % TS amendment it decreased at 90 DAS. Proline accumulation is as an indicator of environmental stress, having an important protective role (AliaSaradhi, 1991; Sharma et al., 1998). Singh and Sinha, (2005) reported significant increase in proline content and lipid peroxidation in B. juncea due to tannery sludge amendments. Proline content increased maximally by 103 % at 35 % TS ratios at 90 DAS, however maximum increase (132 %) in lipid peroxidation was observed at 100 % TS ratio. Foliar thiol and ascorbic acid contents of B. juncea also increased at most of the TS amendment ratios (Singh and Sinha, 2005). Lipid peroxidation increased significantly in sesame plants after 50% tannery sludge amendment ratios as compared to respective control (Gupta and Sinha, 2009). Plants exposed to toxic HM concentrations may stay alive, depending upon the variations in resistance, but with reduced growth and slower development (Clijsters and Van Assche, 1985). Toxicity may also be due to the complex interaction of the major toxic ions with other essential and non-essential ions under variable environmental factors (Foy et al., 1978). Qasim et al. (2001) reported increments in shoot and root lengths and number and area of leaves in maize plants at various sludge amendment rates. The increments were, however, of low magnitude at higher amendment rates. The increments in shoot length were 18, 30, 24, 16 and 9 %, respectively at 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 t ha-1 sewage sludge amendments (Qasim et al., 2001). Reductions of 1.6 and 6.5 % in root length of maize plant, respectively at 40 and 50 t ha-1 sewage sludge amendment rates were found (Qasim et al., 2001). In view of the above the field experiment was carried out on mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) plant to assess the effect of different sewage sludge amendments rates on HM uptake, biochemical and growth responses.
Materials and methods Study area The field experiment was conducted at the agricultural farm of Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. The soil of experimental site is sandy loam. Sewage sludge was collected from Dinapur sewage treatment plant (DSTP) of 80 MLD capacity. Experimental design and raising of plants Field was prepared by using standard agronomic practices. Twelve plots of 1.5 x 1.5 m size having 0.25 m margin between the plots were prepared. Sewage sludge collected from Dinapur sewage treatment plant (80 million per day capacity) was air dried and grounded uniformly to get homogenous mass. Sewage sludge was mixed in soil at 6, 9 and 12 kg m-2 sewage sludge amendments (SSA) rates, respectively. Unamended plots were used as control. There were three replicate plots of each treatment and plots were left for fifteen days for stabilization. Treatments were designated as T0 for unamended control, T1 for 6 kg m-2, T2 for 9 kg m-2 and T3 for 12 kg m-2 sewage sludge amendments (SSA), respectively for convenience. After maintaining identical moisture levels in each plot, seeds were sown manually in seven rows at a distance of 20 cm between the plants. The test variety mung bean {Vigna radiata L. cv. Malviya Janpriya (HUM 6)} was developed via pedigree method by selection from local germplasm (Accession No. BHUM 54). To keep the necessary moisture level in each plot, time to time drip irrigation was done. Three hand weedings were done.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Analysis of soil and sewage sludge samples Soil samples collected in triplicate from every treatment were air dried, crushed, passed through a sieve of 2 mm mesh size and then stored separately for further physico-chemical analyses. For analysis of HMs in soil samples, 1 g air-dried sample was digested in 20 ml of tri acid mixture (HNO3: H2SO4: HClO4: 5:1:1) for 8 hr at 80 0C following the method described by Allen et al. (1986). After complete digestion solution was filtered and the filtrate was analyzed separately for HMs using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Model 2380, Perkins Elmer, Inc., Norwalk, CT, USA). The pH of the soil at different treatments was measured in the suspension of 1: 5 (w / v) with the help of pH meter (Model EA940, Orion, USA) standardized with pH 4, 7 and 9.2 reference buffers. Electrical Conductivity (EC) was measured by conductivity meter (Model 303, Systronics, India). Organic C and total N contents of the soil samples were determined by Walkley and Black’s rapid titration method (Allison, 1973) and Gerhardt automatic analyzer (Model KB 8S, Germany), respectively. The available P in soil and SS samples was quantified by NaHCO3 extraction method given by Olsen et al (1982). Estimation of biochemical parameters and growth indices Fully expanded fresh leaves were sampled manually at 30 and 50 DAS and kept in deep freezer for further estimation of photosynthetic pigments, lipid peroxidation and different metabolites. Chlorophyll and carotenoid contents expressed as mg g-1 dry leaf was estimated according to the method of Machlachlan and Zalik (1963) and Duxbury and Yentsch (1956), respectively. Protein content in the fresh leaves was analyzed by the method of Lowry et al. (1951). Foliar ascorbic acid and proline contents were measured by the method of Keller and Schwager (1977) and Bates et al. (1973), respectively. Peroxidase activity was measured using the method of Britton and Mehley (1955). Total phenol and thiol contents were measured following the methods of Fahey et al. (1978) and Bray and Thorpe (1954), respectively. The MDA (Malondialdehyde) level, representing the index of lipid peroxidation, was measured by the method given by Heath and Packer (1968). Plants were sampled in triplicate from each treatment plot at 45 and 65 DAS and root and shoot lengths, number of leaves and leaf area were measured (Singh and Agrawal, 2010). Growth indices i. e. Leaf Area Ratio (LAR), Leaf Weight Ratio (LWR), Root Shoot Ratio (RSR) and Specific Leaf weight (SLW) were calculated using the formula given by Hunt (1982). Leaf Area LAR (cm2 g-1) = Total Biomass Leaf Dry Weight LWR (g g-1) = Total Biomass Root Dry Weight RSR (g g-1) = Shoot Dry Weight Leaf Dry Weight SLW (g cm-2) = Leaf Area Ln W2 – Ln W1 Relative growth rate (RGR) (g g-1 d-1) = Leaf Area
W2 – W1 Net assimilation rate (NAR) (mg cm-2 day-1) =
Ln LA2 – Ln LA1 x
T2 – T1
(LA2 – LA1)
Where W1 and W2 is total dry weight at time T1 and T2 and LA is leaf area. Estimation of HM, bioconcentration and concentration factor in plants For HM analysis in plant parts oven-dried samples were homogenized by grinding in stainless steel blender and then passed through a sieve of 2 mm mesh size. Dried plant sample was digested in three acid
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
mixture until transparent colour appeared (Allen et al, 1986). HM concentrations were determined in digested samples by using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. To understand the transport behaviour of HMs to edible portion, bioconcentration and concentration factor was calculated using the following formula: Concentration of HM in plant part Bioconcentration factor (BCF) = Concentration of HM in initial soil BCF value of edible portion grown in SSA soil Concentration factor (CF) = BCF value of edible portion grown in control soil Statistical analysis The data were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS version 11 software. Duncan’s multiple range test was performed to test the significance of difference between the treatments. Precision and accuracy of HM analyses were also assessed through repeated analysis of the samples against National Institute of Standard and Technology, Standard Reference Material (SRM 1570) for all the HMs. The results were found to be within ± 2% of the certified value.
Results and discussion The sewage sludge of DSTP, Varanasi used for soil amendment had neutral pH, high electrical conductance (2.28 mS cm-1), organic carbon (5.52 %), total N (1.73 %), available P (716.7 mg kg-1) and Total Fe (6059 mg kg-1) contents (Table 1) as compared to the agricultural farm soil. The concentrations of total HMs such as Ni, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cr, Cd and Cu were 47.17, 785.3, 186.2, 60, 35.5, 154.5 and 317.7 mg kg-1, respectively in sewage sludge of Dinapur STP (Table 1). Characteristics of sewage sludge depends on wastewater composition as well as treatment processes (Singh and Agrawal, 2008, 2010b). Very high HMs concentrations in wastewater of DSTP have been reported by several workers (Sharma et al., 2006; Singh et al., 2010). Shrivastava and Banerjee (2004) reported that sewage sludge of STPs, Okhla, Delhi varied in pH from slightly acidic to alkaline (pH 6.8 – 9.6). Electrical conductivity of sewage sludge from DSTP, was reported to be several times higher than that of the value reported from Delhi (0.56 mS cm-1) (Shrivastava and Banerjee, 2004). It has been reported that in present study soil pH decreased but EC increased due to SSA treatments (Table 1). The change in following trend may be attributed to lower pH and higher EC of sewage sludge of Dinapur as compared to the agricultural farm soil. Decrease in soil pH may also be attributed to release of humic acid as a result of biodegradation of amended sewage sludge which is rich in organic carbon. However, Parkpain et al. (2000) have reported increase in soil pH upon sewage sludge amendment. Organic C, total N, available P and exchangeable nutrients of soil increased due to different SSA amendment (Table 1). Increase in soil nutrients due to SS application has been reported by several workers (Parkpain et al., 2000; Singh and Agrawal, 2007, 2009, 2010a, b). Sewage sludge amendement in agricultural land has been shown to provide potential benefits in form of N (Binder et al., 2002) and P (Hogan et al., 2001). In the present study sewage sludge amendment in soil also led to higher concentrations of total HMs (Table 1). Total HMs concentrations were highest at higher SSA rate for all the HMs under study. Concentration of Zn was highest in sewage sludge amended soil followed by Cu, Pb, Ni, Cd and Cr (Table 1). Use of SS as soil amendment has been shown to present potential environmental risks of HMs in soil (Singh and Agrawal, 2007, 2010a, b; Wong et al., 2001). Significant positive correlations between plant HM uptake and total HM content in soil have been reported (Singh and Agrawal, 2007, 2009). Chl a, b and total Chl contents increased significantly at both the ages of observations due to SS amendments as compared to the plants grown in unamended soil (Figure 1). Total chl contents in mung bean plants were 0.7, 0.927, 1.393 and 1.187 mg g-1 in T0, T1, T2 and T3 plants, respectively at 50 DAS. Increment in total chl content was maximum (70 %) in plants grown at 12 kg m-2 SSA at 50 DAS. Maximum increments of 135 and 57 % in chl a and b contents, respectively were observed in 9 and 12 kg m-2 plants respectively at 50 DAS. Total chl contents decrease at 12 kg m-2 SSA as compared to 9 kg m-2 SSA rate at 50 DAS. Carotenoid content also increased significantly at both the ages of observations at all the SSA rates (Figure 1). Maximum increment (47 %) in carotenoid content was observed in T3 plants at 50 DAS as compared to those grown in control soil. Chl a / b and total chl / carotenoid ratios were affected differently at various SSA rates. Chl a / b ratio increased significantly at 30 DAS at all SSA rates, but at 50 DAS, significant increased was observed only at T2 as compared to T0 (Figure 1). Increment in chl a / b ratio was maximum (125 %) in T3 (12 kg m-2) plants at 30 DAS as compared to T0 plants. El-Sabour et al. (1997) reported increase in total chlorophyll content under organic waste compost application to Helianthus annus. However, Singh and Agrawal (2007) reported decrease
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
in total chlorophyll in Palak (Beta vulgaris var. Allgreen H1) grown in 20 and 40 % sewage sludge amended soil. Carotenoids are non-enzymatic antioxidants, which protect the chlorophyll molecules against oxidative stresses (Halliwell, 1987). Increase in carotenoid content may thus be attributed to the plant defense strategy to overcome the HM stress. Singh and Agrawal (2010a) reported significant increase in total chlorophyll and carotenoid content in rice (Oryza sativa L) grown at different sewage sludge amendment rates i.e. 0, 3, 1.5, 6, 9 and 12 kg m-2 SSA. Silva et al (2010) also reported increase in total chlorophyll content of Capsicum grown at composted tannery sludge. Increase in chlorophyll content in mung bean plant could be due to a high accumulation of essential metals required for the growth of the plant. Formation of chlorophyll is dependent on nitrogen, magnesium (Neals, 1956), iron (Barton, 1970) and others nutrients such as S, calcium, Mn and Zn (Mengel and Kirkby, 1987).
T0
T2
T1
T3
6
1.50
5
1.25 Car
Chl a -1 mg g dry wt
a d
2
a ab
b
c
c
b d
d
1
c a
b
0.50 0.25
0
0.00
5
8 7
Chl a / b ratio
Chl b
6 5
a
3
a a a
2
a
a a d
c
4
b
b
a
c
b
b
3 b
1
2 1
0
0
3.0
-1 mg g dry wt
2.5
9.0
b
2.0 1.5
Total chl / car ratio
Total chl a
a
c
6.0
b
a
d
a
c bc
b
4.5 c b
c
1.0
7.5
d
0.5 0.0
b 3.0 1.5
30 DAS
50 DAS
30 DAS
50 DAS
0.0
Figure 1. Chl a, chl b, total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents, Chl a / chl b and total chl / carotenoid rates in mung bean plant grown at different SSA ratios at different ages (Mean Âą 1SE). Bars with different letters in each group show significant difference at p < 0.05
78
dry wt
0.75
c
-1
b
3
4 -1 mg g dry wt
1.00
a
mg g
4
T1
T0
13
T3
T2
15 ab b
10 aa
8
c a
b
5 c
b ba
c
3 0 0.5
240 200 160
c
ba
0.4
a a
d
120 80
cb
a d
40
c
0.2
b
b
d
d
c
0.1
0
0.0
2.8
35
0.7
a b b aa c b
b
a
c
c
aa a
28 21 14 7
0.0
30 DAS
50 DAS
Protein content (mg g-1 fresh wt)
b ab
2.1 1.4
0.3
Proline content (mg g-1 fresh wt)
Peroxidase activity (µM purpurogalin formed min-1 g-1 fresh wt)
0
Ascorbic acid (mg g-1 fresh wt)
9 6
bc
c 3
12
Phenol content (mg g-1 fresh wt)
Lipid Peroxidation (n mol ml-1)
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
0
Thiol content (µM g-1 fresh wt)
15.0 12.0 9.0
a a
b bc c
6.0
b
c c
3.0 0.0
30 DAS
50 DAS
Figure 2 Lipid peroxidation, ascorbic acid, phenol, protein, thiol and proline contents and peroxidase activity of mung bean plants grown at different SSA rates (Mean ± 1SE). Bars of different letters in each group shows significant difference at p < 0.05.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
T0
T7
a a
75 50
T6
T5
c
0.020 0.015
b a b ab a
aa c b
25
a a
a a
0.010 0.005
0
SLW (g cm-2)
LAR (cm2 g-1)
100
0.000
0.8 0.8 LWR (g g-1)
0.4
a d c
b
a
0.6 a
a a
a aa a
0.2
0.4 0.2
0.0
RSR (g g-1)
0.6
a c bc b
0.0
160
b bb
a a b b
a
120
a abb
0.24 a
80
ab b
0.16 b 0.08
40 0
0.00
a 1.2
c
4 b
d
0.9
a
3 bc
d
a aa a
0.6
2 1
0.3 dc a b 45 DAS
45 DAS
65 DAS
65 DAS
NAR (mg cm-2 d-1)
RGR (g g-1 d-1)
1.5
0.0
RTB (g g-1)
SLA (cm2 g-1)
200
0
Figure 3 Leaf area ratio (LAR), leaf weight ratio (LWR), specific leaf weight (SLW), specific leaf area (SLA), root shoot ratio (RSR), root total biomass (RTB), relative growth rate (RGR) and net assimilation rate (NAR) in mung bean grown at different SSA ratios at different ages. Bars with different letters in each group show significant difference at p < 0.05. Table 1: Physico-chemical properties of sewage sludge, soil (T0) and different SSA rates at 0 DAS of mung bean plants (Mean Âą 1SE)
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Sewage T0 T1 sludge a pH ( 1 : 5) 7.0 ± 0.01 8.18 ± 0.02 8.06 ± 0.02b -1 c E. C. (mS cm ) 2.28 ± 0.0 0.24 ± 0.01 0.29 ± 0.01b d Organic C (%) 5.52 ± 0.12 0.77 ± 0.02 1.41 ± 0.01c a Total N (%) 1.73 ± 0.02 0.18 ± 0.00 0.20 ± 0.00b -1 d Avail. P (mg kg ) 716.7 ± 60.1 54.43 ± 3.90 111.81 ± 3.54c -1 d Ex. Ca (mg kg ) 154.13 ± 7.95 115.7 ± 5.4 179.7 ± 6.7b -1 Ex. K (mg kg ) 208.96 ± 2.28 119.5 ± 7.4 162.9 ± 27.4a -1 c Ni (mg kg ) 47.17 ± 0.32 14.85 ± 0.76 17.0 ± 0.40bc -1 d Zn (mg kg ) 785.3 ± 16.69 57.7 ± 1.86 146.5 ± 4.02c -1 c Pb (mg kg ) 60.0 ± 5.77 11.67 ± 1.20 18.17 ± 1.17b -1 c Cr (mg kg ) 35.5 ± 0.76 9.76 ± 0.66 11.23 ± 0.46c -1 c Cd (mg kg ) 154.5 ± 2.52 2.23 ± 0.15 12.33 ± 0.84b -1 c Cu (mg kg ) 317.7 ± 1.92 17.66 ± 0.75 31.25 ± 1.13b -2 -2 T0; unamended soil; T1: 6 kg m ; T2: 9 kg m , T3 12 kg m-2. Different letters in each group show significant difference at p < 0.05. Parameters
T2
T3 b
8.03 ± 0.06 0.32 ± 0.02b 1.52 ± 0.02b 0.20 ± 0.00b 124.2 ± 2.59b 227.0 ± 12.1a 179.7 ± 16.7a 19.40 ± 0.94ab 173.7 ± 5.66b 19.33 ± 1.86ab 14.99 ± 0.88b 14.80 ± 1.53b 44.7 ± 2.38a
7.85 ± 0.03c 0.39 ± 0.01a 1.74 ± 0.01a 0.21 ± 0.00c 132.8 ± 3.37a 212.0 ± 7.9b 203.8 ± 15.4a 20.8 ± 1.42a 216.2 ± 6.08a 23.5 ± 1.44a 17.4 ± 0.77a 20.9 ± 1.10a 47.6 ± 2.76a
Table 2: Bioconcentration factors (BCF) of heavy metals in root, stem, leaf and seed of mung bean grown at different sewage sludge amendment rates (Mean) Treatment
Root
T0 T1 T2 T3
Ni 0.55c 0.93ab 0.86b 1.01a
0.49 0.62ab 0.69a 0.72a
0.43 0.56b 0.66ab 0.69a
T0 T1 T2 T3
Cu Root 0.13b 0.14b 0.18a 0.19a
Stem 0.16a 0.13ab 0.10b 0.13ab
Leaf 0.14a 0.12ab 0.10b 0.12ab
T0 T1 T2 T3
Pb Root 0.71b 0.72b 0.92a 0.81ab
Mn Root 0.15b T0 0.17ab T1 0.17a T2 0.17a T3 T0: Unamended soil; T1: 6 difference at p < 0.05.
Stem b
Leaf
Seed
Root
Stem
Leaf
Seed
c
c
0.03 0.09bc 0.15b 0.28a
Cd 0.74a 0.24b 0.24b 0.20b
0.39a 0.14b 0.15b 0.14b
0.37a 0.12b 0.14b 0.12b
0.10a 0.07b 0.09ab 0.08ab
Seed 0.027b 0.023b 0.037b 0.050a
Cr Root 0.18b 0.24ab 0.24ab 0.30a
Stem 0.13a 0.15a 0.13a 0.13a
Leaf 0.20b 0.27ab 0.28ab 0.34a
Seed 0.03b 0.08a 0.08a 0.09a
Seed 0.037c 0.11b 0.14a 0.15a
Zn Root 0.20a 0.14b 0.18a 0.18a
Stem 0.16a 0.12b 0.14ab 0.12b
Leaf 0.19a 0.13b 0.14b 0.14b
Seed 0.21a 0.14b 0.12b 0.10b
Stem 0.66a 0.59a 0.80a 0.72a
Leaf 0.66b 0.68b 0.81b 0.74b
Stem 0.11a 0.12a 0.11a 0.12a kg m-2; T2:
Leaf Seed 0.13a 0.013a 0.15a 0.013a a 0.16 0.013a 0.16a 0.020a -2; 9 kg m T3: 12 kg m-2.Different letters in each group show significant
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Table 3: Concentration factors of heavy metals in seed of mung bean grown at different SSA rates (Mean ± 1SE) Treatment
Cr
Cd
Mn
Ni
Zn
Cu
Pb
T1
2.34 ± 0.28
0.68 ± 0.14
1.02 ± 0.07
3.0 ± 0.34
0.70 ± 0.08
0.91 ± 0.11
3.00 ± 0.56
T2
2.52 ± 0.46
0.93 ± 0.14
1.09 ± 0.23
5.08 ± 0.26
0.59 ± 0.07
1.35 ± .06
3.83 ± 0.31
T3
2.74 ± 0.55
0.83 ± 0.25
1.37 ± 0.36
9.40 ± 0.29
0.52 ± 0.07
1.78 ± 0.38
4.12 ± 0.19
T1: 6 kg m-2; T2: 9 kg m-2; T3: 12 kg m-2. Protein content increased in plants grown at different rates of SSA as compared to those grown in unamended soil, increments being higher at 12 kg m-2 SSA (52 %) at 30 DAS and at 9 kg m-2 SSA (29%) at 50 DAS (Figure 2). Increase in protein content may be due to higher organic matter content of SSA soil, which led to slow release of N in the soil. In the present study, N content of SSA soil was reported to be 11, 11, and 17 % higher at 6, 9 and 12 kg m-2 SSA, respectively as compared to unamended soil. Wollgieh and Newmann (1995) reported an induction of heat shock protein in tomato cultivars under metal stress condition. Singh and Agrawal (2010a) reported that protein cont increase significantly in rice (Oryza sativa L) grown at different sewage sludge amendment rates i.e. 0, 3, 1.5, 6, 9 and 12 kg m-2 SSA at 50 and 80 DAS. Foliar thiol content decreased significantly at all SSA raties at both the ages of observations (Figure 2). Decrease in thiol content was also reported in sunflower treated with Cu and Cd (Gallego et al., 1996), in bladder campion (silene cucubalus) grown in presence of Cu (De Vos et al., 1992), in palak (B. vulgaris) (Singh and Agrawal, 2007) and lady’s finger (Ablemoschus esculentus) (Singh and Agrawal, 2009) grown at 20 and 40 % SSA ratios and in rice (Oryza sativa L) (Singh and Agrawal, 2010a) grown at different SSA rates. Decrease in thiol content may be correlated with increase in protein content, as thiols are utilized in the formation of protein. Lipid peroxidation (LPO) measured as MDA concentration increased significantly at different SSA rates as compared to the control at both the ages of observations (Figure 2). Membrane injury as a result of oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by toxic HM has been related to an increase in peroxidation in plants (De Vos et al., 1989). The magnitude of lipid peroxidation was higher at higher SSA rates at both the ages of observation suggesting higher oxidative stress at higher SSA rates. Similar result has been reported by Singh and Agrawal, (2007) in palak (B. vulgaris), Singh and Agrawal, (2009) in lady’s finger (A. esculentus) grown at 20 and 40 % SSA ratios and Singh and Agrawal (2010a) in rice (Oryza sativa L) grown at different SSA rates. Significant increase in foliar proline content at increasing SSA rates at both the ages of observation during the present study suggests that elevated levels of HMs in plants due to different SSA have affected the permeability of membranes, causing water stress like condition leading to proline accumulation (Pesci and Reggiani, 1992). Proline is reported to protect membranes and proteins against the adverse effects of high concentrations of inorganic ions and temperature extremes (Rudolph et al, 1986; Santarius, 1992). Proline might also function as a protein-compatible hydrotrope (Srinivas and Balasubramanian, 1995), and as a hydroxyl radical scavenger (Smirnoff and Cumbes, 1989). Phenol, a secondary metabolite decreased significantly in plants grown at different SSA rates as compared to the control at both the ages of observation (Figure 2). A decrease in phenol content has been reported in tea (Camellia sinensis) leaves under HM stress (Basak et al., 2001). Singh and Agrawal, (2007) reported reduction in phenol content of palak (B.vulgaris) at 20 and 40 % SSA. Singh and Agrawal (2010a) also reported decrease phenol content in rice (Oryza sativa L) grown at different SSA rates. Ascorbic acid, a powerful antioxidant scavenging free oxy-radicals (Smith et al., 1989), content increased significantly in plants under different SSA rates as compared to those grown in unamended soil at both the ages of observations (Figure 2). However, ascorbic acid content did not varied significantly between different SSA rates at 50 DAS (Figure 2). Thus, increase in ascorbic acid content is an indicative of defensive response against the oxidative stress caused by elevated levels of HMs under SSA ratios (Singh and Agrawal, 2007). Peroxidase activity increased significantly at different SSA rates as compared to the control at both the ages of observations. Increase in peroxidase activity under different SSA rates also indicates HM induced production of ROS. Chaoui and Ferjani (2004) reported increases in cell wall peroxidases of pea (Pisum sativam cv. Douce province) seedlings under Cd treatment. Similar result has been reported by Singh and
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Agrawal, (2007) in palak (B. vulgaris) and Singh and Agrawal, (2009) in ladyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s finger (A. esculentus) grown at 20 and 40 % SSA ratios. Exposure to elevated concentrations of HMs may cause physiological constraints in plants, which may decrease the plant vigour and may also affect its growth and development. Growth indices reflect a mechanism through which stress conditions affect the biomass partitioning in plants. Relative growth rate (RGR), which is a measure of production efficiency, increased at both the ages of observations and was highest at T2 treatment at both the ages of observations (Figure 3). Maximum increase in RGR was 23 % for T2 plants at 45 DAS. RGR declined at later age of observation after sufficient HMs are accumulated to interfere with production processes. RGR depends upon NAR and LAR. Net assimilation rate (NAR), which represents the plant photosynthetic assimilation ability per unit leaf area, decreased at all the ages of observations at all the treatments. Maximum decrease in NAR was observed in T3 plants (18 %) at 45 DAS (Figure 3). Decrease in NAR at higher amendment rates may be due to high accumulation of HMs by plants which may have led to reduction in photosynthesis rate (Vassilev and Yardanov, 1997; Vassilev, 2002). Leaf area ratio (LAR) increased initially, but decreased at later ages of observations (Figure 3). The decline in LAR reflects lower magnitude of increase in leaf area as compared to biomass accumulation. Leaf weight ratios (LWR) increased at 45 DAS, whereas no significant difference between treatments was observed at 65 DAS. Specific leaf area (SLA) increased at 45 DAS, but decreased at 65 DAS at all SSA ratios (Figure 3). Decrease in SLA and LAR at later ages of observations has been correlated with HM toxicity (Barcelo et al., 1988). Specific leaf weight (SLW) showed a contrasting trend as compared to Specific leaf area (SLA) under various SSA ratios. Decrease in SLW clearly showed that leaf expansion is not limited even at higher accumulation of HMs in leaves of plants grown at various SSA rates. Biomass accumulation in leaf was found vulnerable under HM stress as compared to unamended control. Reed et al. (2002) reported a decrease by one fourth in specific leaf weight (SLW) of switch grass (Panicum virgatum L.) grown at 200 mg Cd kg-1 of soil given as CdSO4 as compared to the control. Root shoot ratio (RSR) increased significantly at 45 DAS, but decreased at 65 DAS due to SSA (Figure 3). RSR increased maximally in T2 plants (10 %) at 45 DAS and decreased maximally in T3 plants (18 %) at 65 DAS (Figure 3). Root total biomass (RTB) ratio decreased at all the ages of observations. RSR did not showed significant variation at 65 DAS. The reduction in RSR at different SSA ratios clearly indicates retention of photosynthate at the site of production to repair the metabolism of leaf after HM toxicity. RTB indicates the proportion of total plant dry matter allocated to roots. The values of RTB were lower at all SSA ratios and at all ages of observations as compared to unamended control. In general, a shortage of mineral nutrients in the root environment causes a shift of assimilates in the favour of root system relative to shoot (Brouwer, 1983). But in the present study, sewage sludge amendments led to more availability of nutrients and RTB declined. Bioconcentration factor (BCF) of HMs in different plant parts varied with HMs and sewage sludge amendment rates. The values of BCF of Ni were significantly higher in all parts of the plants grown at various SSA rates as compared to those grown in unamended soil (Tables 2). BCF of Ni was highest in root followed by stem and then leaf. BCF values for Ni in root of mung bean were 0.55, 0.93, 0.86 and 1.01, respectively in T0, T1, T2 and T3 plants (Table 2). The values of BCF of Ni in seeds were 0.03, 0.09, 0.15 and 0.28, respectively in T0, T1, T2 and T3 plants (Table 2). BCF values for Cd were lower in all parts of mung bean plants at various SSA rates as compared to their respective unamended controls (Table 2). BCF values for Cd in root of mung bean were 0.74, 0.24, 0.24 and 0.20, respectively in T0, T1, T2 and T3 plants (Table 2). The values of BCF of Cu in root and seeds were significantly higher in T2 and T3 plants as compared to T0 and T1 plants (Table 2). BCF of Pb in seed and root were significantly higher in T1, T2 and T3 plants as compared to T0 (Table 2), but in stem and leaf, a reverse trend was observed. BCF of Zn in seed did not vary between treatments, however, it was lower in leaves of T1, T2 and T3 as compared to T0 plants. BCF values of Zn in root were 0.20, 0.14, 0.18 and 0.18 in T0, T1, T2 and T3 plants, respectively (Table 2). The values of BCF of Mn did not vary significantly in stem, leaf and seed of mung bean plants between the treatments (Table 2). However, in root, BCF of Mn was significantly higher in plants grown at various SSA ratios (T1, T2 and T3) as compared to the control plants. The BCF values of Cr increased significantly in seed, however, no significant variations were observed in BCF of Cr in stem between the treatments (Table 2). During the present study BCF values varied considerably with kinds of HMs, their concentrations in soil after sludge amendment and with different plants parts. Zhi-xin et al. (2007) reported wide variations in BCF values of HMs for sunflower, ricinus, alfalfa and mustard plants grown in hydroponic cultures and treated at various concentrations of Cd and Pb individually and in combination. The variations were attributed to concentrations and kinds of HMs, the accumulation ability and physiological factors of plants and environmental factors. Mattina et al. (2003) also reported wide variations in BCF values of Pb, Zn, Cd and As in lettuce, pumpkin, zucchini, cucumber, tomato, white lupin and spinach grown in contaminated soil. In case of mung bean, BCF values of HMs in seeds were lowest among all the plant parts. BCF values of HMs in seeds of mung bean showed a trend Zn > Pb > Ni > Cr > Cd
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> Cu > Mn for T1 treatment, Ni > Pb > Zn > Cd > Cr > Cu > Mn for T2 treatment and Ni > Pb > Zn > Cd = Cr > Cu > Mn for T3 treatment. The trend of BCF values suggested that with more availability of HMs at higher amendment rates, HMs absorption and accumulation in plant parts changed. At lower amendments ratio, Zn was more absorbed, but at higher SSA rates, Ni showed more accumulation than Zn. Zhao et al. (2003) have indicated that bioconcentration factor is one of the variables that defines the phytoremediation potential of a given plant species. When a BCF value is ≤ 1, it shows that plant can only absorb but not accumulate HMs, but BCF value of > 1 denotes that plant can accumulate metal. In the present study, BCF values of > 1 were found for roots of T3 plants for Ni. Low BCF values indicated that the test plants had difficulties in mobilizing the HMs from the soil. Metal uptake and its translocation from roots to shoots are basically linked to the element speciation, soil pH and soil organic matter (Kabata – Pendias, 1992). HMs in the exchangeable and carbon bound fractions are readily bioavailable, but Fe-Mn oxide and organic/sulphide fractions are relatively unavailable under normal soil conditions (Wong et al., 2002). The concentration factor (CF), which denotes the HM concentrations in parts of plant grown in sewage sludge amended soil as compared with those grown in unamended control soil, increased with increasing SSA rates in seed of mung bean plants. The CF value was highest for Ni followed by Pb, Cr, Cu, Mn and Cd (Table 3). The values of CF in seed at T1, T2 and T3 treatments were 3.0, 5.08 and 9.40 for Ni, 0.68, 0.93 and 0.83 for Cd, 0.91, 1.35 and 1.78 for Cu, 3, 3.83 and 4.12 for Pb, 0.70, 0.59 and 0.52 for Zn, 1.02, 1.09 and 1.37 for Mn and 2.34, 2.52 and 2.74 for Cr, respectively (Table 3). High CF value for Ni in mung bean seed may be due to higher mobility of Ni through xylem tissues of shoot and its greater transport from shoot to edible part (Kramer et al., 1996). Unlike the other nonessential metals, Ni is found to be fairly mobile in plants and readily accumulated in grains of wheat when grown in soil amended with industrial sludge (Bose and Bhattacharyya, 2008). Sekhar et al. (2002) reported highest CF value for Ni and least for Pb in edible portion of different vegetables grown on sewage sludge amended agricultural field. The values of CF for cabbage were 0.65 for Cr, 0.24 for Cu, 0.25 for Pb, 0.79 for Ni and 1.3 for Zn, and for spinach were 0.33, 0.71, 0.2, 0.26 and 1.3 for Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn, respectively (Sekhar et al., 2002). Lady’s finger had the CF values of 0.60, 1.8, 0.42, 0.69 and 2 of Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn, respectively (Sekhar et al., 2002). The CF values observed during the present study are much higher than the values reported by Sekhar et al. (2002).
Conclusions The present study clearly showed that organic carbon, total N, available P and exchangeable nutrients contents in soil increased due to sewage sludge amendment. Concentrations of HMs such as Cu, Cd, Cr, Zn, Pb, Ni and Mn also increased due to SSA, which led to accumulation of these metals in various plants parts. The higher accumulation of HMs in plants led to increased lipid peroxidation and proline and protein contents, however, increase in chlorophyll pigments have been reported due to different SSA. Bioconcentration factor (BCF) varied with plant parts and SSA rates, but it was mostly less than 1 at all SSA rates. Value of CF in seed increased with increasing SSA rates in seed of mung bean plants. The results of the present study suggests that mung bean may be a good option to be grown on sewage sludge amended soil as the plants showed tolerance under elevated HM concentrations by increased chlorophyll content and various antioxidant levels and HM uptake was also found to less as compared to the concentration present in soil medium (BCF <1).
Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to Farm Incharge, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University for providing field facilities and Head, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi for providing necessary facilities during the research work.
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Chapter-III-17 Biomedical waste management now and then in India Ragini Kumari Asstt. Regional Director, IGNOU, Regional Centre, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India Email: raginivito@gmail.com Introduction Biomedical waste is the solid waste generated during the diagnosis, testing, treatment, research or production of biological products for humans and animals. Biomedical waste includes syringes, live vaccines, laboratory samples, body parts, body fluids and waste, sharps and catheters etc. The main sources of biomedical waste are hospitals, medical clinics and laboratories (http://www.ehow.com/about_5452204_biomedical-waste-definition.html). Infectious waste includes used sharps, pathological wastes including tissues; organs and body fluids, syringes, IV tubing, blood bags, plaster casts when contaminated with body fluids (blood, pus), pathogens etc. Non infectious waste includes general office wastes comprising wrapping paper; office paper; cartons; packaging material including plastic sheets; bottles, kitchen material including biodegradable and non biodegradable wastes. Non infectious wastes constitute about 90% of total waste. According to 2011 Census of India, at present Indian population is 1.2 billion and the growth rate is 1.41%. In India there are 15,393 Hospitals and having 875,000 beds. The share of number of private to public hospitals is about 3:1. According to 2011 Census of India, at present Indian population is 1.2 billion and the growth rate is 1.41%. In India there are 15,393 Hospitals and having 875,000 beds. The share of number of private to public hospitals is about 3:1. Total number of doctors in India is 592,215 and every year 18,000 new doctors are being added (www.gov/td/health/india). In last 12-13 years, since the conception of this rule has gone through three amendments as well. 0.123 Million tones of biomedical waste was generated in India in 2010, of these, about 0.089 Million tones (72.5%) is treated while about 27.5% waste remains untreated (http://cpcb.nic.in/wast/bioimedicalwast/Annual Report 2010_final.pdf). Biomedical waste generation in govt. hospitals vary from 780 g/bed/day (Shushruta Trauma Centre, New Delhi) to 30 g/bed/day (Guru Nanak Eye Centre, New Delhi) (DHS, 2006). Abiding biomedical waste management and Handling rule, hospital waste fits into business model as this waste has huge recycling potential and hence can contribute immensely towards the resource conservation. About 90% of the biomedical waste are non infectious and have huge recycling potential.
History of Bio-medical Waste management and Handling rule Policy formulation for managing biomedical waste was first done in 1998 under the Biomedical waste (management and Handling) Rule, 1998 by Ministry of Forest and Environment under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (http://cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/hwmd/biomed-Rules-1998.pdf). Further it was supported by 4-guidelines for setting up standards for one of the disposal technology-incinerators (http://cpcb.nic.in/wast/bioimedicalwast/DesignandconstructionofBMWincinerator.pdf), deep burial pit as an option for managing infectious waste in rural areas, managing immunization waste specially sharp (http://cpcb.nic.in/Guidelines_BMW_UIP.pdf) and provision for having centralized biomedical waste treatment facility (CBWTFs) (http://cpcb.nic.in/wast/bioimedicalwast/ Common_Bio_Medical_Waste_ treatment_ facilities.pdf). Since, 1998 this rule has through amendments (http://cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/ hwmd/bio-medicalrule-2003%28ammendment%29.pdf). Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoEF) on 21st September, 2011, notified the Draft Bio-Medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2011 to replace the earlier Rules (1998) and the amendments thereof (http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/draft-bmwmh.pdf).
Comparison of Biomedical waste (management and Handling) Rule, 1998 and Draft rule, 2011 In Biomedical waste (management and Handling) Rule, 1998, in schedule-I of there were 10-categories of biomedical waste whereas in case the draft rule itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s only divided into 8-categories. Similarly color codes for bins for different biomedical waste also has been made simpler (blue, black yellow and red) in the draft rule under the schedule-II whereas in 1998 rule, transparent white was additional one. List of authorities and their corresponding duties has been made black and white in the draft rule and well defined in schedule-VI. Under the schedule-VI, it is the duty of the state or union territory government or administration to allocate fund to government healthcare facilities for biomedical waste management and advise pollution control board on the implementation of this rule. Under the same schedule it is duty of the state pollution control board or
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
committees to organize training programmes for heath care staffs. Financial assistance to conduct training will be done by the Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoEF), New Delhi. Authorization for transport and treatment facilities will remain be given by the state pollution control board or committees. Health care establishments/CBWTFs will have to get authorization from the state pollution control board or committees and provide them monthly report on the status of biomedical waste generated and means of disposal etc. Further, state level data will be sent to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to get the compilation done for the entire nation and devise mechanisms to make level of authorization better in the respective state. Provision to have district level monitoring committee for the effective implementation has got space in the draft rule, 2011. Moreover, it is now the duty of the occupier (hospitals/ CBWTFs) to make sure the hand on trainings on the biomedical waste management and have immunization done for healthcare staffs and waste handlers.
Issues and Concerns in Medical waste Attitude towards Segregation Segregation is the key to waste management and biomedical waste management is not an exception. 15 to 20% of biomedical waste is hazardous and infectious and rest does not any treatment if properly segregated at source. Principle of segregation starts from the time of generation to storage and to transportation and final disposal. Lack of segregation at any of these steps can aggravate the problem, so there is need to train the entire chain from the health care staff to waste handler within the hospital, transporting it and working at CBWTFs. Segregation is still one of the biggest challenge in complying the Biomedical waste management and handling rule, 1998 because of lack of “Producer Pay Principle”. Under the Environmental Protection Act, 1986, there is provision of penalty and or imprisonment but unlike other industries, pollution control board at state level seems lenient in penalizing hospitals. Even in prosperous State like Gujarat where there is no dearth of electricity and transport by road there is more than 14- CBWTFs exits in the state. Even Association for CBWTFs itself exists and access to e-data is much more. Yet, situation of segregation is not adequate; henceforth CBWTFs are forced to dispose most of the autoclavable waste via incineration only. Improper segregation is not only taxing on the part of the health care institutions who pay waste treatment and disposal cost in terms of per kilogram of waste, but also enhances two fold environmental burden, by magnifying total release of fly-ash, other pollutants including carcinogens like Dioxin (PCDDs) and Furans (PCDFs), and putting pressure on the hazardous waste transportation and disposal (TSDFs) sites for disposing incineration ash. enhancing total quantity of incineration ash. Also, it is taxing to the CBWTFs owner’s because a mixed waste creates lot of acids and hence scrubber of the incinerator needs to be frequently changed. Safety of the Worker and community Worker safety since nurses, wardboys and waste handlers continued to suffer neelde stick injuries (Agarwal., 1998). Incidences like Hepatitis B outbreak in Modasa in Gujarat in year 2009 serious posing a question on the management of medical waste (http://www.indianexpress.com/news/biomedical-waste-disposal-closurenotice-issued-to-11-godowns/431962). One of the recently published in Indian Journal of Medical Research in March 2010, by doctors at the Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi said that during the blood withdrawl (55%). Followed by suturing (20%) and vaccination (12%) needle stick injuries documented. Safefy of the worker henceforth is a great great concern specially in a country where is lack of norms like in the the US, like the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) or the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to regulate workplace safety (http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Healthworkers-risk-needle-prick-injuries/Article1-542878.aspx).
Dioxins (PCDDs) and Furans (PCDFs) Under the Stockholm Conventions signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004, initially covered dirty dozen chemicals, out of twelve only two (PCDDs and PCDFs) are unintentionally generated byproducts of combustion. As a signatory to this International convention India has to reduce the sources of emissions of these and incineration of biomedical waste is one of these. Hence to reduce the total quantity as well as to separate autoclavable waste from incinerable waste seems quite challenging even after more than 12-years of BMW rule 1998 in this country. Low temperature burning of organics in presence of chlorinated plastics makes the adequate situation for the formation of PCDDs and PCDFs. In many states regular supply of right size color coded bags is still constrain. Situation becomes worse if it comes to supply and hence use of nonchlorinated plastics. Other Challenges Beyond the attitude towards segregating the waste, there are issues like managing waste in places where there is geographical challenges like land slide prone areas, hilly areas, flood prone, snow covered areas. First
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of all, installation of any business set like CBWTF itself is a challenge, places like Uttranchal have just two CBWTF for the entire state and even timely supply of color coded bags with appropriate size is and timely pick-up of waste from its capital remain a challenge. State like Manipur is still struggling to have a CBWTFs where, most of recyclable waste just go for dumping in absence of any re-cycling facility in the state. Situation, in Assam was not that floury too. Recently, under the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), Government of Bihar took initiative in training health care staffs and state pollution control board also make authorization for three-CBWTFs to work in the state whereas, one hospital in the capital of Bihar was providing treatment facility to the hospitals in nearby. Disposal of dirty linen and sari from rural government hospital needs immediate attention as it’s increasing the total quantity of the infectious waste. Flood prone areas in rural areas where in absence of right infrastructure even deep burial is no more and disposal option.
Where There is Will There is a Way A 700-bed multi-speciality, NABH accredited Sir Ganga Ram Hospital in Delhi has system for waste management in place that is facility of color-coded bins to disinfectants to personal protective gears (gloves, gum-boot, mask and apron), needle cutter, trolleys etc. for waste handling. In-house training in managing waste has become the institutional policy and management is quite serious about this. Hospital also has its own autoclave dedicate for waste and a shredder that is nothing but a simple fodder chopper. As a result of best practices followed, the hospital recovers more than 19Tons of glass, 12Tons of papers and card boards, 5tons of plastics, 572 Kg of Aluminium cans, 112 Kg of steel, and 852 Kg of mixed plastics per month from non infectious waste. This hospital also treats the infectious waste and disinfected recyclable wastes are recovered, such as 1080 Kg of syringes and 3176 Kg of gloves. And as a result of effective segregation hospital earns about 3.5 Lacs Rs. per month (Vira, 2011). Biomedical waste management needs the right will of the occupier to tune the team managing this waste and putting it in priority. This hospital can be certainly an example for others to learn a lesson and contribute towards the environment and society at large. To achieve so hospital has invested lot in terms of putting medical waste in priority for the management as well as the healthcare professionals including doctors and nurses and waste handlers in putting biomedical waste management system in place.
Acknowledgements My sincere thanks to Toxics Link (www.toxicslink.org), for giving me opportunity to work on this issue and understand the ground situation of Biomedical Waste Management in India and in South-Asian countries, till I joined IGNOU.
References Agarwal, R., 1898. Seminar on Health and the Environment Centre for Science and Environment, July 6-9th, 1998, New Delhi. http://www.toxicslink.org/docs/06078_Medical_Waste__Issues_Practices_Policy.pdf N Directorate of Health Services (DHS), 2006. Status of Bio-Medical management in National Capital Territory. Biomedical Waste Management Cell Directorate of Health Services, Government of NCT of Delhi, Karkardooma, Delhi-110032 (http://www.medwasteind.org/pdf/Bio-MedicalWasteStatus2006.pdf) Hindustan Times, 2010. Health workers risk needle-prick injuries, New Delhi, May 13, 2010 (http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Health-workers risk-needle-prick-injuries/Article1542878.aspx) Vira, S., 2011. State level workshop on the “Biomedical waste management and mercury free healthcare sector”, Sillong, Meghalaya on 15th Sep. 2011 in partnership with Toxics Link, Meghalaya Pollution Control Board and WHO-India.C http://www.ehow.com/about_5452204_biomedical-waste-definition.html O www.gov/td/health/indiaF D http://cpcb.nic.in/wast/bioimedicalwast/AnnualReport2010_final.pdfE http://cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/hwmd/biomed-Rules-1998.pdf http://cpcb.nic.in/Guidelines_BMW_UIP.pdf http://cpcb.nic.in/wast/bioimedicalwast/AnnualReport2010_final.pdf LHI
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Chapter-IV Technology Innovations in Recycling of Waste
"Think Globally & Act Locally"
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A to Z Industrial Services (ISO 9001:2008, ISO 14001:2004) 3/26, Vijay Nagar, Indore, (Madhya Pradesh) Ph- 0731-2570372, 4068173 Consultancy Services and Turnkey Project for Sewage and Effluent treatment plant Annual Running Contract for O & M of S.T.P. and E.T.P. Supply of Mechanical Equipment for Sewage and Effluent Treatment Plants. Environment Monitoring (Air, Water, Soil). Testing Laboratory Ambient & Stack Air, Water, Effluent, Sewage, Sludge, Chemical etc.
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Chapter-IV-18 Waste Waste incin cineration for urban India: ia: Valu Valuable con contribu ribut bution ion to sustai stain ainable MSWM or inappropria priat iate high-tech solu olution affec ffecting live liveli velih lihood oods and public lic healt alth? Regina Dube ube*, Vaishali Nandan ndan & Shweta hweta Dua Head-Sustainable Urban Development, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, New Delhi, India Email: regina.dube@giz.de Abstract According to the 2011 census, population of India was 121 crores (1.21 billion) out of which 31% live in cities and it is projected that by 2050 half of the Indians will live in cities. Urban India is facing a huge challenge to cope with the infrastructural requirements of its ever-increasing population. Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) still remains an unsolved problem for many Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) despite being their primary responsibility. Considering the health and environment impacts of inappropriate municipal solid waste management, in the year 2000, Government of India released Municipal Solid Wastes Management and Handling (M&H) rules. According to these rules, each Municipal Corporation was expected to set up waste processing and disposal facilities by 31st of December 2003. Till date segregation at source, collection, transportation, treatment and scientific disposal of municipal solid waste is largely insufficient leading to degradation of the environment and the aesthetic quality of urban habitats. Since 2005 the JNNURM reform program has initiated considerable change in the SWM sector in India by supporting private sector participation and investment in treatment and disposal facilities, yet service levels, environmental outcomes and financial sustainability of services are still far from being satisfactory in most of the cases. Problems are often not perceived as management shortcomings, but as lack of “innovative” technologies. Moreover, growing concerns regarding shrinking natural resources, contribution of improper waste management to global warming and shortage in power generation, have triggered discussions regarding waste as a resource in general and waste to energy concepts especially. Waste incineration, as one form of waste to energy concepts, is increasingly perceived as a suitable option for MSWM in India by many stakeholders. Others are rather skeptical, with concerns regarding unsuitability of average municipal waste in India, intransparent business models, livelihood issues, lack of monitoring facilities and weak enforcement of environmental standards, leading to public health issues. This paper aims to contribute to the necessary academic and political discussion by summarizing some relevant facts of the urban waste sector in India as per GIZ experience and by providing information about the experience and relevance of incineration in Germany and Europe.
Urbanization and Municipal Waste India’s economy is growing at a faster pace than ever before in the history of the country. With an average growth rate of more than 7% since the year 1997, the country is ranked as the 12th largest GDP in the world. Urban India is the major driving force of the country’s economic growth contributing to more than 60% of the GDP. It is estimated that by 2030, urban India could generate 70% of net new jobs and contribute to more than 70% of the Indian GDP. India has experienced rapid increase in urban population in the past few decades. According to Census of India, the urban population of India has increased from 25 million in 1901 to 377 million in 2011. This growth has been more pronounced after the 80’s and it is estimated that by 2050 half the Indian population will live in cities. With rapid urbanization and change of lifestyles, MSW has become a pressing problem resulting in severe environmental deterioration and aesthetic concerns. The total waste production in urban India is estimated to be 115,000 MT/d (Metric Tonnes/day), which amounts to almost 50 millon MT/a (Metric Tonnes/year). According to an assessment carried out by NEERI in 2008 in 59 selected Class I & II cities where class I cities refer to those cities having at least 1,00,000 population including the metros, whereas cities having population of 50,000-1,00,000 belong to class II category. The per capita generation of waste in Indian cities ranges from 0.17kg - 0.62 kg/capita/day, depending on the size of the city as well as the socio economic profile of the population. The waste composition also depends on a wide range of factors such as food habits, cultural traditions, lifestyles, annual season, climate and income, etc. Table 1 gives an overview of the waste generation and characteristics across these 59 cities. The table shows that the
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range of compostable fraction in the waste is between 29-620%, while recyclables vary from 9 to 36 % of total waste. Calorific value as well as C/N ratio of the waste also vary across cities. Table 1: Waste generation and its characteristics in Indian cities Population Average per Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics in range capita Compostable Total C/N ratio (in million) waste generation fraction (%) recyclables (%) (kg/capita/day) <0.1 0.17 – 0.54 29-63 13.68-36.64 18-37 0.1-0.5 0.22 – 0.59 0.5-0.1 1.0-2.0 0.19 – 0.53 >2.0 0.22 – 0.62 Source: NEERI (2008)
29-63 35-65 39-54 40-62
13.68-36.64 11-24 9-25 11-22
18-37 17-52 18-52 21-39
Calorific value (kcal/kg) 591-3766 591-3766 591-2391 520-2559 800-2632
Legal framework and current status of MSWM in India Large scale concerns regarding unsuitable waste management resulted in numerous Public Interest Litigations (PILs) prompting the Supreme Court of India, in 1996, to order the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India, to release Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, initially only for all Class I cities. Four years later, in 2000, the MoEF notified the Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules for all Indian cities. The Rules contained directives for all ULBs to establish a proper system of waste management including a timeline for installation of waste processing and disposal facilities by end of 2003. To improve the MSWM systems in the cities the following seven directives were given: • Prohibition of littering on the streets by ensuring storage of waste at source in two separate bins for biodegradable and non-biodegradable material respectively. • Collection of segregated waste (biodegradable & non-biodegradable waste) from the doorstep, (including slums and squatter areas) at pre-informed timings on a day-to-day basis using containerized tri-cycle/hand carts/pick up vans. • Street sweeping covering all the residential and commercial areas on all the days of the year irrespective of Sundays and public holidays. • Abolition of open waste storage depots and provision of covered containers or closed body waste storage depots. • Transportation of waste in covered vehicles on a day to day basis. • Treatment of biodegradable waste using composting or waste to energy technologies meeting the stipulated standards. • Minimize the waste going to scientifically engineered landfills (SLFs) and dispose of only rejects from the treatment plants and inert material at the landfills as per the standards laid down in the rules. Hence, though MSW (M&H)Rules do not restrict any technology, the typical MSWM system in India as foreseen by the Rules would comprise of door to door collection of segregated waste, transportation, treatment of organic waste (composting) and recycling of dry waste and (where appropriate) converting it into alternative fuels (Refuse Derived Fuels/ RDF), followed by scientific disposal of inerts on a scientifically constructed and operated landfill. However, by end of 2003, the goal was still far away. A survey was conducted in 2004 in order to assess the nature of compliance to MSW (M&H) Rules in urban areas and 128 Class I cities responded. Figure 1 presents an overview of the study and the nature of compliance achieved. It is evident that the Rules had not resulted in proper infrastructure development for scientific treatment and disposal of waste. Unavailability of funds and lack of proper understanding of the technology available at the ULB level were largely blamed for non-compliance of the rules.
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Figure 1: Compliance to MSW (M&H) Rules 2000 Source: Asnani (2004)
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
To address the issues related to urban governance and urban infrastructural development, Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was launched by the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), Government of India, in 2005. The launch of this missionbrought considerable change in the status of the ULBs as sufficient funds were allocated for many infrastructural projects with a special emphasis on MSWM. The JNNURM also encouraged private sector involvement for innovative financing and technical upgradation. As on May 2009, a total of INR 2090.52croresINR (316 million Euros)hadbeen sanctioned for 40 Indian cities to improve their solid waste management [1]. Despite huge investments and the encouragement of the Central Government to invest in and adapt to the MSW (M&H) Rules 2000, improvement in this sector is very slow. To further encourage the ULBs, the 12th Finance Commission of Government of India, hadsanctioned additional 2,500crores INR (415 million Euros) to MoUD for strengthening the SWM schemes in ULBs and the 13th Finance Commission of the Government of India, recommended that of all grants to be given to the ULBs, 50% should be for SWM (2010-2015).According to a recent report published by Government of India on the National Implementation Plan for Persistent Organic Pollutants (PoPs) in 2011, 94% of the total municipal solid waste generated is still dumped, 4% is composted and only 2% recycled[14]. In 2009, the Ministry of Urban Development, (MoUD) initiated the process of Service Level Benchmarking (SLB) by defining aset of performance parameters commonly understood and used by all stakeholders with respect to basic municipal services, namely water supply, sewerage, solid waste management and storm water drainage.The primary aim of the SLB initiative is to provide for: • Uniform set of indicators, definitions and calculation methodology to enable meaningful comparisons • Service benchmarks to create consensus on desired service standards • Data reliability grades to highlight and address issues of data quality • Self-reporting by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), as against consultants, to ensure ownership of data • Emphasis on performance improvement planning based on the SLB data generated. Past experiences of GIZ reveal that limited data availability and reliability hampers the overall benchmarking exercise. The data inadequacies arise from lack of appropriate infrastructure and systems to measure and record data, the absence of requisite procedures for data monitoring and analysis as well as weak understanding of the concept of proper record keeping for performance monitoring and improvements. Though benchmarking lays the foundation for performance improvementsthe current nationwide process of SLBs still relies too much on theoretical waste figures and real time city level figures are not yet available in most of the cases.
Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) in India: framework and status Environmental improvements in solid waste management are far from being satisfactory in most urban areas and with increasing levels of awareness,citizens are demanding better services.A major obstacle is the absence of proper land use planning, which hampers the process of finding suitable sites for treatment and scientific disposal of waste. Growing concerns regarding shrinking natural resources, scarcity of land, contribution of improper waste management to global warming and shortage in power generation, have triggered discussions regarding waste as a resource in general and waste to energy concepts in particular. Waste incineration, as one form of various waste-to-energy concepts, is being increasingly perceived by many stakeholders as a suitable option for MSWM in India. Before we come to upcoming waste incineration projects in India it is necessary to understand the current role of Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) in MSWM in India. As per GIZ experience, cities and towns in India can be broadly put in 4 categories as far as RDF is concerned: • Category I- Comprises of the majority of small and medium towns where no proper system of solid waste management is in place. In these towns, waste isusually collected and transported to an open designated dumpsite. • Category II- Comprises of those cities where collection, transportation, processing and disposal systems are in place. The waste processing facility comprises of a processing unit with either a composting plant or RDF unit or both and a sanitary landfill for disposal of inerts (with or without external funding). However, due to high O&M costs/ absence of suitable end users, the RDF unit gets shut down or lies defunct. • Category III- In this category, a city runs on Public Private Partnership framework, wherein the city has a PPP partner having an integrated waste processing plant comprising of composting and RDF units. The PPP partner has tie-ups with end users and sells the RDF as an alternative fuel. • Category IV- In this category too, a city runs on a Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode having an integrated waste processing plant comprising of composting and RDF units but here the PPP partner uses its RDF for pre-processing and in-house generation of power.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
In all the above mentioned categories, the final emission from combustion of RDF as alternative fuel would depend upon quality of waste segregation, processing methodologies as well as on the combustion efficiency and pollution abatement techniquesasapplied by the end-users, with a wide range of potential emissions. There are about 25-30 operating RDF processing plants in India, with an installed capacity of about 3395 TPD.The quantity and quality of RDF produced per tonne of MSW varies depending on the type of collection, sorting and treatmentprocess.Little is known about the emissions resulting out of use of RDF as alternative fuel in various processes asenvironmental regulations for use of RDF in these processes is largely intransparent. Only in limited cases co-processing of sorted plastic from municipal solid waste in cement kilns is well documented and monitored on the basis of guidelines issued by CPCB on common hazardous waste incineration.
Waste Incineration in India Table 3 below is a comparison of the existing MSW(M&H) Rules, 2000 with the standards existing in Germany/Europe. It is evident from the table that the current Indian standards are very low and toxic contaminants created by waste incineration, like dioxins and furans, heavy metals incl. mercury do not have standards at all. Table 3: Comparison of Indian standards with German/ European standards Contaminant 17. BImSchV1 (mg/m続) MSW Rules 20002(mg/M3) Org. Subst. (C-total.) 10 CO HCl HF SO2 NOx
50 10 1 50 200
50 100 450
SPM Dioxins and Furans
10 0.1 ng TEQ
150 -
Hg
0.03
-
Cd, TI
0.05
-
Sb, As, Pb, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, V, Sn Minimum temperature
0.5
-
850 centigrade
-
Retention time
More than 2 seconds
Reference value for flue gas oxygen content Reference value for flue gas oxygen content for waste pyrolysis/ gasification/ waste oil
11% by volume
-
3% by volume
-
Source: Seventeenth Ordinance of the German Federal ImmissionControl Act, (BMU, 2009), only daily means 22 Ministry of Environment & Forests, GoI
Past Waste-to-Energy plants in India making use of urban wastes have largely not been successful. Though reasons are not well documented, typical causes are improper data on quantity and quality of available waste, delinks between the plant operators and the respective ULB/overall MSWM system, lack of financial sustainability or improperly structured subsidies. Currently there are 5Waste-to-Energyplants underway in order to utilize the MSW. All receive grants by the Ministry of New &Renewable Energy (MNRE) as per their programme on Energy Recovery from Municipal Waste. MNRE through this programme is aiming at achieving international emission standards for Waste-to-Energy plants in India. Following Public Interest Litigations and consequent Supreme Court orders 2
Annepu, R.K.( 2012). Sustainable Solid Waste in India. Sponsored by Waste-to-Energy Research and Technology Council (WTERT).
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
the main purpose of the programme is to prove that Waste to Energy projects from urban wastes are feasible and meaningful in India. Some details of the plants funded by MNRE are given below: • Delhi: Timarpur-Okhla Waste Management Co Pvt Ltd: an initiativeof M/s Jindal ITF Ecopolis. The incineration plant commissioned since January 2012and is foreseen to process1300 TPD. The processing plant will produce 450 TPD of RDF and generate 16 MW power. Performance data are not yet in the public domain. • Delhi: Ghazipur- Of the 2,000TPD of waste received at the landfill daily, the facility will process/incinerate 1,300 TPD to generate 433 TPD of RDF and 12 MW power. The project is under construction. The PPP operator is M/s ILFS. • Bangalore: An8 MW power plant is in the process of beingset up in Bangalore. This initiative is carried out under a PPP framework between M/s SrinivasaGayithri Resources Recovery Ltd and Bruhat Bangalore MahanagarPalike (BBMP). The plant is not yet operational. • Pune: A 10 MW gasification plant is being set up in Pune with funds from MNRE. The plant will need 700 TPD of waste for production of 10MW of electricity. The plant is still in the construction stage. • Hyderabad:A 11 MW power plant, which will utilize 1,000 TPD of MSW,is being installed intheNalagonda district. The plant will produce RDF for in-house incineration and power generation. The plant is currently under construction. As per MNRE all these plants receiving subsidies/funds are expected tomeet international standards for Dioxins and Furans, while the remaining standards will be as specified by CPCB/ SPCBs. Private companies are also trying to experiment with waste incineration and power generation on their own. For eg. In Kanpur where M/s A2Z Infrastructure Pvt Ltd has a PPP for MSWM with Kanpur Municipal Corporation. The company has constructed an integrated MSWM facility for handling 1,500 TPD of MSW. A 15MW power plant has been constructed for utilisation of the RDF onsite. Status and performance data are not known to the authors.
Emission data and environmental monitoring capabilities in India In 2011, Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) published India’s National Implementation Plan on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which contains data on Dioxin/Furan emissions from waste incineration by use of emission factors, not real measurements, although the report mainly focuses on hazardous waste and industrial pollutants. As per this report incineration of MSW is still not practised in India. Emissions from hazardous waste and biomedical waste incinerators in Indiacontribute to about 64% of the estimated dioxins/ furans released into the air. In absolute figures this amounts to emissions of 1,812g TEQs/annum PCDD/Fs pan India.The other major contributors are industrial sources like ferrous and nonferrous metal products,heat and power generation plants etc. Data on various combustion processes using RDF are not available. The Central Pollution Control Board is executing a nation-wide programme for monitoring ambient air quality known as the National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP). The network consists of 342 monitoring stations covering 127 cities/towns in all 26 States and 4 Union Territories in the country. However, in the area of dioxins and furans, there is very little coordinated research at the national level and the National Implementation Plan has just begun to address the issue in a comprehensive manner. The first work on dioxin emissionswas initiated by the Ministry of Environment & Forests in consultation with the National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science & Technology (NIST), Trivandrum, during 2003-05 when emissions from medical waste incinerators were monitored. Following the ratification of the Stockholm Convention on POPs, agencies like Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) have initiated research on dioxins/ furans. A few national laboratories and NGOs have also developed the skills for monitoring and analysis of dioxins/ furans, but capacities for sampling and analysing emissions of PCDDs/Fs in fluegas of incineration processes are inadequate in India and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB)s are largely unable to monitor these emissions due to lack of capacities. Capacities for measurements of other relevant pollutants such as heavy metals and the very toxic mercury may be slightly higher, but there is still scope for significant strengthening.
Contribution of Waste to Energy to the growing energy demand in India The important role of energy for India’s economic growth is well understood. The countries annual electricity generation capacity has increased in the last 20 years by about 120 GW, from about 66 GW in 1991 to over 100 GW in 2001 to over 200 GW installed capacity in 2012 [17]. Although there has been a gradually increasing dependency on commercial fuels, a sizeable amount of the national energy requirement, especially in the rural household sector, continues to be met by non-commercial energy sources. The data from a study carried out by the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy suggest that by 2030 coal will remain a dominant source of fuel contributing to around 51% to the total primary energy supply, while the share of oil will be around 15%. The major challenge will be to keep pace with rising energy demands in order to provide enough
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energy supply to the nation. Despite efforts to enhance electricity production and diversify fuel mix, India still faces electricityas well as peak electricity consumption shortages of around 10% and 12% respectively, and a large section of the rural population still continues to lack access to clean and efficient energy fuels to meet their daily requirements. Urban areas, especially the second tier and smaller cities and towns are also increasingly facing a deficit in their daily electricity requirements. India’s growing energy deficit is making central and state governments keen on alternative and renewable energy sources. Waste to Energy is one of these alternative sources and there is growing interest in thisarea from both the central and state governments. According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)website[11], there exists a potential of about 1700 MW from urban waste1500 from MSW and 225 MW from sewage/sludge and about 1300 MW from industrial waste. Provided the potential of energy from urban wastes is approximately in the range of 1700 MW as estimated by MNRE. Assuming an efficiency factor of 30% for production of electricity, 1700 MW generated from urban waste would account for approximately 0.42% of the current peak electricity consumption.
Role of the informal sector The informal sector in India is very active in the field of waste management. It comprises of fourkinds of players namely the big and small kabariwalas/junk dealers, collectorsand the waste pickers/rag pickers. The small junk dealers buy recyclable or reusable waste from households, commercial or other establishments and sendthem for recycling through a well-established though not formally recognised route of collectors and big junk dealers. The waste pickers/ rag pickerscollect recyclable/ reusable waste from the secondary or tertiary collection points or at the landfills and then sell to the junk dealer for a living. The informal sector plays a major role in ensuring that 2 of the 3 Rs – reuse and recycle are taken care of. According to a study by an NGO in Delhi, waste produced in Delhi supports a population of approximately 100,000 waste pickers,who recover approximately 15-20% of usable materials by weight, such as metal, paper, cardboard and plastic from the city’s waste every day. This sector drives the city’s recycling efforts and saves civic agencies huge sums of money. If the municipality paid minimum wages to an equal number of employees for this work, it would cost Delhi at least Rupees 15 million everyday [6].It is feared that this recycling and reuse of waste by the informal sector could suffer if the principles of 3R are not strictly adhered to by the different stakeholders that govern municipal waste management in India. In Germany the recycling sector is formalized and because of stringent laws following the principles of the waste management hierarchy, whichgives priority to avoidance, reuse and material recycling over production of thermal energy of residual waste and disposal, more than 60 % of the municipal solid waste in Germany is currently recycled and composted.
Policies, Instruments and Stakeholders •
•
Following is a short overview of relevant policies, instruments andGovernment stakeholders in the municipal solid waste sector: Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF), GoI o The Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 issued by MoEF under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, prescribes the manner/ system in which the urban local authorities have to undertake collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing and disposal of the municipal solid waste generated within their jurisdiction. The Rules are currently under revision. o Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is the scientific and technical arm of MoEF, dealing with issues regarding pollution abatement, monitoring and enforcement of related environmental regulations. CPCB is also giving guidance to the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), who are directly responsible for enforcement of environmental regulations. Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), GoI o The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM) was initiated in response to the increasing pressure on urban infrastructure and basic services to the citizens by MoUDin 2005. This includes development of appropriate systemsfor solid waste management as one of its main objectives. Under JnNURM, GoIhas supported 42 SWM projects worth USD 500 million (INR 2750 crore@ 1 USD= 55INR)for establishing municipal waste management systems in 42 cities¸as per the MSW(M&H) Rules. o The National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP) was prepared by MoUD in 2008 to improve the sanitation situation in the urban areas. The policy primarily focusses on city wide affordable sanitation facilities including SWM.Key instruments are City Sanitation Plans (CSPs) and State Sanitation Strategies. o The National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (NMSH) launched in 2010 is one of the eight missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). The NMSH seeks to promote improvements in energy efficiency, better urban planning, improved management of solid & liquid
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waste and overall improved ability of habitats to adapt to climate change through appropriate change in the legal and regulatory framework. o The Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization (CPHEEO), the technical arm of MoUD, has developed a manual on MSWM, whichaims at assisting the decision makers and technical personnel involved in solid waste management activities in the safe and hygienic handling & disposal of MSW generated in urban areas in India. • Ministry of New &Renewable Energy (MNRE), GoI –MNRE encourages renewable energy sources in general and supports waste to energy projects with an objectiveto create conducive environment and to develop, demonstrate and disseminate utilization of urban waste for energy recovery. The program on energy recovery from municipal solid waste is a part of the National Master Plan for Development of Waste to Energy in India. The main objective is to accelerate the installation of energy recovery projects from industrial/ municipal waste with a view to harness the available potential. Financial incentives are being provided for eligible waste to energy projects under NMP at 50% of project costs, subject to an upper limit of Rs. 3 crores. Incentives can also be provided to ULBs, State Nodal Agencies for promotion, coordinating and monitoring of projects. The 5 projects listed in the earlier section have been funded as part of this program.
The German/ European experience Today, there are about 69Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators (MSWI) in Germany, treating residual waste to the tune of 18 Mio tones/a out of a total of 46 Mio t/a, which is about 39 % of the total MSW generation in Germany without any negative environmental or public health impacts. But this was not always so. The first waste incineration plant in Germany was built in 1894/95 in the wake of the last major cholera outbreak in Hamburg. The twenties and thirties of the 20th century saw a significant development of the incineration technology as well as the first use of an electrostatic precipitator for flue gas clean-up. Technical advances allowed fully automated plant operations with continuous waste feed to the combustion chamber and continuous slag removal. The technology developed for these second-generation plants constituted the basis for the modern waste incinerators. Further development of the technology – from the point of view of environmental performance - led to the ”Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator (MSWI) of the Modern Age” equipped with fully developed firing technology and powerful flue gas cleaning systems (3rd generation), a development that was accelerated inparticular by the stringent emission control standards of the Waste Incinerator Ordinance (17. BImSchV) passed in 1990. The late nineties of the last century saw the advent of the fourth-generation plants characterized by slimmed yet equally efficient flue gas cleaning systems. These days, waste incineration is on its way towards the 5th plant generation and the development of technology has not reached its end by far. This applies in particular to energy efficiency improvements, whilefirst priority remains the final disposal of waste and not energy recovery. This impressive evolution towards environmentally sound waste incineration would not have happened without the fierce resistance of the public against waste incineration in the 80’s in Germany. With growing public awareness on environmental issues, waste incinerators were increasingly viewed as a source of critical air pollutants and became the subject of controversial public debate. As measurement and analysis methods were being continuously further refined, pollutant groups like dioxins and furans that had hitherto been largely unknown and were to go down in history as a synonym for major industrial accidents were also identified in incinerator flue gases. And indeed, concentrations of dioxins and furans in the flue gas of MSWIs were found to be as high as 400 ng toxicity equivalents (TEQs)/m3 fluegas, which is 4,000 times more than the current internationally accepted standard of 0.1 ng TEQs/m3 fluegas and more than 8,000 times higher than the current real emissions of Germany MSWIs. In view of the dramatically increasing waste volumes produced by the affluent society, MSWIs – at that time termed “poison spewers” - epitomised the uncontrolled growth of consumption in the industrial society at the expense of the environment. Prompted by fears over dioxin emissions, the citizens started to take on waste incinerators. And they did so with success: public opposition to pollutant emissions from waste incinerators fuelled the further development of the firing, air pollution control and monitoring technologies, thus reducing pollutant emissions and improving the environmental compatibility of the plants. At the same time, the technical and political discourse brought the German Waste Management Act of 1986, introducing the waste management hierarchy ”Prevention before Recycling before Disposal”, thereby paving the way for a more environmentally sound waste disposal strategy. Moreover, the introduction of extremely stringent pollution standards for waste incinerators would not have been politically feasible, if landfilling of untreated waste would have been regarded as an alternative. But, following long term environmental concerns due to landfilling, mainly related to water pollution and scarcity of land, the German Government decided in 1984 to practically ban landfilling of municipal waste by the year 2005.
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Finally in the year 1990, Ordinance No. 17 on the Implementation of the Federal Emission Control Act governing Incineration Plants for Waste and similar Combustible Substances (17. BImSchV) took effect, tightening emissions from MSWIs. This Ordinance established the most stringent emission limits worldwide, notably for carcinogenic and toxic substances such as dioxins and heavy metals. Within a given transition period all existing waste incinerators had to be retrofitted with sophisticated flue gas cleaning technology or else they had to be closed down. New facilities had to meet the prescribed emission limits from day one of their operation. In addition, 17.BImSchV imposed strict requirements for emission monitoring. These days, virtually all pollutant emissions – including dust and heavy metals such as mercury (Hg) - are continuously monitored. To ensure complete pollutant destruction, the 17.BImSchV prescribes minimum temperatures and residence times for the combustion products in the combustion zone. These requirements have remained in force up to the present day, in both the German and the European legislation. Since 2000, the EU Waste Incineration Directive has been in force (RL2000/76/EEC). The basis for this Directive was the 17. BImSchV of 1990. The transposition of this Directive into the national law led to the amendment of 17. BImSchV in August 2003. As a result, emission limits have been further tightened and more stringent requirements apply to the co-incineration of waste in industrial firing systems such as cement kilns or coal-fired power plants. Since 1996, all German waste incinerators have been operating in compliance with the rigid emission levels mandated by 17. BImSchV and dioxin and furan concentrations are limited to 0.1 nanograms TEQs per cubic meter of flue gas. In a similar way, emission limits for heavy metals, dusts and acid gases such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride and others have been severely tightened so that emissions of these components are these days no longer health-relevant. Without waste incinerators, the ambient air pollutant levels would have been much higher than with waste incinerators as electricity and heat generated in MSWIs substitute fossil energy sources in conventional (heat) power plants which typically release higher specific pollutant levels than waste incinerators. For the carcinogenic substances arsenic, cadmium, nickel, benzo(a)pyrene, benzene, PCB and dioxins/furans, for instance, the MSWIs operated in Germany deliver a credit of around 3 tonnes of arsenic equivalents per annum. In other words, if the energy produced by MSWIs were generated by conventional coal-fired power plants, the ambient air concentration of these pollutants would increase by 3 tonnes. As a result of the German strategy, which follows the internationally accepted waste hierarchy, more than 60 percent of the municipal solid waste is currently recycled, e.g. biowaste, paper, glass or packaging waste. Landfilling of untreated municipal solid waste has been banned since 1 June 2005. These days, approx. 18 million t/a of waste is thermally treated in just under 70 MSWIs. Due to stringent emission control standards, dioxin, dust and heavy metals emissions from waste incineration are no longer an issue,inspite of the fact that waste incineration capacity has more than doubled since 1985. Very recently the “Circular Economy”law – “Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz” has been amended and has entered into effect on June 1st, 2012 in Germany. It defines objectives, for example on recycling of 65% of all municipal solid waste and material recovery of 70% of all construction and demolition waste until 2020. From 2015 on, separate collection of biowaste, waste paper, glass and plastics will be mandatory in order to improve recycling quota. Other new provisions have been made regarding residues and the “end of waste” status for certain materials, the ranking of different valorization processes, or on programmes for waste minimization.
Conclusions In principle waste incineration of residual municipal solid waste that is properly designed and operated can be a valuable contribution to a sustainable waste management strategy, which clearly gives priority to avoidance and material recycling. Making optimal use of the energy content of the incinerated waste is a must and requires integrated spatial planning, as the thermal energy needs are to be utilized rather locally. Waste incineration, like any other efficiently operated combustion process must contribute to the growing energy demand, yet its net contribution to the energy demand is rather low. Though there is still a considerable scope for improvementbut can never be the major solution. Estimates by MNRE indicateapotential of approximately 0.42% of the current peak energy consumption generated from W2E projects at an all India level by 2030. Given high levels of material recycling the potential of waste incineration to reduce GHG emissions of the waste sector is much higher than its contribution to the power sector because of its potential to avoid methane emissions from landfills or dumps. The wide acceptance of waste incineration in Germany and the European Union is based largely on transparency and data availability with regard to emission levels, environment and public health impacts as well as economic and social outcomes. Acceptance has not come over night but is rather a continuous process, build into every consent procedure needed for any major change in the plants along with considerable R&D activities.
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This leads to the following recommendations:
Data transparency and quality: There is a need to improve the data quality in the waste sector in India and to make it fully transparent. The only comprehensive study focusing on waste quantities and qualities of waste in the urban sector in India stems from 1995. Reliable, nationwide data on calorific values as well as content of toxic materials in the municipal waste streams is not available. Looking at the change processes in the urban sector in India during the last 2 decades, both in growth and change in consumption patterns, strategic decisions should be based on detailed data across all tiers of urban local bodies. Scattered, mainly project oriented data is available, but is usually not in the public domain and also not very useful when it comes to taking decisions at the national level. The SLB process, initiated by MoUD, focuses on data quality and usage of this tool for effective monitoring systems for performance delivery. This process needs to be further strengthened through capacity building and provision of adequate staff at the state level and with continuous handholding at the ULB level.
Strengthening of monitoring and regulatory capacities: Waste incineration, like any other combustion process, needs to be carefully monitored. Currently, combustion processes, which use fractions of MSW to substitute fuel (RDF) are often not properly monitored, leading to environmental pollution including emissions of dioxins and furans. Same is true for open burning of waste, which is still a common practice. Given the current practice of channelizing RDF into numerous combustion processes and open burning of waste leading to high emissions and occupational health hazards,there is a need for immediate legal and practical action on the subject (e.g introduction of binding quality standards for RDF). While a lot can be achieved by proper monitoring and enforcement by the respective SPCBs and by initially focusing on the 2 lead parameters, namely CO and dust which indicate complete combustion, it is essential to take a stock of accredited specialized institutions able to conduct routine measurements of normal and highly toxic pollutantsin order to prove regular compliance with set standards, in cases where continuous monitoring is not possible. In absence of clear standards set in this regardby GoI, which has resulted in keeping demand for emission measurements low, the market forces in India have not yet built the needed capacities. Universities, research institutions, international exchange and publicly funded R&D activities will be needed to support this sector. Accreditated firms, capable to deliver high quality environmental monitoring needs should be encouraged and capacities of the regulatory bodies (SPCBs) also need to be strengthened. Documentation ofdata, approaches and lessons learned from upcoming projects: As mentioned above, there are many stakeholders that have datarelated to their upcoming MSW incinerators/ RDF plants in India. It is necessary to initiate a comprehensive data base on these projects with regard to their financial viability as well as expected environmental and social impacts. This should not be limited to secondary data but should also include some primary data collection in order to learn from these pilot projects in the sector. Joint agenda of GoI, States, cities, academia, NGOs and private sector: MoEF has begun the process of revising the MSW rules, 2000 keeping in mind the current scenario of MSW management in India, the land scarcity and potential adverse long term effects of landfilling in terms of environment/climate and related costs and the already upcoming incineration projects. While it will be necessary to orient future permissible emissions for incineration of MSW towards internationally accepted standards, there is a need for a MSWM policy to emerge for further guidance in the sector. Such a policy should clearly adopt the internationally accepted waste hierarchy, giving priority to the prevention and reuse followed by material recycling, energy recovery and disposal.Through this policy, the various aspects and competencies of municipal waste management in various Ministries (MoEF, MoUD, MNRE etc.) need to be synergized and converged. The National Urban Sanitation Policy (NUSP), which hadbeen announced in 2009, besides of sewerageand storm water management, is already aiming at improving municipal solid waste management. It mandates states and cities to come up with State Sanitation Strategies (SSSs) and City Sanitation Plans (CSPs). While the CSPs are comprehensive sector planning documents in line with the City Development Plans (CDPs); the SSSs needs to focus on support and guidance by the states for the sector. Forthcoming states have already started to look into their own MSWM strategy for the state which can be very much part of a larger State Sanitation Strategy. It is suggested to initiate an inter-ministerial process on waste incineration as part of the ongoing review of the MSW Rules under the guidance of MoEF, involving other stakeholders like Central Ministries, States, cities,
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NGOs, private sector and academia to chart a way forward. Results can be used as an input into a later process leading to a national waste management policy.
References Annual Report 2010-2011. Ministry of Urban Development Asnani, P.U.(2006). India Infrastructure Report, 2006, pp. 160-189. Oxford University Press. AshwaniShradha, 2012. Waste to energy in India. Energetica India Census of India, 2011. Ministry of Home Affairs Central Electricity Authority: Load Generation Balance Report 2011-12 Chintan; Advocacy Project; SafaiSena, 2009: Cooling Agents: An Examination of the role of the Informal Recycling Sector in Mitigating Climate Change Dube Regina, Nandan Vaishali, Gudipudi Ramana 2010. Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste Management in Indian Cities- Challenges & Opportunities. International Solid Waste Association World Congress India Country Report:From Ideas to Action- Clean Energy Solutions (2007) India’s Urban Awakening: Building Inclusive Cities, Sustaining Economic Growth (2010). McKinsey Global Institute Kumar Sunil, Bhattacharya J.K. et al, 2009. Assessment of the status of municipal solid waste management in metro cities, state capitals, class I cities and class II towns in India- An insight. Waste Management 29, 883895 Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Annual Report 2010-2011 (http// www.mnre.gov.in) Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules 2000. Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) New Delhi, India. Load Generation Balance Report 2011-12. Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power, Government of India National Implementation Plan: Stockholm Convention on Persistent organic Pollutants 2011. Government of India. SarkarPapiya 2003. Solid Waste Management in Delhi- A Social Vulnerability Study. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Environment & Health. 451-464 Status of Municipal solid waste generation collection treatment and disposal in class I cities & Class II towns, CPCB 2005. Strategic Plan for New and Renewable Energy 2011. Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Government of India. Sharholy M, Ahmad K, Mahmood G, Trivedi R.C 2008. Municipal Solid Waste Management in Indian Cities – A review. Waste Management 28, 459-467 Shah Dharmesh, 2011. Delhi’s obsession with waste to energy incinerators: The TimarpurOkhla Waste to energy venture. Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives Vaidya.C (2009). Urban Issues, Reforms and Way Forward in India; Working Paper No.4/2009. Department of Economic Affairs; Ministry of Finance, Government of India. Waste to Energy or Waste of Energy: Social and Economic Impact Assessment of WTE projects on wastepickers near Ghazipur and Okhla Landfills in Delhi, 2011. Chintan Environmental Research and Action Group. Wikipedia, 2012
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Chapter-IV-19 A Bacillus subtilis for enhancing aerobic composting of biosolid waste Girija D., Francis Xavier, E. Sunil, Anjaly, M. & Sreelakshmy P. Anandan Department of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Horticulture, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, India Email: devakigirija@gmail.com Introduction Solid waste management has become a serious problem in Kerala. At present, there are no technologies which can be efficiently implemented in the large scale management of waste. One of the reasons for the failure in large scale adoption of wastes management technologies is the slow rate of decomposition of waste, which in turn, is affected by several factors. However, the solid biodegradable waste can be efficiently degraded by the use of microorganisms. The use of efficient microbes as well as its consortia offers a costeffective technology for the waste disposal. Microbial cultures like bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes were isolated from various sources like soil, decomposed plant material and cow dung. These were evaluated for the efficiency to degrade solid waste in aerobic composting. An isolate of Bacillus subtilis was found to be very efficient in degrading cellulose, lignin, starch and protein. In vitro and pilot experiments confirmed its ability to degrade biosolid waste through aerobic composting.
Preliminary experiments In vitro screening of isolates Bacteria were isolated from the soil by serial dilution and spread plated on Nutrient agar media (Plate 1, Fig 1). The isolates were then screened for their lignin and cellulose degradation ability by spot inoculation in Carboxy Methyl Cellulose Media (CMC) and Ligno-sulphonate media respectively and incubated at 300C for 5 days to achieve maximum growth. Formation of clear zones around the colonies, when flooded with iodine solution indicated ability to solubilize the substrate. A total of 14 isolates were obtained on nutrient agar. Nine isolates were found to degrade lignin (Table 1) and five isolates produced clear zones on agar media supplemented with cellulose as the sole carbon source (Table 2). Five isolates were able to utilize both cellulose and lignin (Table 3) and these were characterized by staining reaction. All stained Gram positive except one Pseudomonas sp. Biodegradation assay Vegetable waste biodegradation assay was conducted in 250 ml conical flasks. These were filled with 100 g homogeneous vegetable waste and 10 ml of culture was inoculated to it, there was one flask kept as control (without inoculant). Flasks were inubated at room temperature for 19 days and the biodegradation efficiency evaluated by observing the changes in the vegetable wastes. Two isolates were found to degrade vegetable wastes completely into a paste within 19 days (Tables 4 & 5). An experiment was carried out with solid biodegradable waste by the aerobic composting method (1m3 wooden unit) with Lg-2 (Bacillus subtilis), Lg-3 (Steptomyces sp.), and a combination of the two at the Cattle Breeding Farm, Thumburmuzhi. Pilot experiment The isolate Lg2 (Bacillus subtilis) obtained from soil was found to degrade lignin, starch, protein and cellulose far better than other isolates. Based on this, a pilot experiment was taken up at the Cattle Breeding Farm, Thumburmuzhi and Kerala Solvent Extract Limited, Irinjalakkuada with solid biodegradable waste using the aerobic composting method. The composting unit inoculated with Bacillus subtillis recorded shortest time for degradation as compared to the one containing cow dung as the inoculum (Table 6). Validation under field condition Based on the preliminary trials conducted, two Thumburmuzhi model aerobic composting units were set up at Communication Centre, Mannuthy for composting of vegetable waste from the vegetable market. The first unit started functioning on 12th August 2011. Around 8-10 kg of vegetable waste was added to the unit each day. Whenever the vegetable waste reached a thickness of 6 inches, it was over layered with dry leaves followed by bacterial culture. Two litre of culture (1:4 dilutions) was used for spraying at a time. The unit was fully filled by 16th of October 2011. It was kept undisturbed for 90 days, after which period the completely degraded waste was harvested and sieved. In the same manner the second unit was started on 1st of
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November 2011 and fully filled on 20th of January 2012. In both cases, a period of 2 months was taken for complete filling and 18 litres of culture was utilized during the entire period.
Methodology A base layer of dry leaves having a thickness (6 inches) was spread in the compost unit which formed the first layer. The bacterial culture diluted with tap water (1:4 ratio) was sprinkled over the dry leaves Vegetable waste, evenly spread over the dry leaves in the unit, formed the next layer Care was taken to ensure that plastic wastes or glass pieces were mixed with the vegetable wastes. Roofing was provided to protect the unit from rain Whenever the vegetable waste reached a thickness of 6 inches, it was over layered with dry leaves This layering was continued till the unit was filled to the brim Fully filled unit was covered with a shade net and kept undisturbed for 90 days for complete degradation.
Observation Degradation rate was observed by measuring the height of the degrading matter at regular intervals (3-5 days). A decline in the height of the waste pit corresponds to the rate of degradation (Table 7) Temperature inside the pit increased in the initial stages of decomposition. A maximum of 75째C was observed on 45th day. Then there was a steady decrease with time (Table 8) After 50 days the volume of the mass reduced to 1/3rd of the initial After a period of 90 days the unit reached a stationary phase with in which complete degradation was achieved The degraded organic matter was finally harvested and sieved to obtain the finely powdered compost Final product weighed 200 kg. 100 kg of finely sieved compost was obtained from this. Formulation Liquid formulation of 72 hour old Bacillus subtilis in Nutrient Broth The culture was diluted with tap water in the ratio 1:4 Almost 18 liters of the bacterial culture were found to be utilized in degrading the entire compost unit (1.8 tonnes) Talc based powder formulation is being tested for maintaining viability of cells over a period of six months Nutrient status Nutrient content of the final product was assessed by analyzing different physical, chemical parameters and it was found to be satisfactory (Table 9). Microbiology of compost The sieved compost was serially diluted and plated on Nutrient agar media. The population of inoculated Bacillus subtilis was 55-60x107 cfu/g, indicating that the inoculant survived well in the compost (Table 10). The only other organism found in compost was another Bacillus sp., which was then screened for lignin and cellulose degradation ability in Carboxy Methyl Cellulose Media and Lignin sulphonate media respectively. This was also found to be a good degrader.
Conclusion In vitro and in vivo experiments with Bacillus subtilis proved that it could be used as a substitute for cowdung in aerobic composting units. This isolate has been deposited in the culture collection at National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganisms, Mau. Commercialization will be taken up after the registration process is complete. Table 1 Lignin degradation in vitro Sl. No 1 2 3 4 5 6
Isolate K6P11(unidentified) Bacillus subtilis (K15P1) Bacillus Sp (K4P20) Bacillus megaterium (K4Cell2) Bacillus sp(K2Cell4) Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (K14P7)
Diameter of clear zone in cm 2.3 4.0 3.0 3.8 2.0 5.0
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7 8 9
Bacillus niabensis (K2Cell2) Bacillus licheneformis(K2P1) Pseudomonas Sp(K4P1)
4.3 2.1 1.0
Table 2 Cellulose degradation in vitro Sl. No. Isolate
Diameter of clear zone in cm
1
Bacillus subtilis (K15P1)
3.4
2
Bacillus Sp (K4P20)
2.5
3
Bacillus sp (K2Cell4)
3.6
4
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (K14P7)
4.2
5
Bacillus niabensis (K2Cell2)
5.2
Table 3 Isolates showing more than one degrading activity (in vitro) Sl. No.
Isolate
Cellulase (Zone in cm) 5.2
Lignin (Zone in cm) 4.3
1
Bacillus niabensis (K2Cell2)
2
Bacillus subtilis (K15P1)
3.4
4.0
3
Bacillus Sp (K4P20)
2.5
3.0
4
Bacillus sp(K2Cell4)
3.6
2.0
5
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (K14P7)
4.2
5.0
Table 4 Observations on Vegetable Waste Degradation Assay Isolates
4th day
8th day
12th day
17th day
19th day
Bacillus niabensis (K2Cell2)
Initiated
Degradation
Degradation
Bacillus subtilis (K15P1)
-
Initiated
Degradation
90% degradation Degradation
Completely degraded Degradation
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (K14P7) Bacillus Sp (K4P20)
Initiated
Degradation
Degradation
Initiated
Degradation
Degradation
Completely degraded degradation
Bacillus sp(K2Cell4)
-
-
Initiated
90% degradation 75% degradation Degradation
Degradation
Control
-
-
-
-
Slight change
Table 5 Vegetable degradation assay in flasks th
th
th
th
Isolate
4 day
10 day
14 day
17 day
Bacillus subtilis (Lg2)
Initiated
degrading
75% degraded
Complete
Streptomyces Sp. (Sp4)
Initiated
degrading
75% degraded
Complete
Streptomyces Sp.(Lg3)
Initiated
degrading
75% degraded
95% degraded
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Actinomycets(Act5) Actinomycetes Act7)
Initiated
initiated
degrading
degrading
degrading
degrading
degrading
Actinomycetes (Cm2)
-
Initiated
degrading
degrading
Actinomycetes (Act2)
-
Initiated
degrading
degrading
Table 6- Effect of Bacterial Isolates and cow dung in Thumburmuzhi compost unit-Pilot experiment Height in cm Isolates
0 day
st
1
th
day
4
day
th
13
day
h
17
day
th
20 day
Bacillus subtilis (Lg2)
38
30
20
11
9
8
Streptomyces sp.(Lg-3)
38
33
28
21
18
17
Lg2+Lg-3
38
32
26
12
10
10
Cow dung
38
37
35
31
30
30
Table 7 Degradation in the compost pit Days after inoculation Day 1
Decrease in height(cm) 118
Day 3
110
Day 7
103
Day 11
97
Day 16
89
Day 22
77
Day 25
70
Day 28
67
Day 32
65
Day 36
63
Day 41
60
Day 45
57
Day 50
53
Day 90
53
Table 8: Temperature in the compost pit Unit no.
0 day
20th Day
45th Day
90th Day
Unit I
30
50
75
40
Unit II
35
52
75
37
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Table 9-Nutrient status of compost Sl. No
Parameters
Sample 1 Quantity
Remarks
1
pH
7.42
Normal
2
E.C (dS/m)
1.641
Normal
3
Moisture (%)
25
Normal
4
Nitrogen (%)
0.994
Normal
5
Organic carbon (%)
22.61
Normal
6
C:N ratio
22.75
Should be <20
7
Total potash as K O per cent by weight
1.33
Normal
8
Total Phosphates as P O per cent by weight
1.11
Normal
2
2
5
Micronutrients 9
Copper (Cu) (mg/kg)
34
10
Zinc(Zn) (mg/kg)
50.4
11
Iron(Fe) (mg/kg)
11986
12
Manganese(Mn) (mg/kg)
208.8
13
Cadmium(Cd) (mg/kg)
14
14
Chromium(Cr) (mg/kg)
62
Table10: Microbiology of compost (colony forming units/g compost) Sample Bacillus subtilis
Bacillus sp.
I
60x107
11x107
II
55x107
9x107
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Chapter-IV-20 E-Waste Management: Issue Issues and Challeng enges in India Namrata Ja Jain,1 Ash Ashwini wini Sh Sharma arma, ma,2 Upinder Dhar3 & Santo Santos antosh Dhar har4 1Assistant Professor, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Management, Indore, India 2 Associate Professor, Institute of Management, JK Lakshmipat University, Jaipur, India 3 Vice Chancellor, JK Lakshmipat University, Jaipur, India 4 Professor, Institute of Management, JK Lakshmipat University, Jaipur, India Email: profnamratajain@gmail.com Abstract Technology is a double-edged sword. On one hand, it has revolutionized the manner in which organizations operate, governments govern and people interact with each other while on the other, it has resulted in some serious environmental and social issues. With mass production and proliferation of electronic goods like computers, televisions, mobile phones etc. their rates of disposal have also increased dramatically over the last few years. A larger number of electronic devices are getting discarded because of fast changing customer preferences and speedy obsolescence due to technological advancements. This is resulting into generation of a new type of waste stream known as electronic waste (E-waste). Companies which are highly responsive to market forces while coming up with newer variants and models of their products seldom take into adequate consideration the social issues of waste management. E-waste has now become a dangerous issue in some parts of the world. Relentless and careless salvaging for extracting precious metals from these waste electric and electronic equipments without proper treatment poses a serious threat to the environment. Lack of awareness and inadequate legislative provisions prevent proper management of E-waste. The present study attempts to highlight the environmental threats posed by improper E-waste management practices in different countries. It will also synthesize the available literature across various disciplines for identifying the challenges in the Indian context.
Introduction IT has revolutionized the world. There are numerous examples showing how IT has benefitted the society. However, due to exponential growth in electronic industry across the world, huge accumulation of obsolete, end-of-life electrical and electronic devices, known as electronic waste or e-waste, has taken place. Excessive dependence on and increased use of electronic gadgets in our life are continuously adding to ewaste which has now become a threat to humanity and environment. It is endangering the human life by polluting the environment and causing serious disturbances in the climate. There are a number of issues involved in coping up with this menace. India too is facing a number of problems while confronting this emerging issue. Kurian (2007) defined e-waste as those obsolete electronic devices that are no longer used by their owners due to technological growth and product obsolescence. E-waste is a general term that includes TVs, computers, mobile phones, white goods (refrigerators, washing machines, dryers etc.), home entertainment and stereo systems, toys, toasters, kettles or any other household or business item having electrical/electronic components with power or battery supply (http://www.step-initiative.org, accessed on September 7, 2012). According to Pinto (2008), e- waste constitutes electronic appliances like computers, laptops, TVs, DVD players, mobile phones, mp3 players, etc., which have been discarded by their users as they have become old or have reached at their end-of-life. E-waste is not a total waste. It contains traces of scarce and valuable metals like copper, gold, palladium, silver, tin etc. The recycling of e-waste for secondary raw material is crucial as they contain 50-60 times greater content of precious metals in comparison to normally mined ore. Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are among the most valuable components of e-waste as they contain majority of gold and palladium. The presence of such precious metals makes them most valuable. Delfini et al (2011) reported that 72 percent of gold is present in processors, 19 percent in integrated circuits (ICs) and a small amount in connectors. Further, processors and ICs are easy to remove components and hence gold is easily recoverable. It is necessary to find out safe and scientific methods of extracting these precious metals. Informal recyclers generally use non- scientific and traditional methods of recycling for extracting precious metals which has twolimitations. First, such methods are not able to extract the precious metals in their entirety and second, these methods are environmentally hazardous and pose serious threats to the health
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of workers engaged in such activities.
Review of Literature E-waste is endangering life and environment all around the globe. According to Jang (2010) environment and human health are adversely affected by inappropriate disposal of e-waste as it contains many harmful substances. E-waste, therefore, demands appropriate management because of the toxic elements it contains. According to Inanc (2004), if e-waste is dumped directly into landfills without processing, it can damage the human nervous and respiratory system. It can also result into leaching of lead into the ground water. In spite of such serious threats, the responsiveness or sensitivity among people towards the subject is low. Majority of the people are not aware that e-waste acts as a threat to them and also to the environment. There is a reported lack of knowledge about its proper management as well (Ciocoiu et al, 2011 and Liu et al, 2009). The reason behind unawareness or lack of responsible behavior might be because the negative impact of such issues cannot be seen or realized immediately. Apart from the hazardous nature of e-waste and low awareness, the problem is more serious because of the dominance of informal sector over formal. Many unskilled labor are involved in extracting expensive components from e-waste. It is a very common practice of extracting functional or valuable components from e-waste and selling them into resale market. For instance, Trick (2002) reported that in China, peasants and laborers took out monitors which were illegally shipped by vendors. In this whole process of informal extraction laborers exposed themselves to lead and other heavy metal poisoning. Moreover, traditional methods adopted for recycling and reusing the e-waste are putting not only the environment in danger but they are also poisoning the soil and water to such an extent that grains grown on such soil and water can cause hereditary problems up to two-three generations (Devangan, 2011). Open burning of plastic waste, exposure to toxic solders, acid dumping are common practices and thus workers are endangered with occupational health hazards. Other than men, poor women and innocent children too have staked their life in such unsafe practices as it serves as a means of livelihood for them. Wolfington and Maranto (2008) cite illegal imports and the domestic generation as the main reasons for excessive e-waste generation in developing countries. The figures of domestic generation and illegal imports in India are surprisingly high. In India e-waste is growing at the rate of 10 percent (http://deity.gov.in/sites/upload_files/dit/files/EWaste_Sep11_892011.pdf, accessed on October 11, 2012). As per the study estimates of MAIT in 2007-08, India generated about 3,80,000 MT of e-waste annually that was estimated to increase to around 5,00,000 MT by 2011-12. India being a signatory to Basel Convention, ewaste import is illegal here. Still, about 50,000 MT of e-waste is imported yearly (Khattar et al, 2007). The problem is serious in case of developing countries such as India and China because of lack of awareness and inadequate legislation. One of the studies estimated that within next 8 years, developing countries would be producing e-waste double that of the developed countries. Thilmany (2010) also raised concerns about the issue in developing countries stating that by the year 2030, developing nations will discard around 400- 700 million obsolete computers yearly in comparison to 200-300 million by developed countries. As per Li et al (2006) lenient environmental and occupational regulations, low labor cost and a greater demand for low price secondary material encourages developed nations to export e-waste to developing countries. Rock and Angel (2007) asserted that the development approach of China to grow first and clean up later leads to an increase in environmental pollution and creates serious health problems. Liu (2010) insisted that developing nations should learn from Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lessons of economic growth at the cost of sacrificing environment, rural people and place. On one hand, there is an exponential growth of e-waste and on another, it is hard to get accurate data on generation of e-waste in many countries. Different countries are including different kinds of products while estimating e- waste. Further, reliability of these data is also questionable because countries differ in their methods of estimating e-waste generation (Terazono et al, 2006). E-waste management also poses additional challenges because there is no clear definition distinguishing between second hand electronic goods and e-waste. Under the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HS) many national systems that track trade do not have specific codes which can differentiate between new and second hand goods. Moreover, second hand goods are not included in the word waste (Terazono et al, 2006). Although, Basel Convention enforced in 1992 keeps check on transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and Basel Ban prohibits international trade in hazardous waste but in the absence of differentiation between second hand goods and e-waste, complexity increases as Basel Convention does not control international trade in second hand goods. Wath et al (2010) reported that in USA, there is no federal legislation for regulating e-waste generation, disposal or export. The country is not a signatory to Basel convention and thus US exports 50-80 percent of e-waste collected (http://www.env.go.jp/recycle/3r/en/asia/02_03- 4/11.pdf, accessed on March 20, 2011). However, US environmental protection agency has now started Green National Electronics Action Plan (NEAP) but it is limited to televisions, computers and mobile phones only. Some states have also taken initiative in collection and handling e- waste properly. In US, 23 states have passed extended producer
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responsibility (EPR) legislation which restricts the e-waste disposal of some particular types. According to Gregory and Kirchain (2007), at the time of buying new product, consumers have to pay from US $6 to US $10 as Advance Recycling Fee (ARF) in California. Similar to USA, Cambodia and Malaysia too do not have any specific regulation for e-waste. Taiwan has regulated waste home appliances and IT products through Waste Disposal Act in which producers are not entitled for any physical responsibility but are covered by financial responsibility. They are required to pay recycling clearance disposal fees to the recycling management bodies. In Korea, Waste Recycling Act was implemented in the year 1992 in which producers and importers were required to pay the fee for recycling in a deposit- refund system but it did not prove successful as they were not getting appropriate incentives. Later in the year 2003, extended producer responsibility (EPR) was introduced with addition of items like personal computers and monitors. Subsequently in 2005 and 2007, other electronic items were also included. Finally in the year 2007, the Act on resource recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and end-of-life vehicles was implemented. EPR system proved successful in Korea. There are two different kinds of WEEE recycling systems in Korea. One is managed by producers (for large home appliances) and the other by private operators (mobile phone, computers etc.). But in comparison to private operators, producers are able to collect and recycle more ewaste. Recycling system by private operators is neither well established nor appropriate data is available on the quantity of e-waste generated or recycled. In spite of recycling facilities available in Korea, it was reported that Korea is also exporting e-waste under the label of mixed metal scrap (Kim, 2004). In Japan, Home Appliances Recycling Law was enacted in the year 1998 and enforced in 2001. There, consumers handover the appliances to retailers and manufacturers have to collect them from retailers. In the process, retailers and manufacturers are free to charge fee from consumers for collection, transportation and recycling. A major difference in the recycling systems of the above mentioned countries is that in Korea and Taiwan, recycling fees is paid by manufacturers whereas in US and Japan, consumers are required to pay. Like many other countries, Phillipines is also facing problem of unavailability of official data, tremendous growth of e-waste, land filling and incineration. In Phillipines, there is an act called Republic Act No. 6969 or the Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act of 1990 but still clear provision for e-waste is missing. In 2001, a law called Republic Act No. 9003, also known as Ecological Solid Waste Management, was introduced. However, the problem reported is that the law has identified different types of wastes but there are no clearly stated guidelines indicating the way to handle these wastes (Peralta and Fontanos, 2006).
Issues and Challenges in India India is at its nascent stage in dealing with such an emerging complex issue. E-waste management has already raised concerns all around the world. Developed nations and even developing ones have taken actions for effective e-waste management. The problem in Indian context is of greater magnitude also because most of the developing and developed nations have not been able to tackle the problem effectively. India has recently enforced E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2011, which came into effect from May 01, 2012. E-waste is a big challenge as previous efforts made by Indian government in case of Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules 2001 did not get complete success because the collection system failed. Problems of e-waste increased in India after 1990 in the post-reforms era. Availability of electronic products at cheaper rates and increased purchasing power of people were among the other major reasons for higher growth of electronic industry, thereby leading to increased growth of e-waste as well. Besides, the quantity of e-waste generated is also likely to increase in future as lifetime of electronic devices is getting shortened. For example, life span of personal computers that earlier used to be 4-6 years has now reduced to 2-3 years. Higher risk of environmental pollution due to e-waste has been reported in metropolitan cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore (Pandve, 2007). Due to vast generation of e-waste, the probability of people suffering from lung ailments in Delhi is twice in comparison to those living in the countryside (Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata). There are more than 3000 units operating in non formal sector in and around metropolitan cites in India. Their networks are too widespread and there is lack of information about the other stakeholders involved in the entire chain of collection, finance and distribution. These informal recyclers should have been integrated with formal ones so as to maximize e-waste collection and recycling. But the recent efforts made by government in drafting rules indicate neither their consideration nor integration. The percentage of e-waste recycling in non-formal sector is shocking. About 95 percent of ewaste is recycled by informal sector using hazardous and primitive methods. Only remaining 5 percent is recycled by formal sector. Jain and Sareen (2006) stated that the problem of e-waste involves more complexity as it is deficient in having any reliable database, and there exists no approach and methodology for estimating the total generation of e-waste in India. E-waste is easily entering under the name of donation/ charity, recycling or
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metal scrap. As stated earlier, people in India are not very much aware about the hazardous effects of ewaste on health and environment. Moreover, the definition of e-waste is different in different countries, which makes it difficult to distinguish a product from waste. Consequently, India is also at a danger of ewaste imports. Shipments are hard to check and control. Rules and regulations are not strict enough to keep a check on illegal trade of e-waste. Lack of proper infrastructure and cost effective technologies for e-waste recycling is another obstacle in handling e-waste. Indians are not in the habit of donating discarded electronic items. Thus, it will be a challenge to solicit responsible behavior from unaware people. People are not much sensitized to the issue. Lack of responsiveness and consciousness among people with increased dependency on electronic products has made the problem a formidable challenge. It is necessary to encourage people to dispose off their e-goods at recycling centers. If people are not willing to dispose, e-waste collection will not be effective and in the absence of proper collection, recycling machineries cannot be operated. For example, in India while giving e-waste, consumers expect cash incentives, whereas in Europe they either pay fee for disposal or handover to recyclers free of charge. Gurauskiene (2008) stated that consumers play an important role in managing e-waste but while developing an adequate management of e-waste system their role is often overlooked. Neither legal nor financial responsibility is assigned to them.
Conclusions and Suggestions Economic growth should not be aimed at the cost of endangering the environment otherwise the entire globe will have to face its dreadful repercussions. In the absence of an advanced and efficient e-waste management system in the country, some protocols for workers involved in disposal of e-waste have to be there. It is difficult to successfully deal with e-waste management globally until a universally accepted definition of e-waste is framed. There are technological as well as organizational challenges associated with e-waste management in India. Lax environmental regulations and low economic development allows and promotes easy flow of hazardous wastes. Socioeconomic factors, infrastructure deficiencies and inadequate legal provisions hinder proper e-waste management in the country. Increased attention is required towards recycling and recovery. Consumers also need to be educated and made aware of the issues as their attitude and behavior will play a significant role in this matter. For creating mass awareness among youth, such issues can be taught or discussed at school and college levels as well. For a sustainable e-waste management system, public-private partnership can play an effective role. It is extremely essential to involve informal sector for developing an effective and efficient e-waste management system but their role needs to be restricted to collection and dismantling. There is an urgent need to educate them about the e-waste threats so as to reduce the occupational health hazards as well. E-waste is an environmental threat but at the same time is also a huge source of valuable components. Since it is growing at an alarming rate all over the world, a holistic approach must be taken to meet the challenge successfully. There is a need to change our attitude and behavior towards electronic goods (e-goods) and e-waste. Efforts must be put in for keeping a control on the irresponsible use of electronic products. Owing to faster changes in technology and availability of e-goods at cheaper rates, the rate of discard of old equipments is increasing. Therefore, measures must be taken for manufacturing e-goods so that their working life can be extended, upgraded and recycled. This would promote sustainability and lead to a healthy and safe life while preserving the environment.
References Ciocoiu, N., C. Dobrea and V. Tartiu (2011). The Role of Consumer Behavior in E-Waste Management System in Romania. Review of International Comparative Management Special Number 1/2011, 208-214. Delfini, M., M. Ferrini, A. Manni, P. Massacci, L. Pigal and A. Scoppettuolo (2011). Optimization of Precious Metal Recovery from Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Boards. Journal of Environmental Protection, 2, 675-682. Devangan, N. (2011). Duniya Ka Kudaghar Banta Bharat. Paryavaran Vikas, 12(9), 14-16. Gregory, J. and A. Kirchain (2007). A Comparison of North American Electronic Recycling Systems. In Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and The Environment, 227–232. Gurauskiene, I (2008). Behaviour of Consumers as one of the Most Important Factors in E- Waste Problem. Environmental Research, Engineering and Management, 4(46), 56-65. Inanc, B. (2004). Landfill/Dump Sites as Pollution Sources in Asia. In Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Material Cycles and Waste Management in Asia (NIES E-waste Workshop), December 14–15, NIES, Tsukuba, Japan. Jain, A. and R. Sareen (2006). E-waste Assessment Methodology and Validation in India. Journal of Material Cycles Waste Management, 8, 40–45. Jang, Y.C. (2010). Waste Electrical and Electronic equipment (WEEE) Management in Korea: Generation,
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Collection, and Recycling systems. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 12, 283–294. Khattar, V; J. Kaur, A. Chaturvedi and R. Arora (2007). E-waste Assessment in India: Specific Focus on Delhi. (Retrieved from http://www.weeerecycle.in/ publications/ reports/GTZ_ MAIT_E- waste_ Assessment_ Report.pdf, accessed on June 10, 2012). Kim, I.S. (2004). E-waste Issues and Measures in Korea. In Proceedings of The Third Workshop on Material Cycles and Waste Management in Asia (NIES E-waste Workshop), December 14–15, NIES, Tsukuba, Japan. Kurian, J. (2007). Electronic Waste Management in India: Issues and Strategies. In Proceedings Sardinia 2007, Eleventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, Italy. Li, J., B. Tian, T. Liu, H. Wen and S. Honda (2006). Status Quo of E-waste Management in Mainland China. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 8, 13–20. Liu, L. (2010). Cancer Villages Made in China. (Retrieved from www.environmentmagazine.org). Liu, Q., K.L. Liu, H. Zhao, G. Li and F.Y. Fan (2009). The Global Challenge of Electronic Waste Management. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 16, 248-249. Pandve, H.T. (2007). E-waste Management in India: An Emerging Environmental and Health Issue. Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 11(3), 116. Peralta, G. and P. Fontanos (2006). E-waste Issues and Measures in the Philippines. Journal of Material Cycles Waste Management, 8, 34–39. Pinto, Violet N. (2008). E-waste Hazard: The Impending Challenge. Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 12(2), 65–70. Rock, M. and D. Angel (2007). Grow First, Clean Up Later? Industrial Transformation in East Asia. Environment, 49(4), 8–19. Terazono, A., S. Murakami, N. Inanc, Y. Moriguchi, S. Kojima, A. Yoshida, J. Li, J. Wong, A. Jain, I. Peralta, C. Mungcharoen and E. Williams (2006). Current Status and Research on E- waste Issues in Asia. Journal of Material Cycles Waste Management. 8, 1-12. Thilmany, J. (2010). E-waste Warning. Mechanical Engineering, 132(7), 14. Trick, J. (2002). A Mobile is not Just for Christmas. Tuesday, 24th December 2002 (Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk). Wath, S., P. S. Dutt and T. Chakrabarti (2010). E-waste Scenario in India, Its Management and Implications (2010). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 172, 249–262. Wolfington, J. and A. R. Maranto (2008). Policy Approaches to the Recycling and Disposal of Electronic Waste. The Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 9(2), 603-609. *********
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Chapter-IV-21 CoCo-processing of waste in Ceme ement Kilns at ACC Cement Plants: A Conc Concrete Step toward ards Sust Sustainable Developm opment Ulhas lhas Par Parlika likar Director-Geocycle Business, ACC Ltd., Thane, India Email: ulhas.parlikar@acclimited.com Abstract As per CPCB reports, around 6.2 million T of hazardous waste is annually generated in the country. According to some estimates, additionally, approximately 40 million Tons of municipal solid waste is also generated annually. The quantity of non-hazardous wastes generated in the country is still unknown. Sustainable management of such an enormous quantum of waste is really a challenging task. Co-processing is one of the viable environment friendly and sustainable solutions through which, we can meet the challenges to considerable extent. Co-processing respects the concept of corporate industrial ecology and lies higher to land filling and incineration in the waste management hierarchy. This technology has been successfully adopted in developed nations for more than 2 decades now. ACC has whole heartedly embarked upon serving industries and society by managing their wastes through co-processing in its cement kilns. With the support of regulatory frameworks being implemented by the authorities, co-processing is gaining momentum as a preferred disposal option for many kinds of wastes in the country. Many industries, committed to the cause of sustainable development have opted for co-processing in cement kilns over land filling and incineration. This article is a brief account of ACCâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s activities and experience in co- processing of waste in its cement kilns.
Introduction As per estimates, around 40 Million tons per annum of municipal solid waste is generated in India and its growing at the rate of at least 5% annually. The reliable information on the total quantum of industrial waste including hazardous and non- hazardous wastes, generated is unavailable. From the hazardous waste inventory by respective State Pollution Control Boards, out of 6.2 Miliion Tons of hazardous wastes generated annually, around 3.09 Million tonnes is recyclable, 0.41 million tons is incinerable and 2.73 Million tonnes is land-fillable. (CPCB Annual Report 2008- 2009). The figures related to waste generation point to the fact that there is an urgent need of developing waste management infrastructure, which will not only enable environmentally sound disposal of wastes, but will also protect human health & hygiene while sustaining economic development in an ecologically sustaining manner The environmentally conscious nations around the globe, respect the waste management hierarchy (fig 1) while managing wastes by incorporating the same in their policies and regulations. The waste management hierarchy ranks the preferred methods of handling waste, ranging from avoidance of waste generation at the top of the scale, to totally unmanaged waste at the bottom. The closer, industries operate at the top of the hierarchy, the less waste is needed to discard, and the lower impact it has on our community and the environment. The participating entities like municipalities and industries are first encouraged for exploring and adopting â&#x20AC;&#x153;Reduce-Reuse-Recycleâ&#x20AC;? (3R) principle, for managing their waste. Conventional methods of disposal are land filling and incineration. In between 3R and conventional methods of disposal, lies the option of co- processing in cement kilns which is the best disposal option with complete energy and material recovery. Therefore, it means co-processing lies higher to land filling and incineration in waste management hierarchy. Co-processing is the optimum way of recovering energy and material from waste. In the waste management hierarchy, it lies above to land filling and incineration. Co-processing is not a new technology and has been successfully adopted in developed nations for more than two decades now. In India, ACC has wholeheartedly embarked upon serving industries and society by managing their wastes through co-processing in its cement kilns. With the support of regulatory frameworks being implemented by the authorities, co- processing is gaining momentum as a preferred disposal option for many kinds of wastes in the country. Many industries, committed to the cause of sustainable development, have opted for co-processing over land filling and
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
incineration. ACC’s activities and experience in co-processing of waste in its cement kilns is an example for many companies to follow. Co-processing Co-processing refers to the use of waste materials in Resources Intensives Industrial (RII) processes such as cement, lime, steel, glass, power generation, etc. instead of fossil fuels & natural resources.
Benefits of co-processing Around the world, co-processing in cement kilns is recognised as the best waste disposal option, much ahead of conventional land filling and incineration, owing to ‘nil residue’ after disposal and complete material and energy recovery. The organics, in the wastes, are completely destroyed and the inorganic are immobilized in the clinker matrix – the intermediate product of cement. After the waste is co-processed, it becomes a part of the product (i.e. cement) and therefore, no liability lies with the waste generators, whatsoever. Cement kiln co-processing respects waste management hierarchy. It undertakes waste management only after the options of reduce, reuse and recycle are exhausted and avoids the options of resource destruction by way of incineration and containment by way of landfill that do not promote sustainable development. Landfills of wastes and incineration ash have long-term potential liabilities in the wake of remediation, if required. As compared to other disposal options, co- processing in cement kilns needs no major investment and leaves no residue and hence, such potential liabilities are completely avoided. A comparison of co-processing and conventional waste disposal options is tabulated below: Co-processing -
100% energy and material
Recovery Residues
Incineration
recovery
=
Savings of materials and
Energy recovery
Landfill -
Sometimes
only conditioned by the
Methane (CH4)
type of incinerator
recovery possible
fossil fuels -
No ash or residues
-
No landfill required
-
Zero liability
-
Higher DRE than
-
Landfill required for
-
disposal of
generated ash residues -
residues
Liability for incineration ash
(Temporarily)
-
Liability
exists
for double the life
incineration
of landfills
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Miscellaneous
Environmental Impact
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Effective combustion: High temperatures, long residence time and self-cleaning system Complete destruction of organic compounds Reduction of global emissions by substituting fossil fuels and natural raw material Inherent safety due to high thermal inertia Natural gas cleaning due to alkaline environment Facilities and capacities available
Negative environmental impact (according to Life Cycle Analysis studies) Net increase in global emissions
Negative environmental impact (now and future) Emissions of CO2, CH4, NH3, H2S and organic acids
Need to invest in Not incineration capacity instead of using existing facilities. instantaneous waste processing. Most landfills need to be rehabilitated after some time. Unpredictable risk for groundwater and soil.
In India, ACC is the forerunner in the cement industry, who has embarked wholeheartedly on this new path of promoting alternate fuels and raw materials (AFR), through co-processing in cement manufacturing process as a corporate commitment to sustainable development. ACC has a dedicated team to promote the coprocessing of wastes in the country. It is presently providing co-processing services, to more than 30 different industries – solids, liquids & sludges and 10 municipal corporations, in its nine cement plants. Major Industrial sectors that are sources of co-processing material world-wide are as follows: • • • • • • •
Agricultural Production - Crops Agricultural Production - Livestock Agricultural Services Metal Mining Coal Mining Oil & Gas Extraction Mining and Quarrying of Nonmetallic
Minerals • General Building Contractors • Heavy Construction Contractors • Special Trade Contractors • Food and Kindred Products • Lumber and Wood Products, Except Furniture • Furniture and Fixtures • Paper and Allied Products • Chemicals and Allied Products • Petroleum Refining and Related Industries • Rubber and Miscellaneous Plastic Products • Leather and Leather Products • Glass Products • Primary Metal Industries • Fabricated Metal Products • Indus. and Comm. Machinery and Computers • Electronic & Electrical Equipment • Transportation Equipment • Photographic Equipment and Supplies • Electric, gas, and sanitary services
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
To provide total waste management solution in a safe and sustainable manner, some important considerations have been addressed through different tools and methods: Considerations Tools and methods Company
reputation
&
stakeholder
Communication plan
trust Health & safety of the employee National legal framework
OH&S procedures Compliance to statutory guidelines Infrastructure development Baselines monitoring and trial burn
laws
&
Communication plan for engaging stakeholders Communication plays a crucial role in establishing a positive public perception and building lasting relationships with the people, who have a stake in the business. Through the development of the AFR communication plan, ACC is venturing into understanding the pulse of its stakeholders with regards to their needs and concerns.
Stakeholder meets organised in different states ACC maintains a continuous process of interaction with its internal stakeholders, who are its own employees and the external stakeholders, as regulatory authorities, waste generators & communities around its works. In the past five years, eight stakeholders’ meets were organised in different states in association with the respective State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) officials, CPCB, GTZ and Holcim. (ACC’s AFR team that deals with the waste management through co-processing cement kilns has made presentations in more than 150 interaction forums and seminars all across India to create awareness about coprocessing technology. OH&S procedure Safety is of paramount importance at ACC and in AFR Business also, it is addressed through various procedures and practices, such as: • Information about each co-processible waste is collected, reviewed and communicated in simplified language as a work place label. • People handling wastes are trained on the risks and hazards associated with it along with the required controls and emergency response actions. ACC has established state-of-the-art laboratories for assessing the co-processability of wastes at following four locations ACC R&D at Thane, Maharashtra ACC Kymore, MP ACC Wadi, Karnataka ACC Madukkarai , Tamil Nadu
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Laboratory facilities are being implemented at all plant locations for proper fingerprint and input controls. More than 2,000 samples from 400 different industries have been analysed to assure their co-processibility in cement kilns. Compliance to statutory laws & guidelines ACC has all the necessary consents and installations in place for carrying out co-processing in its plant in a safe way. These include: • ACC has built appropriate feeding systems and made storage arrangements for handling wastes in isolation.
• • • • •
As per the CPCB guidelines on co-processing, necessary up gradations and modifications are being made. Authorisation from respective SPCBs is sought by filing applications in Form 1 of HWM Rules, 2008. Manifest systems are adhered to for all the hazardous wastes undertaken for co-processing. In order to demonstrate safe & environment-friendly disposal of wastes, several plant-scale trial runs have been conducted at ACC Plants
Conclusion There is a consensus over the urgent need to improve waste management and different solutions are being discussed. Modern incineration plants and secure landfills are common disposal options, but there is an urgent need to explore more sustainable waste management options. A proven alternative and possible solution is co-processing of waste materials in the cement industry. In India, ACC has been the pioneer in this. An efficient cement kiln can provide an environmentally sound and cost-effective treatment/recovery option for a number of wastes. Co-processing of wastes in cement kilns can decrease the environmental impacts of wastes, safely dispose of hazardouswastes, decrease greenhouse gas emissions, decrease waste handling costs and save money in the cement industry. It will also partially help in achieving the targets set in Agenda 21 of the ‘Earth Summit’ in Rio de Janeiro (1992), the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development (2002), the Millennium Development Goals and reducing the carbon footprint of the country.
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Chapter-IV-22 ‘Thumburmuzhy’ a new model developed for livestock waste aerobic composting Francis Xavier, Girija. D. D.*, Kurien. M.O & Deepak Mathew. D.K Kerala Veterinary & Animal Science University ,Kerala, India *Kerala Agricultural University Thrissur, Kerala, India Email: francis@kvasu.ac.in Abstract Non green livestock waste, rich in Nitrogen, from livestock and fishery enterprises, poses a big problem as far as the waste management is concerned. Bio security measures not adopted and the lackadaisical attitude to implement rules and regulations; remain a major problem with many large scale producers as well. Once the livestock or a fishery venture is initiated, then starts a salvos of pollution, health hazard, and bio safety issues making some of the projects non viable. The usual livestock waste management systems like burial, incineration, land fill, anaerobic composting etc. often causes eco damage basically polluting land, water and air affecting the carbon footprint. In a state like Kerala fragmented land holding poses an impasse in waste disposal. The callous ways in waste handling, increases the straying of dogs, smaller wild carnivores, birds and pathogenic fauna. Aerobic composting is an eco friendly waste management system used widely the world over. Biodegrading using aerobic composting system has been successfully done by many scientists to handle hatchery waste, livestock waste, meat waste and carcase waste. Evolving a cost effective eco friendly aerobic system suitable for the agro climatic conditions of the state of Kerala was the ultimate goal and a new modified version of suitable aerobic degradation method was also evolved in the process. The agro climatic regions of Kerala as stated by Indian Council of Agricultural research (ICAR) was used as the base. Three models with different substrate and dimensions were tested in the agro-climatic zones of the state of Kerala. The models viz. wooden bins of 6 ft x 6 ft x 6 ft ; 2ft x 2ft x 2ft dimensions and a ferro-cement tank 4ft x4ft x 4ft, and concrete bricks tanks having air holes were used in the study. The wooden bins though cheapest, did not last long in the open as the state has a six months long heavy monsoon. The brick models though cheaper had the disadvantage of masonry fixing and disadvantageous handling in layering process. The handling of feeder materials and taking out of compost were not user friendly in a fixed installation of bricks. The third model made of ‘precast ferro-cement slabs’ which could be assembled, dismantled and fixed by least effort was found ideal. The ability of the bins to permit air into the core area was also tested. The bigger the bin size, the core area showed anaerobic composting due to non passage of air. Based on the average humidity, wind speed and ambient temperature, a 4 ft x 4ft x 4ft ferro-cement bin with airspace and grooves utilising bacterial consortium from cow dung and carbon source, from dry leaves, hay, straw and dry paper bits, worked well in all Kerala climatic zones with a roof to prevent rain water during monsoons. The layering system had also been modified so that labour need is minimised, the core temperature maintained at 70 degree Celsius had a self limiting cycle after the composting process was over. The ferro-cement moulded installation is named “Thumburmuzhy Bins” and the layering system named “Thumburmuzhy Model Aerobic Composting Technique (TMACT)”. A creative commons licence is also obtained pending patent. Keywords: Thumburmuzhy composting, aerobic compost, TMACT, Thumburmuzhy bins.
Introduction Non green livestock waste from animal farms, livestock units and fishery enterprises pose a big problem in the agro climatic conditions of Kerala State south India. The bio security measures to handle such waste causes an impasse in this ensuing business. There are meagre policy interventions in the Livestock waste management of the state. Usual waste disposal systems adopted are incineration, burial ,landfill ,biogas plants and composting. Due to the fragmented land holdings and Monsoon climate the waste generated becomes an ecological problem. The waste often lands up in public roads ,rivers ,water bodies and abandoned lands .Pollution of land ,water and air along with the indirect proliferation of stray animals, birds and pathogens affects the public health. Compared to the existing modalities of waste management the aerobic system is an eco friendly method. Aerobic composting is a global technology widely adopted by many countries. The principles of reduction, recycling and reuse works well with Livestock waste .Biodegrading in anaerobic composting system will suit the needs of animal farms .Livestock food venture, hatchery waste, broiler waste and crop residues does not have a scientific waste disposal system practically implemented. Biodegrading in aerobic composting system is successfully used by the above waste generators in different forms(Murphy and
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Handwerker,1988).So far there is no cost effective scientific and eco friendly aerobic composting system for livestock waste handling to be used in the agro climatic zones of Kerala State. Hence a new modified model using aerobic composting system has been tested.
Materials and Methods Installations Four Installations for aerobic composting of Livestock waste and food waste were designed in the Research Farms of the University and in the Housing units and Farmers yard. The agro -climatic regions of the state as stated by Indian Council of Agricultural research (ICAR) was used as the base for climatic index. The four models viz.(1) a wooden bin of 6 ft x 6 ft x 6 ft dimensions (2) a wooden container model with 2ft x 2ft x 2ft dimensions and (3) a ferrocement tank 4ft x 4ft x 4ft and (4) concrete Bricks with air holed side were used in the study. In all the four models of Thumburmuzhy model installations, the layering technique used were the same. The installations were located very close to the Farm building or vicinity of flats and farmers yards for observations. Layering technique in Thumburmuzhy model Under the ambient temperature ranging from 30 to 35 degree Celsius and 70 to 75% humidity six inch layers each of fresh cow dung, dry leaves /straw, and organic waste were layered. The cow dung layer acted as the bacterial consortium for the aerobic composting process. Bacteria and actinomycetes were isolated from the fresh dung used in the present installations (Girija et al., 2011).Six inch layer of fresh cow dung is the cheapest and easily available bacterial source as far as a livestock farm enterprise is concerned. The second layer of dry leaves/straw/hay /dry shredded paper acted as the carbon source for the bacterial consortium to grow(Epstein,1997,Girija et al.,2011).The third layer is the organic waste and it comprised of carcase, broiler waste ,and food waste. Curing time In all the units the layer filled installations were left intact for 90 days irrespective of the changing climatic zones. Some of the preliminary observations(Sivakumar et al.2011;Sumi et al.2011;Xavier,2011) also aided in selecting the time frame of 90 days. Compost testing Composted materials properly mixed were sampled and tested in the Radiotracer laboratory and other agronomic laboratories of Kerala Agricultural University.
Results and Discussion Among the four models tested in the agro climatic conditions of Kerala state the Ferro cement model of 4ft x 4ft x 4ft was found ideal for the state. The ferrocement model christened as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Thumburmuzhy Modelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, can be easily erected and dismantled as it consists of four pillars with grooves on lateral and medial sides (Fig.1). The side bars (4 cm wide) can be locked in position through the grooves on the four corner stands(.Fig 2). The four feet diameter is ideal for Kerala Agro climatic conditions having average ambient temperature (28-32oc), relative humidity (70-80 %), and wind speed (4-5 km/hr) as the aeration through the layering to reach the core of the installation worked up to 2 ft. from sides. Aerobic composting process in Thumburmuzhy model is made possible by oxygen aerating the whole layer from periphery to core in a 4ft x 4ft x 4ft dimension.
Fig 1 Ferrocement Thumburmuzhy Model
Fig 2. Ferrocement corner pillars and side bars dismantled
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Fig 3 Wooden compost box
Fig 4.Smaller sized Model
Fig 5 Concrete brick Masonry Model
Wooden bins of the same dimension also worked well but the installation did not last long under monsoon climate, moreover quality wood is costly (Fig 3). As a rural installation for long term use wooden box is not ideal. The third box made with wooden bars with 2ft x 2ft x 2ft dimension was functional but the volume that it could hold and seepage through the sides were causing nuisance and needed lot of care. The fourth model made of brick air hole side walls performed well but the major disadvantage is that maisonary work is needed(Fig5). At 90 days the need to break the wall to take out the compost made it costly and labour intensive, hence the ideal model for Kerala is a ferrocement bin of 4ft x4ft x 4ft and it was named as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Thumburmuzhy model compostâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; bins. As such no earlier studies on such installations were done in this regard as hence no references are there.
Layering techniques The layering technique was mainly utilising cow dung bacteria consortium which worked very well in all changing climatic conditions. The ambient temperature was the only factor that slowed down or hastened the growth of bacterial consortium. 40 bacteria and 10 actinomycets were identified in the layered cow dung. A difference in the bacterial consortium between dung of indigenous cattle and cross bred cattle was also observed in the samples. The six inch layer of fresh cow dung as the first layer with a 6 inch layer of dried leaves/hay/straw/paper bits provided the carbon source for the bacteria to flourish. Above that another six inch layer of waste is converted into compost by aerobic method. The core temperature built up in this layering system varied from 65-700c under this ambient conditions. Since the temperature is high; breeding of flies and parasites was prevented. Moreover due to aerobic functioning no putrid smell was there even in case of carcass and other non-green wastes. The 6 inch layering systems is an easy way for remembering also. After reaching the thermophilic range the peak temperature starts falling down below 40oc and starts a cooling phase. Once the layering system fills the Thumburmuzhy installation, it can be let undisturbed. In Wayanad district where the average ambient temperature was 28oc and during monsoon the holding time of layered Thumburmuzhy compost bin went upto 120 days. In Trichur and Trivandrum districts the holding and curing time was lower during the summer months. In Cattle Breeding Farm Thumburmuzhy we could get compost in 50 days time. After collecting data from different districts an average holding time of 90 days was fixed for Thumburmuzhy model.
Composition of compost Non green livestock waste and hotel food waste were the main waste materials used in the study. The composition of the samples tested in the Radio tracer laboratory of Kerala Agricultural University as presented in Table I. The Nitrogen level in the samples varied depending on the type of livestock waste. The carbon nitrogen ratio was 20 to 30 : 1. The moisture percentage in the compost mixture falls between the ideal value of 50 to 60 per cent. This value will vary with the type of organic waste and it needs further research. The weight reduction of organic waste could also be monitored. In the above trials the materials reached almost 1/3rd of the Thumburmuzhy compost bin in 90 days time. Table 1Compostion of Thumburmuzhy Composting Type of bin Moisture Ferrocement Thumburmuzhy model 7.54 Wooden bin 4.56 Concrete Brick model 6.37
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pH 6.5 7.1 6.9
N% 1.96 1.68 2.10
P% 0.45 0.70 0.60
K% 0.30 0.35 0.32
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
An ideal pH of ingredients should be between 6.5 to 8 to ensure better microbial degradation (USDANRCS,2000) and the pH of finished compost is ranging between 6.8 and 8.9. The pH in our models of Thumburmuzhy composting was recorded on an average between 6.5- 7.1 which was in line with the above recommended range.
References Epstein, E.1997, The Science of Composting, Technomic Publ.co.Inc. Lancaster, Pennsylvania Francis Xavier, 2011, Farm Harms; Living with livestock and withering waste,Key Note address. Procd. National Symposium on Waste Management- Experiences and Strategies, Thrissur, Kerala. India , p. 30 Girija D., Francis Xavier, Sunil E. Deepa K., Jisharaj K., Anju Paul, 2011, Screening of Bacterial isolates for management of municipal and urban solid waste. Procd. National Symposium on Waste ManagementExperiences and Strategies, Thrissur, Kerala. p. 33 Girija, D., Ambili K. A., Sunil, E. and Deepa, K. 2011, Isolation and screening of cellulose and lignin degrading bacteria from decayed plant materials for vegetable waste degradation. Procd. National Symposium on Waste Management- Experiences and Strategies, Thrissur, Kerala p. 34 http;//scorecard.goodguide.com/env-releases/aw/ Murphy, D.W. and Handwerker T.S.,1988, Preliminary Investigations of composting as a method of dead bird disposal, Procd. National Poultry Waste Management Symposium. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. pp.65-71 Sivakumar, K., Rameshsaravanakumar, V. 2011, Aerobic composting of biological solid waste from livestock farming. Procd. National Symposium on Waste Management- Experiences and Strategies, Thrissur, Kerala. Keynote paper. Sumi M.G., Vani, M. Donna V. Idicula and Mini, K.D .2011, Solid waste management using vermicomposting kodimics bio-pedestal column and itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s utility as organic manure. Procd. National Symposium on Waste Management- Experiences and Strategies, Thrissur, Kerala. p.35. USDA-NRCS. 2000. United States Department of Agriculture- Natural Resources Conservation Service. Composting : Enviornment Engineering National Engineering Handbook, p. 637
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Chapter-V Water Pollution and Its Management
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Chapter-V-23 Assessing water quality for blue revolution Uday Bhawalkar Bhawalkar Ecological Research Institute, Pune, India Email: drudaybhawalkar@gmail.com Introduction For achieving effective sanitation, adequate water availability and use is imperative. Water recycling is of utmost importance in order to increase its availability. Nature is designed to operate in closed cycles. We should stop to use water linearly, not throw it away without adequate treatment, disallow water evaporation and be independent of the next rainy season that is getting so uncertain. For this, we should develop quick, simple and reliable methods to assess the quality of water and wastewater.
What is Clean? Ecology teaches us that each organism has a role and is designed to consume food of specific band of pollution. Hence one can use each organism as a measure (bio-sensor) of pollution. Food is produced in low bands of pollution. Pleasant creatures also grow in low bands of pollution and unpleasant creatures proliferate in highly polluted medium (water, soil, air, etc.). Very clean water, thus, produces food (fish, prawn, etc.). Slightly polluted water breeds frogs that create unpleasant noise pollution at night and have low/no food value. This band also breeds singing mosquitoes that do not bite. They also cause nuisance to people with specific pollution in their body. When the pollution band further rises, we see breeding of night-biting mosquitoes that cause no diseases. At further higher pollution band, we observe breeding of mosquitoes that cause Malaria, Chikungunya or Dengue. We all know now that these nuisance-causing mosquitoes breed only in ‘clean’ water that is not actually clean. Pollution can be countered by food and it is the pollution/food that governs the ‘niche’ of each organism. Food and pleasant creatures abound in medium of low band of pollution/food ratio and nuisance (disease) causing creatures breed in medium of high ratio of pollution/food ratio. But at its highest band of pollution, no visible creature can breed, for example in a toxic medium that has no food value. Such water may also look clean to eyes and also cause no stink. It is important to understand that stink is just a signal of pollution and this signal needs food as its power supply. It is interesting thus to understand that the gutter water that stinks (it has food necessary for the stink signal) breeds only ordinary mosquitoes that bite during the night and cause no diseases. Clean rain-water or municipal tap water that has nitrate, sodium, heavy metals pollution and no food, breeds nuisance-causing Malaria, Chikungunya or Dengue mosquitoes. Scaling, corrosion, bio-fouling are also indicators of water pollution. Similarly, polluted water shows low rates of water infiltration. We can thus also use water-infiltration rate (mm/day) as a measure of water quality. These methods can be used by a common man and need no laboratories, chemicals, instruments, electricity and special training. Labs can make a mistake but fish and mosquitoes make no mistake and also do not lie.
Conventional Cleaning Methods Chemical cleaning involves increasing the pollution band, so as to ‘shut up’ the signals of pollution. This is like allopathy in modern medicine that offers quick relief by stopping the pain signals. But this method is failing because microbes and visible creatures develop immunity against the toxic cleaning agents and we get into a race of developing cleaning agents of higher toxicity. It is agreed now that increasing cancer in humans and animals is due to use of toxic chemicals in farming and sanitation.
Blue and Green Water Bodies Nature shifted her evolution from water, onto land about 600 million years ago. Land (and not the water bodies) is the preferred place for plant growth since then. Land thus should be greened and water bodies should be blue, i.e., with low plant biomass and growth. Water bodies become green because of excessive input of inorganic pollution, importantly that of N, P and heavy metals. Green water bodies thus indicate water pollution. Green plants do help clean the water bodies, provided they are harvested (this is practically difficult). Algae grow at small band of pollution. At higher band, algae die and bacterial putrefaction sets in provided there is adequate availability of organic food. If food is not available (if secondary treated sewage that
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has N, P, heavy metals but less food), we see active growth of water hyacinth. These weeds also help purify the water bodies provided the weed growth is harvested regularly (this is practically difficult). Then the weeds grow slow in crowded conditions and mosquitoes start breeding. They help purification of water bodies by sucking their food (This is how Nature responds to water pollution).
Eco-Logical Cleaning This is emerging method that avoids use of toxic chemicals or heat to kill the pollution indicators. Instead, it uses principles of ecology and ecological engineering to actually reduce the pollution band so that the clean medium starts producing food and other resources, as a reward for effective sanitation. Such eco-logical cleaning is better approach than technologies that use membranes for separation of pollutants, followed by their disposal that causes damage to the environment. It is also certainly a better approach than signal-suppressing technologies that use toxic chemicals (or heat) to kill the indicators of pollution or destroy organic food that helps both in indicating and correcting the pollution. Eco-Logical cleaning acts in the following manner: Plants are essential components, which reduce the inorganic pollution by utilizing them for growth. We get many resources produced by green plants. Plants also produce active oxygen that cracks toxic organics and convert them into food molecules. Bio-sanitizer Eco-chip Technology This is the latest eco-technology that has been developed by Bhawalkar Ecological Research Institute (BERI), Pune through 40 years of research, in collaboration with Nature that has 4.6 billion years of evolutionary experience.
Biosanitizer Ecochips 100 mg of Biosanitizer Ecochips present us the bio-services of 1 acre of natural forest ecosystem. Biosanitizer is kept in a well, bore well or water bodies such as lakes, ponds and even in polluted streams and rivers and seas. Biosanitizer Mechanism: Grows invisible plants and set up high-speed, broadband phytoremediation (from Ancient Greek 'phyto', meaning "plant", and Latin â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;remediumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, meaning "restoring balance.") that convert polluted water into water that is full of resources. Water and wastewater treatment takes place without use of chemicals, machinery, electricity, trained manpower, in short, without any operating expenses. Converts pollution (both organic and inorganic) into valuable resources, making it a sustainable operation.
Case Study: Treated sewage as a resource for clean-up of toxic spill The Army Navy Environmental Park and Training Area at Colaba which is popularly known as the United Service (US) Golf Club is unintentionally aiding the sea to cleanse the toxicity of the oil. The US Club, which is barely a kilometer from the location of the prong's reef where MSC Chitra ran aground, has received its share of oil spill as the oil stained rocks and mangroves are testimony to the disaster. In 2008, the Indian Navy employed biotechnology for the treatment of sewage water for maintaining its green top of the golf course spread over 47 acres and hundreds of trees. For doing this about 10 lakh million litres of sewage water was sourced from the adjoining Naval Officers' residential area and was treated using Biosanitizer chips, an invention of Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai that has received an American patent.
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During the monsoons the water from the treated sewage storage tanks are not used for watering and is diverted into the sea. Senior naval officers, members of the US Club and scientists are of the opinion that the treated sewage is aiding the sea to recover from the oil spill. Seen from the US Golf Club now the shoreline with stained rocks appears remarkably healthy as the greenish tinges on the surface of the rocks indicate revival of moss. Presence of crustaceans among the rock crevices and schools of fish dancing in shallow waters of the shore indicate more signs of life. The bigger mangrove trees, as expected, are holding their heads high despite the slick clinging to their feet. Surprisingly the smaller mangrove plants, which were completely drenched in the oil spill, are also showing signs of revival as new green leaves are sprouting from its top branches. One need not be surprised by the observations. Damage to marine ecology from toxic pollution such as oil spill could be noticed by the impact it has on delicate species such as Pomfrets and crustaceans such as crabs. So far there has not been any report on large scale deaths of Pomfrets and crabs. Biosanitizers in the treated sewage, which is going into the sea, is aiding the sea to revive from the oil spill. Morning walkers of the club first noticed the difference, as they were initially aghast at the site of oil spill drenching the rocks and mangroves. However, to their amazement they noticed that in a matter of weeks the oil spill was disintegrating and marine life was reviving along the shoreline. Oil in its purest form such as ghee is not toxic, and it is the inorganic components in the oil that make it toxic. Use of bacteria in tackling oil spill is not advisable as it devours only organic component of oil and the inorganic part of the oil continues to pollute the seawater. Pests are nature's pollution indicators and its cleaners. Club members including naval officers who were associated with the initiative to biosanitize the sewage water in 2008 were not surprised by the recent developments on the shoreline as they had seen for themselves what the technology could do. Use of untreated sewage water was causing stench, infestation of pests in the grass and mosquitoes in the air, there were also large number of crows that would fly away with the ball. Moreover, the labourers who were watering the grass and trees were refusing to use sewage water as it caused skin problems, said a retired naval officer. He added that trees and grass on the greens would die prematurely. The committee managing the club then decided to set up a sewage treatment plant. "We were in the last stages of clearing the proposal for setting up sewage treatment plant when a suggestion came forth to use Biosanitizers. I was skeptical, as I had never heard about this technology that promised to be simple and cost a fraction of sewage treatment plant," said the retired naval officer. "Reluctantly, permission to conduct a trial was given. The person came with a spraying apparatus and used sewage water to fill up the tank and put inside what appeared like small chips. We had given them one infested patch of green to demonstrate," he said. "After the spraying the treated sewage, water pests were no longer visible on the surface," he added. "Buoyed by the efficacy of the Biosanitizers in the demonstration, the club decided to drop the plans of setting up sewage treatment plant and instead used Biosanitizers. The results could be seen from the first month itself as the presence of mosquitoes and red ants reduced drastically. The stench in the air came down to 5 meters of the spraying point from the previous 50 meters. Moreover stench dissipated very quickly leaving freshness in the air. The grass had green sheen and trees became healthy," he said. http://news.rediff.com/report/2010/aug/28/how-treated-sewage-is-cleansing-mumbai-shores.htm
This case study delivers several messages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Sewage can be converted into a resource for irrigation and to remediate pollution in the water bodies. Pests (weeds, mosquitoes and others) can be best controlled by not inviting them, i.e., by creating healthy ambiance using the biosanitized water. Pests are just the scavengers of Nature. And pathogens are nothing but microscopic pests. One can treat the water bodies before the spill may happen, this triggers clean-up without any loss of time. Spilled resources can be converted into more resources (because of trapping of CO2). Water bodies can come out cleaner (and productive) than they were before. If such big projects deliver the results for several years, communication can be simple and common man (including the politicians, administrators and media persons) can understand it. Any resource generating technology gets accepted by the society. It is more cost-effective if laws of Nature are followed, also making it sustainable. For More Case Studies: Please see www.wastetohealth.com
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Chapter-V-24 Correlation between prevalence of fish helminth infection in relation with the various abiotic parameters of Lentic water bodies Pinky Kaur, T.A. Qureshi & Rekha Shrivastav* Department of Zoology and Applied Aquaculture, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, M.P., India *Department of Zoology, Sarojini Naidu Govt. Girls P.G. College, Bhopal, M.P., India Email: pkaur.18@gmail.com Abstract Present study was conducted to study the correlation between the helminth infection in relation to different ecological parameters i.e., temperature, conductivity, total dissolved solids, hydrogen-ion concentration, free carbon dioxide, phenolphthalein alkalinity, total alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, chloride, calcium hardness and total hardness The work was carried out for two consecutive years (January, 2008 to December, 2009) on the fishes of two selected water bodies namely Lower Lake and Mansarovar Lake. The physico-chemical parameters of Lower Lake studied included the atmospheric temperature (ranged from 17.0 to 36.0°C), water temperature (ranged from 21.0 to 30.0°C ), conductivity (ranged from 221 to 384 µmhos/cm), total dissolved solids (ranged from 104 to 194.0 mg/l), hydrogen ion concentration (ranged from 7.3 to 9.0), free carbon dioxide (ranged from 4.6 to 14.9 mg/l), phenolphthalein alkalinity (ranged from 6.5 to 18.2 mg/l), total alkalinity (ranged from 110.0 to 262 mg/l), dissolved oxygen (ranged from 5.0 to 9.4 mg/l), chloride (ranged from18.5 to 56 mg/l), calcium hardness (ranged from 71.0 to 167.0 mg/l) and total hardness (ranged from 101 to 280 mg/l). During the whole study period, the variations in atmospheric temperature, water temperature, total dissolved solids, total alkalinity, chloride, calcium hardness and total hardness exhibited positive correlation with the prevalence of helminth parasites in Lower Lake. Similarly, the physico-chemical parameters of Mansarovar Lake included the atmospheric temperature (ranged from 18.0 to 35.0), water temperature (ranged from 20.0 to 30.0°C ), conductivity (ranged from 149 to 252 µmhos/cm), total dissolved solids (ranged from 86.0 to 135.0 mg/l), hydrogen ion concentration (ranged from 7.5 to 9.0), free carbon dioxide (ranged from 9.5 to 19.5 mg/l), total alkalinity (ranged from 60 to 186 mg/l), dissolved oxygen (ranged from 6.4 to 9.1 mg/l), chloride (ranged from 14.0 to 35.0 mg/l), calcium hardness (ranged from 85 to 139 mg/l) and total hardness (ranged from 154 to 243 mg/l). During the whole study period, only the hydrogen ion concentration and dissolved oxygen exhibited positive correlation with the prevalence of helminth parasites. Keywords: Helminth, Prevalence, Parasites, Abiotic factor, Lentic.
Introduction The physico–chemical parameters are of paramount importance for all the organisms living in water. Slight change in one parameter brings alterations in all the other parameters of water. Frequent and wide ranging alterations in physico–chemical parameters of water affect the defense mechanism of aquatic organisms adversely predisposing them to various parasitic attacks. They also influence the distribution of primary and final hosts which indirectly affect the life–cycle of various helminth parasites. Variations in helminth community structure in fish may be associated with variations in aquatic productivity. Wisniewskii (1958) predicted that as the Lakes become increasingly productive, the dominant helminths would shift from species that completed their life–cycles in fish (autogenic species) to species that complete their life-cycle in birds (allogenic species). Wisniewski (1958) pointed out that helminth fauna of any water body is related to the physico-chemical and biological characteristics. Changes in the lake drainage basin including tree harvesting, dams, water diversion and disposal of industrial, domestic and agricultural waste can impact the water quality and lake productivity (Valtonen et al., 1997). These changes can also affect parasite and host communities. Chemical pollution can affect the presence and abundance of both parasites and host species (Hirschfield et al., 1983; Sprent, 1992; Kennedy, 1995). Hartmann and Numann (1977) reported that lake eutrophication directly impact the abundance of digenetic trematodes, specifically diplostomids. The results showed that variation in helminth community structure in fish was associated with variation in physico-chemical characteristics that are linked to aquatic productivity. Bhopal, the city of lakes and possesses a number of small and large water bodies. However, these water bodies are under great environmental stress due to pollution from various sources. Since last few decades, private entrepreneurs have been using them for the production of fishes. Generally, the polyculture of Indian and
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exotic major carps is being practiced in these water bodies. However, the studies in relation to the deteriorating conditions of water on the health of aquatic animals are largely lacking. Incidences of various health hazards in fishes are on the rise in these water bodies, which is an indication of future disaster. It is, therefore, two water bodies with varying degree of pollution, have been selected for this study to investigate helminths infestation in fishes inhabiting them.
Material and Methods Study sites Lower Lake The Lower Lake is a sufficiently large confinement of water having a surface area of 1.3 sq. km, shoreline 6.16 km and average depth of about 6.0 m. This Lake is situated at 23°16’ N Latitude and 72°25’ E Longitude. It is located in the heart of thickly populated area of the city. The lake has great significance for the people of Bhopal as its water is used for various domestic purposes and recreation. Mansarovar Lake Mansarovar Lake has a surface area of 0.96 sq. km. This lake is situated at 23°12’00’’N Latitude and 77°25’30’’ E Longitude. Rain water is the major source of water for the lake. Beside this, it receives sewage water round the year through a number of inlets. The inflow of untreated sewage is the major cause of deterioration of water quality. The lake is highly eutrophic in status, in other words, highly polluted in nature (Figs. 4, 5, 6) Physico - chemical parameters Monthly samples of water were collected from selected sites fixed on above mentioned water bodies for a period of two years during January, 2008 to December, 2009. The water parameters such as temperature, conductivity, total dissolved solids, pH, free carbon dioxide, phenolphthalein alkalinity and total alkalinity were measured at the sampling site itself. The estimation of dissolved oxygen, chloride, calcium hardness and total hardness was made in the laboratory. All the parameters were analyzed following the methods of Golterman et al. (1978), Boyed (1979) and APHA (1995). Collection of host fishes and helminth parasites For the purpose of present study, host fishes, belonging to 6 orders and 14 families, were screened, out of which representing 24 species were found infected with helminth parasites. The fishes were brought to the laboratory either in living or freshly killed condition. They were identified, their sex and standard length were recorded. The fishes were examined for the presence of helminth parasites by adopting the methods employed by Mayer and Olsen (1975), Cable (1977) and Madhavi et al. (2007). The fins and scales were examined for the presence of ectoparasitic helminths while the gills, muscles, liver, gut, gonads and body cavity were carefully investigated for endoparasitic helminths. Statistical analysis Pearson’s coefficient of correlation method was used to study the correlation between the percentage of prevalence of helminth parasites (total no. of hosts infected by total no. of hosts examined) and various ecological parameters of water bodies. All the data analyzed using statistical package SPSS (version 11.0).
Results and Discussion The physico–chemical parameters are of paramount importance for all the organisms living in water. Slight change in one parameter brings alterations in all the other parameters of water. Frequent and wide ranging alterations in physico–chemical parameters of water affect the defense mechanism of aquatic organisms adversely predisposing them to various parasitic attacks. They also influence the distribution of primary and final hosts which indirectly affect the life–cycle of various helminth parasites. Under present study, correlation between the prevalence of helminth parasites is worked out in relation to different ecological parameters i.e., temperature, conductivity, total dissolved solids, hydrogen-ion concentration, free carbon dioxide, phenolphthalein alkalinity, total alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, chloride, calcium hardness and total hardness (Table – 1). Temperature is one of the most critical ecological parameters for parasites of fishes, which affects the survival, growth and time of transmission of parasites (Stromberg and Crites, 1975; Jackson et al., 2001; Tubbs et al., 2005; Hakalahti et al., 2006). During present investigation, the atmospheric temperature ranged from 17.0 to 36.0°C near Lower Lake and 18.0 to 35.0°C near Mansarovar Lake. The water temperature of Lower Lake and Mansarovar Lake ranged between 21.0 to 31.0°C and 20.0 to 30.0°C, respectively. The prevalence of helminth parasites showed positive relationship with atmospheric and water temperature in Lower Lake while it exhibited negative relationship in Mansarovar Lake. Conductivity is an important parameter to assess the water quality. Any increase or decrease in the concentration of dissolved substances such as sulphates, chlorides and carbonates is reflected in corresponding increase or decrease in conductivity. Due to the variations occurring in ionic precipitation, several fluctuations
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may take place in this factor (Welch, 1952). During present investigation, the values of conductivity were observed to range between 221.0 to 384.0 Âľmhos/cm in Lower Lake and 149.0 to 252.0 Âľmhos/cm in Mansarovar Lake. The prevalence of helminth parasites showed negative relationship with conductivity in Lower Lake as well as Mansarovar Lake. Total dissolved solids are useful in describing the chemical density as fitness factor and as a general measure of edaphic relationship that contributes to the productivity of water and composition of the biotic community. During present study, the total dissolved solids ranged between 104.0 to 194.0 mg/l in Lower Lake and 86.0 to 135.0 mg/l in Mansarovar Lake. The prevalence of helminth parasites showed positive relationship with total dissolved solids in Lower Lake while negative relationship in Mansarovar Lake. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) is referred to as the potential of hydrogen ion activity. The pH of most of the natural waters, generally ranges between 2 to 12 and provides useful direct information about the alkalinity and photosynthetic activity (Welch, 1952). During present study, it has been observed that the pH ranged between 7.3 to 9.0 in Lower Lake and 7.5 to 9.0 in Mansarovar Lake. The prevalence of helminth parasites exhibited negative relationship with pH in Lower Lake while positive relationship in Mansarovar Lake. Free carbon dioxide is the source of carbon that can be assimilated and incorporated into the living matter of all the aquatic autotrophs (Hutchinson, 1957). Carbon dioxide dissolved in water produces carbonic acid which dissociates in various fractions and interacts with hydrogen ion concentration. The absence of free carbon dioxide may either be due to its complete utilization in photosynthetic activity or because of its inhibition by the presence of appreciable amount of calcium carbonate in water (Sahai and Sinha, 1969). During present study, the free carbon dioxide was found to range between 4.6 to 14.9 mg/l in Lower Lake and 9.5 to 19.2 mg/l in Mansarovar Lake. The prevalence of helminth parasites showed negative relationship with free carbon dioxide in Lower Lake as well as Mansarovar Lake. Phenolphthalein alkalinity is usually caused by carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxyl ions and less frequently by borates, silicates and phosphates (APHA, 1985). During present investigation, phenolphthalein alkalinity was absent in Mansarovar Lake. It ranged between 6.5 to 18.2 mg/l in Lower Lake. The prevalence of helminth parasites showed negative relationship with phenolphthalein alkalinity in Lower Lake. Total alkalinity denotes the quality of acid consuming constituents in water. In natural water, carbonates and bicarbonates are the main alkaline sources. These substances should be present in water to support growth of plankton and also to buffer the pH of water and body fluid of organisms. In the water where total alkalinity is high, bicarbonate system prevails and pH range is usually on the alkaline side. During present study, the total alkalinity ranged between 110.0 to 262.0 mg/l in Lower Lake and 60.0 to 186.0 mg/l in Mansarovar Lake. The prevalence of helminth parasites showed positive relationship with total alkalinity in Lower Lake while negative relationship in Mansarovar Lake. Dissolved oxygen is an important parameter which shows an indication of entire metabolic activity in water. The level of oxygen concentration in aquatic ecosystem is dependent on temperature, photosynthesis of autotrophs, respiration of the biotic communities and organic loading etc. During present study, the dissolved oxygen was found to range between 5.0 to 9.4 mg/l in Lower Lake and 6.4 to 9.1 mg/l in Mansarovar Lake. The prevalence of helminth parasites showed negative relationship with dissolved oxygen in Lower Lake as well as Mansarovar Lake. Chloride occurs naturally in all types of waters. High concentration of chloride is considered to be the indicator of pollution especially of animal origin caused by large amount of sewage inputs. During present study, the chloride values ranged between 18.5 to 56.0 mg/l in Lower Lake and 14.0 to 35.0 mg/l in Mansarovar Lake. Higher chloride values were observed in Lower Lake as compared to Mansarovar Lake. Comparatively, lower values were obtained during monsoon and higher during summer months. Higher values of chloride in summer may probably be due to high temperature which enhanced the evaporation of water resulting in the reduction of volume of water subsequently concentrating the salts. The prevalence of helminth parasites showed positive relationship with chloride in Lower Lake while negative relationship in Mansarovar Lake. Calcium is essential for all the organisms as it regulates various physiological functions. During present study, calcium hardness ranged between 71.0 to 167.0 mg/l in Lower Lake and 85.0 to 139.0 mg/l in Mansarovar Lake. The prevalence of helminth parasites showed positive relationship with calcium hardness in Lower Lake while negative relationship in Mansarovar Lake. Total hardness is defined as the sum of soluble calcium and magnesium salts present in water. During present investigation, the total hardness ranged between 101.0 to 280 mg/l in Lower Lake and 154.0 to 243.0 mg/l in Mansarovar Lake. The prevalence of helminth parasites showed positive relationship with total hardness in Lower Lake while negative relationship in Mansarovar Lake. Wisniewski (1958) also stated that the parasitic fauna of any water body consists of two groups of parasites typical and less typical of its biocoenosis. The typical parasites are at the same time more numerous and represented by more specimens while those less typical are less numerous and represented by fewer helminths. In the present investigation, Clinostomum complanatum, Euclinostomum heterostomum, Senga sp., Eustrongylides larvae sp. and Pallisentis sp. are considered as typical parasites found in Nandus nandus,
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Channa punctatus, C. striatus, Mystus spp. and Mastacembalus armatus. Whereas metacercariae of Neascus type of larvae, Azygia sp. and Bothriocephalus sp. which were found only rarely are considered less typical parasites of the hosts. The observed changes in the prevalence of helminth parasites of the fishes may be correlated with the change in behavior of fish accompanied by feeding habits as well as the change in physico–chemical and biological communities of lotic environment. As young fish, which are pelagic and feed on planktonic copepods or ostracods act as intermediate hosts. Once the fish change to benthic life and start feeding on benthic invertebrates and fishes, the rate of infestation decreases. Thus physico–chemical parameters directly and indirectly influence the distribution of helminth parasites as well as affect the development of larval forms and alteration of generation from one host to another.
Acknowledgement First author is thankful to Department of Zoology and Applied Aquaculture, Barkatullah University, Bhopal for providing infrastructure facilities. Table 1 Showing the mean (± standard deviation) and coefficient of correlation between the prevalence of helminth parasites and various ecological parameters S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
Lower Lake
Mansarovar Lake
Parameters Atmospheric temperature (ºC) Water temperature (ºC) Conductivity (µmhos/cm) Total dissolved solids (mg/l) Hydrogen-ionconcentration Free carbon dioxide (mg/l) Phenolphthalein alkalinity (mg/l) Total alkalinity (mg/l) Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) Chloride (mg/l) Calcium hardness (mg/l) Total hardness (mg/l) Helminth prevalence in %
Mean ±SD 26.38± 4.86
Correlation coefficient 0.142 (0.820)
Mean ±SD 25.90± 6.91
Correlation coefficient - 0.119 (0.849)
25.31± 2.59
0.159 (0.798)
25.20± 3.27
- 0.178 (0.775)
276.87± 52.07
- 0.132 (0.833)
196.8± 33.89
- 0.094 (0.880)
137.08± 27.63
0.243 (0.694)
100.4± 11.37
- 0.282 (0.646)
7.98± 0.26
- 0.589 (0.296)
8.1± 0.22
9.84± 3.87
- 0.649 (0.236)
14.04±1.49
- 0.385(0.522)
13.04± 1.50
- 0.264 (0.667)
-
-
172.16± 44.68
0.309 (0.613)
160.6± 29.74
- 0.211 (0.734)
6.80±1.22
- 0.341 (0.574)
7.94±0.83
0.83 (0.894)
37.05± 12.86 120.0± 29.08
0.102 (0.870) 0.474 (0.419)
26.60± 6.89 112.6± 10.76
- 0.454 (0.443) - 0.830 (0.082)
178.54± 51.03
0.445 (0.453)
196.2± 14.16
- 0.705 (0.183)
34.32± 0.44
-
32.64± 0.40
-
0.631 (0.254)
References APHA (1995): Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. Published jointly by American Public Health Association, American water works Association and water pollution control federation, New York (10th Ed.), pp. 1 – 1268. Boyed, C. E. (1979): Water Quality in warm water fish ponds. Cable, R.M. (1977): An illustrated laboratory manual of parasitology, 5th ed. Burgess Publishing Campany, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Dzikowski, R., Diamant, A. and Paperna, I. (2003). Trematode metacercariae of fishes as sentinels for a changing limnological environment. Dis. Aquat. Org. 55: 145 – 150. Galli, P., Crosa, G., Mariniello, L., Ortis, M. and Amelio, S.D. (2001): Water quality as a determinant of the composition of fish parasite communities. Hydrobiologia, 452: 173 – 179.
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Goater, C. P., Baldwin, R. E. and Scrimgeour, G. J. (2005): Physicochemical determinants of helminths component community structure in whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformes) from adjacent lakes in Northern Alberta, Canada. Parasitology, 131: 713 – 722. Golterman, H. L., Glymo, R.S. and Ohstad, M.A.M. (1978): Methods for chemical analysis of freshwater. IBP handbook No. 8, second Ed., Blackwell Scientific Publication, Oxford, pp. 172. Hakalahti, T., Karvonen, A. and Valtonen, E.T. (2006): Climate warming and disease ricks in temperate regions – Argulus coregoni and Diplostomum spathaceum as case study. Journal of Helminthology. 80: 93-98. Hartmann, J. and Numann, W. (1977): Percids of Lake Constance, a lake undergoing eutrophication. Journal of Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 34: 1670 – 1677. Hirschfield, M.F., Morin, R.P. and Hepner, D.J. (1983): Increased prevalence of larval Eustronglyoides (Nematoda) in the mummichog, Fundulus herterclitus (L.) from the discharge canal of a power plant in Chesapeake Bay. Journal of Fish Biology, 23: 135 – 142. Hutchinson, G. E. (1957): A Treatise on Limnology. New York: Wiley. p. 1015 Jackson, J. A., Tinsley, R. C. and Du Preez, L. H. (2001): Differentiation of two locally sympatric Protopolystoma (Monogenea: Polystomatidae) species by temperature-dependent larval development and survival. International Journal of Parasitology, 31: 815 – 821. Kennedy, C. R. (1995): Richness and diversity of macroparasite communities in tropical eels Anguilla reinhardtii in Queenland, Australia. Parasitology, 111: 233 – 245. Madhavi, R., Vijayalakshmi, C. and Shyamasundari, K. (2007): Collection, Staining and identification of Different Helminth Parasites: A Manual of the Workshop on Fish Parasites- Taxonomy Capacity Building. Andhra University Press, India. Meyer, M.C. and Olsen, O.W. (1975): Essentials of Parasitology. 2nd ed. Wm. C. Brown Co. Iowa. 1-303 pp. Sahai, R. and Sinha, A.B. (1969): Investigation on bio-ecology of inland waters of Gorrakpur (U.P.), India. Hydrobiologia, 34: 433 – 447. Sprent, J. F. A. (1992): Parasites lost? International Journal of Parasitology, 22:139 – 151. Stromberg, P.C. and Crites, J.L. (1975): Population biology of Camallanus oxycephalus Ward and Magath, 1916 (Nematoda: Camallanidae) in Western Lake Erie. Journal of Parasitology, 61: 123-132. Tubbs, L. A., Poortenaar, C.W., Sewell, M.A. and Diggles, B.K. (2005): Effects of temperature on fecundity in vitro, egg hatching and reproductive development of Benedenia seriolae and Zeuxapta seriolae (Monogenea) parasitic on yellowtail kingfish Seriola lalandi. International Journal of Parasitology 35: 315-327. Valtonen, E. T., Holmes, J.C. and Koskivaara, M. (1997): Eutrophication, pollution and fragmentation: effect on the parasite communities in roach (Rutilus rutilus) and perch (Perca fluviatilis) in four lakes in Central Finland. Can. J. fish. Aquat. Sci. 54: 572 – 585. Welch, P.S. (1952): Limnology: McGraw Hill book Company, New York, Toronto and London (2nd Ed.), pp 538. Wisniewski, W. L. (1958): Characterization of parasite fauna of an eutrophic lake. Acto. Parasitol., 6: 1 - 64.
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Chapter-V-25 Studies on fungal population of Halali reservior with respect to environmental condition and its impact on fishes Rekha Chauhan & Meena Bankhede Department of Zoology & Applied Aquaculture, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India Email: neerusurya@rediffmail.com Abstract The present investigation was carried out to study the fungal population in Halali reservoir and its affect on fishes collected from same water body. Analysis of water sample have also been carried out to find out the affect of environmental change on fungal growth on water and on fishes. During the study period from Nov. 2011 to Oct. 2012, 21 species of aquatic fungi belong to 7 genera were isolated from water and 11 species belong to 6 genera were isolated from skin, fins & gills of infected fishes viz Catla catla, Channa panctatus, C.striatus, Labeo. Rohita, Mystus cavasius, M.seenghala and Notopterus notopterous. Total 51 isolates have been found from water and maximum isolates were recorded during winter months which belong to genus Sapleolegnia followed by Achlya. Low values of Temperature, pH, DO, favours fungal growth and infection in fishes. Other parameters like Conductivity, TDS, Alkalinity, Hardness, Nitrate and Chloride does not show marked relation with fungal population and infection in fishes. Keywords: fungal population, water quality, fish infection.
Introduction The distribution and frequency of aquatic fungi in relation to various environmental conditions have been investigated by many authors Srivastava GC (1967), Johnson (1977), Willoughby et al. (1983) , EIHissy (1991), Khulbe (1993), Rajanika et al.(2009) and Paliwal and Sati (2009). Fungal growth and its activity is affected by several environmental factors such as dissolved nutrients in water, Suberkropp and Chauvet (1995) Gulis and Suberkropp (2003), temperature and pH. Mer et al. (1980), Mishra and Dwivedi (1987) and Suberkropp (1998). Generally low to moderate nutrient concentrations stimulate fungal activity, Gullis et al. (2006) The zoosporic fungi are known as watermolds. The study of watermolds have been carried out by Seymour (1970), Klich and Tiffany (1985), Manoharachary (1991), Sati (1997) and Chauhan (2012a,b).Fungal infection in fishes is an important economic and limiting factor in intensive fish production and it is largely determined by quality of water in which they have been cultured ,Sati (1991). Studies on fungal infection of fishes have been reported by Khulbe et al.(1995), Qureshi et al.(2002) and Chauhan (2012a,b) Many fungi cause disease that can infect and kill the fishes. Among various aquatic fungi, Oomycetes have special importance because of their affect on fish health and following economic losses, West (2006). In different types of mycotic infections Saprolegniasis is the most common and trouble making infection of fresh water fishes, Hussien et al.(2001). The aim of present study is to find out the effect of changes in water quality on the growth of fungi and its infection in fishes when they are already under stress due to changes in environmental conditions and coping with that change, Along with that study also reveals the richest species of fungi in water as well as on fish. The study also aimed which part of fish body is most susceptible to infection.
Materials and Methods Study site Halali Reservoir is a major irrigation-cum-flood control reservoir which is constructed across Halali river, a tributary of river Betwa. It is situated at about 50 km away from Bhopal and lies at 23° 40’N latitude and 76° 33’E longitude. On most of its sides it is surrounded by agricultural land. It is used for irrigation and fish culture. Water samples were collected from the selected water bodies as a composite samples, monthly from November 2011 to October. 2012. These samples were brought to the laboratory for isolation of fungi and to analyze physio-chemical parameters . For isolation of fungi samples were kept with baits in incubator under controlled conditions. The temperature maintained was 17±2 °C, on the same day of sampling water analysis have been carried out, temperature , pH, TDS, conductivity have been recorded at the site itself rest of the parameters were analyzed with he help of methods of APHA (1998) . The fungal isolates of water were then purified by preparing cultures on media plates and for the growth of reproductive structure again small pieces of media with fungal hyphae have been baited with different baits. These pure cultures were then identified with the help of standard monographs of Coker (1923), Johnson (1956), Dick (1990) and Khulbe (2001). The fungal
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infected fish with external symptom were collected in polythene bags and brought to the laboratory for further examination. These fishes were kept in aquaria containing tap water. These fishes were then examined grossly for symptoms of mycotic infections on skin, fins, gills and internal organs (gut, liver, kidney). Fungal analysis of fish was carried out on the basis of external symptoms and then isolation from fish body by preparing cultures. A small tissues from different part of fish sample was incubated on the plates containing potato dextrose agar and glucose yeast agar. For identification cultures were prepared on baits and identified with the help of monographs and hand books of Von Arx (1981) and Khulbe (2001). Table-1: Fungi isolated from halali reservoir. S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
FUNGI A.americana A.apiculata A.hypogyana A.klebsiana A.orion A.prolifera All.anomalus Aph.laevis Asp.fumigatus Asp.niger A.sydowi D.sterile Fu.sp. L.caudata Py.afertile Py.debaryanum Py.undulatum S.diclina S.ferax S.parasitica
N + + + + + + + + +
D + + + + + + + +
J + + + + + + + + -
F + + + + + -
M + + -
A + + + + +
M + -
J + -
J + -
A + -
S + + + + -
O + + + + -
21. S.furcata + (+) present (-) absent A.-Achlya,All.-Allomyces, Aph.Aphnomyces,Asp.-Aspergillus,D.-Dictyuchus,Fu.-Fusarium, L.Leptolegnia, Py.-Pythium,S.-Saprolegnia
+
Table-2. Water quality parameters of Halali reservoir from nov.2011 to oct 2012. S.No.
Parameters
N
D
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
1.
Temperature 째C
18
15
14
17
20
28
30
28
22
21
22
20
2.
pH
8.1
7.9
8.4
8.7
8.9
8.2
9.0
8.4
7.8
8.0
8.4
8.0
3.
D.O mg/l.
8.0
7.3
7.5
8.8
9.0
8.9
10.2
9.0
6.0
8.9
6.9
7.2
4.
CO2 mg/l.
-
6
7
16.5
-
2.0
-
-
4.0
-
8.0
10.0
5.
Conductivity us/cm TDS mg/l
261
248
250
284
262
339
352
342
289
247
254
259
136
164
176
183
196
201
210
200
123
109
162
143
Phenopthalien mg /l. Total Alkalinity mg/l. Ca hardness mg/l Mg hardness
12
7
5
9
11
39
31
27
24
29
16
10
121
117
92
89
121
146
243
247
116
92
102
119
109
104
93
99
81
100
110
132
112
59
141
120
15
36
31
30
42
39
88
135
12
04
13
34
6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
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mg/l 11.
124
140
124
129
123
139
198
267
124
63
173
154
12.
Total hardness mg/l Chloride mg/l
22
17
15
20
24
36
44
61
37
18
29
27
13.
Nitrate mg/l
2.2
2.4
2.9
2.6
1.9
1.4
1.3
1.0
0.9
0.2
2.2
2.0
(-) Nil Table-3. Fungi isolated from infected fishes collected from nov.2011 to oct. 2012.
Halali reservoir during different seasons from
Fishes winter spring summer rainy autum Catla.catla Py.af/S.f All.an/Py.un Channa punctatus A.a/S.p C.striatus A.pr/S.f/S.p P.un/S.p Labeo Rohita P.af/S.f Paf S.d Mystus cavasius S.p All.an Py.un/S.p M. seenghala Dy.s Asp.fu/Asp.ni A.a/A/pr Notopterus S.f/S.p notopterus A.a( Achlya Americana), A.pr( Achlya prolifera), All.an (Allomyces anomalus), Asp.fu.( Aspergillus fumigatus), Asp.ni(Aspergillus niger),Dy.s (Dictyuchus sterile), Py.af (Pythiumafertile),Py.un (Pythium undulatum),S.d (Saprolegnia diclina), S.f(Saprolegnia ferax),Sp.(Saprolegnia parasitica) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Table-4 Fungi isolated from external and internal organs of fishes S.No. Fungal Strains 1. Achlya americana 2. Achlya prolifera 3. Allomycers anomalus 4. Aspergillus fumigatus 5. Aspergillus niger 6. Dictyuchus sterile 7. Pythium afertile 8. Pythium undulatum 9. Saprolegnia diclina 10. Saprolegnia ferax 11. Saprolegnia parasitica s- skin, f- fins, g- gills
External + s, f, g + s, f, g + s + s + s, f ,g + s + s ,f, g + s + s ,f + s ,f + s, f, g
Internal + +
(a) (b) Fig 1- (a) Fish body completely covered with hyphae of Saprolegnia parasitica. (b) Shows de-scaling due to mycotic infection.
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FIG-2 (%)PERCENTAGE OF FUNGI ISOLETED FROM INFECTED FISHES A.am.
A.pr
All.an
Asp.fu.
Asp.ni.
Dy. S.
Py. af
Py.un
S.d
S.f
S.p.
9% 21% 18% 9% 2% 6%
3% 6%
16% 8% 2%
Fig. 2: Percentage of fungi isolated from infected fishes.
Results and Discussion The results in table-1 shows that from water of Halali Reservoir, Seven genera of aquatic fungi have been isolated. These genera namely Achlya, Allomyces, Aphanamyces, Aspergillus, Dictyuchus, Fusarium, Leptolegnia, Pythium and Saprolegnia. These genera contributed 21 species of fungi. the richest period of fungal growth were winter month and poorest number of isolates were recorded during summer and rainy seasons. Total 51 isolates have been recorded maximum species belong to genus Achlya. During the period of study genus Saprolegnia and, Achlya were of high frequency contributing 11 and 10 isolates respectively. The fluctuations in water parameters during different months of study period depicted in table-2. Temperature ranged between 14-30째C, pH 7.8-9.0, Dissolved oxygen 6.0-10.2mg/l, Free CO2 nil to 165 mg/l, Conductivity 247-352um/cm, Total Dissolved solids 109-210 mg/l, Phenolphthalein alkalinity 5-39 mg/l, Total alkalinity 89-247 mg/l, Ca hardness 59-13 mg/l, Mg hardness 04-135 mg/l, Total hardness 63-267 mg/l, Chloride 15-61 mg/l, Nitrate 0.2-2.9 mg/l. The results support the fact that physicochemical variables of the habitats govern the occurrence distribution, seasonal periodicity and saprophytic or parasitic activity of watermolds Suzuki (1960) Khulbe (1980) Khulbe and Bhargava (1981) and Manoharachary (1981). In the present study maximum members of water molds isolated belong to family Saprolegniaceae which is in support with the studies of Scott and O`Warren (1964) Wilson and Lilly (1958) and Khulbe (1992). Low temperature, pH and D.O values favours fungal growth in present study. Other parameters did not show any marked variations. It is evident from the results presented in Table-3 that from the infected fishes examined during the study period, total seven species of fishes found infected viz. Catla catla, Channa punctatus, C.striatus, Labeo Rohita, Mystus cavasius, M.seenghala and Notopterus notopterus. From these infected fishes 11 species of fungi have been isolated which belong to six genera namely Achlya, Allomyces, Aspergillus, Dictynchus. Pythium and Saprolegnia. During the examination twenty six isolates have been recorded. Infection was recorded higher during winter and autumn months and during summer and rainy seasons none of the specimen was found infected. Most frequent genera of fungi isolated from fishes was Saprolagnia. The relation of some physiochemical parameters of reserviour ecosystem with disease incidences was found to be depicted. Maximum diseased fishes were found when temperature and pH were low with low amount of dissolved oxygen. This study is in support with the observations of Prabhu and Balasubranium (2012) and Prasad et al. (2009). Infection in fishes may be mainly due to sudden decrease in temperature and a significant number of pathogenic zoospheres in water because during summer and rainy seasons infection was minimium or almost nil. Low temperature delay the immunity of fishes which may be one of the cause of mycotic infections Robert et al. (2003). Since Saprolegnia is considered as widely adapted species of fungi and major component of parasitic flora Roberts et al. (2003) .During present study maximum isolates belongs to genus Saprolegnia. Chauhan (2012) also reported saprolegnia a most common parasitic fungi of fishes. Since
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other parameters like alkalinity, hardness, chloride does not show any direct relation but fluctuations in these parameters create unsuitable conditions in aquatic habitat which affect the fishes with mycotic infections. The data presented in table-4 depicted that maximium species were recorded from the skin of infected fishes while gills and fins showed comparatively less number of fungal infections. Only two species namely Saprolegnia parastica and Aspergillus niger leads to internal and external infection of fish. Fadaeifard et al. (2011) also reported Aspergillus as internal fungus. The skin is the most affected part of the fish body due to loss of mucous with the decrease in temperature and changes in other parameters, Robert et al. (2003),Fig-1. Out of total fungal strains isolated from fishes, (21%) belong to Saprolegnia parasitica which was a leading fungi followed by Achlya prolifera (18%) and Aspergillus niger (16%)respectively. Allomyces anomalus and Dictyuchus sterile showed poorest presence in fish infection which is (2%) from each species. Bruno and Wood (1994) reported Saprolagnia spp. has great impact on aqua culture. Fig- 2
Acknowledgment My sincere thanks to DST (WOS-A), New Delhi for providing me funds for completion of my work.
References APHA (1998). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. American Public Health Association. Washington D C. Chauhan R (2012a). Fungal disease of fishes. LAP publishing, Germany, 20. P-184. Chauhan R (2012b). Study on certain fungal diseases in culturable and non-culturable species of fishes of Upper lake , Bhopal. J. of Chemical, Biological and Physical sciences.vol.2, No.4, 1810-1815. Chauvet E and Sabkropp K (1998). Temperature and sporulation of aquatic hypomycetes. Applied Environmental Microbiology, 64, 1522-1525. Coker WC (1923). The Saprolegniaceae with notes on other water molds. Dick M W (1990). Key to Pythium, Department of Botany, Univ. of Reading, U.K:64. EL-Hissy, Farad T, Rauf A and Khalil M (1991). Distribution and seasonal occurrence of aquatic Phycomycetes in water and submerged mud in EL-Ibrahim Canal .J of Islamic Academy of Sciences 4:311316. Fadaeifard F, M Raissy, Bahrami H, Rahmi E and Ahmed N (2011). Fresh water fungi isolated from eggs and broodstocks with an emphasis on Saprolegnia in rainbow trout farms in west Iran. African j. of microbiology research vol.4 (22),pp 3647-3651. Gullis V and Suberkropp K. (2003). Interactions between stream fungi and bacteria associated with decomposing leaf litter at different levels of nutrient availability. Aquatic Microbiology Ecology, 30, 149157. Hussain M, Hatai K and Namura T (2001). Saprolegniasis in Salmonid and their eggs in Japan J . Wild Dis. 37 (1),204-207. Johson T W(1977). Aquatic fungi of Scandinavi. Some species of Aphanomyces Bot. Motiser,129 :351-366. Johnson T W (1956). The genus Achlya, Morphology and Taxonomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor p 180. Khulbe R D (1980).Occurrence of watermolds in some lakes of Nanital, Kumaun hill, India, Hydrobiologia, 74(1):77-80. Khulbe R D (1992). Watermolds and their activity in Kumaun Himalaya, India. Water Sci.Tech,26:2595-2598. Khulbe R D (1993). The Parasitic watermolds. Publ. Almora, Book Depot. Almora, pp144. Khulbe R D and Bhargava K S (1981).Studies in parasitic watermolds of Kumaun Himalaya: The host range of species of olphidiopsis. Hydrobiologia.54: 67-72. Khulbe R D, Joshi c and Bhist G S (1995). Fungal diseases in Nanak sagar lake, Nanital. Mycopathologia, 130: 71-74. Khulbe R D (2001). Amannual of aquatic fungi. Daya Publishing House, Delhi (book). Khulbe R.D. joshi C and Bhist G S (1995). Fngal diseases in Nanaksagar lake Nanital mycopathologia,130; 7174. Klish M A and Tiffany L H (1985). Distribution and Seasonal occurrence of aquatic Saprolegniaceae in north west lowa, Mycologia,77 (30) 373-380. Manoharachary C(1991). Aquatic Myco- Ecology from India, an overview. In Current Trends in Limnology1,79-90. Manoharachary C (1981). The Taxonomy and ecology of fresh water Phycomycetes from India. Indian Review Life Sci.,1:3-21. Mer G S, Sati S C and Khulbe R D (1980). Occurrence, distribution and seasonal periodicity of aquatic fungi of Sat Tal , India, Hydrobiol, 76. 200-205.
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Mishra R C and Dwivedi R S (1987).Aquatic molds from Gurjar Lake Jaunpur-2.J. Ind.Bot.Soc,66:203-208. Paliwal P C and Sati S C (2009). Distribution of aquatic fungi in relation to physico- Chemical factors of Kosi River in Kumaun, Himalayas, Nature and Science,7 (3),70-74. Prabhu P and Balasubramnian U (2012). Analysis of physic-chemical parameters and fungal population in various tissues of Catla catla. Pelagia Research Library. Advances in Applied Science Research,3 (4),21032107. Qureshi T A, Chauhan R and Mastan S A (2002). Experimental infection of Saprolegnia spp. On different species of fish. J.Nat.Con, vol.14 (2),385-388. Rajanika, Prasad D, Hoskeri J and Krishna V (2009). Diversity of aquatic fungi in relation to environmental conditions in Tunga river (South India) Researcher,1: 6. Robert M, David J Wiseand Terhane J S (2003). Saprolegniasis (winter fungus) and Branchiomycosis of commercially cultured channel cat fish. Sati S C (1991). Aquatic fungi parasitic on temperate fishes of Kumaun Himalaya, India, Mycoses, 34(9-10) 437-441. Sati S C (1997). Diversity of aquatic fungi in Kumaun Himalaya, Zoosporic fungi. In recent researches in ecology. Environment and Pollution,vol10:1-16. Scott W W and Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Warren (1964).Studies on host range and chemical control of fungi associated with diseased tropical fish. Bull. Agric.Exp.Sta. 171:1-24. Seymour RL(1970). The genus Saprolegnia. Nova Hewigia.Z.Kryptogamekd,19:1-124. 35 .Srivastava G C (1967). Ecological studies on some aquatic fungi of Gorakhpur, India. Hydrobiologia,30:281-292. Suberkropp K and Chauvet E (1995). Regulation of leaf breakdown by fungi in streams: Influences of water chemistry. Ecology.76,1433-1445. Suzuki, (1960). Seasonal variation in amount of zoospores of aquatic Phycomycetes in lake S. Bot. Mao(Tokyo),73:483-486. Von Arx JA (1981). The genera of fungisporulating in pure culture. Vaduz, Germany, J.Cramer p.424. West P V (2006). Saprolegnia parasitica, an Oomycete pathogen with a fishy apetite, New challenges for an old problem, Mycologist,20(3) 99-104. Willoughby L G, Grury Mc Grory C B and Pickering A D (1983).Zoospores germination of Saprolegnia pathogenic to fish. Trans Br Mycol Soc,80:421-435. Wilson E M and Lilly V G (1958). The utilization of oligo-saccharides by some species of Ceratocysts. Mycologia, 50:376-389. *********
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Chapter- V-26 Histopathological changes in the gills of freshwater murrel, Channa striatus (Bloch) exposed to Lead nitrate Shivani Sharma1, Sadhna Tamot2 & Vipin Vyas3 1 Department of Zoology and Applied Aquaculture, B.U., Bhopal, M.P., India 2 Department of Zoology, Sadhu Vaswani College, Bairagarh, Bhopal, M.P., India 3 Department of Environmental Science and Limnology, B.U., Bhopal, M.P., India Email: shivanifisheries@gmail.com Abstract The present investigation was carried out on the gills of freshwater murrel, Channa striatus after exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of 30 mg/l and 50 mg/l of Lead nitrate for the period of 30 and 60 days under laboratory conditions. The resultant histopathological changes in the gills were recorded by light microscope. Gills histopathological analysis revealed rupture of gill epithelium and hypertrophy of epithelial cells after 30 days of 30 mg/l lead nitrate exposure and after 60 days fishes exhibited disruption of tips of the gill lamellae which results in complete fusion of gill lamellae and edema in the filamentary epithelium. In 50mg/l concentration after 30 days, gill lamellae lost their normal structure, hemorrhage at primary lamellae and proximal portion of gill lamellae has got swollened whereas, lifting of epithelial linings from the surface of secondary lamellae, fusion of secondary lamellae and degeneration of lamellar epithelium were recorded after 60 days. In long run, therefore, Lead nitrate exposure to even sub-lethal concentrations may pose serious threat to fish health and affect their population. Keywords: Channa striatus, Gills, Histopathology, Toxicity, Lead nitrate
Introduction Metal contamination in the environment is an ongoing problem, particularly in aquatic environments, and there has been extensive investigation of metal effects on aquatic organisms (Niyogi and Wood, 2004). A great variety of pollutants affect the majority of water course which receive domestic, industrial and agricultural effluents. The contamination of freshwater with heavy metals such as lead has become a matter of great concern over the past decades not only because of their threat to public water supplies but also because of the damage caused to aquatic life especially fishes. Main sources of lead pollution of aquatic ecosystems are the industrial discharge, atmospheric fall out and sewage effluents. Toxicity of lead in the lung-breathing animals is generally manifested through the contaminated air. In fish, the toxicity of lead is however induced via the gills, which are their main respiratory organs. Keeping this in mind, the gills have widely been used as bio-indicator not only to detect lead toxicity (Parashar and Banerjee, 2002) but also for analyses of several other pollutants (Nath et al., 1989; Munshi and Singh, 1992; Chandra and Banerjee, 2004). The gills are not only the prime organs for gaseous exchange; they also perform several other physiological functions including osmoregulation and excretion. Recent review articles on ambient toxicants in fish have clearly demonstrated that increased concentrations of several heavy metals seriously damage the gills of teleostean fish (Wenderlaa, 1997). Hyperplasia of epithelial cells that resulted in the fusion of many lamellae and curling at the tip of the gill lamellae and observed the exposure of fresh water fish to lead was observed (Park and Heo, 2009). Histopathological changes of gills such as hyperplasia and hypertrophy, epithelial lifting, aneurysm and increase in mucus secretion have been reported after the exposure of fish to a variety of noxious agents in the water, such as pesticides, phenol and heavy metal (Nowak, 1992).
Materials and Methods Fish Collection Freshwater fish, Heteropneustes fossilis, of relatively same size ranging from (12-15cm) and weight (35-40gm) were procured from local fish markets of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Experimental Fish Before introducing in the aquarium, fishes were treated with 0.1KMnO4 solution to remove any dermal infection. Fishes were acclimatized in tap water for a week and during this period the fishes were fed with
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chopped meat and the medium were replaced daily. After acclimatization fishes were kept in different concentrations (6mg/l and 9mg/l) of lead nitrate in different aquaria and water of each aquarium was changed on every 5thh day and lead nitrate was maintained throughout the experiment duration of 60 days. Histopathological procedure On the 30th and 60th day of the exposure of different concentrations of lead nitrate, both fish from control and treated groups were sacrificed by giving a sharp blow on the head and dissected out and gills were removed and washed in saline water to remove blood and fixed in 10% formalin for 24 hrs. The tissues were washed with distilled water and then dehydrated through graded series of of ethanol, sectioned at a thickness of 5-6 5 micron thickness, mounted and stained with Haemotoxylin and Eosin for examination under light microscope.
Result Histopathological studies Gills of control fish (Channa Channa striatus) striatus show a histological picture similar lar to that of a normal fish with the lamellae are lined by a squamous epithelium composed by pavement and non-differentiated non differentiated cells. Below that epithelium are lamellar blood sinuses separated by pillar cells. Between the lamellae, the filament is lined by a thick stratified epithelium constituted by several cellular types, such as chloride, mucous and pavement cells (Fig.1). Gills histopathological analysis revealed rupture of gill epithelium and hypertrophy of epithelial cells after 30 days of 30 mg/l leadd nitrate exposure (Fig.2) ( ) and after 60 days fishes exhibited disruption of tips of the gill lamellae which results in complete fusion of gill lamellae and edema in the filamentary epithelium (Fig.3). ( In 50mg/l concentration after 30 days, gill lamellae lost their normal structure, hemorrhage at primary lamellae and proximal portion of gill lamellae has got swollened (Fig.4). ( ). After 60 days, lifting of epithelial linings from the surface of secondary lamellae, fusion of secondary lamellae and degeneration of lamellar epithelium were recorded (Fig.5).
Fig.1 Photomicrograph of the gill of normal fish, 100X.
Fig.2 Photomicrograph of the gill of 30mg/l of lead nitrate intoxication after 30 days showing rupture of gill epithelium and hypertrophy of epithelial cells, 400X.
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Fig.3 Photomicrograph of the gill of 30mg/l of lead nitrate intoxication after 60 days showing disruption of tips of the gill lamellae which results in complete fusion of gill lamellae and edema in the filamentary epithelium, 400X.
Fig.4 Photomicrograph of the gill of 50mg/l of lead nitrate intoxication after 30 days showing gill lamellae lost their normal structure, hemorrhage at primary lamellae and proximal portion of gill lamellae has got swollened, 400X.
Fig.5 Photomicrograph of the gill of 50mg/l of lead nitrate intoxication after 60 days showing lifting of epithelial linings from the surface of secondary lamellae, fusion of secondary lamellae and degeneration of lamellar epithelium, 400X.
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Discussion The present study revealed that lead nitrate exposure induced histopathological alterations in the gills of a freshwater fish, Channa striatus, severity of the lesions was dose and duration dependent. Under present investigation, it has been observed histological study of the gills shows a typical structural organization of the lamella in the untreated fish. However, fish exposed to 30mg/l and 50 mg/l lead nitrate for 30 and 60 days shows several histological alterations like gill lamellae lost their normal structure, hypertrophy and at few places, degeneration of lamellar epithelium, disruption of tips of the gill lamellae, hemorrhage at primary lamellae and proximal portion of gill lamellae has got swollened, lifting of epithelial linings from the surface of secondary lamellae and fusion of secondary lamellae. This observation is in agreement with the findings of Prashar and Banerjee (2002) which resulted lifting of lamellar epithelium, fusion of gill lamellae, disintegration of laminar axis and disruption of gill tips in the gill of air breathing catfish Heteropneustes fossilis exposed to 6.2mg/l lead nitrate for different duration. Similarly, shortened, deshaped and fused gill lamellae are the histological changes found in fishes exposed to lead nitrate by several authors (Prashar and Banerjee, 1999a; Peuranen et al., 1994; Dutta et al., 1996and Wenderlaar Bonga, 1997). Athikesavan et al. (2006) stated that nickel showed a tissue specific alteration in the tissues, mucus proliferation, fusion of the gill lamellae and hypertrophy of gill tissue were observed in fresh water fish Hypothalamichthys molitrix sub-lethal exposed to nickel. Mallatt (1985) observed disruption of gill tips and fusion of gill lamellae in Oreochromis niloticus exposed to 2.7mg/l lead nitrate for 28 days. Wilson (2002) observed lifting of lamellar epithelium, fusion of gill lamellae, disintegration of laminar axis and lamellar aneurism in the gills of Cyprinus carpio exposed to 2.5, 3.5, and 4.5mg/l lead nitrate for 90 days.
Conclusion Exposure to sublethal concentrations of Lead nitrate, thus, caused dose and duration dependent histopathological alterations in the gills of Channa striatus. The lesions have resulted in physiologic and metabolic dysregulations. In the long run, therefore, lead nitrate exposures to even sub-lethal concentrations may pose serious threat to fish health and affect their population.
Acknowledgement The authors are grateful to Head, Department of Zoology & Applied Aquaculture, Barkatullah University Bhopal India, for his valuable guidance for carrying out this work.
References Athikesavan, S., S. Vincent, T. Ambrose and B. Velmurugan, 2006. Nickel induced histopathological changes in the different tissues of freshwater fish, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes). J. Environ. Biol., 27: 391-395. Chandra, S., Banerjee, T. K., (2004). Histopathological analysis of the respiratory organs of Channa striata subjected to air exposure. Veter Arhiv., 74: 37-52. Dutta, H.M; Roy, P.K. and Killius,J (1996). Ultrastructural changes in the respiratory lamellae of the catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis after sublethal exposure to melathion. Experimental Pollution, 93:329-341. Mallatt, J., 1985. Fish gill structural changes induced by toxicants and other irritants: a statistical review. Canadian Journal of Fisheries, 42: 630-648. Munshi, J. S. D., Singh, A., (1992). Scanning electron microscopic evaluation of effects of low pH on gills of Channa punctatus (Bloch). J. Fish Biol., 41: 83-89. Nath, K., Kumar, N., Srivastav, A. K., (1989). Chromium induced histological alterations in the gills of a freshwater teleost, Colisa fasciatus. The Science of the Total Environment, 80: 293-296. Niyogi, S. and C.M Wood, 2004. Biotic ligand model, a flexible tool for developing site specific water quality guidelines for metals. Environ. Sci. Tech., 38: 6177-6192. Nowak, B.F., J. Deavin, G. Sarjito, and B.L. Munday, 1992. Scanning electron microscopy in aquatic toxicology. J. Computer-Assisted Microsc., 4: 241-246. Parashar, R. S., Banerjee, T. K., (2002). Toxic impact of lethal concentration of lead nitrate on the gills of airbreathing catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch). Vet Arhiv., 72: 167-183. Parashar, R.S and Banerjee, T.K. (1999a). Histological analysis of sublethal toxicity induced by lead nitrate to the accessory respiratory organs of the air breathing telesost, Heteropneutes fossilis (Bloch). Hydrobiology. 46: 194-205. Park, K. and G.J Heo, (2009). Acute and subacute toxicity of copper sulphate and pentahydrate in the guppy (Poecilia reticulata) J.Vet. Med. Sci; 71:333-336. Peuranen, S; Vuorienen, M. and Holeencler, A.(1994). The effect of iron, humic acids and low PH on the gills and physiology of brown trout (Salmo trutta). Zoological Fennici. 31:389-396. Wenderlaar Bonga, S.E., 1997. The stress response in fish. Physiological Review., 77: 591-625. Wilson, M. and P. Laurent, 2002. Fish gill morphology: inside out. J. Exp. Zool., 293: 192-213.
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Chapter-V-27 Recirculation of alum sludge for reduction of optimum alum dose in water treatment process: A green approach for sludge management Kriti Shrivastava* & Smita Joshi Department of Chemistry, Sarojini Naidu Govt. Girls P.G. College, Bhopal, M.P., India Email: kriti10shri@rediffmail.com Abstract In water treatment plants, alum is generally used as a coagulant. After purification of water, alum sludge is generated as waste water which cannot be discharged into surface water bodies or land fill without proper treatment because it can cause immense pollution in different ways and at the same time the valuable coagulant which could otherwise be recovered and reused is lost. The present research work reveals the reuse of this alum sludge by its recirculation along with fresh alum to reduce optimum alum dose for water treatment. In the laboratory, an attempt has been made to find out the effect of various percentage of sludge recirculation say 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% on alum dose required. The experiment was performed on various turbidities. In each experiment optimum alum dose was found out for each type of turbidity, to get final turbidity of supernatant water as 20 mg/L. pH of the supernatant kept around at 7 in all the experiments. There was a considerable reduction of alum dose for higher turbidity. As the turbidity increases, reduction of alum dose required increases. Less turbidities results in less volume of sludge and consequently less reduction in alum dose. Reduction in the optimum alum dose due to recirculation of alum sludge was found to range between 15.0% - 20.0%.
Introduction According to Nature (2010), about 80% of the world's population, 4.8 billion as calculated in 2000 (5.6 billion in 2011) lives in areas with threats to water security. The water security is a shared threat to human and nature and it is pandemic. Human water-management strategies can also affect detrimentally to wildlife. Regions with intensive agriculture and dense population have high threat to water security1. Water treatment describes those processes used to make water more acceptable for a desired end-use. These can include use as drinking water, industrial processes, medical and many other uses. The goal of all water treatment processes is to remove existing contaminants in the water, or reduce the concentration of such contaminants so the water becomes fit for its desired end-use. One such use is returning water that has been used, back into the natural environment without adverse ecological impact. Major concern is that even water treatment plants are playing a role in water pollution when the alum sludge generated is directly discharged into nearby water bodies. It is necessary to establish whether there are any environmental consequences of the alum sludge discharges into natural wetlands and particular concern is the potential long-term effects on the wetland ecosystem and its dependents, bearing in mind possible aluminium toxicity, the buildup of sludge in the sediment and the possible disruption of the phosphorus cycle2. Water treatment plant is also called an industry producing potable water. In water treatment plants, alum is generally used as a coagulant. After purification of water, alum sludge is generated as waste water which cannot be discharged into surface water bodies or land fill without proper treatment because it can cause immense pollution in different ways and at the same time the valuable coagulant which could otherwise be recovered and reused is lost. In the recent years prospects of reusing and recovering alum from clarifier sludge has received considerable attention from water utilities because land disposal of solid waste has emerged as a big problem and minimizing the volume of solid waste to be disposed off is top environmental priority. Alum constitutes 4050% of the total clarifier sludge and hence its reuse and recovery would greatly reduce the amount of solid waste to be disposed. In this way the problem of sludge disposal can be minimized. Alum that is recovered can be reused as a coagulant, thereby reducing operating costs to some extent3.
Materials and Methods In the laboratory, an attempt has been made to find out the effect of various percentage of sludge recirculation say 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% on alum dose required. The experiment was performed on various
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turbidities. In each experiment optimum alum dose was found out for each type of turbidity, to get final turbidity of supernatant water as 20 mg/L. pH of the supernatant kept around at 7 in all the experiments. Optimum alum doses for each turbidity value were found out. For this purpose sample of 500ml was taken in beaker and kept under Jar test machine. Some amount of alum and NaOH were added manually in each beaker and jar test apparatus was started. Flocculation time was kept 15 minutes at a constant speed of 40 rpm. After flocculation time, the stirring was stopped and peddles were removed from the beaker. These stirred samples were let settled for 10 minutes. After settling time, turbidity of supernatant without disturbing the settled sludge was found out with the help of turbidity meter. After finding out the optimum alum doses, supernatant from the beaker was decanted as maximum as possible up to certain constant volume. Sludge obtained was transferred to four cylindrical jar and the next set of experiment was taken with the addition of optimum alum dose and with NaOH for controlling pH. To the known turbidity suspension sludge were added in various percentage like 100%,75%,50% and 25% and the set was kept under jar test machine, for the same flocculation time i.e. 15 minutes and settling time of 10 minutes and the turbidity of supernatant of each beaker was measured. It was found that due to sludge recirculation and optimum alum dose, turbidity was less than 20 mg/L.
Result and Discussion
TURBIDITY VALUE OF TREATED WATER (mg/L)
Alum dose with particular percentage sludge recirculation, which gives turbidity around or nearly 20 mg/L, considered as alum dose required as reduced dose of alum with the effect of particular sludge recirculation. The experimental work clearly showed that for the three water samples taken in rainy, winter and summer seasons, on increasing the volume of sludge with optimum coagulant dose, the turbidity of treated water decreases.
Reduction in Optimum Alum Dose by Recirculating Alum Sludge obtained from Shyamala Water Treatment Plant in Rainy Season (Initial Turbidity of Water Sample=270mg/L) 25 20 15
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VOLUME OF ALUM SLUDGE RECIRCULATED (ml) Figure.1 There was a considerable reduction of alum dose for higher turbidity. As the turbidity increases, reduction of alum dose required increases. Less turbidities results in less volume of sludge and consequently less reduction in alum dose. Reduction in the optimum alum dose due to recirculation of alum sludge was found to range between 15.0% - 20.0%. Maximum reduction in optimum alum dose due to recirculation was found to be 20 % which can lead to a huge saving per day in terms of expenditure on coagulant in Water Treatment Process. In this way, the problem of Sludge Management can be dealt with a greener approach making municipal and industrial water treatment cost effective. The effect of repeated sludge recirculation on the treated water quality requires more work to be done.
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TURBIDITY VALUE OF TREATED WATER (mg/L)
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Reduction in Optimum Alum Dose by Recirculating Alum Sludge obtained from Shyamala Water Treatment Plant in Winter Season (Initial Turbidity of Water Sample=170mg/L)
25 20 15
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Figure.2
Reduction in Optimum Alum Dose by Recirculating Alum Sludge obtained from Shyamala Water Treatment Plant in Summer Season (Initial Turbidity of Water Sample=135mg/L) 20 15 10
Turbidty Reduction for optimum alum dose=65mg/L
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References Gilbert Natasha (2010). Balancing water supply and wildlife . Nature [Online] Available at: http://www.nature.com/news/2010 (Accessed: September 2010). Srinivasan, P.T., Viraraghavan, T and Subramanyam, K.S. (1999). Aluminium In drinking Water : An Overview. Water SA. 25(1), pp. 47. Dhabadgaonkar, S.M. and Bhole, K.S. (1993): Recovery and Reuse of Water and Alum from Water Waste. Jour. IWWA. 1(3), pp.45. Bhole A.G. (1982): Alum Sludge disposal and treatment. Jour. IAWPC. Vol.9.pp.140-148. G. Tyler Miller, Jr. (2005). Living in Environment, principles, Connections and Solutions.13th Ed. Thomos Brooks Cole, pp.30-35.
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Chapter- V-28 Technological UpUp- Gradation of Grey Water Treatment System Varsha Nigam*, Nigam*, Giriraj S. Mandloi, Roopali Gour, Sumit Gautam & Surendra Sarsaiya International Institute of Waste Management (IIWM), Bhopal, M.P., India Email: varsha.nigam13@gmail.com Abstract Grey water recycling is now accepted as a sustainable solution to the general increase of the fresh water demand, water shortages and for environment protection. The present work is to increase the efficiency of the grey water filtration system by selecting appropriate design and use of suitable natural indigenous and synthetic materials. The innovative design/method is considered technical inputs and modifications i.e. different filtration layer, filter materials modification, layer thickness optimization, low maintenance, simple method, and cost effectiveness. It allows safe and sustainable use of grey water for landscape irrigation and non-potable use in small community and households. A single design unit of grey water treatment can provide two grades of water (GW1 & GW2) by using various level of treatment and their respective uses. The quality of grey water (GW2) with less contamination may be re-used for agriculture purpose and (GW1) can be used for cloth washing, floor cleaning, etc. In our research, conventional and economical way of grey water treatment followed by Sand, Charcoal, Gravel and foam covered with PP yarn and/or UV treatment (natural source/ UV lamp) method. In treatment unit, Grey water (before treatment) passes through SS sieve - to remove big food particulates, hair, plastics, and major suspended impurities. The charcoal (silver impregnated) /sand layer remove odour, smell, gases, microbes, Bacteria, hardness, nitrogen, phosphorous, TSS, TDS etc and reduce COD and BOD from waste water. To kill the bacteria, virus and microbes, ultraviolet lamp (with 8-16W) can work inside the quartz tube (allow 90% of the UV radiation pass through) at 253.7 nm wavelength from continuous flow of 1 liter/min of water. The economical performance of grey water showed in terms of deduction competency of water pollutants such as COD (83%), TDS (70%), TSS (83%), total hardness (50%), oil and grease (97%) and ions (46%). Hence, this technology could be an alternative to treat grey water in residential area. Keywords: Grey water treatment unit, natural technology, Sand, Charcoal, Gravel, UV lamp, pollutant.
Introduction With increasing global population, the gap between the supply and demand for water is widening and is reaching such alarming levels that in some parts of the world it is posing a threat to human existence. Alternative sources of water can potentially save significant amounts of precise fresh water. One alternative source of water is grey water. Scientists around the globe are working on new way of conserving water. It is an opportune time, to refocus on one of the technique to recycle water—through the reuse of grey water by economical way. Grey water is non-industrial waste water generated from domestic processes such as washing dishes, laundry and bathing. Grey water is distinct from black water in the amount and composition of its chemical and biological contaminates (from feces or toxic chemicals). Dish, shower, sink, and laundry water comprise 50-80% of residential waste water [1], [2]. Domestic in-house water demand in industrialized countries consists of 30–60% of the urban water demand and ranges between 100 to 150 l/c/d (litre/capita/day), of which 60–70% is transformed into grey water, while most of the rest is consumed for toilet flushing. Grey water reuse for toilet flushing (if implemented) can reduce the in-house net water consumption by 40–60 l/c/d, and urban water demand by up to 10–25%, which is a significant reduction of the urban water demand (additional reuse for garden irrigation may further reduce the overall demand)[3]. Grey water treatment is an environmental friendly process as a control of water pollution. Many people have investigated the various waste water treatment methods extensively on the international and national levels and many researchers tried to reduce the cost for recycling of the water. The household grey water can be reused for other purposes, especially landscape irrigation, floor washing, car washing and toilet flushing. Grey water has some pollutants that are considered as fertilizer for the plants. Phosphorous, nitrogen, and potassium are excellent sources of nutrients when reusing grey water for irrigation of landscaping and gardens. Benefits of grey water include using less fresh water, sending less waste water to septic tanks or treatment plants, less chemical use, groundwater recharge, plant growth, and raises awareness of natural cycles [4] – [8] . Throughout the world, supply of water to the urban and rural population has been a challenging risk. In India, the ‘water shortage’ is one of the major issues coming from the both of areas. Our designed grey water treatment process is like a low technology systems, also called extensive or natural systems, are based on filtration system by selecting appropriate design and use of suitable natural indigenous and synthetic materials.
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Developed unit may be able to recycle 70-80% of the total grey-water produced which saves the potable water used for low grade water need. From single unit, treated water produced will be of two grades - GW1 & GW2 which can be used for different non-potable purposes i.e. gardening, washing, cleaning, etc. The designed greywater treatment unit will be proposed for big housing project through state agencies after its successful development. In presently many researchers work, by incorporating solutions to the existing problems, an innovative design/method is considered in designing the unit along with technical inputs and modifications i.e. different filtration layer, filter materials modification, layer thickness optimization, low maintenance, simple method, cost effectiveness, etc. [9] It allows safe and sustainable use of grey water for landscape irrigation and non-potable use in small community and households. Finally, in providing grey water for reuse, both the demand for drinking water and the amount of wastewater generation can be reduced. It is an important step to fulfill per day water need and finally save the potable water used for low grade need of water. The pollutants of grey water are reduced by a treatment system (laboratory scale) was the aim of this study. This is a socioeconomical treatment method gives the wide significant in the rural and urban development.
Materials and Methods Brief Technical Methodology Present design of grey water treatment unit for a single household (4-5 members) which included optimization of all operating parameters (pH, TDS, TSS, BOD, COD, PO42-, SO42-, NO3-, and NO2- etc.) and selection of filtration materials/process as per the quality of grey water. In single house, the average water consumption is 1200-1500 liters (@ of 300 liters/person/day) and out of total water consumption, about 63% (750 liter) is grey water which can be reused. The grey water mainly contains TSS and TDS which generates BOD and COD along with organic impurities in the form of pathogen, nitrogen, phosphorous etc. The choice of filtration technique and materials may give efficient output and will be based on impurities i.e. organic (oil, pathogens, microbes, viruses, nitrogen, phosphorous, etc) and inorganic (Na, K, etc.) present in grey water. The conceptualization diagram of this treatment unit is present in figure -1. For grey water treatment, experimental research work will be implemented in designing a unit with continuous or intermittent flow of 16-20 liters/hour (with 5-6 liter of GW-holding capacity) of grey-water. Grey water treatment unit comprise of the following parts i.e. SS/plastic sieve, foam with synthetic fiber (pp-yarn), Charcoal, Sand, Gravel/sieve â&#x20AC;&#x201C; support, UV lamp along with plastic and glass tubes, pump, valves, etc. Different stages filtration is proposed in the targeted specification of the materials used (grit, foam and fiber layer sufficient to remove 200/100/50 micron size particle impurities. Grey water (before treatment) pass through 5 - 2 mm mesh SS sieve - to remove big food particulates, hairs, plastics, major suspended impurities. A high density foam or foam with Polypropylene yarn is placed to pre-filter the grey-water to remove more than 70-80% of total suspended solid particle (BOD and COD level to some extend). This filtration will also help to avoid clogging/choking of charcoal/sand layer (particle size â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 200/100/50 microns). A provision will be given for overflow to avoid excess of grey water from inlet flow. The grey water of this quality with less contamination may re-use for agriculture purpose (GW2). Further, to improve the grey water quality (remove odor, smell, microbes, bacteria, nitrogen, phosphorous) for cloth washing use, sand/charcoal (in 1-2 layers with 10-20 cm bed size will be used. The Charcoal (silver impregnated) layer (25 cms approx. height) with particle size range of 0.7-1.0 mm absorb gases and reduce the smell from waste water. The charcoal treated water will pass through sand filter (particle size: 0.1-0.2 mm, bed size: 20 cm approx.) to remove the remaining TSS and TDS in the treated water. The gravel size of 8-12 mm was placed at the bottom layer to prevent material losses and holes blockage. To kill the bacteria, virus and microbes, sunlight (summer season) and in winter season or rainy season, ultraviolet lamp (with 8-16W) can work inside the quartz tube (allow 90% of the UV radiation pass through) at 253.7 nm wavelength from continuous flow of 1 liter/min of water. Also the microfiltration membrane is used for oxidation process of grey water for removing pollutants is mentioned in literature [10]. In between the layers a filter cloth was placed. The reason for this is that the filter cloth prevents the filter materials from mixing and therefore the layers are easier removed from the vessel. The testing at this stage is only done with tap water so the filter cloth does not distort the testing. The quality of grey water (GW1) can be used for cloth washing, floor cleaning, etc. The flow rate of feed raw water was controlled by the manual control valve. The gravitational force was used for the flow of water from primary filtration level to final filtration level. The present method include, sand filtration, and/or charcoal filtration with gravels (to retain the sand and to store water in the filtration system). The problem with such filter is clogging/choking of sand bed with the suspension of particulate impurities present in grey water. Analysis of impurities biomass accumulation and deposition of suspended solid at the surface of sand filter is studied [11]. No proper design in filtration system is introduced to avoid clogging problem in sand filtration. The filtration system consider the selection/combination of sand/gravel/charcoal material with suitable properties i.e. particle size, volume, bed size or layer depth, density, particle distribution. Each material/technique in the proposed unit is responsible for the successful
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removal of impurity at different stages from grey water. The treated water can be used for different purposes i.e. agriculture, cleaning, washing, etc. The main impurities removal targeted through this technique are TSS, TDS, odor, smell, turbidity, nitrogen, phosphorous, bacteria, etc. It is expected from the calculation done for the material/technique that the expected outcome of the proposed unit will be suitable for 16-20 liter/hour of the Grey-water treatment with continuous flow of 5-6 liter. It is also estimated that the less cost and maintenance with enhanced efficiency of the treatment unit will give adaptability to the consumer and users. Recently, in various designs of towers/column,[12, 13] sand and charcoal materials with variable particle size placed in different layers for the treatment of grey water. The treatment method/technique selection is depends on the required treated quality of grey water. Also, the size of the grey water treatment unit/plant will vary with the place of installation i.e. family, community, hotel, building etc. Our Studies will include the following modification in conventional method of grey water treatment: 1. Pre-filtration through foam and cotton mat 2. Sand/Charcoal filtration unit with improved rate of filtration 3. Capacity and dimension of filter unit, 4. Sand and gravel layer design, modified sand (bio-sand) use, 5. Use proper wash water gutter, sieve, etc. 6. Use low cost filter to avoid/reduce TSS content
Result pH test for filter bed height calculation The natural materials such as gravel, sand, and charcoal were used as an adsorbent in the filtration unit. The sample of water was taken before and after filtration with varying bed height of each filter bed and found the positive effect on pH level at 2 lit/min (LPM) of water flow rate as shown in figure 2.The filter bed of charcoal was given the maximum effect on pH level from 8.23 to 7.88 and the minimum effect found for bed of gravel. The bed of sand was found the fair change in pH level 8.23 to 8.16. The deviation in pH by each filter bed was found because each filter bed having the different capacity of adsorption of ions. For the further experiment the depth of each bed were selected as 0.15 m, 0.2 m, and 0.1 m for sand, charcoal, and gravel respectively set from bottom to top in the filtration unit based on pH level effect. The maximum pH effect found by charcoal bed was kept at top in the filtration unit. Effect of flow rate on removal of grey water pollutants The samples of raw grey water i.e. before cascade stage and final filtered water i.e. after filtration stage were taken with varying flow rate of water. Figure 3 shows the effect of flow rate of grey water on pH level and the resultant pH were nearly constant i.e. 7.51 (average) up to 2.5 lit/min, while increases pH level for further increase in flow rate. The characteristics parameters of grey water such as TDS, TSS, COD, total hardness, oil and grease were determined and all these are pretentious by flow rate of water after flow rate of 2.5 lit/min. The grey water average organic load removal was found 84 % at the water flow rate of 2.6 lit/min. The removal capacity of organic load of grey water was decreased by raising flow rate of grey water. The results show the 100% removal of oil and grease from the grey water only up to the 2.5 lit/min water flow rate. Time effect on flow rate of grey water Figure 4 shows the time required to flow the water from initial stage to final stage at various water flow rates. The input and output flow rates of water were nearly different because accumulations of grey water were percent. Difference between input and output flow rate was 30 sec. The time required for 2.5 lit/min flow rate was 135 sec from input to output of the plant which was departed time of plant operation. Performance of each stage of the system The pH of grey water was changed by each stage of system as shown in figure 5. Charcoal, sand and gravel filtration stages were found the involvement for change in pH of grey water. The pH level was changed mainly between 8.23 to 7.88 in charcoal level, 7.88 to 7.43 in sand level, and 7.43 to 7.35 in gravel level respectively. Due to form and synthetic fiber filtration, fine solid particles are settled down by gravitational force and only clear water flows towards charcoal stage of the plant and found 11% of TSS was removed in the form and synthetic fiber filtration level. The major role of aeration was controlled the TDS and COD of grey water. The soap, detergents, oil and grease contained in grey water were removed by agitation operation. From the investigation, average pollutants removal efficiency of agitation operation was found up to 26 %. Ultraviolet lamp (with 8-16W) can work inside the quartz tube (allow 90% of the UV radiation pass through) at 253.7 nm wavelength from continuous flow of 1 liter/min of water to kill the bacteria, virus and microbes.
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Generated GREY WATER
Sieve filtration Remove big food particle, hair, debris, suspended particle, etc.
GW-2
Foam + Synthetic fiber
Use for plantation
Remove 70-80% of Total Solid particle and reduce chances of chocking of Charcoal/sand layer
Charcoal filtration Absorb gases and remove odor, smell, microbes, bacteria, nitrogen & phosphorous
Sand Filtration Remove TSS and TDS
UV-Lamp (253.7 wavelength) Kill bacteria, viruses and microbes
GW-1 Use for cloth, Floor, car washing, flushing, etc.
Figure-1: Conceptualization of Grey water Treatment
All pollutants removal efficiency was increased by the filtration stage and found 36 % to 85 % of COD, 33 % to 87 % of TSS. The average removal efficiency of all pollutants for filtration stage was increased from 26 % to 69 %. The filtration stage found major role in the system for removal of pollutants from grey water. Hence the filtration stage was studied here and data of removal of load of pollutants on grey water by each filter bed was investigated and is explained in figure 8. The result shows that, charcoal filter bed gives better performance while bed of sand and gravel in filtration stage.
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Figure 3: Effect of water flow rate on pH level
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Figure 2: Effects of filter bed heights on pH level change
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IV
No. of filtration level Figure 5: pH level of grey water change in each stage of plant at 2.5 Liter/min water Flow Rate (I- Foam + Synthetic fiber, II- Charcoal, III- Sand, IV- Gravel)
Performance of the laboratory scale system The greyy water was collected from bathrooms, basins of the residential area of college hostel located at Barkatullah area zone 14; ward 53 in Bhopal city, city India. Total 08 samples of greyy water were taken at first day of morning and evening of every week and an the performances of system were investigated ated for these 08 samples of greyy water at steady state conditions and the average value data are summarized in table 1. The average organic load in greyy water found 330 3 mg COD/lit. The solids in grey water were found und to have about 76% dissolved and 24% suspended particles. From table 1, all the parameters found in greyy water were reduced and found better performance of the natural system. The average 83 % of organic load was removed and 46 % anions and 49 % cations were found to be absorbed by the natural adsorbents used in filtration. The traces of potassium, magnesium and calcium were found and removed fully from grey water. Discussion The results presented in this study establish the potential applicability of the developed methodology. method This laboratory scale greyy water treatment plant is a combination of natural and physical operations such as settling with cascaded water flow, aeration, agitation and filtration, hence called as hybrid treatment process. All the natural and easily available low cost materials were used for the treatment process. The coconut shell covers are the waste materials, which can be easily procured and used as an efficient adsorbent in water treatment process for the removal of water pollutants poll and heavy metal ions from waste water [14]. In economy of the plant, the power supply, which is an important part of the operating cost of the conventional system and it is a todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s major issues of India, was required a minimum, because system works works on the natural force for flowing of water from first to last stage. The easily explicable operation, less maintenance of the plant and hence does not required the highly skilled personnel. After the investigations, due to the low energy demand, low operation opera and maintenance cost, lesser time consuming operation, this gives a significant and efficient method for rural communities and small industrial units for treatment and reuse of grey gr y water. The laboratory scale model shows the better and effective performance by the experiment and balances advantages and disadvantages of the system. As per the Indian standard, the treated water is used for landscaping, gardening, toilet flushing, floor washing, car washing and irrigation. Still, more research is needed needed about soil structure of the area which over applicable for irrigation and this will be presented shortly.
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Table1. Average Characterizes of Bathrooms, Basins of Grey Water from a Residential College Hostel located at Barkatullah area zone 14; ward 53 in Bhopal City, India Parameters Raw water Filtered water (mg/l) (mg/l) pH 8.40 7.35 Total Hardness(mg/l) 380 188 COD(mg/l) 330 60 TDS(mg/l) 575 174 TSS(mg/l) 186 40 Oil and Grease(mg/l) 7.8 0.26 Fluorine(mg/l) 0.80 0.40 Chlorine(mg/l) 36.9 20.46 Nitrites(mg/l) 0.07 00 Nitrates(mg/l) 0.68 0.20 Phosphates(mg/l) 0.011 00 Sulphates(mg/l) 22.33 11.6 Table2a. The cost of the grey water treatment unit for 4-5 member family Unit cost Chemicals Sand – 4.5 Kg Charcoal – 5 Kg Foam + PP yarn/cloth UV lamp Tank – 1 pc Quartz tube Valves – 3 Nos. Sieve/grits - 4 Nos. Tube (transparent) – 6 ft and flinch Pumps – optional (0.4-2.0 Kg/cm2 pressure) Fittings per unit Total amount (Rs.)
Specification N.A. 0.1-2 mm 0.7-1.0 mm Not known 8-16 W, 5000-6000 working hours Plastic, 250 liters Dia ½” ½ or ¾ inch SS/plastic, dia-20 cm
0.25 hp
Cost (in Rs.) 35/kg 40/kg 62/set 200/piece
Total cost (Rs) 160 200 62 200
1000 350 200/pc 50/pc 1500
900 350 600 200 1500
800
950
2500
2500 7622
Table2b. Maintenance cost* of grey water treatment unit Filtration Material Material (Sand, Charcoal, foam, pp yarn, etc.) UV-Lamp running cost Labour – maintenance yearly (cleaning weekly basis)* Setup loss cost @10% /annum - with life of 10 years Total amount (Rs.)
Total cost (Rs) 350 200 1800 800 3150
*Maintenance cost for single unit is high because of labour cost and it can be less by considering maintenance for several units by a single labour.
Cost Evaluation Of Grey Water Unit The cost of the grey water treatment unit (excluding sample testing and pilot-scale study) for 4-5 member family is estimated below in table-2. The discussed performance of method and materials used for the present proposed Grey water treatment unit and the cost evaluation of the materials used in designing the unit (along with the post maintenance cost) with the probability of 1-2 years of pay-back period ensures the success full implementation/launching of the grey water treatment unit. Expected Outcome in Physical Terms New/ Upgraded Product: Grey-water treatment unit with multi-grade treated water output of different quality can be used for various non-potable purposes i.e. irrigation, cleaning, washing, etc. New/ Upscaled Process: Such combination of technique is not being used for GW-treatment purpose; the upscaling of the process can be identified in the proposed treatment system.
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New/ Upgraded System: A GW-treatment unit – upgraded version with combination of treatment techniques and component used Services (including Software): Not applicable Feasibility Analysis Any other The feasibility of the present proposed grey-water treatment system is well documeted in literature. Each component of the treatment system is acting efficiently to remove these impurities. The present preposition is done on the evaluation of successful studies in this area and also involves the calculation of materialsused/process/efficiency. Secondry data and calculative information are used to design the proposed prototype for the grey-water treatment unit.
Conclusions The present study demonstrate the reuse and treatment of residential waste water called as grey water for the purpose of landscaping, gardening, irrigation, and toilet flushing. Based on the finding of this study, this treatment technology can be considered an viable alternative to conventional treatment system since they are characterized by high potential for COD, TDS, TSS, total hardness, oil and grease, anions and cations removal. The benefits found are low energy demand, less operating and maintenance cost, lower load on fresh water, less strain on septic tank, highly effective purification, and ground water recharge. Hence, this is an environmental friendly, cost effective and resourceful plant for urban development. This technology is environmental friendly, cost effective and can be adopted in urban and semi urban agglomeration.
Acknowledgment Author is deeply indebted to DST, New Delhi for the financial support for this research work and also the Government of Madhya Pradesh Council of Technology (MPCST), Bhopal and Madhya Pradesh pollution Control Board (MPPCB), Bhopal for the constant support during the work and heartily thanks to International Institute of Waste management (IIWM), Bhopal for all support for carring out this R&D project.
Reference Hussain, I., Raschid, L., Hanjra, M. A., Marikar, F., and Hoek, W. V., 2002. Wastewater use in agriculture: Review of impact and methodological issues in valuing impacts. Colombo, Shri Lanka, International water management institute, working paper 37, 1-3. Emerson, G., 1998. Every drop is precious: Grey water as an alternative water source, Queensland Parliamentary Library. Research bulletin, 98 (4). Friedler, E., Kovalio, R., and Galil, N.I., 2005. On-site grey water treatment and reuse in multi-storey Buildings. Water Science & Technology, (51), 187–194. Little, V., Frye, R.J., and Gerba, C. P., 2001. A survey of the microbial quality of recycled household grey water. J. of American water resources association, (37), 13-20. Dixon, A., Butler, D., Fawkes, A. and Robinson, M., 1999. Grey water and grey water disposal system. Urban water, (I), 1-3. Lopez-Zavala, M. A., 2007. Treatment of lower load grey water by using a controlled soil natural treatment system. Water science and technology, (55), 39-45. Erikson, E., Auffarth, K., Henze, M. and Ledin, A., 2002. Characteristics of grey water. Urban water, 85-104. Garland, J. L., Levin, L.H., Yori., N.C. and Hummerick, M.E., 2004. Response of grey water recycling system based on hydroponic plant growth to three classes of surfactants. Water Research, (38), 1952-1962. Khatun, A. and Amin, M.R., 2011. Grey water reuse: a sustainable solution for water crisis in Dhaka. Bangladesh, 4th Annual Paper Meet and 1st Civil Engineering Congress, December 22-24. Kim, J., and Song, I., 2009. A laboratory-scale grey water treatment system based on a membrane filtration and oxidation process – characteristics of grey water from a residential complex. Desalination, (238), 347-357. Al-Jayyousi, O. R., 2003. Grey water reuse: towards sustainable water management. Desalination, (156), 181192. Ahmad, J., and EL-Dessouky, H., 2008. Design of a modified low cost treatment system for the recycling and reuse of laundry waste water. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, (52), 973 - 978. Zuma, B. M., and Tandlich, R., 2009. Mulch tower treatment system, Part I: Overall performance in grey water treatment. Desalination, (242), 38-56. Sekhar, M. C., 2008. Removal of lead from aqueous effluents by adsorption on coconut shell carbon. J. of Environmental Science and Engineering, (50), 37-140.
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Chapter-VI Waste to Energy
"Keep your Earth Clean and Green"
With Best Wishes from
Divya Jyoti Industries Limited Corporate Office: 92/3, Sapna Sangeeta Main Road, Near Tanishq Showroom, Indore-1 (MP) Ph: 0731-4010900-901 Fax: 0731-4010900-902 Email: mala@divyajyoti.net
Factory: Plot No. M 19-39, Sector-III, Industrial Area Pithampur â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 454 775 Dist. Dhar (M.P.) Tel:07292-421918, Fax: 07292-421947 www.divyajyoti.net; works@divyajyoti.net
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter- VI-29 Waste wealth and health Kurien M.O. & Francis Xavier* Xavier* *Department of Animal Reproduction, Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University, Kerala, India Email: francis@kvasu.ac.in Abstract Waste tyres from the booming automobile industry of India, poses a big problem. As a byproduct of development, there are over one billon tyres becoming unserviceable waste annually. Out of this only 30 crores (30%) are recycled or used as fuel. The rest 70 % are sent to landfills. (www.dtppl.com/waste_tyre_recycling.asp) Current situation in our country poses a challenge before us to tap and utilize tyre waste by finding out alternate uses in livestock sector. Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University is emerging in this field as a catalyst by employing ideas in action as our working mandate. Waste to wealth programme in livestock sector is of much importance with respect to evolving cheaper production systems under an ensuing food security system threat. A large number of rusted cycle wheels and tyres scattered on road side, dumped in common places and homestead premises are a common sight in hamlets. As part of rural innovation technology, an out of the box thinking, lead us to the use of these abandoned tyres and wheels as cheapest available waste materials in the village areas for making cages for poultry, pet birds and other smaller livestock. Used tyre reuse has been taken up for the following homestead livestock housing • Japanese quails and Pet birds (cylindrical & horizontal type) • Back yard poultry farming and layers ( cylindrical & horizontal cages) • Rabbits ( cylindrical & horizontal type) Abandoned cycle tyres were utilized for restraint tools: • Crate belt for restraint/ lifting goats and sheep during medicine administration, testing pregnancy and A.I. • Tool for raising downer cows in tough field conditions. Scooter tyres were used for: • Crate for A.I. in dogs, sheep and goats and cage legs for Pet bird cage. All the models were tried in Livestock Production areas and clinical animal handling and were found highly useful, simple to improvise, cost effective and agile. Keywords: waste wealth, tyre reuse, crate from tyre, maneuvering belt, wheel spikes.
Introduction Booming automobile industry in India creates metallic and rubber wastes in plenty. Due to this there are over one billon tyres becoming, unserviceable waste product every year. Among this only 30 crores (30%) are recycled or reused. The rest 70 % are sent to land fill (www.dtppl.com/waste_tyre_recycling.asp ,2012). This current situation in our country poses a challenge before us to tap and utilize the latent energy from tyre waste by finding out alternate uses in livestock sector, linked to the food security. According to the estimates, approximately 925 million people are undernourished in 2010, representing 14 percent of the world population of 6.8 billion (FAO, 2011).Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University is emerging in this field as a catalyst by employing ideas in action as our working mandate to develop suitable farmer friendly technologies to compact this global problem, which leads to the food security. Waste to wealth programme in livestock sector is of importance with respect to cheaper cost of production. Large number of cycle wheels and tyres are seen dumped on road side, common public places and homestead premises in rural India. As part of rural innovation technology imbibing the 3 “R” s in waste management these tyres and wheels are the materials that can be reused in the village areas for making cages for poultry farming. The cages built from cycle wheels and tyres can be utilized by farmers and entrepreneurs residing in rural and city areas. These large condemned cycle wheels along with their tyres can be reutilized after proper cleaning for making cages. Tyres / other wastes can be utilized for making restraint tools for livestock as described below.
Materials and Methods 1. (a)
Cages for Poultry Japanese quails
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This cage is made up of two condemned cycle wheels along with its tyres (after proper cleaning and painting.) They were welded one over the other at 25 cms distance, on 4 iron rods. The length of the iron rods were three feet and it acts as a firm stand for footage of the cage. The length of the legs of the cages was 30 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 40 cms. On this metal frame, wire meshmesh either new or recycled is wound around the circumference and also kept attached to top and bottom of the wheels above the spikes. The roof of the cage can be either a used umbrella or a plastic hood. The used umbrella forms the roof by inserting its leg (after removing removing its handle from the leg) through the central hole of the wheel. An opening for the cage is made on side by cutting the wire mesh with 15cm length and 10 cm breadth. The cut and removed wire mesh was used as the door by attaching itself to the side of the he opening with springs of the used umbrella or thread wires. Used plastic pipes are used as feeders and waters. This cage occupies a floor area of 4 square feet, holding eighteen to twenty Japanese quails. (Fig I&2). I&2)
Fig-11 Quail cage with waste tyre and umbrella roof
Fig 2 Quail cage with tyre and plastic roof Fig-2
(b)
Back yard poultry farming / rabbit farmingfarming The cage for back yard poultry farming was made in the same way as of Japanese quail cage. The distance between the top wheel and bottom was 45 cms. Three large birds/ two rabbits can be housed in this cage. They thrived on feeding kitchen waste/ market waste.(Fig 3 and Fig 4). Rural poultry production is important to food access, in providing meat and eggs for home consumption. They also provide immediate income generation by selling them (Dolberg, 2003). Rabbits are herbivores and best known for its prolificacy. They efficiently convert fodder to food. The whole point of meat meat production is to convert plant proteins of no use to people as food into high value animal protein .An efficient production system, can make rabbits turn 20 percent of the proteins they eat into edible meat ( Lebas et al., 1997).
Fig- 3 Cage for back yard poultry using cycle tyres (c )
Fig 4 Cage for rabbits using cycle tyres Fig-4
Pet birds Pet bird cage was also made in a similar manner as for back yard poultry, the only difference diffe was the distance between both wheels (90 cms) , on four one meter length iron rod legs (Fig-5). (Fig 5). The length of the legs of the cage is 7 to 10cms. Low cost wire mesh was wound around this metal frame and also attached on the top and bottom of the wheels ls above the spikes. Used plastic bottles were used as feeders and waters. Dried and sterilized tender coconut shells were used as nesting boxes. Used bangles of different colours were suspended inside the cage as swing, for birds to perch and rest. One dozen dozen pet birds can be reared in this type of cage.
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Fig-55 Pet bird cage with waste materials
Fig-6 Doing A.I. using maneuvering belt made of Fig waste cycle tyre and tubes
2.
Maneuvering belt for A.I. in sheep and goats under field conditions. conditions This was made of a single large cleaned used cycle tyre. The inside part of tyre was rendered soft by keeping a half inflated cycle tube and then taken around its belly after making it in the figure of eight in front of the udder as a folded extended thread, thread, then both ends of tyre were connected to long iron hook which in turn connected to a hanging pulley which is suspended on a plastic rope, extended from an in situ pulley. With this belt, hind quarters and four quarters can be lifted. Even the whole body can be lifted to any desired level wit out causing any discomfort to the animal by changing the position of belt below the belly. ( Fig-6) Fig . 3.
Downer cow maneuvering belt for clinical handling and restraint. restraint Two belts were made from six large used cycle tyres, for fore quarter and hind quarter. Each belts were of three large used cycle tyres, in the form of folded extended extended threads chain by looping each other. Three belts were connected to two pulleys suspended on a plastic rope (two pulleys were suspended on two plastic ropes and while other two pulleys were in situ on a strong iron rod) to lift the fore quarter and hind hi quarter of a downer cow. (Fig 7 and Fig 8)
Fig-7 Lifting belt in position
Fig-88 Lifted Position of cow with help of belt
4.
Crate for Artificial insemination inseminatio (A. I.) in dog, goat and sheep The materials used to make the handy artificial insemination (AI) crates were a wasted scooter tyre for small sized goats , tyres of different sizes were used for medium and large goats( Kurien et al .2012). (Fig 9 and Fig 10). The tyres were brought and cleaned with brush, soap and warm water to remove the dirt present in the tyre grooves and treated with medicated 1% dettol solution and then sun dried. Clean tyres were sterilized. One part of the outer uter surface of each tyre was pierced to make a hole in the centre. Through that one end of nylon twisted rope of half inch diameter was introduced into each tyre and the rope was kept in position by tying it to a small metal piece (4¨length and ½¨ diameter) diameter) inside the tyre. The inside cavities of tyres were packed with soft sponges so that it bulges out of the inside rim of the tyres. Inside rim of the tyres were covered with rexin sheet of 5¨ width which was stitched to the tyres with cobbler’s needle. Tyres were painted and labeled. The other ends of the plastic rope from the tyres were passed through a pulley which was fixed at a height of 12 feet from the floor. The hind quarters of the female goats brought for AI were taken out through these tyres after lowering it to the ground level (Fig 9). The level of tyres were raised by pulling the nylon rope attached to the pulleys so that the animal is positioned to a desired slanting level for introducing the vaginal speculum by holding the hind limbs( Fig 10). The soft pack inside rim of the tyre supported the body parts in front of the udder. Speculum method of A I was performed in this position and the animals were restrained in this position for 2 to 3 minutes to do the manipulation. After the A.l. was carried out, the tyre crate was lowered to the ground level and released the hind legs of the female Goat. The same procedure was adopted for A.I. in sheep and dogs.
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Fig-99 Lifting the large goat with crate
Fig-10 10 Doing A.I. with large used tyre crate in a goat
Results and Discussion The present innovative cages designed and tested for rearing Japanese quails, poultry, rabbit and pet birds had the advantages of cheap production cost( below Rs 500), easy transport and easy improvisation. These cages were shown in exhibitions with wide media coverage in extension interventions. It created an overwhelming response from the farmers, public and school children. So many farmers and vocational higher highe secondary students (Animal husbandry sector) adopted this method for cage construction to make waste into an asset. The Vocational higher secondary students were given State award for 2012 from Government of Kerala for constructing and exhibiting these cages for Japanese quails and rabbits in their State and Regional expoexpo exhibitions. In the 11th 5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C;year year plan, Government of India pledged more equitable benefits for small, marginal and landless poultry farmers (Pica--Ciamarra and Otte, 2009). The above cages ges are well suited for small and landless farmers for rearing birds and rabbits as they require only less than four square feet floor space .The horizontal version of these cages are under construction and field trials. Using maneuvering belt and tyre crate, crate, hind quarters of the female goat can be lifted to any desired level depending on the height of the animal and the operator, which is lacking in a conventional crate. The operation with the tyre crate, or maneuvering belt, did not cause any injuries to to udder of female goat and sheep. Moreover the reluctance shown by the animal to enter into a conventional crate is avoided by this method. These maneuvering belts and tyre crates are kept hidden from the sight of goats, which leads to minimum disturbance during operation. This maneuvering belt and tyre crate for goats has the facility for fixing permanently to a position and easy restraint in the field for clinical manipulation. Maneuvering belts and A I crates for goats were tested in 400 numbers of different erent sized does brought for artificial insemination at AI Centre, Mannuthy and Veterinary Ambulatory Clinics and found satisfactory in restraining the animal during the time of goat A.I. This maneuvering belt and handy tyre crates as a rural maneuvering tool, can be replicated and utilized by field inseminators and commercial goat farmers. The cost of production of is only Rs.150, where as conventional crate costs more than Rs.10000.The maneuvering belt designed for downer cow is under trial in field conditions, nditions, using bamboo cross bar and poles . The cost of production will be Rs 1200, where as production cost of conventional crane for cows is more than Rs50000.
References Dolberg, F. 2003. A review of household poultry production as tool in poverty reduction reduction with a focus in Bangladesh and India PPLPI Working Paper no.6 Rome, Pro-Poor Pro Poor Livestock Policy Initiative. Rome, FAO. http://www.dtpl.com/waste_tyre_recycling asp) http://www.dtpl.com/waste_tyre_recycling. Kurien, M.O. Bibin Becha ,B and Ghosh, K.N.A., 2012. Handy crate for restraining goats go during artificial insemination. Indian Vet.J. ( Accepted for publication) Lebas,F., Condert,P., de Rochambeau,H. and Thebult, R.G.,1997. The Rabbit Husbandry Health and Production. Animal Production and Health series 21. Rome,FAO. Pica-ciamarra, U. and Otte, J. 2009. Poultry,Food Security and Poverty in India: looking beyond farm gate. PPLPI Research Report. Rome, Pro--Poor Livestock policy Initiative. Rome, FAO. World Livestock 2011. Livestock in food security. Rome, FAO.
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Chapter- VI-30 Biomass: An effective approach for the control of pollution Kuldeep Tiwari & Anjum Ansari* Department of Applied Chemistry, BUIT, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, M.P., India E-mail: ansari.anjum@rediffmail.com Abstract It has achieved global acceptance as a long-term renewable replacement for fossil fuels, it is a highly efficient form of energy conversion especially relative to coal and its use for power production contributes towards the reduction of greenhouse gases due to its “carbon neutral” status. Biofuels are nontoxic and biodegradable easily. It reduces the hazard of toxic petroleum product spills from oil tankers and pipeline leaks and runoff of vehicle engine oil and fuel. Biomass energy system can improve the quality of life in the rural areas. Biomass-energy systems can increase economic development without contributing to the greenhouse effect since biomass is not a net emitter of CO2 to the atmosphere when it is produced and used sustainably. Transportation of biomass and the growth harvesting provide opportunity for employment and biomass energy cropping will also generate. Keywords: Biomass, Energy Conversion, Gasification.
Introduction Biomass is the fourth largest energy resource after coal, oil and natural gas. It is used for heating, cooking, transportation and for electric power generation. After direct solar energy and hydroelectricity, biomass is an important renewable energy form. Bioenergy can be used in form of biofuel and biopower. Biofuels are essentially nontoxic and readily biodegradable [15]. Biomass is carbon based and is composed of a mixture of organic molecules containing hydrogen, usually including atoms of oxygen, often nitrogen and also small quantities of other atoms, including alkali, alkaline earth and heavy metals. These metals are often found in functional molecules such as the porphyrins, which include chlorophyll that contains magnesium [3] Biomass energy is derived from five distinct energy sources: garbage, wood, waste, landfill gases, and alcohol fuels. Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Methane gas is the main ingredient of natural gas. Smelly stuff, like rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, release methane gas - also called "landfill gas" or "biogas." Crops like corn and sugar cane can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from leftover food products like vegetable oils and animal fats [8] Also, Biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under research [2, 3, 10].
Biomass Fuels Wood Residues Wood can be and usually is removed sustainably from existing forests worldwide by using methods such as coppicing. It is difficult to estimate the mean annual increment (growth) of the world’s forests. One rough estimate is 12.5x109 m3/yr with a content of 182 EJ equivalent to 1.3 times the total world coal consumption. The estimated global average annual wood harvests in the period 1985-1987 were 3.4x109 m3/yr (equivalent to 40EJ/yr.), so some of the unused increment could be recovered for energy purposes while maintaining or possibly even enhancing the productivity of forests [Fig. 1] Operations such as thinning of plantutias and trimming of felled trees generate large volumes of forestry residues. The use of forest residues to produce steam for heating and/or power generation is now a growing business in many countries. Timber processing is a further source of wood residues. Dry sawdust and waste produced during the processing of cut timber make very good fuel. The British furniture industry is estimated to use ~40,000 tonnes of such residues a year, one third of its production, providing 0.5 PJ of space and water heating and process heat. Agricultural Residues Agricultural waste is a potentially huge source of biomass. Crop and animal wastes provide significant amounts of energy coming second only to wood as the dominant biomass fuel worldwide. Agricultural waste includes: the portions of crop plants discarded like straw, damaged or surplus supplies and animal dung. For
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example, it was estimated that 110 Mt of dung and crop residues were used as fuel in India in 1985, compared with 133 Mt of wood. Industrial waste that contains biomass may be used to produce energy. For example the sludge left after alcohol production (known as vinasse) can produce flammable gas. Other useful waste products include, waste from food processing and fluff from the cotton and textile industry [Fig. 2, 3].
Fig. 1 Hybrid Poplar Wood Chips
Fig. 2 Agricultural Residue
Fig. 3 Sugar Cane Plantation
Fig. 4 Short Rotation Plants
Fig. 5 Short Rotation Plants
Fig. 6 Briquetting Plant
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Short Rotation Plants Biomass can also be produced by so-called short-rotation plantation of trees and other plants like grasses (sorghum, sugarcane, switch grass). All these plants can be used as fuels like wood with the main advantage of their short span between plantation and harvesting-typically between 3 & 8 years. For some grasses harvesting is taking place every 6-12 months. Recently there are about 100 million hectares of land utilized for free plantation worldwide. Parameters which are imp in evaluating species for short rotation plants include availability of planting stock, ease of propagation, survival ability under adverse conditions and the yield potential measured as dry matter production per hectare per year (t/ha/y). Yield is a measure of a plantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to utilize the site resources. High yielding species are therefore preferred for biomass energy systems. For eucalyptus species, yields of up to 65 t/ha/y have been reported, compared to 30 and 43 t/ha/y in salix and populus species respectively [4, 5, 9, 1114, 16, 20, 22, 24] [Fig. 4 , 5] Conversion- Technology of biomass Conversion of biomass into energy system is categorized in 3 ways1.Involving animals. 2.Other livestock and 3.Those that yield molecules that are richer in high-energy element than the organic biomass. Transformation of biomass into fuel is influenced by geographical location and by an optimal process of energy conversion. Technologically biomass energy is converted into energy fuel into two general categories â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Thermal Conversion and Bio Conversion. Thermal conversion process use high temperatures to convert biomass by direct combustion, pyrolysis gasification liquefaction etc. Bioconversion process involve enzymatic breakdown of biomass by microorganisms at lower temperature and pressure [6, 17-19, 21]. Biomass Gasification It was the most promising technology for providing affordable and competitive electricity supply and energy services to rural areas where agricultural and plantations wastes were available [25]. Biomass Gasification is the process through which solid biomass material is subjected to partial combustion in the presence of a limited supply of air. Solid fuel is converted by a series of thermo-chemical processes like drying, pyrolysis, oxidation and reduction to a gaseous fuel called producer gas. The ultimate product is a combustible gas mixture known as producer gas. If atmospheric air is used as the gasification agent, which is the normal practice, the producer gas consists mainly of CO, hydrogen and nitrogen. A typical composition of the gas obtained from wood gasification, on volumetric basis, is as followsCarbon monoxide Hydrogen Methane Heavier hydrocarbons Water vapour
18-22% 13-19% 1-5% 0.2-0.4% 4%
The calorific value of this gas is about 1000-1200 Kcal.Nm3 [26]. [Fig. 6] Advantages of Biomass Energy 1. Public health benefits 2. Promotion of green buildings 3. Water quality improvement 4. Air quality improvement 5. Creation of jobs 6. Wildlife habitat enhancement 7. Wildlife fire risk reduction 8. Improvement of national security 9. Increased energy independence 10. Prevention of urban sprawl and property over sensitive lands 11. Improvements in waste handling technologies 12. Reduction of CO2 emissions
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13. 14. 15.
Biodiversity protection Reduction of fuel costs and price volatility Waste reduction soil improvement [15].
Disadvantages of Biomass Energy Biomass cycle regulates the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. The biomass, primarily in the form of plants, uses carbon to grow and the biosphere effectively acts as a sponge for carbon. This sponge effect, however, has limits. When there is too much carbon in the atmosphere or shrinkage in sponge with deforestation and such, there is risk of overwhelming the atmosphere with carbon gases. This results in increased greenhouse effect, leading to global warming [7]. Environmental Effects It is essential that strategies for sustainable biomass growth are developed for each ecological region; however, research is already high lighting benefits and some areas of concern with large-scale bioenergy plantations. A synopsis of present environmental knowledge is provided below. Improvement of Air Quality Biofuels are nontoxic and biodegradable easily. It reduces the hazard of toxic petroleum product spills from oil tankers and pipeline leaks and runoff of vehicle engine oil and fuel. • Reduced SO2 Emissions- Most forms of biomass contain very small amounts of S, therefore a biomass power plant emits very little SO2, an acid rain precursor. • Reduced NOx Emissions- By carefully adjusting the combustion process, NOx reductions at twice the rate of biomass heat input has been documented. • Reduced Carbon Emissions- Plants absorb CO2 during their growth cycle when managed in a sustainable cycle a way to recycle carbon. • Reducing Other Emissions- Landfills produce CH4 from decomposing biomass materials is normally discharged directly into the air, but it can be captured and used as a fuel to generate electricity and heat. Control of Global Warming Combustion of biofuels also releases CO2, but because biofuels are made from plants that just recently captured that CO2 from the atmosphere rather than billions of years ago that release is largely balanced by CO2 uptake for the plant’s growth. The CO2 released when biomass is converted into biofuels and burned in truck or automobile engines is recaptured when new biomass is grown to produce more biofuels increases in the levels of all the major greenhouse gases result from land clearing (de-vegetation) and thus well managed biofuel programs which lead to re-vegetation will result in the decrease of greenhouse gases. Land-use changes which result in a permanent increase in the level of the carbon inventory (vegetation) will thus play a role in ameliorating the greenhouse effect [23]. Social and Environmental Consideration Biomass energy system can improve the quality of life in the rural areas. Transportation of biomass and the growth harvesting provide opportunity for employment and biomass energy cropping will also generate. Additional income for rural areas retarding migration to the cities [6, 17-19, 21]. Biomass as the solar energy stored in chemical form in plant and animal materials is among the most precious and versatile resources on earth. It offers considerable flexibility of fuel supply due to the range and diversity of fuels, which can be produced. Bioenergy can be modernized through the application of advanced technology to convert raw biomass into modern, easy-to-use carriers (such as electricity, liquid of gaseous fuels such as ethanol or other alcohol fuels, or processed solid fuels). Therefore, much more useful energy could be extracted from biomass then at present. This could bring very significant social and economic benefits to both rural and urban areas. Biomass-energy systems can increase economic development without contributing to the greenhouse effect since biomass is not a net emitter of CO2 to the atmosphere when it is produced and used sustainably [4, 5, 9, 11-14, 16, 20, 22, 24]. Conclusions Future of biomass is bright as it is cheaper and abundantly available in India. However, progress in this field shouldn’t stop at a few companies showing interest and a few governmental projects to showcase ministerial achievements. Companies, besides developing efficient and inexpensive technologies should promugate these in various regions. From the government’s side, for greater compliance, it should elicit the opinions, requirements and active participation of the local people. To activate energy self-sufficiency, there should be a greater focus on decentralization of power generating using biomass in India [1].
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References Advantages of biomass. Retrieved September 26 2010 from http://www.solarcompanies.com/ advantages_of_biomass_energy Biomass Energy Center, Retrieved from en.wikipedia.org on 6 Aug 2010. Biomass, Energy Information Administration Retrieved from en.wikipedia.org on 6 Aug 2010. Bowersox T W, Schubert T H, Strand R F, Whitesell C D 1990. Coppicing Sources of Young Eucalyptus Saligna in Hawaii. Biomass 23: 137. Campbell C A 1991. The potential of a range of short rotation tree species for fuelwood and pulp production. A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of agricultural science with honours. Department of Agronomy, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. Choudhuri S K and Lovely D R, Electricity Generation Cells Biotec.: 2003, 21, 1229. Disadvantages of biomass. Retrieved September 26 2010 from http://www.solarcompanies.com/ disadvantages_of_biomass Energy Kids, Retrieved from en.wikipedia.org on 6 Aug 2010. FAO 1979. Eucalyptus for Planting. FAO Forestry Paper No. 11. Food and Agricultural Organization, United Nations, Rome. Growing plants indirectly generating power, Retrieved from en.wikipedia.org on 6 Aug 2010. Hillis W E, Brown A G (Eds), (1984) Eucalyptus for Wood Production. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. East Melbourne and Academic Press, North Ryde NSW, Australia. http://journeytoforever.org/biofuel.html, Retrieved from (Biofuels: how to make your own clean-burning biofuel, biodiesel from coocking oil, fuel alcohol, renewable energy, glycerine, soap making. On 6 Aug 2010. http://www.biofueloasis.com/html/basics.html, Retrieved from (BioFuel Oasis) On 6 Aug 2010. http://www.seps/zp/fond/direct/biomass.html, Retrieved from (Biomass) On 6 Aug 2010. Levine, S Joel, 1991. Global Biomass Burning Atmospheric, Climatic and Biospheric Environmental Quality and Global Climate, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, pp 345. Renewable Energy Report, Financial Times Energy, April 1999. Robert H Williams and Eric D Larson, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Advanced Gasification Based Biomass Generationâ&#x20AC;? Published in Renewable for Fuels and Electricity (1992). Roediger H; Roediger M and Kapp H; 1990 Amaerabe Alkaische Schlammfaulung Minchen, Oldenburg. Rose J, 1994 Biofuel Benefits Questioned. Emuiron Science Technol, 28, 63 A. Smith K R (1987b). Biofuels, Air Pollution and Health: A Global Review (New York, Plenum Press)-published report Suzaki S and Karube 1,Energy Production with Immobilized Cells Apl. Biochem. Bioeng, 1983, 4, 281. TERI 1991. Energy Directory, Database and Yearbook (TEDDY) 1990-1991 (New Delhi, Tata Energy Research Institute). Tester W et. al 1999, Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options, First ed., Massachesetts Institute of Technology, pp. 419. World Bank 1988. Tanzania-woodfuel/forestry project, activity completion report no. 086/88 (Washington, D. C.; Joint UNDP/World Bank Energy Sector Management Assistance Point)-thesis www.desipower.com/technology, Accessed on 5 Aug 2010. www.world.agriculture.com, Accessed on 5 Aug 2010.
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Chapter- VI-31 From waste to wealth: Biomass hydrolyzing enzymes from the aquatic weed â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Eicchornia crassipes Sabira Mohammad, Ashok Pandey & Rajeev K Sukumaran* Centre for Biofuels & Biotechnology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science & Technology, Trivandrum, India Email: rajeevs@niist.res.in Abstract Water hyacinth, one of the most productive plants on earth is also an aquatic pest and a menace creating navigational problems and pollution in water bodies. Any use which can provide value addition to this enormous resource will serve the dual purposes of waste management and income generation from waste biomass. The use of the renewable plant biomass for the production of cleaner and cheaper fuels has rejuvenated the interest in developing cheaper technologies for large scale production biomass saccharifying enzymes. The present study evaluated the use of solid state fermentation technology for production of cellulases using the fungus Trichoderma reesei RUT C30, on water hyacinth biomass. The parameters influencing cellulase production were screened using a Plackett & Burman experiment and the most significant parameters were identified as the type of substrate used in fermentation, the temperature of incubation and the duration of incubation. The optimal levels of these parameters for maximal cellulase production was identified using a response surface central composite design to be an incubation temperature of 27-28 oC and an incubation time of 96-108 h. Optimization of process parameters resulted in a 2.6 fold increase in production from 7 FPU/gds to 18.7 FPU/gds. Keywords: water hyacinth, eicchornia, cellulase, beta glucosidase, solid state fermentation, aquatic weed
Introduction Water hyacinth (Eicchornia crassipes) is listed as one of the most productive plants on earth and is considered as the world's worst aquatic weed (Holm et al, 1977). Water hyacinth grows faster than any other tested plants (Wolverton & Mc Donald, 1979) and can double in as little as 6 days (Mitchell, 1976). The biomass productivities of water hyacinth is one of the highest in plant kingdom and an acre of water hyacinth can weigh more than 200 tons (Mitchell, 1976) making it one of the most potent sources of biomass for fuel applications if exploited properly. Water hyacinth biomass contains about 18 % cellulose, 48 % Hemicellulose and 3.5 % lignin (Nigam, 2002). Though there has been considerable amount of work on applications of water hyacinth biomass for biogas (Chanakya et al, 1993, Moorhead & Nordstedt, 1993) there are very few reports on its use in bioethanol production and the reports on use of water hyacinth biomass for cellulase production are rare. Cellulase production on water hyacinth has been attempted by several groups using either Aspergillus sp (Ali et al, 1991, Ismail et al, 1995, Sidky et al, 1999, Kumar & Singh 2001) or Trichoderma sp (Abdel Fattah et al, 1995, Mukhopadhyay & Nandi 1997, 2001, Kumar & Singh 2001). In majority of these studies the optimal pH for cellulase production, regardless of the organism employed was acidic (Ali et al, 1991, Ismail et al 1995). Alkali treatment of water hyacinth and a co-cultivation of two cellulase producers Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma reesei resulted in an increased yield of the enzyme (Kumar & Singh 2001) and supplementation of wheat bran to the substrate could increase the cellulase production considerably (Abdel Fattah et al, 1995). These studies indicate the increasing interest in this biomass resource as a substrate for cellulase production. Nevertheless, a mature technology for this is yet to evolve. Currently the industrial demand for cellulase is met by submerged fermentation. Significant cost reductions may be achieved through solid state fermentation (Raimbault et al, 1998), but the inducible cellulase systems of fungi often require cellulose, hemicellulose or biomass in the production media for obtaining high enzyme yields. The current study focuses at improving the production of cellulase by the filamentous fungus, Trichoderma reesei RUT C 30, by optimizing the culture conditions .The aim of the study was to obtain the maximum enzyme yield by using water hyacinth biomass as the substrate for production of the enzyme.
Materials and Methods Microorganism and inoculum preparation The study was carried out with Trichoderma reesei RUT C 30 which was a kind gift from Prof. George Scakacs, Technical University of Budapest, Hungary. The culture was maintained on Potato Dextrose Agar and subcultured biweekly. Storage of slants was done at 4 ÂşC. Fully sporulated cultures in PDA slants were used for
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preparing the inoculum. Sterile saline (5ml) containing 0.1% Tween 80 was added to the slants and the spores were dislodged into it by gentle pipetting using a 1ml micropipette under aseptic conditions. The suspension was recovered by aspiration and transferred to a sterile container. The spores were counted under a phase contrast microspore using a haemocytometer to obtain the spore count. The suspension was appropriately diluted with sterile saline to obtain the required spore count and was used as the inoculum. Substrate The experiment used water hyacinth biomass either alone or in combination with wheat bran. Water hyacinth plants were collected from backwaters in Aleppey and after removal of root material was sun dried, milled and sieved to obtain a powder of desired size (600-1000 uM). Wheat bran (WB) was procured from local market. Same batch of the substrate was used throughout the experiment. Enzyme production Five grams of size fractionated (600-1000µ) water hyacinth powder (WHP) or 5g of a combination of water hyacinth powder with wheat bran (WHP: WB = 80:20) was taken in 250ml Erlenmeyer flasks and was mixed with a mineral salt solution of the basal composition in g/L: KH2PO4 -5, NH4NO3 -5, Urea – 0.5, MgSO4.7H2O -2, CaCl2.2H2O – 1, NaCl -5, Peptone -5, Tween 80 -0.5, FeSO4 -0.005, MnSO4.H2O – 0.001, ZnSO4.7H2O – 0.00345, CoCl2 – 0.002. Changes in the composition of the mineral salt solution were made wherever indicated. The substrate (WHP or WHP: WB) in each Erlenmeyer flask was mixed with 8 ml of mineral salt solution and distilled water was added to obtain the required initial moisture content. Sterilized substrate was inoculated with 1 ml spore suspension of Trichoderma reesei RUT- C30 diluted appropriately to contain the required spore concentration. The contents were mixed well and incubated at the desired temperature. After the desired incubation period, 35 ml of citrate buffer was added to each flask, and the contents were thoroughly mixed by agitating the flasks on a rotary shaker at 200 rpm for 1h. Total volume of the fermented substrate was then adjusted to obtain a final volume of 50 ml. The slurry was filtered through a nylon sieve and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 15 minutes, at 4 °C to obtain a clear supernatant. This supernatant was used as the crude enzyme for analysis or was stored at 4 ºC until used. Enzyme Assays The IUPAC method (Ghose, 1987) was used for cellulase assay as out lined below. A rolled Whatman No 1 filter paper strip of dimension 1.0 x 6 cm (50mg) was placed into each assay tube. The filter paper strip was saturated with 1ml of Na-citrate buffer (0.05 M, pH 4.8) and was equilibrated for 10 minutes at 50 0 C in a water bath. Half millilitre of an appropriately diluted (in Na-citrate buffer -0.05M, pH 4.8) enzyme was added to the tube and incubated at 50 0C for 60 min. Appropriate controls were run along with the test, without addition of substrate (substrate blank) and without addition of enzyme (enzyme blank). At the end of the incubation period, each tube was removed from the water bath and the reaction was stopped by addition of 3 ml of DNS reagent. The tubes were incubated for 5 min in a boiling water bath and cooled rapidly. The reaction mixture was diluted appropriately and was measured against a reagent blank at 540 nm in a UV-VIS spectrophotometer. The concentration of glucose released by enzyme was determined by comparing against a standard curve constructed similarly with known concentrations of glucose. One unit of cellulase activity was defined as the amount of enzyme required for producing 1mg of reducing sugar per ml per hour and was expressed as U/gDS (units per gram dry substrate). Optimization of process parameters Optimization of parameters for cellulase production was performed in two stages. Initially 11 variables were screened using a fractional factorial design to identify the parameters which significantly influenced enzyme production and in the second stage the levels of these parameters were optimized using a response surface design. Fractional factorial design (Plackett and Burman method) The components of mineral salt solution used for wetting the substrate and the important physical parameters affecting enzyme production was screened by a Plackett and Burman experimental design (1946) with 11 variables at two levels in a total of 12 experimental runs. The parameters were evaluated at two levels: a higher level designated as +1 and a lower level designated as -1. The actual and coded values are given in Table 2.1. The design matrix for the experiment was generated with the DOE software - Design Expert® (StatEase Corp, Minniapolis, USA) and is given in Table 2.2. Experimental runs were performed according to the design and the response (Enzyme activity) was recorded. A factorial model was fitted for the main effects using Design Expert software. The effects of individual parameters on cellulase production was calculated by the following equation (Eqn.1) (1) E = (ΣM+ - ΣM-)/N
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Where E is the effect of parameter under study and M+ and M - are responses (cellulase activities) of trials at which the parameter was at its higher and lower levels respectively and N is the total number of trials. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the data to determine the significance of fitted model and to test the significance of the effect of individual parameters on cellulase production. The most significant parameters affecting cellulase production were identified. Table. 2.1. Variables and their levels employed in the Plackett and Burman design for optimization of cellulose production by T reesei under SSF on WH Variable Variable Levels Code +1 -1 A B C D E F G H J K L
Substrate WH:WB (80:20) Moisture (%) 85 % Temperature (o C) 30 pH 7 Inoculum (spores\mL) 1x 10 8 NH4NO3(g\L) 10 Peptone (g\L) 5 Urea(g\L) 2 NaCl (g\L) 5 Incubation time (hr) 96 Dummy Buffer1 *WH- water hyacinth powder, WB – Wheat Bran
WHP 65% 25 5 1x 10 5 2 1 0.5 1 60 Buffer2
Table 2.2: Plackett and Burman experimental design matrix for Cellulase production by T reesei under SSF on WH Std
Substrate
Moisture (%)
Temp (oC)
pH
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
WH+WB WH+WB WH WH+WB WH+WB WH+WB WH WH WH WH+WB WH WH
65 85 85 65 85 85 85 65 65 65 85 65
30 25 30 30 25 30 30 30 25 25 25 25
5 7 5 7 7 5 7 7 7 5 5 5
Inoculum Conc. (Count) 105 105 108 105 108 108 105 108 108 108 105 105
NH4NO3 (g/L)
Peptone (g/L)
Urea (g/L)
NaCl (g/L)
Time (h)
Dummy
2 2 2 10 2 10 10 2 10 10 10 2
5 1 1 1 5 1 5 5 1 5 5 1
2 2 0.5 0.5 0.5 2 0.5 2 2 0.5 2 0.5
5 5 5 1 1 1 5 1 5 5 1 1
60 96 96 96 60 60 60 96 60 96 96 60
Buffer2 Buffer1 Buffer2 Buffer2 Buffer2 Buffer1 Buffer1 Buffer1 Buffer2 Buffer1 Buffer2 Buffer1
Parameter optimization using response surface method The significant parameters identified by the Placket and Burman design were optimized using a Central composite experiment design where the effect of the significant variables was studied at three different levels. The design matrix with 13 experimental runs and having 5 replicates of the midpoint is shown in Table 2.3. The variables selected for optimization ie –Incubation Temperature and Incubation time were coded as X1 and X2 respectively. The levels of all other media components and the environmental factors were kept constant at their middle levels used in the Placket & Burman Design Table 2.3 Layout of RSM Std 1 2 3 4
Temperature (°C) 27 30 27 30
Incubation Time (h) 72 72 108 108
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5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
25.5 31.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5
90 90 54 126 90 90 90 90 90
The behavior of the system was explained by a second order polynomial equation. The model equation used for the analysis is given below (Eqn. 2) Y = β 0 + Σ β iXi + Σ β iiXi + Σ β ijXi Xj 2
(2)
Where, Y is the predicted response; β0 is the offset term; βi is the linear effect; βii is the squared effect and βij is the interaction effect. For two variable systems the model equation is given below (Eqn. 3) Y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β11X12 + β22X22 + β12X1X2
(3)
Regression analysis and estimation of the coefficients were performed using Design Expert. Three dimensional response surface plots were generated using the software for analyzing the interaction effects of parameters and the find the optimal levels and combinations of process variables for enhancing cellulase production.
Results Screening of variables affecting cellulase production on water hyacinth The effect of 11 parameters that were selected for the study was evaluated by conducting 12 runs of experiments that involved different combinations of the variables. The specified conditions of incubation were provided and the enzyme was extracted and assay carried out as outlined in the material sand methods. The Plackett and Burman experiments showed a wide variation in cellulase production ranging from 0.02 to 1.583 FPUs/ml (0.2 to 15.83 FPUs/gDS since enzyme was extracted in 10x volume of buffer) (Table 3.1). This variation shows the importance of optimizing these parameters for improving cellulase production by T. reesei on Water hyacinth biomass. Table 3.1: Plackett and Burman design matrix showing different combinations of parameters and the responses obtained Std
1 2
Substrate
WH+WB WH+WB
Moisture (%)
Temp (oC)
pH
65
30
5
85
25
7
Inoculum Conc. (Count) 105
NH4NO3 (g/L)
Peptone (g/L)
Urea (g/L)
NaCl (g/L)
Time (h)
2
5
2
5
60
Dummy (Buffer I or II) II
10
5
2
1
2
5
96
I
8
Cellulase (FPUs/ml) 0.045 1.423
3
WH
85
30
5
10
2
1
0.5
5
96
II
0.091
4
WH+WB
65
30
7
105
10
1
0.5
1
96
II
0.8
5
WH+WB
85
25
7
108
2
5
0.5
1
60
II
1.163
8
6
WH+WB
85
30
5
10
10
1
2
1
60
I
0.238
7
WH
85
30
7
105
10
5
0.5
5
60
I
0.157
8
WH
65
30
7
108
2
5
2
1
96
I
0.129
7
10
8
10
1
2
5
60
II
0.06
8
10
5
0.5
5
96
I
1.583
10
5
2
1
96
II
0.433
2
1
0.5
1
60
I
0.022
9
WH
65
25
10
WH+WB
65
25
5
10
11
WH
85
25
5
105
5
5
12
WH
65
25
10
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The effects of the individual parameters were found out by using the equation; E = (∑M+ - ∑ M -) /N where E is the Effect estimate, ∑M + and ∑M - are sum of responses at the high and low levels of the parameters and N Number of trials. The magnitude and direction of the effects give the importance of the variables. Substrate (0.726), incubation temperature (- 0.537) and incubation time (0.462) were noted to have the highest effects. But temperature was found to have a negative effect upon enzyme production ( Fig 3.1) . Estimated Effects of process parameters on cellulase production
0.80 0.60 0.40
NaCl
Urea
Peptone
NH4NO3
pH
Incubation Time
-0.60
Inoculum Conc
-0.40
Temp
-0.20
Moisture
0.00 Substrate
Effect
0.20
-0.80 Param eter
Fig 3.1: Estimated effects of the selected parameters on cellulase production. The results were analyzed statistically and a first order polynomial equation was derived to represent cellulase production as a function of the independent variables Y = 0.512 +0.3633 A – 0.2686 C +0.2311 K Y - Response (Cellulase Activity) A - Type of Substrate C - Incubation temperature K - Incubation time Adequacy of the model was tested and the parameters with significant effects were identified by the Fisher’s test for analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results of the analysis of variance are given in Table 3.2. The model F value of 14.07 and the Prob>F value of 0.0015 indicated that the model was significant and adequate to represent the system under study. The parameters with significant effects were the type of substrate, incubation temperature and incubation time with confidence levels above 95% (Prob >F < 0.05). Table 3.2: ANOVA (Analysis Of Variance) Table for the factorial model. Source Sum of DF Mean F Squares Square Value Model A C K Residual Cor Total
3.09 1.58 0.86 0.64 0.59 3.68
3 1 1 1 8 11
1.03 1.58 0.87 0.64 0.07
Prob > F 14.07 21.63 11.83 8.76
0.002 0.002 0.009 0.018
A validation run was also done to confirm the results. The three parameters namely, substrate, incubation temperature and incubation time were fixed at the level that gave the maximum response and the non-critical parameters at their middle values. The levels of parameters adopted for the validation run is given in Table 3.3
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Table 3.3: Levels of parameters selected for validation runs Parameters Levels Initial Moisture 75% pH 6 Inoculum 5 x 10 7 spore/ml NH4NO3 6 g\L Peptone 3 g\L Urea 1.25 g\L NaCl 3 g\L The validation run gave a mean yield of 1.5 FPUs/ml (15 FPUs/gDS) which was closer to the maximum yield obtained in the experimental runs confirming the results. The significant parameters affecting cellulase production were selected and their levels were further optimized using a response surface design of experiments. Optimization of significant parameters by Response surface method. The three critical parameters that were found to have the maximum effect on the response were taken up for further studies to optimize their levels using response surface methodology. The water hyacinth: wheat bran combination (80:20) which gave maximal yields was fixed as the substrate type and the other two parameters, namely, incubation temperature and time were evaluated in using a central composite rotary design. The central composite experiment design and the experimental and predicted responses obtained for cellulase production by T. reesei is shown in Table 3.4 The data was analyzed by multiple regression analysis and a second order polynomial equation was derived to represent the cellulase production as a function of the independent variables tested. Y= 1.076 -0.260 X1 +0.229 X2 - 0.020 X1 2 + 0.071 X2 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 0.139X1X2 Where Y = predicted response (cellulase yield), X1, X2 are coded values of incubation temperature and incubation time respectively. Table 3.4. Central composite design matrix and responses obtained for the response surface optimization of cellulase production on water hyacinth biomass Std
Temperature (oC)
Incubation Time (h)
Cellulase FPU/ml Actual
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
27 30 27 30 25.5 31.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5
72 72 108 108 90 90 54 126 90 90 90 90 90
Predicted 1.20 0.68 1.84 0.77 1.38 0.61 0.86 1.87 1.07 1.09 1.10 1.07 1.06
1.02 0.78 1.76 0.96 1.52 0.47 0.90 1.82 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08
Testing of the model was performed by the Fisherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s statistical test for the analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Design Expert software and the results are shown in Table 3.5. ANOVA of the quadratic regression model suggests that the model is highly significant with a computed F value of 18.16 and a P>F of 0.0007. The value of multiple correlation coefficient (R) was 0.9637. The closer the value of R to 1, the better is the correlation between the observed and predicted values and the R value obtained indicated a better correlation. A lower value for the coefficient of variation suggests higher reliability of the experiment and in this case the obtained CV value of 12.1 % demonstrated a greater reliability of the trials.
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Table 3.5 : ANOVA for quadratic model Source Sum of Squares Model 1.68 X1 0.81 X2 0.63 2 X1 0.01 2 X2 0.12 X 1X 2 0.08 Residual 0.13 Lack of Fit 0.13 Pure Error 0.00 Cor Total 1.81
DF
Mean Square
F Value
Prob > F
5 1 1 1 1 1 7 3 4 12
0.34 0.81 0.63 0.01 0.12 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.00
18.18 44.05 34.14 0.51 6.27 4.20
0.001 0.000 0.001 0.496 0.041 0.080
158.33
0.000
Table 3.5 also gives the P values of each of the parameters and their quadratic and interaction terms. The effect estimates of the terms are provided as a Pareto chart in Fig. 3.2 which clearly shows the significance of incubation temperature, incubation time and the quadratic term of incubation time on cellulase production. The significance of individual variables can be evaluated from their P values, the more significant terms having a lower P value. The values of P less than 0.05 indicates that the model terms are significant and this case X1 X2, and X2 2 were found to be significant model terms (Table 3.5 & Fig 3.2). There was no significant interaction between the parameters. Figure - 3.2. Pareto Chart for the Standardized effects of parameters Pareto Chart of Standardized Effects
(1)Temp oC(L)
-6.63689
5.842584
(2)T ime (h)(L)
T ime (h)(Q)
2.504804
1Lby2L
T emp oC(Q)
-2.04894
-.717545
p=.05 Standardized Effect Estimate (Absolute Value)
Response surface curve was plotted to understand the interaction effects of variables and for identifying the optimal levels of each parameter for attaining maximal cellulase yield. Figure 3.3A & B represent the response surface and the contour plot obtained for the effects of incubation temperature and initial moisture content on cellulase yield respectively. Highest yields were obtained at the lowest temperature of incubation and the longest incubation time tried. The optimal temperature and time was within 27-28 째C and 96-108 h respectively where the maximal activity of 1.5-1.8 FPUs/ml (15-18 FPUs/gDS) was obtained.
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Figure 3.3: Interaction effect of incubation temperature and time on cellulase production A
B 108
1.59
Incubation Time (h)
1.43 99
1.26 1.10 90
0.93
81
72 27.0
27.8
28.5
29.3
30.0
Temperature (oC)
The red zone indicates region defined by the specified ranges of incubation temperature and time where there is maximum cellulase production. The results from the study indicate that there was an increased enzyme activity at a lower temperature and longer incubation time. The incubation temperature had a more prominent effect than the incubation time, but in a negative way. The highest enzyme activity was recorded at 28.5 o C after 126 hours of incubation.
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Optimization of the levels of incubation time and temperature was done using the numerical optimization function in Design Expert. Runs were done at the optimized levels and regression analysis was performed to validate the effectiveness of optimization. The optimized levels of parameters and the results of validation run are given in Table 3.6. The results correlated well with the predicted values and a regression coefficient of 0.9631 showed that the predicted and actual values correlated well. Table 3.6. Validation of the optimization of cellulase ;production on water hyacinth Incubation Incubation time (h) Cellulase yield (U/gds) temperature (oC) Predicted Actual 27 27 28 28
108 96 108 96
1.45 1.76 1.51 1.26
1.32 1.73 1.24 1.37
R = 0.9631, R2 = 0.9276 To access the overall improvement in yield after optimization, the results of the experiments conducted at the optimized concentrations were compared with that at the base level in an un-optimized medium. Compared to the yield obtained under optimized conditions (1.87 U/gds), the base medium yielded only 0.7 U/gds which implicates the validity of the response surface approach in optimizing cellulase production on water hyacinth biomass.
Discussion The present study has been conducted with the aim to develop a process for cellulase production on water hyacinth biomass. Effective technologies for value addition of the water hyacinth biomass can serve the purpose of weed removal as well as generation of employment and income in rural areas where the weed is a typical menace affecting the lively hood of the people either directly or indirectly (Aswathy et al, 2010). The current study therefore evaluated the production of cellulase from this feedstock using cost effective and less technically intensive solid state fermentation technology which can be easily adopted. Water hyacinth was used as the main substrate for cellulase production, either alone or in combination with wheat bran. Water hyacinth was brought into use for the production of cellulase by several researchers (Ali et al, 1991; Ismail et al, 1995). There was an increase in the enzyme production when there was a supplementation of wheat bran in the medium. There are prior reports showing the positive effect of wheat bran on cellulase production by Yu et al, 1998 and Chaabouni et al, 1995. The physical characteristics of wheat bran and the fact that it contains various nutrients that can support fungal growth (Ramakrishna et al, 1982) explains the increase in cellulase yield when supplemented to water hyacinth. Another important parameter affecting fungal growth is particle size of the substrate. Even though there are results showing that smaller particles stimulate greater growth due to increased surface area, visual observation shows that in the case of smaller particles, the fungus grows only on the surface of the particles, in spite of the larger surface area. The porosity would be less in the case of smaller particles (Muniswaran and Charyulu, 1994). Optimization of the growth parameters can result in dramatic increases in metabolite production, in several instances. The three significant parameters identified by the Plackett & Burman design, that affect the enzyme production were substrate composition, incubation temperature and incubation time. The study showed that a lower temperature favored enzyme production. Fungi are generally grown at 28oC â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 30oC (Ilmen et al, 1997; Domingues et al, 2000; Gokhale et al, 1991). But lower temperatures like 26o C have also been reported (Janas et al, 2002). This maximum enzyme production was noted at 27oC â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 28 oC in the present study which probably correlates with the temperature encountered by this strain in its natural habitat. Incubation time was found to be other important factor in the response. It had a positive influence in the enzyme production. The increase in enzyme activities after prolonged incubation probably indicates the delay in growth of the fungus and in achieving the threshold biomass for cellulase production on water hyacinth biomass. Previous studies on SSF production of cellulase by T reesei had also reported the need for longer incubation times (Chahal et al, 1985). The maximum enzyme production was recorded when a longer incubation time of 126 hours was used. Other than the three parameters that gave the maximum response, substrate composition, incubation temperature, incubation time, there were also other variables that influenced the enzyme production, but not as much as the mentioned three. The only other parameter that had a negative influence on the enzyme production was urea. The present study shows a negative influence of urea even though Ramamurthy et al, 1992 have reported the positive effect of urea on enzyme production. T. reesei is generally grown at a pH range of 3-5.5
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(Domingues et al, 1999, Janas et al, 2002). The maximum enzyme production was obtained in the current study at pH 5. SSF is described as process without or almost without free water and hence is suitable for the production of fungal enzymes, as fungi generally prefer low moisture level. Moisture level plays an important role in SSF. The moisture level in SSF may vary between 30 – 85 %, depending on the substrate and organism (Reimbault, 1998). When there is more water, availability of inter particular space for aeration decreases and it adversely affects the microbial growth and product formation (Pandey, 1992).The moisture level that results in the maximum enzyme production in the study was 65%. Peptone has a positive effect on the enzyme production as similar to earlier reports by Ryu and Mandels, 1980; Gayal and Khadeparkar, 1998. The amount of inoculum that is used did not significantly affect the cellulase production in the tested ranges. Even though increase in inoculum concentration did result in an increased production of the enzyme, the effect of this parameter was not very significant to be of any value in actual production of cellulase. The addition of NH4NO3 and NaCl were found to have positive effect, as these supply nutrients and minerals to the organism (Knapp and Howell, 1980). The study reported an increase in the enzyme yield from 0.70 U\gds using base medium to 1.87 U\gds after optimizing the parameters.
Conclusions The present study which utilized water hyacinth biomass as substrate for cellulase production showed an increase in cellulase production after the optimization of the production parameters. Three of the process parameters: substrate composition, incubation temperature and incubation time, were found to have significant effects on cellulase production by T reesei RUT C30 on water hyacinth biomass under solid state fermentation. The levels of these parameters were optimized using a response surface central composite design to obtain a maximal yield of 1.87 U/gds from a basal level of 0.7 U/gds. A lower temperature and longer incubation time was found to give the maximum activity and the ideal operating conditions were derived as a substrate composition consisting of an 80:20 mixture of water hyacinth powder and wheat bran, an incubation temperature in the range of 27-28 oC and an incubation time of around 108h. Solid state fermentation technology requires lower capital investment and lower operating costs, it has been reported to be ideal for the developing countries (Chahal et al, 1996; Haltrich et al, 1996). The current technology for production of cellulase addresses the issues of water hyacinth biomass utilization to derive useful metabolites as well as a cheaper technology for cellulase production. The results indicate the scopes for using SSF technology for production of cellulolytic enzymes utilizing the cheap and abundant biomass resource – water hyacinth biomass which may also help for value addition of this resource which otherwise is considered as a waste.
References Abdel-Fattah, AF; Ismail, A-MS; Abdel-Naby, MA, Utilization of water hyacinth cellulose for production of cellulases by Trichoderma viride 100 Cytobios. Vol. 82, no. 330, pp. 151-157. 1995. Ali S, Sarker R I, and Alam R. Factor affecting cellulase production by Aspergillus terreus using water hyacinth. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology (1991) 7(1): pp 62 – 66. Aswathy US, Sukumaran RK, Lalithadevi G, Rajasree KP, Singhania RR, Pandey A (2010), Bio-ethanol from water hyacinth biomass: An evaluation of enzymaticsaccharification strategy, Bioresour Technol. 101: 925-930 Chaabouni E, Belguith H, Hassari I, And Rad K M. Optimisation of cellulase production by Penicillium occitanis. Appl.Microbiol. and Biotechnol. (1995): pp 267 – 269. Chahal, D.S.(1985), Solid-state fermentation with Trichoderma reesei for cellulase production. Appl, Environ. Microbiol., 205-210 (1985). Chahal, P.S., D.S. Chahal and G.B.B. Lee, 1996. Production of cellulase in solid state fermentation with Trichoderma reesi MCG80 on wheat straw. Applied Biochem. Biotechnol., 57-58: 433-441. Chankya et al., 1993. H.N. Chankya, S. Borgaonkar, G. Meena and K.S. Jagadish , Solid-phase biogas production with garbage or water hyacinth. Biores. Tech. 46 (1993), pp. 227–231. Domingues F C, Queiroz J A, Cabral J M S and Fonseca L P. The influence of culture conditions on mycelial structure and cellulase production by Trichoderma reesei RUT C 30. Enzyme Microbial. Technol. (2000) 26: pp 394 – 401. Gayal S G and Khandeparkar V G. Cellulase from Penicillium funiculosum and its applications. In Fungi in Biotechnology. Anil Prakash (Eds). CBS Publishers and Distributors (1998): pp 99 – 104. Ghose T K. Measurement of cellulase activities. Pure and Applied Chemistry (1987) 59: pp 257 – 268. Gokhale D V, Patil S G, and Bastawde K B. Optimisation of cellulase production by Aspergillus niger NCIM 1207. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. (1991) 30 (1): pp 99 – 109. Haltrich D, Nidetzky B, Kulbe KD, Steiner W, Zupancic S (1996).Production of fungal xylanases. Biores. Technol. 58: 137-161
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Holm LG, Plucknett DL, Pancho JV, Herberger JP. 1977. The world's worst weeds: distribution and biology. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. 609 pp. Ilmen M, Saloheimo A, Onnela M L, and Pentilla M E. Regulation of cellulase gene expression in the filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. (1997) 63: pp1298 – 1306. Ismail A M, Abdel Naby M A, Abdel Fatteh A F. Utilization of water hyacinth cellulose for production of cellobiase rich preparation by Aspergillus niger 1. Microbios. (1995) 83: pp 191 – 198. Janas P, Targonski Z, and Mleko S .New inducers for cellulase production by Trichoderma reesei M7. Electronic Journal of Polish Agricultural Universities. (2002) vol.5. Knapp J S and Howell J A. Solid Substrate Fermentation. Topics in Enzyme and fermentation biotechnology. Wiseman A (ed) (1980) 4: pp 84 – 143. Kumar R, Singh RP, Semi-solid-state fermentation of Eicchornia crassipes biomass as lignocellulosic biopolymer for cellulase and 3-glucosidase production by cocultivation of Aspergillus niger RK3 and Trichoderma reesei MTCC164, Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2001 Oct-Dec;96(1-3):71-82. Mitchell DS. 1976. The growth and management of Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia spp. in their native environment and in alien sitautions. In: Varshney CK, Rzoska J, editors, Aquatic weeds in Southeast Asia. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk b.v., Publishers. 396 pp. Moorhead and Nordstedt, 1993. K.K. Moorhead and R.A. Nordstedt , Batch anaerobic digestion of water hyacinth: Effects of particle size, plant nitrogen content, and inoculum volume. Biores. Tech. 44 (1993), pp. 71– 76. Mukhopadhyay, S. Nandi, B, Cellulase production by strains of Trichoderma on water hyacinth biomass, J Mycopath Res. (1997)35: NUMBER 1, pages 21-28 Muniswaran P K A and Charyulu N C. Solid substrate fermentation of coconut coir pith for cellulase production. Enz. Microb. Technol. (1994) 16. Nigam J N. Bioconversion of water hyacinth hemicellulose acid hydrolysis to motor fuel ethanol by xylose fermenting yeast. J. Biotechnol. (2002) 97: pp 107 – 116. Pandey A. Production of starch saccharyfying enzyme (glucoamylase) in solid cultures. Starch\Starke (1992) 44 (2): pp 75 – 77. Plackett R L and Burman J P. The design of optimum multifactorial experiments. Biometrika (1946) 33: pp 305 – 325. Raimbault , M, General and microbiological aspects of solid substrate fermentation EJB Electronic Journal of Biotechnology Vol.1 No.3, Issue of August 15, 1998. Ramakrishna S V, Ghildyal N P, Lonsane B K, Ahmed S Y, and Murthy V S. 1982, Proc. Biotechnol. National Symposium. Jain S C (Eds): pp 267. Ryu D & Mandels M. Cellulases: biosynthesis and applications. Enzyme Microb. Technol (1980) 2: pp 91-102. Sidky, N. M. Younis, N. A. Ammar, M. S. Ouda, S. M, Production of Different Fungal Cellulase(s) on Water Hyacinth Ground Preparation (WHGP) Afric. J Mycol Biotechnol 1999, VOL 7; NUMBER 2, pages 93-105 Wolverton BC, McDonald RC. 1979. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) productivity and harvesting studies. Econ. Botany 33:1-10
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Chapter- VI-32 Waste to Energy: India’s Potential and a Microeconomic Approach Mrinal Chadha Central University of Rajasthan, Bandarsindri, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India Email: mrinalchadha07@gmail.com Abstract The term Waste Management has gained a large chunk of interest of Researchers, Environmentalists and Academicians across the Globe since past few decades. One of the major reasons for this is the rise in Industrialization and the development level. The development that took place across the World, beginning Centuries ago, with Economists like Adam Smith arguing for free market Economy for its rise, nobody apparently predicted that with so much sweet being put by the Markets in our “Development bowl”, it has a lot of sour flavor also, in the form of Waste that gets carried out in the so called Development process. This waste takes various forms namely Industrial Waste, Municipal Solid Waste, Medical Waste, e-waste and so on. The core objective of this paper is to analyze in brief India’s waste to energy sources, and then emphasize on Energy potential of India from the Waste with a look at power potential from Urban MSW. High Cost of Waste to Energy production, lack of resources with Municipal Authorities, Rising Industrialization, and escalation population are perceived as some of the big barricades halting India’s Waste to Energy Potential. However, given the vision of Sustainable Development by reduction of Waste, the conversion of Waste to Energy is argued as a sustainable source of Energy generation by using a microeconomic framework. Keywords: Waste Management, Industrial Waste, Resource Economics, Sustainable Development.
Introduction “When written in Chinese, the word ‘crisis’ is composed of two characters- one represents danger and one represents opportunity” - John F. Kennedy Believing in the above words of John F. Kennedy, the ‘danger’ waste produced from various sources, needs to be seen as an ‘opportunity’ in terms of the Energy generation, it can lead to. Most wastes that are generated, find their way into land and water bodies without proper treatment, causing severe water pollution. They also emit greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide, and add to air pollution. Every sector of the Economy: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary produces waste in some or the other form. They are classified by generator type i.e. their Source. Some Major classes of Wastes include Municipal, Hazardous, Industrial, Medical, Universal, Construction and Demolition, Radioactive, Mining and Agricultural (Pichtel, John, 1957Waste Management Practices: Municipal, Hazardous, and Industrial). Any organic waste from urban and rural areas and industries is a resource due to its ability to get degraded, resulting in energy generation. This paper is structured as follows: Section II presents a review of the literature followed by an overview about the Indian economy in the context of India’s potential of Generating Waste out of Energy in section III. Section IV analyses in brief the various factors that have halted India’s Energy potential out of Waste. Section V presents a micro-economic analysis of waste as a negative externality in the economy, and plausible solutions (supported by case studies from developed world) which can be practiced by developing economies including India. The paper rests with a conclusion in the end in Section VI.
Literature Review The hidden energy generation potential which can be trapped to meet a large amount of soaring energy demands has grabbed attention of researchers across Globe (Luciano Basto Oliveira, Luiz Pinguelli Rosa). Moreover, if the ever rising waste is not put to its best use, its appropriated disposal needs to be contemplated as grave. Unscientific disposal causes an adverse impact on all components of the environment and human health (Rathi, 2006; Sharholy et al., 2005; Ray et al., 2005; Jha et al., 2003; Kansal, 2002; Kansalet al., 1998; Singh and Singh, 1998; Gupta et al., 1998). This adverse impact can be circumvented to a great extent by ensuring Waste to Energy (WTE) facilities. In fact, a comprehensive study of all available literature by National Research Council (NRC), USA published as ‘Waste Incineration and Public Health’ found no correlation between WTE plants and public health impacts. A study conducted by Chinese Academy of Sciences and Stanford University found that emissions from all Chinese WTE facilities were in compliance with Chinese standards.(Bhada, P., 2007).
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Researchers have also aimed their studies towards studying Developing Countries in respect to Waste Management. Improvement in rural Economy, Management of rural-urban migration, and Involvement of stakeholders are contemplated as important to achieve any meaningful and sustainable Municipal Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries. The role of the informal sector through community-based organizations (CBOs), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and the private sector in offering solutions towards improvement of Municipal Solid Waste Management is also explored and concluded positively. (Rotich K. Henry, Zhao Yongsheng, Dong Jun). As regards to India, specifically, Municipal Solid Waste Management is considered as one of the major environmental problems of Indian megacities (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar Mahmood, R.C. Trivedi, 2007). The trouble is not limited to it just being a problem; the bigger trouble is the ‘speed’ at which the problem of waste management is escalating every day with Industrialization. The Municipal Solid Waste amount is expected to increase significantly in the near future as the country strives to attain an industrialized nation status by the year 2020 (Sharma and Shah, 2005; CPCB, 2004; Shekdar et al., 1992). Lack of data and inconsistency in existing data is a major hurdle while studying developing nations and this holds true for India as well. Annepu et al.(2012) presents a comprehensive study on present status of waste management in India, its effects on public health and the environment, and the prospects of introducing improved means of disposing municipal solid waste (MSW) in the country. It extensively discusses the systems and techniques of waste treatment which includes- Informal and Formal Recycling, Aerobic Composting and Mechanical Biological Treatment, Small Scale Biomethanation, Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF), Waste-to-Energy Combustion (WTE), and Landfill Mining (or Bioremediation). However, very few studies have done in-depth analysis of the real situation of waste management and its conversion into energy in India. An attempt has been made to bridge this gap to some extent via this paper.
India on the path of Waste Energy India is the world’s second largest nation in terms of population but waste management services and techniques have not improved in the country accordingly, thus, putting health, environment and natural resources at a great risk. According to Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) estimates, there exists a potential of about 1460 MW from Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and 226 MW from sewage. The per capita waste generation rate in India has increased from 0.44 kg/day in 2001 to 0.5 kg/day in 2011, triggered by changing lifestyles and increased purchasing power of urban Indians. There are 53 cities in India with a million plus population, which together generate 86,000 TPD (31.5 million tons per year) of MSW at a per capita waste generation rate of 500 grams/day. The total MSW generated in urban India is estimated to be 68.8 million tons per year (TPY) or 188,500 tons per day (TPD) of MSW. Such a steep increase in waste generation within a decade has severed the stress on all available natural, infrastructural and budgetary resources.3 A state wise Analysis of Waste Generation and Potential Power Generation MSW Generation
Share of States and UTs in Urban MSW generated Madhya Pradesh 3% Rajasthan 4% Gujarat
Maharashtra 17% Others 16% West Bengal 12%
5% Karnataka 6%
Uttar Pradesh 10% Tamil Nadu 9%
Andhra Pradesh Delhi 9% 9%
Source: Annepu, R.K.( 2012). Sustainable Solid Waste in India. Sponsored by Waste-to-Energy Research and Technology Council (WTERT).
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Power Potential from Urban MSW S.No.
City
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Greater Kolkata Greater Mumbai Delhi Chennai Greater Hyderabad Greater Bengaluru Pune Ahmadabad Kanpur Surat Kochi Jaipur Coimbatore Greater Visakhapatnam Ludhiana Agra Patna Bhopal Indore Allahabad Meerut Nagpur Lucknow Srinagar Asansol Varanasi Vijayawada Amritsar Faridabad Dhanbad Vadodara Madurai Jammu Jamshedpur Chandigarh Pondicherry Jabalpur Bhubaneswar Nashik Ranchi Rajkot Raipur Thiruvananthapuram Dehradun Guwahati Shillong Agartala Port Blair Aizwal Panaji Imphal Gandhinagar Shimla Daman Kohima
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55
MSW Generated (TPD) 11,520 11,124 11,040 6,118 4,923 3,344 2,602 2,518 1,756 1,734 1,366 1,362 1,253 1,194
Calorific Value (MJ/kg) 5.0 7.5 7.5 10.9 8.2 10.0 10.6 4.9 6.6 4.1 2.5 3.5 10.0 6.7
Power Production Potential (MW) 129.9 186.6 186.8 149.0 91.0 74.9 61.8 27.9 25.9 16.1 7.6 10.7 28.0 18.0
Coal substituted (TPY) 1,445,194 2,075,263 2,078,043 1,657,716 1,012,526 833,427 687,908 310,362 288,159 179,314 84,327 118,652 311,631 199,801
1,115 1,021 945 877 867 815 804 801 743 713 706 706 688 679 667 625 606 543 534 515 486 449 380 356 329 325 317 316 308 247 246 137 114 114 86 81 72 65 59 23 20
10.7 2.2 3.4 5.9 6.0 4.9 4.6 11.0 6.5 5.3 4.8 3.4 8.0 7.7 5.5 2.5 7.5 7.6 7.5 4.2 5.9 7.7 8.6 3.1 11.6 4.4 2.9 5.3 10.0 10.2 6.4 11.5 10.2 6.2 15.8 9.3 15.8 2.9 10.8 10.8 11.9
26.8 5.0 7.3 11.7 11.7 9.0 8.2 19.8 10.9 8.5 7.7 5.3 12.3 11.7 8.3 3.5 10.1 9.2 8.9 4.9 6.4 7.8 7.3 2.5 8.5 3.2 2.0 3.8 6.9 5.7 3.5 3.5 2.6 1.6 3.0 1.7 2.5 0.4 1.4 0.6 0.5
298,041 55,457 80,844 130,174 130,139 100,455 91,457 220,216 120,839 94,139 85,250 59,291 137,263 130,219 91,897 38,583 112,737 102,832 99,398 54,279 71,478 86,578 81,410 27,592 94,918 35,985 22,748 42,019 76,506 63,082 39,032 39,153 28,901 17,552 33,831 18,707 28,323 4,739 15,851 6,218 5,941
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56 57 58 59
Gangtok Itanagar Silvassa Kavarati TOTAL
19 18 11 5 81,407
5.2 14.3 5.4 9.4
0.2 0.6 0.1 0.1 1,292
2,449 6,419 1,472 1,171 14,367,909
Source: Annepu, R.K.( 2012). Sustainable Solid Waste in India. Sponsored by Waste-to-Energy Research and Technology Council (WTERT).
India’s overall power potential from MSW is estimated to be 3,650 MW by 2012 and 5,200 MW by 2017. As apparent from the table above, from 59 cities the power potential turns out to be 1, 292 MW. Generation of energy from MSW can displace 14.5 million TPY of low grade coal every year. Delhi has the highest potential for power generation from MSW followed by Mumbai. A detailed study on costs and benefits of WTE facility to Mumbai reveals WTE facility will not only decrease environmental pollution but will also decrease the land required for MSW disposal. As envisaged, it will be a supplementary source of electricity in the State. The case for such a provision has been further strengthened by presenting the potential revenues that can be earned by putting such a facility in place. (Appendix Table 1 & 2). According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, there is a potential to recover 1,300 MW of power from industrial wastes, which is projected to increase to 2,000 megawatt by 2017. Projects of over 135 megawatt have been installed so far in distilleries, pulp and paper mills, and food processing and starch industries. (2011). There exists an estimated potential of about 225 MW from all sewage (taking the conservative estimate from MNRE) and about 1460 MW of power from the MSW generated in India, thus a total of close to 1700 MW of power. Of this, only about 24 MW have been exploited, according to MNRE. Thus, less than 1.5% of the total potential has been achieved. The major question then arises what actually halts India?
What halts India? The growth of Indian Waste to Energy sector has been affected on account of the following limitations/ constraints: Waste-to-Energy is still a “to be heard” concept in the country, looking at the statistics; Most of the proven and commercial technologies in respect of urban wastes are required to be imported; The costs of the projects especially based on biomethanation technology are high as critical equipment for a project is required to be imported. In view of low level of compliance of MSW Rules 2000 by the Municipal Corporations/ Urban Local Bodies, segregated municipal solid waste is generally not available at the plant site, which may lead to non-availability of waste-to-energy plants. Other factors include lack of financial resources with Municipal Corporations/Urban Local Bodies; Lack of conducive policy guidelines from State Governments in respect of allotment of land, supply of garbage and power purchase / evacuation facilities and Growth of population, increasing urbanization and rising standards of living have contributed to an increase both in the quantity and variety of wastes generated by various activities. Although it is true that India face several constraints when it comes to waste management, but engaging in market transactions for waste seems to be one of the viable solution, for which a case can be made via externality analysis as presented in the section below.
Waste to Energy: A Microeconomic Perspective Production externality Consider two firms. Firm A produces output q1 from input LA, according to a production function fA. (1)
q1 = f A ( LA )
As a result of the production process, it also produces an externality, h, which is the industrial waste that this firm produces. (2) h = h ( q1 ) The externality affects the production process of firm B which produces q2. Here firm B is taken to be another firm whose output is getting adversely affected by this waste but this firm can channelize this waste into energy. (3) q2 = f B ( LB , h) If ∂ f B / ∂ h > 0 , there is a positive externality. For example, the output of a fruit grower depends on how much honey is produced by neighbouring beekeepers. If ∂ f B / ∂ h < 0 , there is a negative externality. In our case, this waste is creating negative externality for firm B.
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Let prices be given by p1, p2 and w for output 1, output 2 and input respectively. Let us suppose that the system is decentralised, and each firm maximises profits. Then the profit maximisation problems faced by the two firms are: (4) max imize p1 f A ( L A ) − wL A LA
max imize
(5)
LB
p 2 f B ( L B ) − wL B
The two respective optimality conditions are
∂f A −w=0 ∂LA ∂f p2 B − w = 0 ∂LB
p1
(6)
(7)
In the presence of externality, the solution from this would not lead to an optimal outcome as the externality h does not figure in firm 2s profit maximization condition, although firm 2s production is getting affected by it. Firms take into account only the private costs and private benefits and not the social cost and benefits. This model fails to estimate the negative effect of externality and thus makes it requisite to arrive at an optimal allocation wherein the quantum of this waste is not only optimum but also being positively utilized. Like the conventional externality theory, the first solution that we adopt in this context is that of Internalization and second is that of creating a market for waste.
Internalizing an externality If the production of two firms involves an externality, which the firms cannot take care of the externality by acting separately, the two firms can be merged together to maximize the joint profits of the merged firms. Since two firms are merged into one, by definition there is no externality, since the output decisions will take note of the effect of the externality when profits are jointly maximized. Again, the allocation will be optimal since no component firm’s profits can be increased without reducing those of another component firm, since aggregate profits are maximised by the production decisions. But ensuring optimality through internalising the externality by merging the two firms and maximising the joint profits of the merged firm is formally equivalent to the social planner’s problem of maximising aggregate profits of the firm. Thus, to find the conditions of producing the goods to maximise aggregate profits of the firm, we consider a social planner wanting to make the best use of the input would solve the following problem:
p1q1 + p2 q2 − w( LA + LB ) max imize L A LB
= p1 f A ( LA ) + p2 f B ( LB , h) − w( LA + LB )
= p1 f A ( LA ) + p2 f B (LB , h[ f A ( LA )]) − w( LA + LB )
The first order conditions for maximization requires the partial derivatives with respect to LA and LB to be set equal to zero. p1
∂f A ∂f 2 ∂h ∂f A + p2 − w = 0 ∂L A ∂h ∂f A ∂L A
p2
∂f B − w = 0 ∂LB
These can be re-written as:
∂f B ∂h ∂f A =w p1 + p 2 ∂h ∂f A ∂L A
p1
∂f A =w ∂L A
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Under normal concavity requirements, ∂ f A / ∂ L A > 0 and ∂ f A / ∂LA < 0 . As per this outcome, not only it is proved that the earlier outcome was not optimal but also that changing L of firm A appropriately, would increase the output B. This implies, not only firm B will produce a higher output now than before but also whatever optimal waste that is being generated by the firm A can be used to produce energy as both the firms can now share the cost of generating energy than one single firm bearing the cost. 2
2
Creating a market Suppose that a market is created for the externality so that firm B must pay rh to firm A where r is the market price of the externality. Firm B’s profit maximisation problem is then
max imize LB , h
p 2 f B ( L B , h ) − wL B − rh
The first order conditions are:
p2
∂f B − w = 0.......... .......(12) ∂LB
∂f B −r =0 ∂h ∂f ⇒ r = p2 B .......... ......(13) ∂h p2
Firm A’s profit maximisation problem is
max imize LA
p 1 f A ( L A ) + rh [ f A ( L A )] − wL A
The first order condition is
p1
∂f A ∂h ∂f A +r − w = 0 ……………………(15) ∂LA ∂f A ∂LA
Substituting (13) into (15)
p1
∂f A ∂f ∂h ∂f A + p2 B −w=0 ∂LA ∂h ∂f A ∂LA
This shows that socially optimal level of output is obtained. Now, not only firm B is producing output but with paying for externality firm B is having full control over the waste treatment and quantity of waste that will be produced.
Existing Evidence in this Regard Sweden is one such country which has a market for trash. With a strong tradition of recycling and incinerating, it now has too many waste-to-energy incinerators and not enough rubbish to meet demand. It has become Europe's biggest importer of trash from other countries, currently mainly from Norway, India can not only make an effort to treat trash the way European Countries presently do but can become exporter of trash and importer of resultant electricity/energy after making a thorough cost-benefit analysis.
Conclusion Over the years, the term “Sustainable Development” has gained a lot of interest not just of Environmentalists, Academicians but also of the political class. However, India, like many other developing countries has not been able to set up a model wherein its relatively massive growth in terms of GDP can be termed Sustainable. As outlined in the paper, India has a large chunk of waste potential which can be turned into
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Energy. Monetizing the costs associated with energy production and solid waste management is a complicated task. Best efforts notwithstanding, the calculations are characterized by considerable uncertainty, especially so, for environmental effects but it is high time for Indian Government and concerned authorities to not only allocate sufficient funds for putting in place infrastructure required for Wage to energy Conversion but also find suitable markets be it in South Asian region or elsewhere for getting its massive waste treated and producing energy out of this trash. In the coming years, all that needs to be seen is that How far India goes in using this potential source of Energy! Table1: Potential revenues from sale of electricity from a WTE facility in Mumbai to the electricity grid
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Table 2: Potential Revenues from tipping fees paid to WTE facility in Mumbai
References Asnani, P.U. 2006. Solid Waste Management (Chapter 8). India Infrastructure Report. pp. 160-189. Annepu, R.K.( 2012). Sustainable Solid Waste in India. Sponsored by Waste-to-Energy Research and Technology Council (WTERT). Bhada, P.( 2007). Feasibility Analysis of Waste-To-Energy as a Key Component of Integrated solid Waste Management in Mumbai, India. Bhagat, R.B., M. Guha, and A. Chattopadhyay. 2006. Mumbai after 26/7 Deluge: Issues and concerns in urban planning. Population and Environment. 27:337-349 Cruz, R. 2005. Trash and the City. Waste-to-Energy Research and Technology Council Annual Meeting 2005. Columbia University. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. Government of India. National Master Plan for Development of Waste-to-Energy in India. Ministry of Urban Development. 2000. Government of India, Solid Waste Management Manual. Smith, Adam, 1776- An inquiry into the Nature and causes of the Wealth of Nations. Pichtel, John, 1957- Waste Management Practices: Municipal, Hazardous, and Industrial. Luciano Basto Oliveira, Luiz Pinguelli Rosa- Brazilian waste potential: energy, environmental, social and economic benefits. Rathi, S., 2006. Alternative approaches for better municipal solid waste management in Mumbai, India. Journal of Waste Management 26(10), 1192–1200. Sharholy, M., Ahmad, K., Mahmood, G., Trivedi, R.C., 2005. Analysis of municipal solid waste management systems in Delhi – a review. In: Book of Proceedings for the second International Congress of Chemistry and Environment, Indore, India, pp. 773–777. Ray, M.R., Roychoudhury, S., Mukherjee, G., Roy, S., Lahiri, T., 2005. Respiratory and general health impairments of workers employed in a municipal solid waste disposal at open landfill site in Delhi. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 108 (4), 255–262.
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Jha, M.K., Sondhi, O.A.K., Pansare, M., 2003. Solid waste management – a case study. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection 23 (10), 1153–1160. Kansal, A., 2002. Solid waste management strategies for India. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection 22 (4), 444–448. Kansal, A., Prasad, R.K., Gupta, S., 1998. Delhi municipal solid waste and environment – an appraisal. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection 18 (2), 123–128. Singh, S.K., Singh, R.S., 1998. A study on municipal solid waste and its management practices in Dhanbad– Jharia coalifield. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection 18 (11), 850–852. Gupta, S., Krishna, M., Prasad, R.K., Gupta, S., Kansal, A., 1998. Solid waste management in India: options and opportunities. Resource, Conservation and Recycling 24, 137–154. Rotich K. Henry, Zhao Yongsheng, Dong Jun, Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing countries – Kenyan case study. Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar Mahmood, R.C. Trivedi, 2007; Municipal solid waste management in Indian cities – A review. Sharma, S., Shah, K.W., 2005. Generation and disposal of solid waste in Hoshangabad. In: Book of Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Chemistry and Environment, Indore, India, pp. 749–751. Shekdar, A.V., Krshnawamy, K.N., Tikekar, V.G., Bhide, A.D., 1992. Indian urban solid waste management systems – jaded systems in need of resource augmentation. Journal of Waste Management 12 (4), 379–387. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), 2004. Management of Municipal Solid Waste. Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi, India. Website Used: Eai.in
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Chapter-VII Case Studies and Best Practices
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Chapter- VII-33 Municipal solid waste management : A study on Silchar town, Assam Mithra Dey Dept. of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar, Assam, India Email: mithradey@gmail.com Abstract Due to rapid urbanization and rise in living standards urban localities are confronted with the problem of littering of solid waste, unclean surroundings which become the breeding sites of microbes and vectors and lead to high incidence of communicable diseases and other health hazards, clogged drains, water logging etc. At present municipal solid waste management in India depends completely on the urban local bodies and the municipality services and is considered a governmental responsibility. But the huge task of managing the solid waste can be made more efficient with peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation. People particularly women need to become aware about 3 R â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;reuse, recycle and reduceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; mantra. Reduction of waste at source is one of the best options. The present paper tries to highlight the present status of solid waste management in Silchar, a fast growing town in south Assam and the need for community awareness and public consciousness regarding their responsibility towards keeping the city clean. The major findings about the present status with some suggestions are put forward for efficient management of the MSW in Silchar. Keywords: Municipal solid waste, pollution, public awareness, reuse, recycle, reduce
Introduction Management of Municipal solid waste is becoming a matter of serious concern with the magnitude of the problem rising everyday in all cities and towns. Along with the cleanliness aspect the spread of diseases is significant from the ill managed waste and its littering. Municipal solid waste can be categorised broadly as residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural, waste from construction and demolition sites etc. Although waste from hospitals and nursing homes are categorised as biomedical waste and are considered as hazardous, lack of proper management sometimes adds biomedical waste to MSW and aggravates the problem. Economic development and urbanisation along with improved standard of living has contributed to increasing quantity of MSW in towns and cities of India. Growth in human population in urban areas of India is taking place rapidly. Along with it comes the problem of increased solid waste generation and management. Municipal Solid Waste in any form is a severe polluting agent and contaminates air, water and land indiscriminately mainly due to open and unscientific dumping (Kansal etal 1998). Per capita waste generation in Indian cities lies between 0.2 to 0.5 kg/day (Singh etal 2007). Urban India today generates huge quantity of solid waste daily (nearly 1lakh MT/day) in most of the metros which requires more than 1500 acres of land/year for landfill and disposal (IL&FS IDC, 2008). Solid wastes have been classified in different ways and studies have been undertaken in different cities (Singh and Dey, 2011; Bhattacharjee and Gupta, 2009; CPCB, 2007; Sharholy etal, 2007; Shingal and Pandey, 2001) of India; community health aspect of MSW has been studied in Jalandhar city (Puri etal, 2008). Community participation and developing awareness among general public can help manage the MSW in a more efficient manner. Improper waste disposal leads to rapid growth of vectors and microorganisms and spread of diseases. In India land is becoming scarce and non availability of land leads to haphazard disposal of the municipal solid waste in most places. Although the responsibility of solid waste management is on the Municipal boards and the Urban Local Bodies, but without the involvement of the local population i.e. the community, it is near to impossible to manage the solid waste in cities and towns. However, the problem to a large extent can be tackled by following the 3R mantras of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse. The present paper is a study on the management of MSW in Silchar, a growing town in South Assam and focuses on an integrated approach of management to tackle the problem of MSW management.
Methodology The study is based on secondary data collected from the Silchar Municipal Board and Assam Pollution Control Board. Data was collected from different voluntary and nongovernmental organizations about their activities and through interaction with local residents of the town regarding their view on MSWM in Silchar. Primary information was collected from different members of the Silchar municipal boards and directly from field observation. Study Site
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Existing system of MSW Management in Silchar The number of urban local bodies in Assam is 89 with the reorganisation of Gaon Panchayats (GPs). As on March 2009 there is only 1 Municipal Corporation, 30 Municipal Boards and 58 Town Committees (Dey etal, 2012). Silchar Municipal Board was constituted in 1882 and as per the 1971 census report Silchar Municipal Board was only 10sq.km in area with a population of 52,596. The population has grown over the years and was 1,15,483 lakhs according to 1991census with density of 7572/sq.km. Silchar presently has a population of 1,42,119 lakhs (2001Census) and the density of population has risen to 8975/sq.km. The projected estimate of population following 2011 census stands at 2,10,000 lakhs. Silchar (24° 49′ 47′′ N lat and 92° 46′ 80′′ E long) is the district headquarter of Cachar and is a rapidly growing city being the gateway to three neighboring states of Tripura, Mizoram and Manipur. Male population is 51% and female is 49% and the literacy rate is 83% (male) and 76% (female). The town has 28 wards and the municipal board is incharge of the municipal solid waste management. Along with population growth the life style has also changed and the quantum of municipal solid waste generated has also increased. The town is a major business centre and health care centre for the entire Barak Valley, which includes three districts –Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi and the neighboring three states of Tripura, Mizoram and partly Manipur. The climate of Silchar is subtropical with average temperature ranging between 10°C (in winter) to 45°C (summer), relative humidity ranges between 6570 % in winter and 85-96% in summer and monsoon and receives annual rainfall of 1500-2500mm. The River Barak flows through the town and is also the main source of water for the entire population, except for some amount of groundwater. The town earlier had several ponds (privately owned) but in the recent years they are being filled up and used for constructing residential complexes. The drainage pattern of the town is conditioned by the river Barak. There are few nullahs flowing through the town which carry the domestic waste water and excess rainwater to the tributary of Barak i.e. Ghagra or to Malini beel, a large waterbody. However, at present the nullahs carry water but very slowly as they remain largely blocked due the disposal of solid waste from residential sources, hotels, restaurants and commercial enterprises. Malini beel has also been reclaimed for human settlement. Construction of storm water drainage system started but has remained incomplete adding much to the problems of the people of Silchar. During heavy shower several areas of Silchar remain water logged, which is due to clogged drains and poor drainage.
Fig 1.SMB Collection from market
Fig.3 Municipal garbage dumped on roadside
Fig 2. SMB Collection
Fig.4 Shyam Sundar Akhra compost pit
Source and quantity of Municipal solid waste The source of municipal solid waste in Silchar is mainly from households (domestic waste), hotels, restaurants, marriage halls and religious institutions, shops, markets including slaughter houses, construction and demolition debris, hospitals, PHCs, nursing homes and clinical laboratories (Table 1).
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The quantum of solid waste generated in Silchar Urban area was 11MT/day according to study conducted in 2001 but with the rise in population it has increased to 90-100 MT/day in 2010(PCBA, 2010). Total household waste generated is around 54.59 MT /day and market waste is 22.4MT/day (Bhattacharjee and Gupta, 2012). The composition of the municipal solid waste is mainly organic in nature with biodegradable waste comprising the bulk portion and coming from domestic source, markets and slaughter houses. There are 17 markets in various parts of the town from where comes the bulk amount of organic waste which can be composted. In addition the number of health care units, nursing homes and clinical laboratories generate a bulk of waste which is disposed without any segregation and treatment. The physical composition of the MSW in Silchar reveals that 50-66% is organic in nature and recyclable waste is about 25%. The rest comprises of plastic, paper, glass, metals etc (Bhattacharjee and Gupta, 2009). This implies that composting can be introduced for proper utilization of the waste. Similar attempts have been made in Jalandhar, Punjab (Puri etal,2008) where a composting plant has been set up to convert the organic waste into compost. The compost can be utilized by tea estates and for agriculture instead of chemical fertilizers.
Fig 5. Waste burning inside Silchar Medical College complex
Fig.6.
Waste disposal site inside the Silchar Medical College Complex
Collection, storage and disposal This town has no facility for door to door collection of garbage and their segregation, storage and processing and their systematic disposal in accordance with the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules 2000. Except the Silchar Medical College most of the health care centres are located in limited areas and do not have adequate disposal facility (STO, 2002). Although the nursing homes claimed to have incinerators the study team of STO, a NGO in Silchar, did not find it satisfactory. In some wards like Ward No.22 the residents have on their own initiative introduced door to door collection at the rate of Rs. 30 per month, and subsequent disposal to municipal dustbins or points from where it is collected by municipality. However, this system has developed because this area has residential complexes (flats) and open disposal area is
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not available. On the other hand most of the wards lack any door to door collection and all garbage is dumped in open space, open drains and on the roadside. The collection system of Municipal Board is insufficient and inefficient. Most of the collection is done during the busy day hours, between 10am to 12pm, which causes traffic congestion and lets out obnoxious smell creating lot of inconvenience to the people (Fig.1) Waste is collected and loaded manually or with the help of robotic collecting vehicles (JBC) and loaded in open trucks. Table 2 shows the type and no. of vehicles used for collection and transportation of MSW. During collection the labourers do not use any protective measures like gloves, masks etc. It is dumped in the trenching ground. Waste is lifted from drains and dumped on the side of the drains (Fig, 2, 3), it is not removed for several days and with rainwater it flows back into the drains, ponds and residences. Roads become filthy and impossible to walk through. According to a recent report municipal solid waste disposal in a low lying area in the heart of the town has created a lot of problem for the inhabitants residing nearby. The people have demanded an enquiry into the whole thing and complained to higher officials. The area also named Bipin Paul meeting ground after Bipin Chandra Paul was to be developed by grants received from the Cachar Zila Parishad but was filled up with municipal garbage and then covered up with red soil later. Such practice has caused heavy pollution and dissatisfaction among the public (sentinelassam.com, 2012). The management of solid waste in Silchar is in deplorable state and virtually the town is littered with waste from various sources. The municipal board has 80 bighas of land for disposal of the solid waste (Parivesh Batori, PCBA,2010) located at Meherpur about 1.5kms from the boundary of municipal area, however this particular site has now come within the developing and expanding city area. There is no segregation of the waste and dumping is the only mode of disposal. The area around the dumping site is now thickly populated and dumping of solid waste causes unhealthy and unclean environment. The residents complain about obnoxious smell and air and water pollution is severe. The people in this area use well water which also needs to be examined for the quality and safety. The people have recently blocked roads, staged demonstrations and prevented municipal trucks from disposing off the garbage (PCBA, 2010) demanding shifting of the trenching ground but are yet to receive a positive solution. Another land on the Silchar-Karimganj road was used for dumping municipal solid waste but as reported by the PCBA it has now been stopped. Other than this solid waste is dumped unscientifically in a number of spots in a haphazard manner. There was also reports in the newspaper regarding dumping of truckload of waste in the River Barak which is the lifeline of the city in the middle of the night (Assam Tribune, Dec,2010), against which the PCBA has issued notice to the concerned authority. Waste from various sources are dumped into the â&#x20AC;&#x153;nullahâ&#x20AC;? which flows through the town and used to drain the storm water. Due to waste disposal the nullah is clogged and adds to the misery of the people during rainy season. Fig 4,5 and 6 show the manner in which solid waste is dumped inside the Silchar Medical College complex and is burnt without any thought to the pollution caused. There is an incinerator installed in the complex. There is no composting or recycling unit for any type of waste in Silchar. The plastic and metallic waste is collected by the ragpickers and some purchased at a minimum price of Rs.2/- to Rs.5/- per Kg. This is the only recycling seen in Silchar. No other segregation is done and there is no recycling or composting facility available. Constraints in Solid waste management Lack of management initiative on the part of the Municipal Board of Silchar is a major reason of improper disposal. According to the municipal board there is a scarcity of funds which is the major constraint. However, according to the Audit report of March 2010 for Cachar district although the SMB received grants under various schemes and also collected revenue from various sources but failed to utilize it in proper manner for civic amenities of the public. A study on the trend and pattern of expenditure of the Silchar Municipal Board revealed that they was no separate head of expenditure for management of MSW and it is under the water supply and drainage head that the expenditure for the cleanliness of the town is done, which includes staff maintenance, expenditure related to water treatment chemicals, drainage contingencies, vehicle maintenance, etc (Dey et al, 2012). Lack of management strategies on part of Silchar Municipal Board is a vital reason. According to SMB the lack of manpower is an important reason of improper collection and disposal. Some initiative for outsourcing the management of MSW is being attempted but results are yet to be achieved. Lack of community awareness and public participation is another major reason of improper management. People dispose off their household waste in a haphazard manner, sometimes in open drains or in any vacant plot of land available or in the roadside. In some areas attempt has been made to introduce door to door collection but failed due to poor response from the residents. SPID, an NGO made an attempt in this direction in Link road area of Silchar but was not successful. The indifferent attitude along with the inefficiency of the collecting system of the ULB has created the present situation. Iron dustbins placed by the municipal board but not replaced since it broke or corroded and these places have become disposal sites.
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Some initiatives have been taken by the CPCB and some NGOs in creating awareness and organising programs. Nagarik Swarth Raksha Sangram Parishad, a NGO, established in 2009, under the leadership of Mr. Haridas Dutta, a Consultant Engineer has been undertaking programs like organizing awareness campaigns and distributing leaflets in schools, distribution of collection buckets to the road side tea stalls and food shops and tried to initate disposal in a proper manner. A composting unit in ‘Shyam Sunder Akhra’ for converting the vegetable waste into compost was started in 2009 and is still continuing, however buyers of the compost are less and more publicity is necessary (Fig.4). Rotary Club, Silchar has also taken steps to keep the city clean by undertaking cleanup programs on Sundays. Science Trial Organisation (STO), another NGO put forward some suggestions to tackle the MSW management in Silchar after conducting a survey on the status of management. They organized street side programs to promote awareness, painted signboards to prevent improper disposal with cartoons and pictures. It also organizes awareness campaigns and quiz in schools time to time. No public private partnership exists in Silchar in this respect. Table 1: Percentage of total waste generation by type Sl. No. Type of Waste Total Waste Generation MT/day 1. House hold 49.77 2. Market 32.03 3. Street 5.00 Other commercial 4.00 4. establishments TOTAL 90.80 Source: PCB, Assam Report 2010
Percentage of Generation 55 35 06 04 100
Table 2: Types and numbers of vehicles available for transportation of municipal sold waste Sl. No. Type of Vehicle In Position Functioning 1. Truck 02 02 2. Tractor 05 03 3. Tipper 02 02 4. Excavator 02 02 5 Mini Tipper 02 02 6 Small Shifting van 01 01 Total 14 12 Source: PCB, Assam Report 2010 Some suggestions Peoples’ participation and cooperation must increase so as to help improve the management system. To improve community participation and cooperation public forums have to be constituted in different wards which must include educated and conscious citizens, and persons from district administration and the municipal board. People must be made aware of benefit of segregation and composting of organic waste so that a good amount of the waste can be properly utilized. People can form small groups in their locality and carry out composting and also vermicomposting, which will convert all biodegradable waste into useful compost. People should come forward to initiate door to door collection even by paying a small amount of fees so as to facilitate disposal of waste and keep the town clean. There is no facility of composting and energy from waste generation. Recently NIT Silchar has taken up a project to generate electricity from kitchen waste in collaboration with BARC which is encouraging attempt (The Hindu, August,24, 2012). Composting can be taken up and the compost supplied to the neighbouring tea gardens which can go for organic tea and reduce use of chemical fertilizers. This can be achieved by involving private enterprises and setting up composting units in the city. More number of community bins must be procured and placed at strategic locations for convenience of the public and safety items like aprons, rubber boots, rubber gloves, face masks, caps etc. must be provided to the workers. Collection should be made at night and streets must be sweeped in the early hours to prevent inconvenience. The waste and silt lifted from the drains must be removed immediately and not left on the roadside. The present system of collection is inefficient and unscientific. ‘Polluters must pay’ can be imposed but only when the SMB does its cleaning, collection and disposal efficiently. Educational institutes can help in setting up model waste disposal rules. Assam University authorities and the Department of Ecology and Environmental Science has banned the use of plastic cups within the campus and replaced them with paper cups. All institutions and offices must adopt the same for betterment of
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the town. The university also proposes to set up a centre for waste management within the campus for research and extension activity which would help in various ways to tackle waste management issues in Silchar.
Conclusion Municipal solid waste management is a huge task which can be achieved successfully only with public cooperation. Awareness about health hazards arising from improper disposal of the solid waste is necessary. This can be done through organizing camps to educate the people and imparting the three mantras of reduction, reuse and recycling of the waste. Public –private partnership needs to be introduced and every citizen must be conscious of his/her responsibilities and come out of the attitude of ‘not in my backyard’. The people must participate actively to keep their surrounding and the city clean.
References Audit report on Cachar district for the year ended 31st March 2010. Bhattacharjee,S and Gupta, S (2009) Physical composition and characteristics of Municipal Solid Waste of Silchar City, Assam, North East India. Poll.Res. 28(2) pp 203-206. Bhattacharjee,S and Gupta, S (2012) Assessment of Municipal Solid Waste generation in Silchar, A city in NE India. EM International Vol 31(3) 2012, 415-421. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) (2006-07) Management of municipal solid waste. New Delhi, India. www.cpcb.nic.in Concern over garbage disposal at Silchar. Assam Tribune Guwahati 04/12/2010 Dey NB, Adhikari, K and Roy S 2012 Municipal Services of Silchar Municipal Board- A study with reference to trend and pattern of expenditure. In Segments from Development Discourse in Northeast India (Edt: Roy N and Mondal,R) Assam University,Silchar-788011 IL&FS Infrastructure Development Corporation Ltd, (2008) newsletter. Integrated approach to MSWM. Kansal,A., R.K. Prasad and S. Gupta (1998) Delhi municipal solid waste and environment-An appraisal. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, Vol. 18(2): pp 123-128. Parivesh Batori (2010), PCBA Newsletter Vol XIII No.3 Oct-Dec, 2010. pp 3. Puri,A, Kumar,M and Johal,E. (2008) Solid waste management in Jalandhar city and its impact on community health. Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Vol. 12(2): pp 76-81. Sharholy, M., Ahmad, K, Viashya, R.C. and Gupta, R.D. (2007) Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in Allahabad, India. Waste Management Vol.27(2007) pp 490-496. Singh, G, Siddiqui, T. Z and Jain, A. (2007) Community Participation through Information, Education, Communication and Capacity Building of ULB for Solid Waste Management. Proceedings of the International Conference on Sustainable Solid Waste Management, 5 - 7 September 2007, Chennai, India. pp.504-507 Singh,C.R and Dey, M (2011) Solid waste management of Thoubal municipality, Manipur : a case study. IEEE.org/IEEE Xplore Digital Library INSPEC Acc No. 12615610, pp ISBN-978-1-4673-0179-421-24 Singhal, S. and S. Pandey (2001) Solid waste management in India: Status and future directions. TERI Information Monitor on Environmental Science (TIMES), Vol. 6(I): pp 1-4. SMB at the centre stage of controversy for causing pollution. 22nd April,2012 www.sentinelassam.com STO, (2002) Management of Biomedical Waste at Silchar. pp 1-10. The Hindu, Business Line, 24th August,2012-12-02
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Chapter- VII-34 Decentralized options in waste management practices - A case study of best practices Mangalam Balasubramanian Exnora Green Pammal, Chennai, India Email: greenpammal@gmail.com Introduction Widespread littering and indiscriminate dumping of municipal solid waste (MSW) hamper India’s efforts to achieve several Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Gonzenbach et al. 2007) and combat climate change. If corrective action is not taken, the solid waste crisis will increasingly counteract development efforts as India’s population grows and moves to urban areas. If current trends continue, the amount of solid waste produced in India in 2047 is likely to reach 260 million tonnes, five times the present level of production, requiring an area of 1,400 square kilometres for disposal in landfills that would emit 39 million tonnes of methane (Singhal and Pandey 2001; Hanrahan, Srivastava and Ramakrishna 2006). Similarly, Plastic waste has increased four-fold since 1999, and is likely to increase another ten-fold by 2030. Electronic waste, which is now approximately 0.15 million tonnes per year is expected to increase to 1.6 million tons per year by 2012 (Pandey and Saraswat 2009). The enormity of the waste crisis is difficult to comprehend because most consumers see only the final products of a very long and dirty supply chain. For each tone of material discarded by consumers, an additional 71 tonnes of waste were generated during that material’s production and transport (Platt et al. 2008) In 2000, the Indian government enacted the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 (hereafter referred to as the rules) to significantly reduce the volume of municipal solid waste by mandating standardized practices that included segregating biodegradable from non- biodegradable waste at source, recovering recyclable materials and composting biodegradable matter. The government’s prescribed practices have the objectives of safeguarding human health, conserving resources, protecting the environment and reducing the burden on landfills. The government directed all local authorities to establish waste management services that comply with the rules by December 2003, but as of 2010 noncompliance is widespread. India’s solid waste management policy is at a crossroads. Widespread, prolonged noncompliance with the rules, and rapid, highly-visible environmental degradation have generated frustration, leading to calls for changes to the nation’s waste management policy. Solid waste management should satisfy residents, safeguard public health, minimize waste to landfills, protect the environment, avoid greenhouse gas generation, and recover valuable resources. Achieving all of these outcomes will not be inexpensive, but the value of their benefits will show that these outcomes are far less costly than the damage done by pollution. Hence, Dear friends, I would like to focus my discussions on the need of reducing waste and the way forward in waste Management.
Profiles of Exnora Green Pammal Partnership in waste Management For over 15 years, the leaders of Exnora Green Pammal have been promoting and providing solid waste management services that reduce and responsibly manage waste by educating and involving the public, recovering recyclable materials and composting biodegradable matter, in accordance with the government’s rules. This presentation is the outcome of our 10 years experience of four models of partnership by which EGP collaborates with localities to bring their waste management systems into compliance with the government’s rules. Rather than creating landfills to hold all waste, solid waste management policy should aim to minimize the amount of waste land filled. Rather than regarding the waste crisis as a business opportunity, the government’s rules correctly appreciate that solid waste management is an important instrument to combat climate change, create employment, generate revenue, recover valuable resources, protect the environment and safeguard public health. In short, minimizing waste by recycling and composting yields multiple benefits, whereas landfilling waste unleashes a legacy of enduring liabilities. India needs to construct sanitary landfills, but their size and use should be minimized by measures that prevent and reduce waste. Exnora Green Pammal’s experience demonstrates that successful implementation of the government’s rules depends upon determined local leadership, public awareness, involvement and cooperation, qualified staff,
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attentive human resource management, proper physical facilities and on-going financial support. Together, such elements can achieve major improvements in the cleanliness of neighborhoods, as well as a significant reduction in the amount of waste.
Performance of activities at Pammal (EGP) model SWM The key objective of the project is to evolve a garbage free Pammal and other areas with extensive green cover . The strategy used in the implementation has been-- Recycle, Reuse, and Reduce garbage going to landfill. The activities included • Door to door collection of garbage from households by Green Ambassadors (Pasumai Thuduvargal name in Tamil illustrating the dignity of Labour) segregated at souce as organic and inorganic.
Segregation of the Waste
Door to Door Collection
EXORCO Product
Vermi compost Unit • • •
Conversion of organic waste into vermin compost with a brand name “Excellent organic compost” (Exorco) Conversion of food waste, canteen waste and meat waste into Energy. At present a demonstration unit of waste to Energy is set up producing 50 cum to bio gas and producing 5 KW of electricity lighting three street lights .numbering 100 lights (each 11 watts ) Also, we have installed 2Cu.mt. Bio gas Plants in temples, individual homes and orphanages.
Bio Gas Unit 184
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
•
•
The inorganic waste is separated into different categories such as pet bottles, HDF, LDP, Laminates, Cardboard, Pet bottles are crushed into pellets. Thin carry bags are crushed and sent to CIPET (Central Institute of Plastic Engineering Technology) Students for their project work. Some of the water pouches and thin carry bags are up cycled in a weaving centre established by the NGO near Thirukazhukundram Conversion of dry leaves into briquettes. Dry leaves such as coconut leaves, garden dry leaves are converted into briquette.
Burning Dry leaves without Oxygen
Briquettes
In all such above activities the total waste materials are converted into usable materials and provide employment opportunities to many women from downtrodden families as shown in table1 The flowing table gives the particulars of the SWM activities in Pammal. Table – 1: Pammal Municipality 2010-2011 (Vital Statistics) Sl. No Particulars 1 Population Covered 2 Average total Waste (Kg/per day) 3 Bio degradable (kg/ per day) 4 Average Recyclables (Kg/per day) 5 Average Compost Produced (kg) per day 6 Average Dry leaves converted into Briquettes (kg/per day)) 7 Average Food waste used for producing energy (Bio gas) (Kg/per day) 8 Average waste dumped (kg) per day 9 Average waste diverted (kg/per day) 10 % of total waste stores not land filled 11 Per capita waste (kg Per day) • Total carbon emmission reduced • Bio gas : 96 tons • Other Recyclable : 5182 tons
100,000 25,110 12,500 3,500 1,200 1,000 250 6660 18450 70% 0.25
Lessons learned from EGP Models The success of solid waste management depends upon people’s participation. The rate of recovery of recyclables is not as high as it could be, largely because some residents do not segregate their waste. When residents don’t segregate their waste, the workload of green ambassadors is increased because they have to segregate the residents’ waste, the value of recyclable material is reduced because the recyclables become dirty, the quality of biodegradable material is reduced, and the amount of landfilled material increases. A much more intensive and sustained awareness campaign is needed to encourage more residents to segregate their waste. If more residents segregate their waste properly, the recovery rate of recyclable materials will increase, and the amount of landfilled waste will be lower. Raising awareness to achieve widespread public cooperation in terms of segregation of waste requires continuous effort and is likely to take several years. Changing people’s habits is a gradual process. • Solid waste management requires money for startup and for operation. Services cannot be sustained from one-time grants. The revenue earned by the sale of compost and recyclable materials and the collection of a user fee covers less than half of the operating costs in three of the four locations. In the
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fourth location, Panipat, such revenue covers only 54% of operating costs. The government should significantly increase spending on SWM and recognize that SWM is a social service, not a business. The cost of SWM to the local body can be reduced if private parties provide sponsorship, as PepsiCo is doing in nine localities. • Funds for SWM should be raised by local bodies by imposing a Green Tax on all residents. Collecting a user fee is not an ideal way to generate revenue for solid waste management because payment is irregular, and collecting the fee is a considerable burden for the service provider. Although collection of a user fee strengthens rapport between the service provider and residents, such collection becomes a very costly task because collecting the fee consumes an enormous amount of the service provider’s time. The cost of door-to-door waste collection, transportation and processing has been estimated to be between Rs 115 and Rs 120 per household per month (Pandey and Saraswat 2009, 188). This is approximately the rate paid to EGP by the DAE townships. • Nearly all localities lack a proper facility for safe and sanitary disposal of solid waste. Sanitary landfills urgently need to be constructed for disposal of waste that cannot be recycled or composted. • Localities should prohibit multiple SWM service providers from operating in the same neighborhood. In areas of Panipat served by Exnora Panipat Navnirman Samiti, some households hire private waste collectors. Some of these private collectors litter the area served by EPNS, while also reducing the revenue available for EPNS, yet EPNS is responsible for cleaning the area where private collectors work. This collision effect complicates quality control. • Contracting solid waste management services to NGOs or SHGs is unlikely to solve a significant share of the nation’s waste crisis. Generally, such groups lack the professional expertise required to anticipate and satisfy a contract’s legal and financial obligations. Few NGOs or SHGs are able to pay the compulsory caution deposit, afford start-up costs and secure bank guarantees required by standard contracts. Furthermore, contractors are seldom appreciated or respected by residents and local authorities. Contracts establish a business-oriented relationship between residents, officials and the service provider, which sets all parties in a competitive, rather than a collaborative relationship. Solid Waste Management is a science that should not be treated as a casual cleaning assignment. • Frequent turnover of government staff is detrimental to the continuity of SWM. Transfers of local and district officials make it additionally challenging to initiate and establish new solid waste management services. • Removal of street bins, together with punctual, daily door-to-door collection of waste result in a dramatic improvement of neighborhood cleanliness. After residents experience the benefits of daily waste collection at their doorstep, they will not go back to the street bin collection system. Recent experience of “Cleancity Compaign” at Warangal, in Andhrapradesh is such a Shining example. • Solid waste management should be decentralized. Every local body should create facilities to process and dispose of their waste within their vicinity. Waste should not travel more than five kilometers from its source. The MSW Rules- Fundamentally sensible, but some parts need clarification Based on the principles of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, the government’s rules prescribe sensible, economical and appropriate waste management practices. For a country with a large population, financial constraints and scarcity of land, it is imperative to minimize land filling by removing and reusing as much material as possible from the waste stream. House-to-house collection of segregated solid waste is an ideal method for collecting uncontaminated biodegradable matter for composting, maximizing the recovery and value of recyclables and preventing methane generations in landfills. European studies have found that compost made from source-segregated waste contains on average one fourth the heavy metal contamination of compost made from mixed municipal waste (Brinton 2000, 9). Heavy metal contamination of compost made from mixed municipal waste was so high that Germany, Switzerland, France and Austria have stopped producing compost from mixed waste. It is important to minimize heavy metal levels in compost that might be used in horticulture or agriculture because some crops, including brinjal (Topcuoglu and Onal 2007), mushrooms (Woodbury 1993), rice (Bhattacharyya et al. 2008) and spinach (Brinton 2000, 10), have been found to take up such metals. India’s Central Pollution Control Board tested compost made from mixed municipal waste and found that it contained 108-203 mg of lead per kg of compost, a range that exceeds the 100 mg per kg safety standard for lead levels in compost, established in Schedule IV of the rules (CPCB no date). Analysis of three samples of EGP’s EXORCO compost detected lead levels of 11, 33 and 16 mg per kg. According to scientists at Cornell University, “Source separation composts have the lowest contaminant levels, . . while delaying separation until after composting normally results in the highest levels of metal contamination.” Those metals of greatest concern in compost –cadmium, mercury, and lead – can be harmful to animals and humans at relatively low concentrations and tend to accumulate in soil, plants, and animals.”
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“Batteries, consumer electronics, ceramics, light bulbs, house dust and paint chips, lead foils . . . , used motor oils, plastics, and some glass and inks can all introduce metal contaminants into the solid waste stream. . . . Plastics are estimated to contribute approximately 30% of the cadmium as well as significant amounts of nickel and lead.” Richard and Woodbury 1993 Composting biodegradable waste also prevents such waste from generating methane in landfills. Methane produced by waste is estimated to account for 31% of methane emission in India (Ravindranath no date). “Although centralized composting plants have a very bad track record, decentralized composting can play an important role in the process of improving overall solid waste management services leading to better health conditions in urban areas. This requires a shift of mindset of municipal administrations towards promotion of appropriate technologies. For small towns it may even suffice to rely solely on decentralized composting schemes. For large cities, decentralised small-scale composting in combination with medium-scale centralised composting schemes seems to be an ideal organic waste management strategy. Decentralised composting can assist in attaining a number of MDGs which are relevant for the improvement of urban living conditions, national food security and global environmental sustainability.” Drescher and Zurbrügg 2006 Recovering recyclable material from the waste stream is an important strategy for conserving valuable resources, reducing environmental degradation, and minimizing the burden on landfills. Recycling materials also helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions because, on average, 75% less energy is required to recycle aluminum, copper, iron, steel, lead, zinc, paper and plastics than to extract and refine such materials from virgin resources (Resource Recovery and Recycling - Authority of Southwest Oakland County 2007, 4). According to the ExNoRa Environmental Certification Corporation, by composting biodegradable waste and salvaging recyclable materials in these four localities, EGP prevents the emission of 5,062 tons of carbon dioxide annually. Recycling also creates jobs and supports local enterprises. There were only four local scrap dealers when Exnora Green Pammal started recovering recyclable materials from waste in Pammal in 1994. Today there are 24 scrap dealers in Pammal. A study in the USA concluded, “On a perton basis, sorting and processing recyclables sustains ten times more jobs than landfilling or incineration.” Platt and Seldman 2000 While the rules are generally sound, from an operational standpoint the rules require clarification of a few points that cause confusion among officials, residents and service providers. For example: A. Schedule II 1.i. This section reads, “Organizing house-to-house collection of municipal solid wastes through any of the methods, like community bin collection (central bin), house-to-house collection…” Are both community bin (central bin) collection and house-to-house collection permissible? Community bins tend to be points where waste gets combined. Community bin collection should be replaced with house-to-house collection to facilitate the segregation of waste. B. Schedule II 3. iv. “Manual handling of waste shall be prohibited.” The prohibition of manual handling of waste is not a practical rule. Waste that is collected manually must be handled manually. Automation of the entire process would be very costly. It would be better for this directive to read, “Manual handling shall be carried out under proper precautions, with due care for the safety of workers.” C. Schedule II 5. ii. “Mixed waste containing recoverable resources shall follow the route of recycling. Incineration with or without energy recovery including pelletisation can also be used for processing wastes in specific cases.” Those cases in which incineration can be used need to be specified for clarification. 5. Bottlenecks Impeding Wider Implementation of the Rules The government has enacted comprehensive rules for solid waste management and appropriated funds to initiate such work. However, the following factors impede widespread compliance with the rules: • Localities cannot afford the recurring costs of SWM activities mandated by • the rules. • The public is not adequately aware of the hazards of pollution, the benefits
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• • • • • •
of recycling and composting, and ways that they can prevent waste. Localities do not have enough staff to implement the rules. Sanitary workers need training for effective implementation of the rules. The government is not enforcing its waste management directives and deadlines. Localities lack proper sites for the safe and sanitary disposal of waste that cannot be recycled or composted.
Recommendations - A Way Forward Throughout the course of our implementation of SWM activities, we compiled the following list of actions that the government should take to enable more localities to implement the MSW rules: 1. Launch an intensive and sustained awareness campaign to end littering, promote waste reduction, reuse and recycling, and increase public awareness about the hazards of pollution. 2. Local bodies need to acquire proper space for, and construct landfills. The lack of a proper disposal facility is a problem in most localities. Ideally, this site should be within five kilometres of the source of waste so that energy is not wasted by transporting waste long distance. 3. Levy a Green Tax on all residences, or introduce a small levy similar to the educational cess to cover the cost of solid waste management. 4. Induct and train more officials in waste management to meet the shortfall of qualified staff to coordinate and implement SWM. 5. If SWM is outsourced or privatized, the contract must be designed to reward reduction of waste and specify measures to monitor compliance and ensure accountability. 6. Solid waste management should be made a responsibility of the sanitation department, not the engineering department of each locality. 7. Clarify the law by eliminating the ambiguity and inconsistencies of the MSW rules. Is house-to-house collection mandatory? Is source segregation of waste mandatory? Are community/street bins permissible? 8. The government should procure all compost made from solid waste, certify its quality and safety, and supply this compost to farmers. 9. Solid waste management should be done in a holistic way, rather than assigning stages of the process to separate parties. Assigning the tasks of primary collection, transport, processing and disposal to separate parties is likely to result in discord and friction between service providers because poor quality control at any stage will be detrimental to the subsequent stages. For example, primary collection of segregated waste might be done well, but mixing of waste by the transporter will create problems for those who process and dispose of the waste. If a single party is responsible for waste management from start to finish, it is in their interest to ensure that each step is done properly. 10. Local bodies should encourage corporations and businesses to sponsor SWM services, as PepsiCo is doing in nine localities. Public-private-partnership reduces the cost of SWM for local bodies, while private sponsors benefit from publicity as well as concessions under the income tax rules. 11. A module on pollution and waste management should be introduced in the school curriculum. 12. Extend the posting of executive officer Commissioners. Frequent turnover of EOs Commissionersmakes it difficult to establish and operate SWM activities and jeopardizes continuity of services. 13. Enforce the rules and encourage compliance. Impose penalties on localities that are not in compliance, and reward localities that are in compliance with the rules. 14. Authorities should make allowances and provisions for waste management and prompt waste removal after special events, festivals and celebrations. 15. Develop proper vehicles, equipment and tools to increase the efficiency and safety of waste collection and transport. 16. Promote household composting to reduce the amount of biodegradable waste that must be collected and processed. 17. Introduce waste prevention measures of all kinds, including incentives and bans. 18. SWM must be incorporated in the green building concept; just as rainwater harvesting and wastewater recycling are being incorporated, especially when residential lay-outs are being designed.
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Chapter- VII-35 Chapter Managing Waste: A Matter of Attitude Emmanuel D’Silva Environment Scientist, The World Bank, Washington, USA Email: ehdsilva@yahoo.com India’s fast-growing growing economy is speeding urbanization, modernization and westernization. As the size of the middle class grows so does garbage. India’s waste is expected to double from 110,000 tons per day to 276,000 tons by 2025, or from 0.34 kg to 0.7 kg per capita. capita. Unfortunately, increased incomes and improved education over the years has not translated to a better civic sense. Our cities are overflowing with garbage. Mumbai is listed as the filthiest city in the world. Several other Indian cities are not far behind. behind. Why is this so? An average Indian’s sense of cleanliness is at odds with the behavior of most other Asians. We sweep the inside of our homes and throw the waste outside. Keeping the house clean is our main concern. Keeping the neighborhood clean is not ot our business. It is somebody else’s. That “somebody” is the government, municipality, housing society, or the safaiwalli. In India, the class system is embedded in the caste system creating an army of people whose job is to remove the waste of others. s. (A survey of Mumbai’s rag pickers found that 85% of them were women, mostly dalits.)1 Children of urban, educated and upwardly mobile parents have servants to clean up their mess. The word “waste,” or kachra,, has a bad ring in the ears of most middle-class middle class families. They believe waste management is not their concern; it should be the business of governments. With such attitudes, teaching the three R’s—reduce, R’s re-use, and recycle—is is a daunting task. But it is a challenge that must be taken up by concerned citizens, if India is to be a prosperous country both in terms of material wealth and environmental health. In this case study, I present two communities in Mumbai and Panaji to illustrate the challenges of involving involving the educated middle class in waste management. I believe it is easier to involve uneducated rural people in waste management than the urban educated class. Nonetheless, mass education programs for the young (at the school level) and adults (through (through the media) can help inculcate good civic sense and contribute in solving the waste management problem.
Fig 1: An eight-year year old compost system at Ribander housing society in Goa (left); a newer, improved similar system at another housing society (right); (right); a compost system at Mari Nagar, Mumbai (bottom left); Mari Nagar staff sieving the final compost product (right).
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Ribander and Mari Nagar: A Tale of 2 Communities Ribander, located on the outskirts of Panaji, Goa’s capital, now forms part of the municipality. The Ribander Co-operative Housing Society comprises 368 apartments in 41 buildings constructed between 1993 and 2004. About 200 flats are occupied throughout the year, the rest are used as holiday homes. Residents comprise the lower middle class to upper middle class. Households generate 80 to 90 kgs of waste a day of which 60 to 70 kgs is wet waste. The society requires each household to segregate its waste. Only wet waste is collected daily and deposited in the large compost pits constructed on the society premises by the Corporation of the City of Panaji. Most of the residents comply with the society rule, but some refuse to cooperate, say sanitation staff. Four staff members take care of society’s waste. Mari Nagar is a housing society in the Mahim area of Mumbai. Some 200 families live in the community in seven apartment buildings. The biggest building, known popularly as The Towers, has 112 apartments. Almost everyone in his housing society is educated, speaks English, and belongs to the middle-class. Many families have domestic servants to keep their homes clean. Four safaiwallas ensure that the public area in Mari Nagar is kept reasonably clean. Total waste generated in The Towers is 80 kgs per day, or an average of 1.18 kgs per household, based on a survey I conducted in December 2012. However, very few households separate their wet garbage from the dry, as required by local law. Most residents say there is no point in segregating as municipal trucks mix the two types of waste anyway. The Towers has a composting system. I selected these two communities for the case study for several reasons. First, being a member of both housing societies it was easier to collect data. Second, both societies are representative of a growing urban, middle class in India with increasing disposal incomes and expensive tastes. Third, both have staff to keep the housing society clean and to collect and dispose of household waste. Fourth, recycling systems, including composting, are in place in both communities. Fifth, both societies have been made aware of the importance of segregating waste and of recycling. I was part of the presentations made to the residents.
Analysis Most members of the two housing societies are environmentally conscious and aware of the importance of segregating their household waste into wet and dry. However, there is a substantial gap between being aware and being willing to act. Since there is so much filth around, few believe that segregating waste at home will make any difference to public health and sanitation. In Mari Nagar, residents who kept their wet and dry waste in separate containers were discouraged that the staff of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai threw both categories of waste in the same dumpster. “What is the point in segregation?’ they asked. Some held the view that waste management is not their concern. The government should manage waste, they said. “Aren’t we paying taxes? Why can’t the government find the right technology to get rid of this problem?” Getting the middle class to cooperate in waste management solutions is a daunting task. In Mari Nagar, less than 10% of the households segregate their waste, despite several awareness programs. “Waste,” it seems, is a dirty word.
The Compost Systems Both communities have compost systems to recycle household waste, a rarity in India. In 2006, the Corporation of the City of Panaji (CCP) built a six-compartment compost pit on the premises of the housing society in Ribander as an experiment to treat wet waste at source. Several more compost systems were built later in other large housing societies. The Ribander system is supervised by CCP, though wet waste is collected doorto-door by the society’s staff. In Mari Nagar, Mumbai the four-pit compost system was built by the housing society at its own cost. The Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM) provided no inputs and has shown no interest in its operation. Both systems cannot handle all of the wet waste of their housing societies. In Goa, CCP has expressed willingness to expand the compost area, but a few residents living close to the composting site are opposed to the expansion. They are concerned about lack of cleanliness at the compost station, bad odour emanating, and mosquitoes breeding. They remain unconvinced by the assurances of CCP staff. In Mari Nagar, Mumbai the existing capacity is underused as barely 10% of the households segregate their waste. Consequently, the compost pits are filled with leaf litter, sugarcane bagasse, flower residues, and vegetable waste collected from outside. In 2011, the Mari Nagar compost system was able to recycle 2 tons of organic waste, generating about 600 kgs of compost. Half this amount was used in the society’s garden; the rest was sold. The financial savings to the Mumbai municipality from this recycling is about Rs 13,000, (excluding landfill costs), though the economic benefit to the larger society is close to Rs 50,000. Mari Nagar’s leaders complain that MCGM provides no financial incentives to recycle waste. The Ribander society in Goa recycles 15 tons of waste per year. The recycled waste from the compost station is taken to the CCP central compost station in Panaji, where it is sieved and then sold to the public at a subsidized price.
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Analysis The compost systems in both housing societies work at sub-optimum levels. There are several reasons for this poor performance. First, interest in recycling is very low among residents, discouraging waste managers. Second, for the leaders of housing societies, waste management occupies low priority. Payment of monthly bills, providing parking for an increasing number of cars, and handling intra-society conflicts occupy most of their time. Third, the safaiwallis have very little interest in recycling wet waste. Unlike dry waste, which fetches them some money (eg, plastic water bottles), they believe recycling wet waste adds to their daily burden. To incentivise them, the Mari Nagar society shares the income from composting with its cleaning staff. But the fact is composting is not a money-making operation, even though Mari Nagar has shown that it can pay for itself and generate a small surplus.
Waste Management in Panaji and Mumbai In 2011, the Panaji municipal area had a population of 114,405, according to Census data. The same year, the Corporation of the City of Panaji (CCP) handled 81 tons of total waste. Being residents of a prosperous state, Goans produce more waste than most Indians. A local blogger sums up the Goan attitude toward garbage as: ‘Produce it, Dump it, Forget it.’ Only five towns in the state have landfills, but no scientific norms are followed in their management. There is fierce opposition to opening new landfills. The Goa government has promised a ‘high tech solution’ to the garbage problem. The government is considering the offer of a U.S. company to treat waste and produce electricity in the process. CCP is perhaps the only municipality in India that does not collect wet waste. It expects city residents to segregate and treat their wet waste at source. To treat the wet waste, CCP has set up compost systems inside several large housing societies, such as at Ribander. It also has a large, mechanized central composting station in the city. Mumbai has a population of 12,478,447, according to the 2011 Census. The Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM) is, perhaps, the richest civic body in India. In 2010, it spent Rs 990 crores on waste, using 1,250 trucks and 31,765 employees to handle 6,500 tons of garbage. There is very little citizen involvement in waste management, even though MCGM has promoted Advanced Locality Management (ALM) to involve citizens in civic matters, including garbage collection. The civic leaders seem to prefer centralized systems and high tech solutions. 78% of the waste removal is through mechanical means.2 Recently, MCGM awarded a tender for Rs 4,500 crores to process waste at Deonar, its largest dumping site capable of handling over 6,800 tons.3 A waste-to-energy and compost plant for 3,600 tons was proposed in 2003, but no opening date has been set. Though 60% of the city’s waste is organic, barely 3% is composted.4 Despite its huge budget for waste management, Mumbai is regularly listed as one of the filthiest cities in the world.
Analysis Decentralized waste management systems is lacking in both Panaji and Mumbai. Household waste should be segregated and treated at source. There are many successful working models of such decentralized systems in the country. However, civic leaders in both cities seem to prefer centralized systems and high-tech solutions instead. Even though India is the world’s largest democracy, local bureaucracies appear reluctant to involve citizens in keeping their neighborhoods clean. The ALMs initiated in Mumbai to enable local people to participate is, by and large, defunct on account of lack of interest by both citizens and officials. India’s waste has a high organic content—between 50 and 60%—but little of this is composted. If composting is encouraged at the household and housing society level, a large part of the waste problem can be resolved. Every ton of waste recycled at the household or community level saves an urban local body Rs 24,500 and avoids the emission of 721 kg of carbon dioxide per year.5 With such high benefits being clear, why don’t municipalities provide financial incentives to citizens to compost at home? The secretary of the Mari Nagar housing society, which has a composting system, says if incentives are provided more societies will take up composting. Mari Nagar has saved MCGM money and landfill space by recycling 2 tons of waste per year, but no municipal official has visited this society to see this operation.
Conclusions Municipal solid waste is a serious global concern: over $ 200 billion (Rs 1 lakh crores) are currently spent each year to handle 1.3 billion tons of waste; this is expected to rise to $ 375 billion and 2.2 billion tons by
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2025, says a World Bank report.6 With increasing urbanization, and a growing middle class, India’s waste per capita is expected to more than double from 0.34 to 0.7 kg. Producing proportionately a high level of waste in urban India often creates unrest in the rural areas, as has been shown in Karnataka and Kerala where rural communities have opposed the dumping of city waste in rural farming areas. Most urban bodies in India have failed to adequately address issues relating to waste management. There is failure of systems (personnel, technology, adequate investment) and lack of leadership (political, bureaucratic, and civil society) in mobilizing the citizenry to help in addressing these issues. In the face of these failures, the authorities have turned to centralized technological solutions. Both Mumbai and Panaji are looking to ‘high tech’ solutions, even though India has a poor track record in using technological fixes in waste management. One study documents these failures: ten aerobic composting projects in 1970s, a waste to energy project in the 1980s, a large-scale biomethanation project, and two refuse-derived fuel projects in 2003 have failed.7 Decentralized waste management involving local citizens, rag pickers, NGOs and ward-level municipal staff can offer a better solution. But this would require municipal authorities to spend more time reaching out to local citizens and civil society groups to find solutions to local waste problems. There are working models, as the two case studies have shown. Ribander is in fact a good example of municipal authorities working closely with the sanitation staff of the housing society, even if the results are far from perfect. I believe the problem of waste management in India is a matter of bad attitude. Most Indians believe that waste is not their problem; it is somebody else’s. While keeping the inside of the house clean is their concern, keeping the neighborhood clean is regarded as the government’s business. The lack of concern for public space underlines the general lack of public hygiene in India. The solution lies in mass education and public awareness campaigns combined with enforcement of stiff An eight-year old compost system at Ribander housing society in Goa (left); a newer, improved similar system at another housing society (right); a compost system at Mari Nagar, Mumbai (bottom left); Mari Nagar staff sieving the final compost product (right). penalties for those who refuse to cooperate. Public awareness of and attitudes toward waste can affect the entire waste management system.8 Hands-on training can be imparted to children on how to segregate and recycle waste at home and at school as part of their environmental studies. The children can teach their parents in return. This can have a lasting impact on society.
References 1.
The survey of 2,000 women was conducted by Stree Mukti Sangathana, an organization of rag pickers (cited in Mahadevia et al 2005). 2. Darshini Mahadevia, Bela Pharate and Amit Mistry. 2005. “New Practices of Waste Management – Case of Mumbai.” Working paper no. 35. School of Planning, CEPT University, Ahmedabad. 3. “Mumbai’s Expanding Waste-Line,” Hindustan Times, June 4, 2012. 4 . Based on Appendix 3 from: Ranjith Kharvel Annepu. 2012. “Sustainable Solid Waste Management in India.” Master’s thesis. Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering. Columbia University, New York. 5. Annepu 2012, op cit. 6 . Hoornweg, Daniel; Bhada-Tata, Perinaz. 2012. What A Waste : A Global Review of Solid Waste Management. Urban development series ; knowledge paper no. 15. The World Bank, Washington, DC 7. Annepu 2012, op cit. 8. Da Zhu, P.U. Asnani, Chris Zurbrugg, Sebastian Anapolsky and Shymala Mani. 2008. Improving Municipal Solid Waste Management in India: A Sourcebook for Policy Makers and Practitioners. The World Bank, Washington, DC.
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Chapter- VII-36 Integrated and Sustainable “Solid & Liquid Resource Management (SLRM) – Vellore Model” Srinivasan C. Indian Green Service (IGS), Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India Email: velloresrini@hotmail.com Abstract The problem of waste has reached a state of crisis. Mountains of waste accumulated on our wetlands, clouds of smoke from burning it, oceans of waste floating in our rivers and canals, groundwater that has turned red and yellow from leachate pollution are all saying to us loudly and clearly: “You cannot ignore us anymore! You need to get your act together now!!” Where and why did we go wrong? It is important to answer this question in order that we arrive at a sustainable solution. This paper will provide the basic information that anybody dealing with waste should have. It helps us understand the nature of waste, the history of waste and waste management, the different solutions already tried out and their results, and the need to turn to Solid & Liquid Resource Management (SLRM). True SLRM goes beyond managing waste already generated to preventing waste generation.
Introduction Waste Management by Indian Society until a few decades ago It is well known that the Indus Valley Civilization had one of the most advanced and planned sanitation systems in the world. The concept of recycling is ingrained in the Indian consciousness. Since waste was just organic, it was usually dumped in a large compost pit dug in the backyard of the house and recycled locally. This practice is still prevalent in many rural societies. Many grandmothers still religiously collect and preserve old clothes and exchange them for new utensils, and preserve packaging material for further use. 20th century India formed town municipalities, who were primarily responsible for sanitation. Waste was largely organic (with a few pieces of metal, paper and cloth) and collected in bullock carts. Large trenches were dug in the compost yards outside the towns, where the waste was composted using night soil, which was also collected in bullock carts. The rich compost was sold to farmers to be used in agriculture. What is waste? Waste is any material that is thrown away as unwanted. It has other names like garbage, trash and rubbish. What is considered waste by one society may not be considered so by another. For example, in throwaway societies like the US, a good-quality plastic cups may be thrown away as waste. The same cup may be reused several times in India. Waste should be collected within 12 hour intervals, as if kept for more time it generates unpleasant odors and attracts flies. After 24 hours, there will be smell and after 48 hours there will be bad odor/stink and after 72 hours along with the bad odor, the formation of maggots will happen which is the main reason for nuisance for flies. Thus to achieve 100% SLRM, garbage must be collected within 12 hours time. SOLID & LIQUID RESOURSE MANAGEMENT (SLRM)
ZERO WASTE MANAGEMENT (ZWM)
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SLRM means generated (Unwanted) Material from houses, shops, hotels collected in less than 12 hours time. It is called resource. Everything looks Odorless , Fresh Raw Material. Compulsory 2 times collection per day.
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Any BPL / APL / Low income groups/ well educated are ready to work.
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We are forcing our own people to lift 2 or 3 days old waste and ask them to handle very dirty things & stinking material. Volunteers/Workers are uncomfortable to work here. It takes very long time to segregate and process waste items. In this process many items are unfit for usage. If you miss one day waste collection, it will take next 24 hours to collect it again. In this system people might throw garbage in the road side dust bin or road sides or empty plots or burn it. We are not able to feed vegetables, Fruits etc., to cattle because it is not fresh. All the recyclable items are dirty and not looking fresh or neat. We will get less income. Here, continuous work for 8 hours (7:00 am to 5:30 pm) without enough breaks for their day to day family activities.
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In ZWM all waste material go directly to compost beds , thereby increasing number of compost beds occupying more space in the compost shed. This manure has less NPK (Nitrogen, Prospers & Potassium) values. ZWM involves more man power, more number of days for processing, leachate problem and less income. Through waste management process, we have to shift all waste to, out of city for processing or dumping. Expenses of waste management are very high due to Transportation cost, heavy vehicles, dumpers, dumper placers etc., and less income. We have to mobilize manpower in one corner of the city and also not getting enough people to handle stinking material.
More dumping area is required in a particular site (Several Acres). 100 % of the garbage is to be collected and handled every day. So, big vehicles are required for waste collection.
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We are not exposing our people on dirty and stinking materials. They are handling fresh items. Volunteers / Workers are happy to work here. Here, it is a very easy to process because only fresh material is handled. Here, if you miss one time collection, you can collect it in the same evening or morning. We are forcing people to hand over the unwanted material to our SHG / Try-cycle. We are not giving any chance to throw the waste and monitor it very closely. But, here everything looks fresh. So, cattle are happy to eat. Everything looks fresh, clean and neat and so fetches good income. Here, because of two times collection system (7:00 am to 11:30 am & 3:30 pm to 7:30 pm) in between 11:30 am to 3:30 pm SHGs are getting enough time to take care of their family activities like washing cloths, ration, cooking, shopping, take care of children's, banking etc., are very much possible. In SLRM, because the most of the items are eaten by the cattle and reduced to Âź of its volume and gets converted as dung. Same day it goes to Bio-Gas Plant & vermi- composting process and on the 5th day evening (Maximum) vermin- cast (NPK value rich - Black Gold) is ready. Most of the waste gets eaten by cattle and become vermi-cast. So, number of aerobic composting beds is less in composting shed. This vermi-cast has very rich NPK (Nitrogen Phosphorous and Potassium) values. Through SLRM, we are getting more income through vermi-wash, Earthworms, vermi-cast etcâ&#x20AC;Ś We can handle all unwanted material (waste) can be handled in each ward itself in a decentralised method. Transportation cost is very less but income is more, due to decentralised method. All local area people are willing to involve themselves in SLRM in their own wards or nearby. So, getting man power is easy in each and every locality itself. For them it is walk able distance. Less area is required to handle SLRM project in each ward Unwanted material (Waste): 60% in Morning collection & 40% in evening collection with small vehicles & handled by SHGs. So, small vehicles (try-cycle) are enough for waste collection.
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
• Collection, Segregation, SLRM centre maintenance timing: (8 hours x 7 Days x 365 Days) Waste collection should be done twice a day and every day, to ensure that collected inorganic waste is immediately cleaned, processed, packed and kept ready for sale. Organic waste will be spread in Aerobic compost beds or tanks, after mixing with Cow dung slurry as a bacterial inoculum. • Residential & Commercial Area: Morning 7.00 am to 9.30 am – Collection Morning 10.00 am to 11.30 pm – Segregation and SLRM Centre maintenance Evening 4.00 pm to 6:00pm – Collection. Evening 6.00 pm to 7:30pm – Segregation and SLRM Centre Maintenance. • Weekly one day holiday (Turn duty – minimum one person can take off at a time. So that, day to day work can be carried out without disruption) • Segregation: (Primary segregation & Secondary Segregation) • Organic Waste: 41 categories (cattle eatable items, non eatable items, citric fruits and coconut/egg shells. • Inorganic Waste: 148 categories (Plastic, paper, cardboards, rubber, metals, plastic covers etc) • Glass bottles and other glass items: 122 categories (dettol, acid, glucose, sauce, alcohol bottles etc.) • Non- recyclable: 12 categories ( thermocol, Styrofoam, chocolate covers, biscuits covers ( coating with aluminum coated plastic covers, first quality butter/sticker paper). Even in the US (East to West), the garbage was collected maximum once a week or twice/thrice a week. The collected garbage was bundled in black plastic covers without aeration thus causing anaerobic decomposition leading to bad odors. How does nature manage its waste? In nature, there is no such thing as waste. What is given out by one system is taken in by another. When a tree sheds its leaves, they fall on the ground, get consumed and broken down by soil organisms into simple nutrients. The tree absorbs these nutrients once again to grow new leaves. A systematic methodology that can be applied in a large scale involving different stakeholders to achieve 100% SLRM. Vellore area is covered around mountains and hillocks and it is situated in North Tamilnadu. I have introduced ZWM project to provide alternative enviro- friendly jobs to people, who are depending on the hills for their day to day survival. UNICEF, DRDA, Municipalities, Vellore supported the initial projects and many private institutions and Government office campuses have also started ZWM under “Campus Maintenance and Beautification project”. ZWM in Vellore ZWM is carried out through women and men self-help groups (SHGs), after sufficient training. One supervisor, three workers and one tricycle are employed for every 200- 250 families. Segregated waste (into organic and inorganic) is collected in a compartmentalized tricycle cart. The collected waste is transported to the ‘Zero Waste Centre’ of that municipality ward / village panchayat. Avoiding usage of very big machineries (motorized vehicles and other equipment) in ZWM processes helps to generate more employment, saves fuel and hence costs, and protects the environment from pollution. I have tried to use renewable sources of energy, local and natural (biodegradable) materials wherever possible. Involving SHGs in ZWM SHGs are made of women, who are more patient, reliable and are better suited to communicate with women, who are in charge of waste disposal in most households in India. Women’s incomes are usually supplementary to their family incomes making their involvement in ZWM projects viable. The government gives loans and subsidies to these groups. SHGs have an agreed code of conduct, and no team member can leave as she pleases. The SHG itself dispels any member in case the code of conduct is not followed. SHG members are often local people from the neighbourhood; this encourages them to be more involved in the project. Their involvement also increases the sense of ownership of other residents in the neighbourhood. Solid & Liquid Resource Management (SLRM) Our current linear resource flow uses huge amounts of raw materials and generates huge amounts of waste. This will lead our society to resource depletion. SLRM is about redesigning this resource flow so that most of what is generated as waste can be reused as raw material for further production. This resource flow is more sustainable and will take us closer to ‘zero waste’ to be disposed of. SLRM involves action both before and after production Pre-production Actions
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Reducing Production (consumption): Producing and consuming only as much as needed. Redesigning Production processes: Producing using cleaner processes and packaging using less material. Production of safe and recyclable materials: Avoiding the use of toxic and non-recyclable materials, so that maximum resource can be recovered with least harm to the environment. Post-production Action Reuse: What is produced should be reused as many times as possible. Eg. bottles, containers, bags, etc. Recycle: Recycling those materials that cannot be reused. Eg. Organic waste into compost, PET bottles into polyester fibres, glass bottles into glass panes, cotton rags into paper, etc. Awareness and regular updates: Awareness creating meetings was conducted in different level of people and following information was given to them, before launching SLRM project. List of biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes: Biodegradable Non-biodegradable Vegetables and fruit waste, banana Paper: notebooks, books, magazines, newspapers, leaves, coconut shell, egg shells, dry cardboard flowers Plastic: broken articles, water covers, milk covers, garden leaves and small twigs oil covers, carry bags, mineral water bottles, chocolate wrappers, paste tubes non-vegetarian waste (animal bones, Metal: aluminium foils, iron pieces, copper, steel, prawn skin, crab shell, chicken waste) left over food, kitchen waste tablet covers dead lizards and cockroaches Glass: bottles, broken pieces ash, charcoal Wood, Cloth Leather: torn slippers and bags, coir broom Rubber: slippers tea, coffee, floor dust house sweepings, soiled paper, finger Electric wires, powerless batteries, fused bulbs and tube lights, electronic waste. nails and hair Etc. Etc. General Information: SLRM project Bring your two waste baskets, immediately after you hear the bell rings in the morning. If you cannot be at home when the tricycle arrives, keep the waste bin in a safe place, where no animal can reach and inform the workers. If for some reason, the tricycle does not come in the morning, please store your waste inside till it comes the next day If there are large volumes of garden waste or big items like mattress, broken furniture, etc., for disposal, inform us during the morning collection. We will come again in the afternoon with an empty tricycle to collect your waste. If there are dead animals in your vicinity, inform us Dust collected by sweeping your home can be disposed off in the garden. Do not litter or burn the waste. Do not throw garbage onto empty plots and drains. Do not call the workers for your personal work during their work time. You may employ them outside working hours and pay them appropriately for their extra work. Inform us in advance when you plan a family function / get-together. We will arrange for a special collection from your doorstep. Please pack sanitary napkins using paper (not plastic) and tie it with the red cotton string provided and deposit it in the Red bin. Please pack Non-Vegetarian waste using paper (not plastic) and tie it with green colour string provided and deposit into the green bin. If you have any complaints about the behavior of the workers, please inform us. Please give us your constructive feedback on the programme Egg shells can be thrown in unwanted/used plastic covers and then into the green bins to avoid their mixing up with the organic material. If your house does not have a garden, a mud pot could be used for throwing fine dust collected after sweeping. Senior Citizens defecate in carry bags. This can be avoided by putting castor oil (lubricant) in their tumblers and disposing the waste in to the toilet. The same can be done for dogs.
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E-waste can be kept in the house. It would be collected once a week. Sending your servant/gardener/security guard for meetings would train them to adopt this method. Washing hands in dustbins or throwing liquid in dustbins should be avoided. Do not place a carry bag in the dustbin. It reduces efficiency. Bins can be washed daily. Washing the cans, pickle jars and sauce bottles once, before discarding keeps the dustbin liquid free. Hair from combs is the costliest item of garbage. It can be stored in bags which can then be collected once in two months or sold. Garbage should be dispatched every 12 hours time, Delay must be avoided. Activities to be undertaken This project is fully concentrated in Urban / Rural area and their surrounding areas. (Residential area, Commercial area, apartments complex, Shops, lodges, Guest houses, education institutions, office rooms etc.,) Before starting the programme, we have to do mass cleaning in the whole Urban / Rural area (Ward wise) and create awareness about source segregation, type of organic & inorganic wastes, Current Waste disposal system, among the residents, shops, offices etc., To make source segregation more effective, we will request people to put inorganic and Organic wastes separately in available waste containers in their home. Garbage collection will be done twice a day (Morning: 7.00 am to 9.00 am / Evening: 4.00 pm to 6.00 pm) from each and every residence / shop (including Sundays and Holidays) through tricycles, by trained workers. Finally, the waste will be brought to “Integrated Solid & Liquid Resource Management Centre” for the secondary segregation and for the further processes to convert the waste as income to self sustains the whole project. Every day’s the regular activities are Waste collection, Segregation, Composting, area cleaning, etc.,
Methodology Source Segregated Waste (Resource) collected from all residents, Shops and area cleaning (organic and inorganic) will be brought to the SLRM sheds by the workers and inorganic waste is segregated (Recyclable, organic and Non-recyclable items) packed separately after segregation and recyclable can be sold locally. Organic waste (Resource) is treated in Cattle dung Microbial decomposing process. The organic waste is laid on a Composting beds in different layers. Each layer being treated with cattle dung microbial inoculums and covered. This process takes 45-60 days to complete. This cattle dung composting will increase the temperature and also reduce the volume and original weight to one third (Minimum). At the end of the process the whole manure are sieved and can be used. Cattle eatable items can be fed to Cattle, and through this process waste will be converted into dung in less than 24 hours time and in future the same dung can be fed into Bio-gas plant to trap Methane gas for worker’s kitchen and the slurry can be used as microbial inoculums to decompose cattle non - eatable items and it can also be used for Vermi-composting process to get best Organic Manure. Non-eatable items also can be fed to bio-gas plant to trap Methane gas and then the slurry can be used for composting tanks to get the best Organic Manure. Through this process, aerobic composting duration will get reduced. Waste water can be used for the fodder cultivation / Tree plantation around SLRM centre / other greening works etc., Interconnection and interdependence: The key to the “Vellore Model” of integrated and sustainable Solid and Liquid Resource Management (SLRM) In a natural ecosystem, e.g. a lake, there is an interconnection and interdependence between the various components - the water, soil, air, sun, microorganisms, fungi, plants, insects, fishes, birds and other life forms. Each component plays a unique role which maintains the ecosystem in balance and gives it stability and sustainability. Akin to a natural ecosystem, the “Vellore Model” of SLRM has nine different individual processes, which are interconnected and interdependent and which lead to “zero waste” in the end. The interconnection provides maximized efficiency and also sustainability – both economic and environmental sustainability. The nine different processes or units are separate and well defined. However, the inputs and outputs of the nine units are closely linked to each other. When all the units are considered together, the only input to the whole system is “undesirable” waste and the outputs are useful products. Individual processes or units are in circles. A circle is colour coded according to the desirability of the waste or product associated with the process. The dark red color represents most undesirable, while the dark green represents most desirable. The amber and lighter shades of red and green represent intermediate products. The process in the white circle, which represents federation activities like accounting, provides support to the rest of the processes and is in turn dependent on them.
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An individual unit has its own sub-processes sub processes and operates on its own fixed time schedule. For example, the waste collection is done every day, while aerobic composting takes 35 days to create compost from organic matter. The sub-processes processes in a particular particular unit may be interlinked within the unit, e.g. in vermicomposting, the earthworms which are produced in the process are partly reintroduced in a fresh vermicompost bin to continue the process. The individual processes are designed to be user and environment environment friendly, and mostly use local technologies that are not energy intensive. The figure below shows a schematic of the ZWM model.
From the figure we can see the interlinking of the different units. The output of one unit is an input of one or more other units which is shown by arrows. For example, vegetable waste from the secondary segregation unit goes to the cattle shed while cow dung dung from the cattle shed goes to the composting, vermicomposting and drying units. We can see the systematic handling of waste from one process to another, increasing its desirability at each stage of processing. The “Vellore model” of ZWM with separate units which work together for a common objective can be described in a nutshell as a “centralized project with decentralized processes”.
Advantages of SLRM – Vellore model All over the world, ZWM has been accepted (and is being practiced) as the best solution to the problem of waste, for the following reasons: 1.Waste is segregated and resources are recovered through composting of organic waste and recycling of inorganic waste. 2. Compost generated through ZWM is used to promote organic farming, bringing bringing down the use of chemicals in agriculture. 3. ZWM helps reduce the rate of virgin raw material extraction and resource depletion. 4. ZWM minimizes waste disposal at dumpsites and reduces pollution of air, ground water and soil that result from dumping. 5.. ZWM provides income generation opportunities for the below poverty line people. Waste is a misplaced resource and unorganized wealth. Hence Waste is not Waste. Don’t waste money on waste. Make money from waste.
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Chapter- VII-37 Impr mproving solid was waste manage agement through service ervice lev level benchmarking - A case study of 9 ULBs in Himachal Pradesh Vaishali Nandan1* & Shweta Dua Dua2 1Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ)- India 2 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ) -India Email: vaishali.nandan@giz.de Abstract Rapid urbanization and industrialization have put an immense pressure on cities, its infrastructure and immediate environment. The city administrators are facing acute problems in providing infrastructure and basic services to the citizens related to urban housing for the poor, wastewater treatment, solid waste management, water supply, street lighting etc. Till now, the Government has given priority mainly to the investments in urban infrastructure in- spite of such investments it has not resulted in the expected improvements in service delivery and consumer satisfaction. With a view to shift the focus from infrastructural investments to service delivery and in a broader scenario, a paradigm shift from output to outcomes “Service Level Benchmarks (SLB)” has been developed by Ministry of Urban Development. This process of benchmarking was initiated with a view to monitor the performance levels and overall evaluation against agreed targets. It was foreseen that database generated from SLB exercise carried out in the respective cities will help decision makers to allocate resources in more efficient manner along with an enhanced transparent system. However, the basic understanding of the Service Level Benchmarks and the generation of SLB database is not very clear at the ground level to the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). Even though the provision/disclosure of SLB data is a positive step towards improving service delivery; the data quality, basic understanding and interpretation of the indicators of respective components need to be addressed be fore SLBs can become a regular exercise for ULBs. On these lines, this paper discusses and analyses the data gaps of 9 ULBs of Himachal Pradesh through secondary data provided on the solid waste management component. The findings reveal that most utilities are lacking in delivering the satisfactory services to citizens, for instance 6 out of 9 ULBs claim more than 75% efficiency in collection of solid waste, which means that they are approaching a garbage free zone but the segregation in most of the ULBs is negligible despite the fact that it is mandatory as per the MSW Rules. Therefore to avoid such discrepancies, the data collection mechanism needs to be scrutinized on a regular basis and the staff involved in SLB implementation should be aware of the importance and linkages of these indicators for making use of this effective tool in making informed decisions towards an improvement in service delivery.
Introduction India, with a population of 1.22 billion people, is the second most populous country in the world. The recent census survey in 2011 showed that for the first time since independence, the absolute increase in the population is more in urban areas than in rural areas. The level of urbanization has increased from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16% in 2011 whereas the proportion of rural population has declined from 72.19% to 68.84%, depicting an increase in the migration from rural to urban areas owing to the opportunities in urban areas for employment, better education facilities etc. With this increase in urbanization, the country’s economic growth has also increased and the country witnessed 8% growth in GDP in the last few years with urban areas contributing over 55% of GDP. The paradox is that while urban economies are fast emerging, at the same time the urban areas are grappling with the challenge of providing basic services to its residents like solid waste management, water supply, sewerage connectivity, public transport etc. The magnitude of challenges faced by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in providing basic services to urban residents was realized by the Government of India and to address the issues related to the urban governance and infrastructural development, Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was launched by the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), Government of India, in 2005. The main objective of the JNNURM was to create economically productive, efficient, equitable systems however with passage of time the government realized that greater accountability for service deliver y performance is a prerequisite for improvement in the coverage and quality of service to the citizens. But investments in
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urban infrastructure have not always resulted in corresponding improvements in service delivery and there is an urgent need for a shift in focus towards outcome based approach rather than an approach based only on output and asset creation. Recognizing this need, the Ministry of Urban Development has developed benchmarks in four key sectors viz. water supply, sewerage, storm water drainage and solid waste management. Service Level Benchmarking The Ministry of Urban Development, (MoUD), initiated the process of Service Level Benchmarking (SLB) by defining the basic minimum standard set of performance parameters commonly understood and used by all stakeholders with respect to basic municipal services, namely water supply, sewerage, solid waste management and storm water drainage. The SLB framework encompasses 28 indicators for all these basic services. Each indicator has a clear set of definition, rationale for indicator, monitoring guidelines, calculation methodology together with a service goal which has to be achieved in a certain time period. Each indicator is also divided on a reliability scale A to D, where ‘A’ is the highest/ preferred level indicating that the data and records are adequately maintained and updated periodically and ‘D’ is the lowest level of reliability indicating estimations based on a thumb rule or assumptions or database not properly maintained. The primary aim of the SLB initiative is: • Uniform set of indicators, definitions and calculation methodology to enable meaningful comparisons • Provision of service benchmarks to create consensus on desired service standards • Data reliability grades to highlight and address issues of data quality Self-reporting by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), as against consultants, to ensure ownership for • data • Emphasis on performance improvement planning based on the SLB data generated. Once the SLB is documented for the current year by a ULB, the next step is the preparation of Information System Improvement Plans (ISIPs) and Performance Improvement Plan (PIPs) . Instruments for SLB improvements: ISIPs and PIPs Information System Improvement Plans (ISIPs) and Performance Improvement Plans (PIPs) are tools which help to identify information gaps and guide the service level improvement process. The objective of ISIPs is to address issues of data collection, its collation and facilitate reporting by helping to ensure data availabilit y for next round of benchmarking. It will also help in the process of performance review and assessment by ensuring how the data is fed into the decision process. PIPs measure the current level performance of the service standards and then generate ideas for modifying the organizational behavior and infrastructure to achieve higher outputs with the given circumstances. They are usually low cost/ no cost measures which start with policy changes and/ or managerial changes / procedural changes and only then move towards technical / infrastructure development measures.
Recommendations for improvement of current service levels
Figure 1: Information Systems Improvement Plans (ISIPs) and Performance Improvement Plans (PIPs) An analysis of SLB for SWM for 9 ULBs of Himachal Pradesh (HP) The study carried out is based on the Service Level Benchmark data provided by the ULBs and Urban Department, HP State to GIZ. GIZ is currently supporting the SLB exercise in these 9 ULBs of Himachal Pradesh by analyzing the data gaps and the steps that should be taken for achieving the benchmarks.
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The Service level Benchmarks for 9 ULBs of Himachal Pradesh that were analyzed are namely Baddi, Chamba, Dharamashala, Hamirpur, Kullu, Mandi, Nahan, Talai, Theog. As mentioned earlier, SLB takes into account all sectors falling under the purview of the ULB namely, water supply, sewerage, solid waste management and storm water drainage. The focus of this paper is entirely on solid waste management, so only findings against indicators for solid waste will be discussed in detail. Below Table shows the 8 indicators for solid waste management with benchmarks for each indicator. Table 1: Performance Indicators for Solid Waste Management S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Indicator Household level coverage Efficiency of collection Extent of segregation Extent of municipal solid waste recovered/recycled Extent of scientific disposal Extent of cost recovery Efficiency in redressal of customer complaints Efficiency in collection of user charges
Benchmark 100 % 100 % 100 % 80 % 100 % 100 % 80 % 90 %
Fig1: Household level coverage of various districts (in percentage) Indicator I: Household Coverage of Solid waste This indicator is defined as percentage of households and establishments that are covered by a daily door to door doorstep collection system. The data analyzed for the 9 ULBs reveals that household level coverage of SWM services through door-to-door collection varies from 3 ton99% however the average household coverage is about 24%. The indicator is also judged on a measure of reliability and is rated from ‘A’ to ‘D’. For example the performance indicator will score a ‘D’ (lowest level of reliability) if the method of data collection is based on coverage numbers based on aggregate city level estimate by the service provider while the score will be ‘A’ if the calculation is based on the actual number of households and establishments with doorstep collection as stated by the agency involved in doorstep collection, though verifiable records of user charges collected for the doorstep collection services. Here it has been observed that lack of adequate property records and records of the households having door to door collection service leads to the inferior data quality. Therefore there is an urgent need for detailed household survey that will ascertain the actual number of households covered under door-to-door collection in order to have accurate or close to accurate data reporting. Figure1 below shows the Kullu has almost 99% of household level coverage of solid waste whereas Their has
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currently no system of household collection. Indicator II: Efficiency of collection of MSW According to the definition, efficiency of collection of municipal solid waste means, the total waste collected by the ULB versus the total waste generated within the ULB, excluding recycling or processing at the generation point. The data reveal that out of 9 ULBs, 6 have collection efficiency of more than 70%. This essentially reflects that the cities are clean and have less garbage dumping in the open however it is observed that the collection efficiency is high owing to the collection of waste from the secondary sources whereas household coverage or collection from primary sources is negligible as shown in the Indicator I. The uncollected waste than tends to gradually find its way into open drains, strewn along the road sides, burnings etc. decreases the collection efficiency which is a key performance indicator but reliability varies on account of different methods used for measurement. The performance indicator will have a lowest reliability scale of ‘D’, if the waste is collected on the basis of the number of trips made by waste collection vehicle to the disposal site whereas highest reliability scale of ‘A’ will be given when waste collection is based on the actual weighing of the waste at the weighbridge or Dharam Kantas. It has been observed that in all the 9 ULBs the reliability scale is ‘D’ as the waste collected is measured on the basis of the capacity of the transport vehicles and the number of trips undertaken by these vehicles. Lack of adequate understanding of benchmark definitions, indicators and measurement system leads to the erroneous data that tends to weakens the overall SLB objective. Indicator III: Extent of segregation As per the indicator definition waste should be segregated in the form of dry and wet waste at the source, that is, at the household or commercial establishment level and taken to the treatment plant in a segregated manner. The data analyzed for the 9 ULBs show that, 5 currently do not have any segregation system while 4 ULBs have some form of segregation, these are Chamba, Dharamshala, Hamirpur, Kullu. Very interestingly Chamba claims to have 100% segregation practice as depicted from the data but the disposal and treatment of waste in Chamba is nil. Such erroneous data provision indicates the lack of understanding of benchmark indicators and clarity on the concept of segregation. Indicator IV: Extent of MSW recovered Municipal solid waste recovery is a very critical indicator that signifies the extent of MSW processing or treatment and is an important parameter in determining the overall effectiveness of SWM. It was revealed from the data that 6 out of 9 ULBs have no system of recovery of municipal solid waste or processing facility whereas 3 ULBs have this facility available, they are Kullu, Nahan and Hamirpur_. The analysis reveals that Nahan has 100% recovery whereas Kullu has 97% recovery, the reliability of such data is at ‘D’ as proper weighing of the waste entering the processing facility is not being carried out. Also segregation of waste is a prerequisite for resource recovery but the analysis shows that most of the ULBs do not practice segregation theeby reducing the extent and quantity of recovery of dry and wet waste. Segregation is a fundamental indicator which will in turn enhance collection, recovery and disposal efficiencies of solid waste in a sustainable manner. Indicator V: Extent of Scientific Disposal of waste As the indicator suggests, the extent of scientific disposal of waste means the amount of waste disposed in landfills that have been designed, built, operated and maintained as per standards laid down under the Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 issued by the Ministry of Environment & Forests, GoI. It has been observed that in all the 9 ULBs scientific disposal has not been given due consideration and all the ULBs have no system in place for scientific disposing of their municipal waste and are resorting to open dumping in designated locations. Indicator VI: Efficiency in Redressal of Customer Complaints This indicator denotes the total number of complaints related to SWM that are redressed within 24 hours of receipt of the complaint. It is seen that most of the ULBs have already achieved more than 75% as against the desired benchmark of 80%. However, the fact is that whatever number of the complaints are registered, if they are redressed then this is considered to be 100% achievement, which may not be correct as often a large number of complaints are not registered in most ULBs. The values for this indicator needed to be interpreted with caution in absence of a proper monitoring system for complaint redressal. There is therefore a need for designing and adopting a structured complaint mechanism for registration and mitigation of complaints as well as a proper monitoring system for tracking the number complaints registered and the number of complaints actually resolved.
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Indicator VII & VIII: Extent of cost recovery and efficiency of collection of MSW charges This Indicator VIII denotes the extent to which the ULB is able to recover all operating expenses relating to SWM services from operating revenues related to SWM only, whereas Indicator VII is defined the current year revenues collected. The data analysis of all the 9 ULBs shows that ULBs are spending a very high proportion of their total operating expenditures on staff salaries and on fuel costs for transportation of waste. As a consequence of this high expenditure, relatively little is being spent for the essential maintenance and good asset management. It leads to a vicious circle; decaying infrastructure raises the maintenance burden and operating costs. It is evident from the data that expenditure exceeds far from the income or revenue in all the Urban Local Bodies. The combination of sub-economic tariffs, poor/ inadequate upkeep of customer records, lack of separate budget heads related to SWM and poor collection efficiency of user charges indicates that ULBs depend largely on municipal or government grants to bridge the funding gaps. The Shortcomings/ Limitations of SLB The analysis of these 9 ULBs in HP revealed that even though benchmarking is a very important self-assessment tool, there are certain limitations/shortcomings creating an obstacle in achieving the overall objective of Service Level Benchmarks: • Transparency in data provision: Without reliable quantitative data, it seems difficult for the administrative managers to identify gaps or track the impact of their decisions. Disclosure of SLB data in the public domain is very crucial as it would lead to the adequate monitoring of civic service delivery because causes of poor performance remain hidden when record keeping and regular monitoring are not followed. • Institutionalizing the SLB: ULBs should understand the importance of maintaining and then providing the actual data to the state departments, as it will help assess the real challenges, service delivery gaps and the sector reform needs, in order to showcase real improvements in the service delivery system. Maintenance of records and regular monitoring as required by SLB needs to be integrated and embedded within the ULB framework. Data quality needs improvements: The deficiency in data quality and consistency defeats the • overall purpose of SLB. It is observed that proper guidance in setting up consistent data provision and information monitoring system are required for performance measurement and improvements without this it will be difficult to monitor improvements and performance levels. • Significant capacities need to be built: There is usually a lack of staff within ULBs, but where the staff exists the understanding of the concepts for regular monitoring is usually missing. Capacities in terms of personnel as well as of understanding of the concepts of SLB need to be strengthened within the ULBs if the goal of improved monitoring and performance in service delivery need to be achieved.
Conclusion The benchmarking initiative is a very significant assessment methodology that is gaining great impetus as a management tool. It is an effective medium for highlighting performance gaps and emphasizing on the importance of integrated information systems.Given the absence of formal monitoring systems to track the performance of solid waste in the ULB, the institutionalization of benchmarking represents a major step forward to build the necessary systems, procedures, and structures needed for overall sector reforms. There is still a long way to go before Government of India and the State Governments reach the desired level but the performance of the ULBS after the 13financial recommendations and of the states in ensuring improved data quality will set the tone for better service provision as well as delivery. References Census of India, 2011, Ministry of Home Affairs Eales.K (2010).Benchmarking for performance improvement in urban utilities- A review in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan India Country Paper- Enhanced Quality of life through Sustained Sanitation (2011). Department of Urban Development Mehta, Meera, Dinesh Mehta (2010). A Glass Half Full? Urban Development (1990s to 2010). Economic and Political Weekly Vol.XLV No 28. Ministry of Urban development, Government of India, 2009. Handbook on Service Level Benchmarking Position paper on –The Solid Waste Management Sector in India (2009). Department of Economic Affairs; Ministry of Finance, Government of India. Vaidya.C (2009). Urban Issues, Reforms and Way Forward in India; Working Paper No.4/2009. Department of Economic Affairs; Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
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Chapter- VII-38 Feasibility study and modernization of solid waste transportation systemsystem- A case study of Pune Harshul Parekh1*, K.D. Yadav2, S.M. Yadav3 & N.C. Shah4 1* Department of Civil Engineering, S.V.National Indian Institute of Technology, Surat 2 Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, S V N I T, Surat 3 Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, S V N I T, Surat 4 Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, S V N I T, Surat Email: harshulparekh@gmail.com Abstract Increase in urbanization associated with growing economy has posed a significance stress on the environment in developing countries. With the increase in residential, industrial, education and commercial sector, the amount of generation of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is increasing day by day. This paper attempts to emphasize on present overview of transportation system of MSW in Katraj and Hadapsar zone with the help of specific reference and studying the current scenario. Various points have been discussed for modernization of transportation system i.e compliance to MSW Rule (Handling and Management) 2000, by financial analysis of capital cost and operation & maintenance cost for present system and modernized system. It has been also check whether proposed system is has minimum impact on environment.
Solid waste management Solid Waste Management is usually related to materials produced by human activities, and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, environment or aesthetics. Solid Waste Management is a system which includes components like generation of waste, storage, collection, transportation, processing and final disposal. Solid waste management is a basic public necessity and this service is provided by urban local bodies (ULBs) in India. SWM starts with the collection of solid wastes and ends with their disposal and/or beneficial use. Solid Waste Management is essential by recovering of materials and producing energy from solid waste and minimizing the quantity of solid waste disposed off on land. Effective solid waste management systems are designed for better human health and must be safe for workers and safeguard public health. It must reduce, as much as possible; the environmental impacts of waste management and further it must operate at a cost acceptable to community. Role of MSW in sanitation Municipal Solid Waste plays an effective role in sanitation as it creates vital nuisance to the surrounding environment. A well planned, effective Municipal Solid Waste management can improve sanitation at every stage i.e collection, transportation, treatment and disposal. All habitats, commercial and institutional area shall be covered under regular waste collection system. Backlog in collection of waste will generate nuisance of odour and scavenging of waste. Covered storage will reduce scavenging of waste by stray animals. Similarly transportation in closed body container will reduce littering waste and leachate. Scientific treatment will reduce burden on landfill. Recycling and recovery from waste will save precious natural resources. Designed landfill with leachate collection and treatment system will reduce damage to ground water table, surface water source and soil leachate. This paper focus on modernization of transport system which is financially viable and it will reduce environmental impact.
Pune city: Profile & SWM practice The city is located at 18° 31’ 13” N, 73° 51’ 24” E and is at an altitude of 560 mt above the mean sea level. It is at a distance of 160 km by road from Mumbai. It is the second largest city of Maharashtra with a population of approx 37 Lac as per the 2011 census. The Kagad Kach Patra Kastakari Panchayat (KKPKP) is an association of waste collectors. It is established in 1993. In 2007, KKPKP is replaced as Solid Waste Collection and Handling (SWaCH) and became operational in 2008.Waste pickers are self employed workers but they are working for Municipal Corporation. They pick up and sell recyclable scrap from municipal solid waste. It is the only means of their livelihood. In Pune city, rag pickers are visiting houses and collecting the solid waste. At the same time community solid waste storage system is practiced in city and it consists of different types of bins. Household deposit their solid waste in bins located at street corners and at specific intervals. The containers generally are
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constructed of metals, concrete or of both types in city. These community storage arrangements are conveniently located in corporation area. Even though door to door waste collection service is provided by corporation and community bins are conveniently located in city, solid waste tends to be thrown around the storage area, roadside gutters etc. It happens partly because of indiscipline among people and partly by rag pickers and stray animals (Rode Sanjay, 2010) Pune city houses residential buildings, hotels, commercial, industries, hospitals etc. which generates 0.38 kg of waste per capita/day. (Mane T.T. et.al., 2012) The total MSW generation as per Pune Municipal Corporation data is 1385 Tons per day(TPD). Out of 1385 TPD waste, 1205 TPD waste is collected and the rest goes directly for treatment process. The collected Municipal Solid Waste is Heterogeneous in nature and contains Papers, Plastics, Rags, Metals, Glass Pieces, Ashes and combustible materials and other hazardous material in smaller amount (Dhere Amar M. et. al, Sept. 2008). Katraj and Hadapsar zone generates nearly 60 % of the total waste generated in Pune City. Therefore, PMC has taken initiative to improve transportation facility by modernizing refuse transfer station and secondary transportation system. Refuse transfer station is a place where waste collected from door to door garbage collection, community bins etc. are received and transfer in to bigger transportation vehicles. This paper will focus on modernization of present transportation system.
Present transportation system of MSW in Katraj and Hadapsar 320 TPD waste is collected by primary collection in Katraj zone is transferred to Katraj RTS, using 21 Dumper Placer in 185 trips and 60 trips of tractor trolley. Hadpsar zone produce 410 TPD waste which is collected by primary collection and send to Hadpsar RTS using 32 Dumper Placer in 264 trips and 60 trips of tractor trolley. Following are the issues of present transportation system in Katraj and Hadapsar zone. • Crude method of transfer of waste smaller to bigger vehicle (Refer figure: 1 & 2) • Transportation of waste in a open body container covered with tarpaulin • Littering of waste on road during transportation creates nuisance for traffic • Littering of leachate on road and land generates foul smell in surrounding area. • Improper synchronization between primary and secondary vehicle creates long queue at RTS • Un-compacted waste loaded directly leads to more number of trips due to lesser waste carrying capacity, which results in higher transportation cost
Figure 2 Queue for unloading
Figure 1 Transfer of waste from smaller to bigger vehicle
At present there are 10 Bulk Refuse Carrier (BRC) deployed for secondary transportation of waste. Each BRC carries 8 to 8.5 tons per trip and it requires 35 trips to complete secondary transportation process from Katraj to landfill site which is 16 km away. Similarly for Hadapsar RTS, 11 BRC are deployed which carries 10 tons per trip and requires 33 trips to complete secondary transportation from Hadapsar to landfill which is 12 km away.
Modernization of transportation system Approximately 1.5 crores rupees are spent behind transportation of solid waste. Another factor is the methodology applied of transportation of solid waste which is way behind for the compliance of the MSW Rule 2000. The current system is unhygienic, unsustainable for the society and for the environment. In the proposed system complies the requirement of transportation of waste in closed body vehicle as per MSW Rule 2000, the system is economically affordable, highly effective and sustainable, socially acceptable, providing stability for waste management, transportation system. Vehicles which are to be used as per designed system shall have close body containers. In proposed system waste collected through door to door garbage collection, community bins and other means are discharged in hopper(Refer figure 4) which is connected to stationary compactor( Refer figure 3).
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Function of stationary compactor is to push the waste into closed body container and compact it to desired level. Generally 50% to 60% compaction ratio can be achieved in heterogeneous waste. Container filled with compacted waste is transported to disposal/treatment plant in hook lifter type trucks (Refer Figure 5). Closed body container have leachate tray and leachate drain system, this facility avoid draining leachate on road during transportation. tation. Leachate collected in tray can be drain at treatment plant or at suitable disposal point.
Figure 5 Unloading of waste in hopper Figure 4 Waste compacted and pushed in Figure 3 Transportation of compacted to container waste in closed body container
Analysis In existing system BRC carries only 8 to 9 Tons of waste against its carrying capacity of 20 Tons. While in closed body container 15 Tons waste can be stored and transported. With lesser nos. of trips resource required shall be lesser which is described in Table: 1. Table: 1 Operational statistics of Hadapsar & Katraj Ramp with present and proposed RTS Particulars Current System Proposed Current System Designed 500 TPD System 500 TPD 600 TPD System 600 (Hadapsar) (Hadapsar) TPD (Katraj) Operational Saving Working Hours 08 Hours 08 Hours 16 Hours 16 Hours Bulk Refuse Carrier Req. / 10 Nos. 05 Nos. 10 Nos. 05 Nos. Used 05 Nos. 05 Nos. Savings in nos. of vehicle Trips taken by Secondary 50 in 16 Hours 34 in 14 Hours 64 in 16 Hours 40 in 16 Hours Transportation to LF Savings in Trip --16 Trip --24 Trip Fuel Consumption / Day (10 500 Liters 340 Liters 640 Liters 400 Liters Lit / Trip) Saving in Fuel / Day --160 Liters --240 Liters Staff Required Drivers 8 6 8 6 Cleaner 8 6 8 6 Supervisor 2 2 2 2 18 Person 14 Person 18 Person 14 Person __ __ Saving in Staff 2 Drivers 2 Drivers 2 Cleaners 2 Cleaners Source: Pune Municipal Corporation Table: 2 Saving in operational cost for Hadapsar & Katraj RTS with proposed system Particulars Current Proposed Current System 500 System 500 System 600 TPD (Katraj) TPD (Katraj) TPD (Hadapsar) Financial Saving Saving in Cost of Fuel (55 Rs. / Liter --2,72,800/- Per --Rate) Month Savings in Salary (as per data by PMC) --56,000/- Per --Month --3,28,800/- Per --Total Cost Saving / Month
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Designed System 600 TPD (Hadapsar) 4,09,200/- Per Month 56,000/- Per Month 4,65,200/- Per
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Total Cost Saving / Year
---
Total Cost Saving in 5 Years Source: Pune Municipal Corporation.
---
Month 39,45,600/Per Year 2,40,88,283 /-
-----
Month 55,82,400/- Per Year 3,40,81,100 /-
Analysis of operational cost as per Table no.2 shows that proposed system is cost effective. As per the results of the analysis for the Katraj RTS and Hadapsar RTS, by comparing current system and designed system, the total cost savings was worked out up to Rs. 2.40 crores and Rs. 3.41 crores (with 10% inflation) in 5 years respectively.
Conclusion Modernization of RTS and transportation system will reduce nos. of trips to disposal site. Synchronization of primary and secondary transportation vehicle is not required as waste is received in hopper and filled in container; hence long queue at RTS will be eliminated. Increase in waste carrying capacity of vehicles will result in reduction in nos. trip to disposal site , which will indirectly reduce traffic congestion. Transportation of waste in closed body container will avoid littering of waste and leachate during secondary transportation. Modernization of RTS will reduce consumption of fuel per day, staff salary. Thus modernization of RTS will improve environmental value and it is financially viable solution for Pune Municipal Corporation. Pune Municipal Corporation shall implement best practices and financially viable innovative technology in Solid Waste Management to improve quality of life in city.
References Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rule 2000 Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, May 2001, Central Public Health and Environmental Organization (CPHEEO), GOI, New Delhi http://www.punecorporation.org/pmcwebn/informpdf/swm/ghanta_gadi_12_11_12.pdf last visited on 08/12/2012 Dhere Amar M. et. al, Sept. 2008, Pune Municipal Solid Waste Disposal Practices â&#x20AC;&#x201C; An Analysis Of Air And Ground Water Pollution, Current Science, Vol. 95, NO. 6, 25 Mane T.T., Hingane Hemalata N., 2012, Existing Situation of Solid Waste Management in Pune City, India, Research Journal of Recent Sciences, Vol. 1 (ISC-2011), 348-351 (2012) Rode Sanjay, 2010, Report on Integrated Approach to Solid Waste Management in Pune City, S.K. Somaliya College, Mumbai University, India. ********
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Chapter- VII-39 Solid Waste Management, a Corporate Responsibility: A case study of BIA Hari Kumar Parameshwar Vice President, Department of Engineering & Maintenance, Bangalore International Airport Ltd, Bangalore, India Email: harikumar@bialairport.com Abstract Airports generate enormous volume of solid waste from its operations and is evolving as a major challenge for the airport operators in complying with the environmental norms and in conserving zero waste environments for its users. Bangalore International Airport (BIA) through its past 4 years of operation has emerged as a front runner in the field of systematic cleaning and waste management and has already set benchmarks for other Indian airports. This case study reveals the best practices in cleaning and solid waste management adopted by Bangalore International Airport Ltd (BIAL) to script its success story.
Introduction Bangalore International Airport: the latest Greenfield Airport in India. Bangalore International Airport Limited (BIAL) is a public limited company formed under Public Private Partnership (PPP) to build, own and operate Bangalore’s green-field airport. Private promoters hold 74% stake in BIAL while the government holds the remaining 26%. The first phase of the Bangalore International Airport project got completed in March 2008 and the airport became operational on 23rd May, 2008. Bangalore International Airport handles 12 Mio passengers per annum and is today poised as India’s 3rd biggest airport in terms of passenger volume. BIAL is committed to establish this airport as one of India’s leading airport in terms of service quality and efficiency and has already set benchmarks in these fields for Indian airports. BIA is the first airport in the country that can claim five international certifications to its credit, Quality (9001), Environment (14001), Information Security (27001), Occupational Health & Safety (18001), Business Continuity (25999) Management Systems. ASQ (Airport Service Quality) is a quantitative international benchmarking exercise under ACI (Airports Council International) for airport customer satisfaction, with 140 participating airports across 46 countries. A standard self-administered questionnaire with common methodology is followed across all participating airports by the agency. BIA has been scoring consistently high rankings, especially in two parameters relevant to this paper as indicated below: Table 01- ASQ score details (score out of 5.00) Parameter 2Q 3Q 4Q 10 10 10 Cleanliness of 4.28 4.25 4.09 airport terminal Ambience of the 4.20 4.17 3.97 airport
1Q 11 4.32
2Q 11 4.39
3Q 11 4.37
4Q 11 4.37
1Q 12 4.20
2Q 12 4.34
4.19
4.26
4.32
4.29
4.18
4.24
Solid waste management in airports What is waste? The definition of waste by Zero Waste America is considered relevant to the topic of study: “A resource that is not safely recycled back into the environment or the marketplace." This definition takes into account the value of waste as a resource, as well as the threat unsafe recycling can present to the environment and public health.
Sources & Types of Solid waste in Airports •
• • •
Municipal Solid Waste: From aircrafts, from sweeping runways, roads and Parking bays, from offices, commercial outlets, ground handlers, cargo handlers, caterers and other concessionaires etc. Industrial Waste: From ground handlers, cargo village, hangers, workshops, maintenance units etc. Hazardous Waste: From aircrafts, equipment workshops, fuel suppliers, cargo handlers, ground handlers, hangers etc. Hospital Waste: From dispensaries, medical facilities and first aid units.
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•
Construction andd Demolition Waste: From various expansion and maintenance works in airfield, landside, terminals and other buildings. Waste from electrical and electronic equipment: From maintenance units, IT systems, terminals, offices and commercial buildings. Agricultural icultural Waste: From the turfed lands, gardening and horticulture works on the landside and airfield etc.
• •
Barriers for effective waste Management in Indian airports: • • • • • • • • • •
Low public awareness among its users who are from diverse socio-economic socio economic and cultural segments. se Financial and technical constraints. Poorly managed waste handling mechanism by airport operators and its concessionaires. Lack of uniform policies and strategies on solid waste management in airports across the country. Shattered responsibilities amongst airport operators, airlines, concessionaires and other agencies. Lack of centralized monitoring system and punitive regulations. Being a low priority item to the licensing authorities and economic regulators. Lack of planning nning for waste management while constructing airports. Lack of technically trained manpower. Lack of community involvement in airport operational matters.
FOD Management in airports What is FOD? Foreign Object Damage (FOD) to airplanes is any damage attributed to a Foreign Object Debris (FOD) that can be expressed in physical or economic terms that may or may not degrade the product's required safety and/or performance characteristics. It causes damage damage through direct contact with aircrafts such as by cutting aircraft tires or being ingested into engines, or as a result of being thrown by jet blast and damaging other aircrafts, vehicles, equipment or injuring people. The term FOD can stand for either either Foreign Object Debris or Foreign Object Damage depending on the context of its usage.
Cause of FOD: FOD damage is caused by bird strikes, stones, aircraft maintenance tool, nut & bolt, cleaning cloths, pieces of luggage and any other metal or non-metal non tal components left on apron or on taxiways/runways.
Consequences:
•
Figure1. FOD damages to aircraft engines FOD bins
Figure2.
Non-hazardous hazardous and hazardous
It is estimated that FOD costs the aerospace industry some US$13 billion per year towards repair of aircraft engines in addition to significant damage to aircraft and may sometimes cause death or injury to airport workers, crews and passengers.
FOD management: The goal of FOD management is to ensure ground and flight safety and preservation of private and national assets through systematic monitoring and controlling the FOD in airfields.
Where to drop FOD? Non-hazardous hazardous FOD to be dropped in FOD bins (orange in color) provided at aircraft stands and operational areas.
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Hazardous FOD to be disposed of by the user at hazardous waste disposal center located at the airfield or landside.
on
Initial Challenges after Airport Opening Initial challenges in cleaning and waste disposal: •
A single agency, a multinational company specialized in cleaning process and having its operation in many busy international airports worldwide, was awarded the contract for the cleaning cl and waste disposable of thee new airport.
Though the field training and trial operation were commenced three months prior to Airport opening, the mechanism just collapsed immediately after airport opening. Majority of cleaning staff migrated to other companies working in airport since ince there was a high demand for skilled workers after airport opening. Remaining people could not cope with tight security and safety regulations. Machine break downs and inefficient supply chain network further aggravated the problem. On the other hand, the airlines and ground handling staff could not deal with the new environment as they were unfamiliar with the topography of new airport. Aircraft waste was dumped simply on apron and it caused serious safety concerns. There were litters everywhere in the Terminal, car parking and approach road and the adverse news started appearing in the front pages of newspapers and some of the TV channels.
Corrective actions undertaken by BIAL: • • • • • • • • • • •
It took almost a month for BIAL to establish absolute control over the situation situation through implementation of following curative actions. Divided the zone and scope of cleaning operation in to three: Airfield, Landside and Terminal. The prevailing service provider was asked to concentrate only in Terminal Building after securing in two more new agencies to handle other areas. Hired 16 specialists on their rolls and took over the responsibility of round the clock operation. Procured all cleaning machineries and Equipment and trained own technical staff to maintain it. Took over the responsibility for providing all chemicals and consumables. All the three contracts were soon turned in to labor contracts; BIAL even took over the responsibility for training the contract staff to ensure the set standards. Entire cleaning process, manuals, SOPs, check lists etc. were reviewed and re-written re written by the specialists. Purchased more mechanized sweepers, introduced more FOD/waste bins and increased the number of waste transport vehicles. Introduced MRS operation on all operational areas and parking stands in coordination with Airport Operations Control Centre (AOCC). Strengthened the process of manual pick up of FOD on apron by engaging additional cleaning staff. Concurrently, BIAL organized an FOD awareness week and a ‘NO FOD’ campaign on the airside and crusaded to educate employees of airlines and concessionaires. During this week the entire top management of BIAL including the CEO moved around the apron with carry bags to pick up the FOD that amazed all airlines and ground handlers in the beginning. But they had no choices but to join with the movement soon.
Infrastructure and guidance documents Cleaning and waste management infrastructures: Mechanised Runway/Road sweepers (MRS): BIAL has total 5 mechanized sweepers, four of them imported and one Indian machine, to take care the sweeping operations on airfield and landside.
Figure.4 Mechanized runway/road sweepers
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Façade cleaning Equipments: BIAL has many imported façade access equipment and cleaning devices as listed below to ensure proper glass cleaning works. Table 02 - List of façade access equipment Sl. No Equipment Qnty 1 DENKA -22 1 2 SPIDER – 290 1 3 Vertical Up-Lift 3 4 Scissor Up-Lift 1 5 Sky Lift 1
Purpose High Access equipment for Façade & Pillar Cleaning High Access equipment for Sky glass & Pillar Cleaning. High Access equipment for Pillars, Canopies and other areas. High Access equipment for narrow space. Vehicle Mounted high access equipment.
Cleaning Equipments in Buildings: Given below is a list of specialized cleaning machineries and equipment owned by BIAL: Table 03 – List of specialized cleaning machineries and equipment Sl. No Equip/Machinery Quty Purpose 1 Swingo 3500 3 Battery operated automatic Scrubber Dryer (Seat onRide) 2 Swingo XP 3 Battery operated automatic Scrubber Dryer (Stand onRide) 3 Compact 1150 1 Battery operated Sweeper Machine (Seat on-Ride) 4 ICS 8920 - Wheely Clean 2 Battery operated Multi-purpose Cleaning Machine 5 Swingo 750 E 2 Mechanical Scrubber Dryer (Walk Behind) 6 SDV 4500 1 Heavy Duty Steam Cleaner cum Sanitizer 7 GD 5 1 Battery operated Back pack vacuum cleaner 8 Ergo Disc 1200 3 High Speed Burnishing Machine (Buffing/Polishing/Burnishing) 9 Ergo Disc 165 5 Single disc scrubbing machine 10 Dorsalino 6 Back pack vacuum cleaner 11 Vacuumat 22 4 Wet & Dry Vacuum Cleaner 12 Vacuumat 44 3 Heavy Duty Vacuum Cleaner 13 Sky Vap 3 Steam Cleaner cum Sanitizer 14 Ontario 1211 XP 1 High pressure water jet 15 HP Jet Machine 2 High pressure water jet 16 Foam Generator 3 Carpet & Upholstery Shampooing 17 Picobello 3 Walk behind sweeper machine 18 Carbon Tech-Pole 1 High Access Façade Glass Cleaning (Telescopic)
Waste Disposal Infrastructure: a. b.
There are three covered mini trucks effecting as the primary waste accumulations points cum mode of transport of waste to main waste handling center. There are two covered hazardous waste centers one each in airfield and landside. Main covered waste center located at landside function as centralized waste segregation center and solid waste disposal unit for the whole airport.
Workshop facility to service and repair all cleaning equipment and machineries is available with BIAL. Guidance documents 1. a.
b. 2.
Primary Guidance documents: Out of 18 BIAL Maintenance Manuals, the following two manuals provide guidelines for the cleaning and waste management of the airport. Annex-4 Annex-17 Standard Operating Procedures and Emergency Operating Procedures (SOPs/ EOPs) – close to 100 Nos. Secondary Guidance documents:
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International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Service Manuals, Director Director General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) guidelines, Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) and Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) directives and guidelines etc. act as the supportive documents to accomplish the task within the set norms and legal frameworks.
Cleaning and waste handling process Cleaning and waste handling in Terminal Building and Landside 1.
Color Coded Cleaning System To prevent cross contamination, cleaning tool kits are differentiated by color codes based on Cross Contamination Prevention (CCP) codes which keeps toilet cleaning kits separate from other area cleaning kits. Below mentioned codes are set for the cleaning process in Bangalore International Airport.
Table 04 - CCP Codes followed by BIAL Sl. No. Coloredd Cloth / Sponge Area of usage Scrubber 1. Blue Offices and non-toilet areas 2.
Yellow
3. 4.
Red Green
Toilet areas at Vanity & Washbasin counters Toilet cubicles and Urinal areas Glass and frames cleaner
Issued to Office cleaning staff Other nonnon toilet area staff Toilet cleaning staff Toilet cleaning staff Glass cleaning staff
Cleaning and waste handling process flow: The following process is adopted in cleaning and waste handling in terminal building and other ancillary buildings:
Figure 05 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Cleaning and waste handling process 2.
Advanced Cleaning Mechanism and innovative process: Advanced technology equipment and machineries are used to make the most challenging task comfortable and to achieve the highest level of cleanliness at par with International standards. 100% process implementation in line with the approved SOPs and maintenance maintenance manuals and implementation of SAP-PM PM module as the primary maintenance tool allow high level of monitoring and control at multiple levels during 24x7 operations.
Figure 06 - Weekly apron cleaning schedule
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Cleaning and waste handling on airfield: The process followed on airfield is more or less same as the process in landside except more extensive and well-coordinated coordinated mechanized sweeping operation on apron stands, runway and taxiways. The stringent safety and security regulations on the airside make make the task highly specialized and challenging in nature. The cleaning schedule is worked out in consultation with Aerodrome Operations Control Centre (AOCC), Apron Control and Aviation Safety departments based on the flight movements.
Figure 07 - Airside waste handling process
Figure 08- Waste from concessionaires
Waste disposal process Collection & Transportation of Non- Hazardous Waste Various waste bins are positioned at nominal intervals in all areas such as toilet cubicle, washbasin, lounges, corridors, offices, counters, parking areas, roads & building surroundings for passengers and operational convenient. Cleaning staffs remove waste waste from those bins and transport it in properly fastenedovers to Primary Waste Collection Points. s. Three numbers light goods (WD) vehicles are positioned near Passenger Terminal Building, Landside Ancillary Buildings Buil and on airside as Primary Waste Collection Collect Points for acceptance of waste from buildings and surroundings. In regular intervals, once the vehicles are filled up to 75% - 85%, the waste is transferred to Main Collection Hub (Dump Yard).
Figure 09 - BIAL Waste composition (Kg/day)
Figure 10 - Waste generation at BIAL in 4 years (Tons/month)
Collection & Transportation of Hazardous Waste: Standard color hazardous waste bins are positioned at designated places near each building/facility for collection of Hazardous waste. The accumulated hazardous waste is transported by the trained personal to Hazardous Waste Center at Landside. Further handling is carried out by the designated agency to dispose it off in approved scientific manner.
Waste Weighing Survey To quantify the waste generated at BIAL campus, it is necessary to assess the waste disposed by every agency working in airport. Since continuous weighing is impractical, one week survey is conducted in every quarter to weigh up the waste deposited eposited by various agencies.
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BIAL maintains this data for monitoring and control of waste generation by various concessionaires. The detailed account of recyclable, non-recyclable, organic and hazardous categories of waste is maintained for this purpose. The figure above is self-explanatory that the rate of rise of waste generation is at a slower pace compared to the rate of increase of traffic.
Waste Receipt & Weighment
Biomenthanization
Composting
Biogas
Degradation Management
Enrichment
Sieving
Recycling
Plastic Metals Power
Market
CBG Botting
Direct Packing
Compost
Ecobricks
Rejects
Enrichment
Rejects
Landfill
Figure 12 - Solid waste disposal process flow
Figure 11 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Per capita waste generation in BIA
Solid waste disposal process A.
Solid Waste processing partner: TERRA FIRMA BIAL has entered in to a contract with M/s. Terra Firma Biotechnologies Ltd, 40/1, 6p4, Gundlahalli, Belavangala Hobli, Doddaballapura (Tq), Bengaluru, KarnatakaIndia â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 560 027 for scientific processing of the solid waste as per the guidelines of MoEF and KSPCB. The unit is equipped with all the facilities for weighing, storage, segregation, bio-metanization, captive power generation, laboratory, recycling facilities, brick manufacturing unit, drip irrigation landfills etc.
B.
Solid Waste Process flow: The below chart indicates various waste disposal process flow at Terra Firma which is monitored periodically by BIAL and KSPCB officials:
Figure 13 - Compost generation process flow
Figure 14 - Biogas and power generation process
The solid waste transported in covered trucks from BIAL undergoes various processes after proper segregation. The biogas generated through bio-metanization process is further used for power generation and CBG bottling. The compost generated is further used as manure for the landscaping works. All recyclables undergo recycling process. The bricks generated in the brick unit are of much superior quality compared to the bricks available in the market and are used for various construction activities.
Persistant issues beyond BIAL control To ensure safe and efficient flight operation from BIA, it is necessary for BIAL to look beyond its boundary to ensure no waste is handled in open in the near vicinity of the airport to ensure a bird-free operational environment. Some of the issues that need the attention of government and local bodies include open waste dumping in surrounding villages, improper waste handling by unauthorized eateries and slaughtering units, usage of chicken waste for fishing etc.
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A.
B. 1.
2.
3.
Role of Aerodrome Environment Management Committee (AEMC) The AEMC is constituted according to the DGCA circular 04/1993 to handle the environmental issues concerning civil aerodromes. The Chairman, Bangalore Development Authority (BDA) who chairs the meeting conducts scheduled meetings on quarterly basis and representatives from all Government departments and local bodies are members of this committee. There is also an Aerodrome Environment sub-committee at airport level with Chief Executive Officer of the local body as the chairman and other local authorities as members to address the local issues around the airport. BIAL personnel coordinate with local bodies on regular basis to address the day today waste management issues. Involving community: Public Awareness Programs: BIAL conducts regular awareness programs and poster campaign on bird hazard and garbage discipline in the nearby villages, schools and panchayat meetings, thus educating the school children and villagers to maintain proper garbage discipline. Painting competition: BIAL conducted painting competition on the subject of aviation safety in all village schools to spread the awareness about the threats of improper waste handling and related bird menace to safe aircraft operation. 100 years, 100 miles and 100 smiles: Year 2011 being the centenary of Indian civil aviation, BIAL picked up 100 children from the nearby villages and from the deprived society to take them over to the skies. On 25th March 2011, a special aircraft flew the kids up to Mysore and back along with their most favorite film star on board. This has broken the villagers’ ‘we don’t fly, so why to bother about air safety’ approach and made them more aware about the threats arising out of improper waste management.
Figure 15 - Painting competition and village kids on board the aircraft.
Conclusion BIAL could overcome the barriers for improper waste management in Indian airports as a result of its robust commitments to legal compliances and its corporate social responsibilities. BIAL has made capital investments to the tune of INR 150 Mio for this purpose and incurs an operational expenditure of over INR 55 Mio per annum to maintain a clean and waste free airport environment. It spends INR 8 Mio per annum alone for the scientific disposal of solid waste. The process adopted by BIAL in managing the solid waste has been recognized and appreciated by the regulating authorities and is now emerging as a benchmark for other Indian airports.
Reference Annex – 4, Aerodrome Maintenance Manual – Airfield cleaning and waste disposal, BIAL Annex – 17, Aerodrome Maintenance Manual – Conservancy and housekeeping, BIAL Doc 9137, Aerodrome Service Manual, Part 8- Airport operational services by International Civil aviation organisation. Doc 9137, Aerodrome Service Manual, Part 9- Airport Maintenance Practices by International Civil aviation organisation. Doc 9137, Aerodrome Service Manual, Part 4- Bird control and reduction by International Civil aviation organisation. Circular Nos: 15/1977, 5/1981 and 4/1993 of Director of Air Routes Aerodromes (DARA), GOI. Environmental Clearance granted by the Ministry of Environment and Forest Reference No.8-66/96-FC.dated 19.8.2002
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Environmental Clearance granted by the Ministry of Environment and Forest Reference No.J-160011/97- IA – III dated 27th August -2002 Environmental Clearance granted by the Ministry of Environment and Forest Reference No.10-157/2007- IA – III dated 6th May -2008 CFE (Consent For Establishment) wrt Water & AIR Environmental Clearance granted by the KSPCB reference No.kspcb/CFE-CELL/DEO/BIAP/AEO- L.R / 20012002/41 Environmental Clearance granted by the KSPCB reference No.kspcb/CFE-CELL/BIAL/EIA-47/2007-2008/09 CFO (Consent For Operation) Environmental Clearance granted by the KSPCB reference No.PCB 060 RIA 08 /H-228 dated 22-05 2008. Environmental Clearance granted by the KSPCB reference No.PCB 60 RIA LR 08/H-1482 dated 09-11 2009 Environmental Clearance granted by the KSPCB reference No.PCB 60 RIA LR 08/H-1482 dated 09-11 2009 Environmental Clearance granted by the KSPCB reference No.PCB 60 RIA CFO LR 10 /H 1398 dated 01-12 2010 Valid Up to 31-06-2011 Environmental Clearance granted by the KSPCB reference No. KSPCB HWM – H1548 dated 20-12- 2010 Valid Up to 30-06-2015 . ********
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Chapter- VII-40 Waste Segregation in a Crisis Management Situation – Lessons from Bangalore *Jaya Dhindaw, Kadambari Badami, T.G. Sitharam & H.N. Chanakya Center for Infrastructure Sustainable Transportation and Urban Plamming, Indian institute of Science, Bangalore, India Email: jaya@cistup.iisc.ernet.in Abstract Bangalore has been home to revolutions in waste management and the on-going one is an attempt to solve the latest municipal solid waste crisis through strong ‘source segregation’ enabling significant decentralized processing and resource recovery – a first for a metro in India. Towards this, on October 1st 2012, the Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagar Palike (BBMP) issued a mandate that required everyone in Bangalore to segregate the waste they generated in their home, office, institution or place of business. Waste segregation is the first step the government has taken to address and ease the growing waste management and processing crisis facing this city. This paper attempts to understand, at a neighborhood level, how the cross section of the waste generators have accepted and effectively carried out ‘source segregation’. We also seek lessons, that would be of use when other Indian cities begin to segregate and recycle. Awareness focused information, education, communication activities were carried out between 2003 and 2008 in Bangalore. Today, after an interval of nearly 4 years, only 15% of the studied establishments voluntarily segregated to an acceptable level, while a third were indifferent and did not accept segregation for various reasons and the remaining did not fully understand segregation or how to do it although, 34% claimed that they do. In such a situation, both, the public and the government have run into multiple hurdles and its various manifestations and impact are presented and discussed. This has also handicapped the smooth running of the new waste segregation program. The level and correctness of segregation has been found to be quite at variance between the mandated six types and the practices in various strata of the society. The group houses /apartment complexes are where the major waking-up has taken place and these entities have turned out to be the most impacted /enthusiastic in intent but accessible advisors and guidelines are few. These entities now attempt to carry out the source segregation with on-site processing of fermentables (wet wastes), while dry wastes are removed twice a week. The paper identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the program thus far through a series of surveys and analysis. Based on the observations made and lessons learnt, the report puts forth a set of recommendations for the various stakeholders involved in the waste segregation process as well as to other cities that will rapidly attempt source segregation. These recommendations will help make waste segregation a simple task which will eventually help the city to manage its waste in a more efficient manner and ultimately help achieve the dreamt-of <15% landfillable wastes.
Introduction & Background The management of solid waste broadly comprises of waste generation, storage, collection, transportation, intermediate processing and final disposal. There is an abundance of literature on solid waste management in India; several studies have been conducted and reports written on techniques that can be adopted in developing countries for cities, metropolitan areas, small towns and villages and various geographic locations. However, there exists a lacuna with respect to one of the most important and often neglected processes during the cycle of waste management and that is waste segregation; more specifically, waste segregation at source and its compliance to local and national legal requirements as well as to suit downstream technological needs. In recent months the city of Bangalore has faced a garbage crisis unlike any other in the past. Home to 9.5 million people, the surge in Bangalore’s growth over the last 10 years has been phenomenal with over a 40% increase in just the last decade. This growth has created an immense pressure on the city’s infrastructure - waste management being one of them. The entire Solid Waste Management system came to a halt in August when the city’s waste management employees went on strike. Several landfills on the outskirts of Bangalore shut down as villagers protested the dumping of waste near their village. Considerable public health concerns Burning of uncollected mixed persisted even after the workers returned to work. However, by then the waste at a street corner
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waste generated in the city was so immense that the workers were having a hard time removing it all. The state government required to address the situation immediately. The Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagar Palike (BBMP, Greater Bangalore City Corporation) tried to come out with several strategies to help alleviate the problem. As one of the measures, the High Court directed the BBMP to make segregation of waste at source mandatory for all. In fact segregation at source is required under the solid wastes management (SWM-M&H) rules, 2000.
Goals and Objectives Starting October 1st 2012, BBMP announced that it had made it mandatory for all citizens to segregate garbage at source. This has been mandated to make waste management efficient, to help reduce overall costs as well as the volume of landfills, which presently amounts to nearly 4000 tons on a daily basis. Around 53% of this is vegetable and organic waste, while paper and plastic contribute about 20% (Chanakya, 2011). Earlier studies suggest that 55% of MSW arise from domestic sources, 20% from eateries, 15% from fruit and vegetable markets â&#x20AC;&#x201C; all of which are highly degradable and necessitate daily or more frequent removal and processing (Chanakya and Sharatchandra, 2008). Source segregation is therefore a key factor in enabling processing this component of fermentables locally or in centralized processing systems to generate compost (and sometimes methane for energy). The success and efficiencies of these downstream processing technologies are therefore limited by the extent and efficiency of segregation. Segregation, although is not new to parts of Bangalore, however, as a city-wide effort this is the first time source segregation is being attempted at a city-wide scale. It is therefore interesting to understand the extent and efficiency of segregation that is now taking place in response to both a city-level crisis as well as to the mandated efforts of the city corporation (BBMP). We sought to study this after the initial 15 days of this rule coming into effect. At this time the BBMP reported a rate of 32-34% waste segregation in the city. However, considering the rapidity with which this was instituted coupled to the lack of accompanying large scale information, education and communication (IEC) efforts, there is bound to be inefficient and insufficient levels of segregation. Several apartment communities, institutions and residents have adopted segregation as a means of handling waste. However, this is not apparent to residents who still see the same amount of mixed garbage dumped within their community. The goal of this study is to do a litmus test (based on surveys and primary data) to see how well segregation is taking place at the end of the first month of the rule coming into effect.
Scope and Limitations -
-
The study was carried out in one ward and is currently limited to Malleshwaram (as shown in the map) The sample survey was distributed randomly to cover the socio-economic spread in Malleshwaram. This may not be representative of the city of Bangalore The sample survey was distributed with heavy emphasis on the residential segment as that is the primary land use composition within Malleshwaram Given the small sample size (most were not ready to participate), this study is merely representative of the condition of waste segregation in Malleshwaram. While this area is a good indicator of the state of segregation in Bangalore, it is too early to use it to represent a citywide picture. The study is only meant to be a litmus test of the BBMP mandate and a spot check with respect to the study area within a month of the mandate being implemented.
Methodology Spot check
Survey
Analysis
Assessment of waste segregation
Reccomendations
A two-step process was undertaken. Firstly, a four-day survey on waste segregation was carried out in the study area delineated by Sampige Road to the east, 11th Main to the west, Tumkur Road to the North and Mantri Mall to the South.
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Figure 1- Key Map of Malleshwaram (Google Maps)
Figure 2- Survey/study area, Malleshwaram (Google Maps) The survey consisted of over 50 samples spread across seven land use categories as well as different socio-economic classes within Malleshwaram. The land-use categories surveyed were: Residential Single Family - 10 Residential Multi Family (3-4 storey) - 10
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Residential High Rise (5 storeys and above) - 10 Commercial - 10 Industrial - 2 Office - 5 Institutional â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 6 Secondly, a physical examination of the waste was done to ascertain the quality of waste segregation. Both the data sources formed the basis for the analysis in this study.
Understanding Waste Segregation - Case Study Malleshwaram Waste segregation is the process by which waste is separated firstly into its two different components, broadly wet or biodegradable and dry or non-biodegradable. While wet waste consists primarily of kitchen waste, flowers and compostable materials; dry waste typically consists of plastics, paper, glass, metal, rubber, etc. The BBMP public notice, effective from October 1, 2012 classifies waste streams as: Wet Waste, Dry Waste, Garden Waste, Debries and Rubbish (Inerts), Sanitary Waste, and Household Hazardous Waste and requires that the waste be segregated into these six categories before being disposed. While wet and sanitary waste shall be collected daily, all other waste streams shall be collected on specified days of the week. Further, all dry waste shall be retained by people within their premises until the time of collection. Alternatively, there is provision for people to bring dry waste to BBMP designated dry waste collection centers. Furthermore, fines will be levied for littering on streets, public places and vacant land. While this policy has taken effect city-wide, a study of a mixed-income, mixed-use neighborhood is used to portray the state of segregation in Bangalore thus far as well as an indicator to determine steps that might be required to enable reasonably acceptable segregation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; types and extent. Malleshwaram, located in the north-west part of Bangalore, is an early 1900â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s residential suburb. With grid-iron pattern streets, tree-lined avenues and bungalows, the area has gradually transformed with several multi-family and high rise residential units, institutional and commercial uses. A cultural and educational hub of Bangalore, the residents are primarily well educated, upper middle-high class citizens who are socially conscious and aware. It has also the distinction of being one area where ward election has been fought on the issue of solid wastes. The area has a population density of about 522 people per hectare and a mix of land uses. Below are the findings from the survey. Survey Analysis The survey of 53 establishments was representative of the area. The survey produced the following results with respect to segregation as well as the quality of segregation as mandated by BBMP.
Respondants By Household Income
>150000 100000-150000 60001-100000 Respondants by household income
Income
25001-60000 5000-25000 <5000 0
2
4
6
Figure 3: Number of residential respondents by household income
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Figure 3 highlights the income spectrum of households surveyed. Figure 4 compares the segregation habits of small households (4 or less individuals) versus large households. More of the larger households had never segregated waste. This goes against conventional thought process which suggests that more numbers of persons in the households better should have been the extent of segregation.
Percentage Segregation Achieved 90.0% 80.0%
Percentage
70.0% 60.0%
Daily
50.0%
Never
40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0%
Small Household Large Household Figure 4: Percentage segregation for small and large households Commercial establishments were the largest producers of trash as seen in Figure 5. This was followed by multi-family family high rise units. All the people living in the high high rise buildings belonged to the economically higher strata (monthly household income above Rs.100,000), which goes to prove that the more affluent households generate more waste per capita.
Bags (0.5-2kg per bag) bag)
Avg Garbage Generated Per Occupant Per Day 3 2.5 2.5 2 Avg Garbage per occupant
1.5 1 0.5
0.2
0.3
RSF
RMF
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.2
Off.
Inst.
0 RMF (HR)
Com.
Ind.
Figure 5: Average garbage generated per occupant per day Figure 6 captures the various waste segregation practices in Malleshwaram. While lack of segregation is prevalent in 28% of HH, the most efficient segregation into wet, dry and recyclables is carried out by 21% of HH even though this still doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t meet the BBMPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mandated standards both in terms of efficiency and extent of compliance. It is apparent that incomplete segregation is the predominant practice currently and steps to realize a higher level of compliance and efficiency needs to be effected. Figure 7 shows the segregation scenario in terms of level of waste segregation practiced by various land use categories per the respondents:
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Waste Management Practiced in Malleshwaram a
13%
a. b. c. d. e. f.
b
28%
c 21%
d e
8%
Segregate wet and dry Segregate wet, dry, recyclables Segregate only dry; mix rest Segregate only wet; mix rest Segregate regate only recyclables; mix rest Do not segregate at all
f 4%
26%
Figure 6: Waste segregation practices in Malleshwaram Figure 7 shows the segregation scenario in terms of level of waste segregation practiced by various land use categories per the respondents:
Waste Management Practice in Malleshwaram by Land Use
Number of households/establisments
5 4.5 4
a
3.5
b
3
c d
2.5
e
2
f
1.5 1 0.5 0 RSF
RMF
RMF (HR)
Comm
Figure 7: Waste segregation practice by land use categories a. Segregate wet and dry b. Segregate wet, dry, recyclable c. Segregate only dry; mix rest d. Segregate only wet; mix rest e. Segregate only recyclables; mix rest f. Do not segregate at all
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From a perspective of the frequency of segregation, Figure 8 we learn that residences from higher income categories tend to practice waste segregation on a daily basis compared to the other income groups.
Frequency of Waste Segregation by Income Category 8 7 6
Never
5
Monthl y Weekly
4 3 2 1 0 <5K
5K-25K
25K 25K-60K
60K-100k
100k-150k
>150K
Figure 8: Frequency of waste segregation by income Perception of Waste Segregation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Irrespective of the waste management practice adopted by individuals, 92% of the citizens interviewed confirmed that the practice of waste segregation is good/advantageous for the community at large. Only 8% said that it was w bad or disadvantageous. Among those who perceived waste segregation to be good or advantageous, 28% each thought it was beneficial for public health and the environment. 22% of respondents believed that it promoted a livelihood for people who reused or produced recyclable materials. About 14% said it was good as it reduced the quantity that went to the landfill. Among the 8% who perceived segregation to be bad or disadvantageous, the primary reasons cited were that it was time-consuming consuming and inconvenient. inconvenie In terms of awareness, 94% of the population surveyed conveyed that they were aware of the BBMP mandate. Only 6% respondents reported not knowing about it. 68% reported having received communication from community head, advocacy group, property owner owne or media-fliers, fliers, TV, newspaper. However, 32% of the people denied having received any direct communication from any authoritative source. Waste Collection â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an assessment of the frequency of residential waste collection by income category revealed disparity rity among the income groups. While the higher income groups (monthly household income > Rs.100,000) reported almost about a 100% waste collection rate on a daily basis, the mid and lower income categories reported fluctuations with respect to daily waste collection. Some lower income households reported waste collection on a weekly or bi-weekly weekly basis only.
Frequency of Waste Collection by Income
Frequency of Waste Collection
100%
Mon Tue
80%
Wed 60%
Thu
40%
Fri Sat
20%
Sun 0% High Income
Low Income
Figure 9: Waste collection by income
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Figure 10 illustrates how the waste is handled on non-collection non collection days. About 33 respondents reported storing itt within their premise, while 9 respondents admitted to throwing it on the street, two reported leaving the garbage outside their gate until it was taken away, while 4 others reported burning, dumping in vacant plots, or dumping in the neighboring apartment’s apartmen waste enclosure.
Storage by Citizens on Non-collection Non Days
4
Other
Street 33
Onsite
Gate Onsite
2
Gate
Other 9
Street 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 10: Waste storage on non-collection collection days About 87% of all respondents claimed that despite the BBMP mandate, mixed waste was still being collected by the authorities without levying any fines. As to the responsibility for waste management, 11% thought it was solely the government’s responsibility, 15% believe it is individual responsibility, and 74% thought it was a collective responsibility to be borne by both the individual and ultimately supported by the government. Spot Check A random check of 40 establishment’s waste segregation practice revealed that only 13% of establishments who claimed to be segregating waste were actually doing so correctly and thoroughly. Some of the issues that were detected with respect to waste was segregation were: 1. People’s lack of understanding and hence confusion about the categorization was the prime cause behind incomplete segregation. 2. Lack of proper training of housekeeping staff also resulted in poor segregation.
Claim to segregate te and do so correctly Claim to segregate but do so incorrectly Do not segregate at all Figure 11: Actual segregation based on spot checks People Speak Apart from the survey and spot check, conversations with people in the community revealed the following: Many commercial establishments pay a person to take away their waste for a nominal remuneration. The waste generators are not aware where and how the waste collector disposes it but according to other citizens, it is usually thrown at an illegal illegal dump (street corner, vacant plot) within or adjacent to the community. This is also sometimes the case with small vans and auto rickshaws that dump wastes illegally. A few said they pay the pourakarmikas to take away their un-segregated segregated waste. Pourakarmikas sometimes take the mixed trash and segregate it themselves; mostly to remove the recyclables. In a few areas BBMP has not provided the pourakarmikas with proper equipment for waste collection so all the waste ends up getting mixed.
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In few areas, collection is not done door to door (‘unless you pay the Pourkarmikas money/tip’). Instead, people dispose their waste illegally at a “common” corner of the street from where the BBMP collects it 2-3 times a week. The days are irregular.
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Inadequate infrastructure for waste collectors forces them to accept unsegregated waste and also adds to the public perception that even if people give out segregated waste it will all be mixed together, hence their efforts are futile
Conclusion and Recommendations Implementing and sustaining waste segregation involves changing acquired habits. The following needs to be considered to make this mandate successful city wide.
Lessons Learnt -
There is a lacuna in people’s awareness and understanding of waste streams leading to confusion. The waste collectors lack training in proper segregation practices and its need. All waste collectors have not been provided with proper equipment to keep the waste segregated. The 6 categories for segregation mandated is over-whelming and is a deterrent to segregation. Irregularity in waste collection by BBMP is conducive to illegal dumping.
Recommendations Government Responsibilities 1. a. b. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
The Urban Local Government (ULG) needs to simplify the requirements and expectations they have from the public. Initially, they should restrict segregation into 2 categories: Wet waste: strictly food and organic matter. (sanitary waste to be wrapped separately) Dry waste: everything else The government must assign a team to further segregate the dry waste into desired categories (only in the initial phases). The ULG needs to identify, publicize and adhere to a collection schedule. The ULG needs to educate their staff about the need for segregation and provide training regarding proper segregation practices. The ULG needs to hold awareness campaigns again for the public highlighting the need, methodology and consequences of segregation. For a strong campaign: The ULG needs to improve collection equipment to enable segregated collection possibly to assure the ‘public’ of efficient segregation. The ULG needs to have a helpline as well as a detailed website to answer queries and record lack of service areas from the public. The ULG needs to have a team for quality control and ground monitoring of the program. The ULG can incentivize segregation for the public as well as the waste collectors. The ULG needs to provide for the informal sector (street food vendors, small shops and public places). These spaces should be well-equipped for waste disposal in a segregated manner. The benefits of technology should be garnered through efficient waste segregation and management a success
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Waste Collectorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Responsibilities 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Understanding the need of segregation. Knowing the collection schedule and adhering to it. Ability to identify the quality and value of collected waste. Maintaining the segregated piles of waste until their point of unloading or deposit. Introducing themselves to the people in their area and informing them about timings and days for different waste pick-up.
Individual/Public Responsibility 1. 2. 3. 4.
Identify the waste collector responsible for your area and build a rapport with them. Know the schedule for waste collection for your area. Segregate your waste into the identified categories. Discourage littering in streets and public spaces.
Conclusion Waste sorting and segregation is not new to Indian cities, but the culture needs to be revived. Product packaging has made segregation a manifold problem because of the multiple types of packaging materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; standardization and coding is required. The challenge then lies in what can be done to reintroduce and reinstate the practice of segregation so as to make it a part of our civic culture again. Some collectors are doing a good job segregating waste within the limited infra
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Chapter- VII-41 Integrated solid waste managem management issues in emerging econom economies ies: A case study of Nigeria Brajes Brajesh Dube Dubey Solid and Hazardous Waste Engineering, Environmental Engineering Program, School of Engineering, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, Canada E-mail: bdubey@uoguelph.ca Introduction Municipal Solid Waste is a combination of solid waste from residential, commercial, institutional nonprocess and non-hazardous wastes. Solid waste has become an important issue in Nigeria. Municipal solid waste management is an essential public service that benefits all urban residents. These are defined to include refuse from households, non-hazardous solid (not sludge or semisolid) waste from industrial and commercial establishments, refuse from institutions) including non-pathogenic waste from hospitals), market waste, yard waste and street sweepings. Sometimes, construction and demolition debris is also included. Recently electrical electronic waste has been noticed to constitute a significant proportion of municipal waste in the country. In Nigeria, the scale of urban consumption and waste generation and the negative impacts associated with them varies dramatically from city to city, depending in a large part on a cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wealth and size. Perhaps the greatest environmental nuisance and threat facing the ever growing urban agglomeration in Nigeria today is the collection, transportation and disposal of both municipal and industrial waste. Transverse the length and breadth of Nigerian urban centres and even rural communities are heaps of solid waste constituting eyes sore in the urban. Piles of wastes are often found by roads, rivers and many other open spaces in cities, and this is causing significant health and environmental problems. The Nigerian population is growing at an alarming rate, while the Nigerian population is increasing by about 2.8% per annum; the rate of urban growth is as high as 5.5% per annum (An .Imam et al, 2007). This has been increasing the difficulties associated with providing an effective municipal solid waste management system. As cities grow, land use becomes increasingly complex and the wastes generated increase in volume and variety (Omuta, 1987).landscape thereby depreciating the values of property, causing air and water pollution, and other aspects which are injurious to health. There is co-disposal of all waste in open dumpsites across the country susceptible to spontaneous burning and release of unintended persistent organic pollutants. Given the littering and piling of trash along city streets and medians in most urban centers, it appears the existing framework does not seem to work and there is no clear and effective framework for waste management. In many of the Nigerian communities waste disposal is often seen as simply removing waste from their surroundings/ settlements, this approach is out of sync and lately waste is seen as a resource which benefits the society in general and communities generating it in particular. A well articulated solid waste recycling system will have positive effect for a cleaner environment, good health of urban residents and create a more balanced allocation of resources. In many of the cities with heaps of un-cleared refuse there are large numbers of unemployed inhabitants and poor. A good programme of integrated solid waste management that entails recycling valorization will achieve a two pronged objective â&#x20AC;&#x201C;improved environment and employment generation. Sustainable waste management is therefore a poverty alleviation programme from which the urban poor stand to gain tremendously. This is a major justification for embarking on the study. Sustainable waste management requires a good integrated waste management system and government policies that encourage waste prevention, reuse and both materials and thermal recycling recovery and proper disposal options. Eventually, landfills will only be used for stabilised materials The situation in Nigeria is partly due to a large number of people who dispose of waste on roads, streets, open yards and drains and the obvious lack of a functional waste management system; this brings perennial garbage problems such as inefficient garbage collection, poor public compliance to waste segregation, uncontrolled open burning, and tolerated presence of open dumpsites. The solution to this problem is an appropriate waste management structure at a national and regional level. This is necessary in order to improve living standards, health and environment. Furthermore valuable resources that are being lost due to inefficient or non- existing recycling systems will be conserved. An efficient waste management and recycling system contributes to enhancing the resource efficiency and supports a sustainable development in the long-term. Under the Municipal Solid Waste Management component of the Energy and Environment theme of the
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UNIDO Country Programme for Nigeria, UNIDO is to assist the Government of Nigeria to develop appropriate national strategy for sustainable municipal solid waste management including identification of economically viable waste valorization opportunities. A critical assessment and analysis of the current practices is required for a pragmatic approach to developing an appropriate UNIDO intervention. The Republic of Nigeria ratified the Stockholm Convention on POPs on 24 May 2004. The UP-POPs inventory of the releases of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF) revealed that the major PCDD/PCDFs releases are due to uncontrolled combustion processes. Within that source category forest fires, agricultural residue burning, landfill and dump site fires have the highest shares. This sector contributes to 98% of all UP- POPs releases. The control of these types of releases leads to municipal and hazardous waste management which is addressed by this UNIDO project â&#x20AC;&#x153;Development of policy and institutional framework for sustainable integrated municipal solid waste management in Nigeriaâ&#x20AC;? under the same country programme. Parallel to UNIDOs initiative UNDP has been implementing a GEF project addressing the main sources of UP-POPs releases from open burning, such as landfill and dump site fires, and agricultural residue burning. The institutional capacity analysis concluded that federal and state level regulatory enforcement organizations are in the process of building their capacities to assure better compliance to the environment related regulations and standards. At the same time their mandate and role in many cases overlap, their cooperation is, in some cases, incoherent. Environmental audits are lacking a harmonized and standardized approach, which takes into account Solid Waste Management related measures, among others. Another component of the UNIDO country programme is looking at the key regulatory enforcement organization the National Environmental Standards and Regulatory Enforcement Agency (NESREA) with the vision to build its capacity to international standards. Present project is linked to NESREAs capacity building activities in developing standardized operating procedures and work instructions for the State Environment Protection Agencies (SEPAs) enhancing their field inspection methodologies. The Government of Nigeria has established the Ecological Fund Office (EFO) under the direct supervision of the President of Nigeria to respond to environmental challenges and disasters. Because Solid Waste Management related activities, particularly contaminated sites management for those places where the pollutant pays principle cannot be applied, are important, another project under the UNIDO country programme was developed to assist EFO in improving its project assessment, management, monitoring and evaluation methodologies and to include Solid Waste Management (including disaster debris management) within their working programme.
Integrated Solid Waste Management Issues for Nigeria Definition of Solid Waste Management System Generally solid waste management system can be classified into three categories which are Municipal solid waste, industrial solid waste and hazardous solid waste. Municipal solid waste Municipal solid waste management is an essential public service that benefits all urban residents. These are defined to include refuse from households, non- hazardous solid (not sludge or semisolid) waste from industrial and commercial establishments, refuse from institutions) including non-pathogenic waste from hospitals), market waste, yard waste and street sweepings. Sometimes, construction and demolition debris is also included. Industrial Waste Industrial Waste is generally referred to as a material from a manufacturing process that has no value to the manufacturer and that has to be disposed of in some manner. With rising economic standards and with many imported consumer goods (particularly food items), Nigerians increasingly have access to packaged goods, often using plastics, which makes waste disposal difficult. The development and widespread use of new packaging substances such as plastics have improved the standards of living for millions, but they have also introduced new threats to the environment, as typified by the histories of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and polychlorinated bi-phenyls (PCBs). Thus, industrial development also brings in its wake problems of environmental pollution that often need abatement. In Nigeria, the four most industrialized states are Lagos (home to approximately 60% of the Nigerian industries), Rivers, Kaduna and Kano. Collectively, these states share approximately 80% of the Nigerian industry. Cleanup of industrial waste is costlier than prevention. The lowest level in the hierarchy (avoidance, utilization, minimization, recycle, reuse etc.) and the one that all other levels strive to eliminate is remediation of the impacts of waste discharged to the environment. The key industries in Nigeria are cement and asbestos, fertilizer and agro-chemicals, metallurgy and mining, tanneries, textiles and petroleum and petro chemicals. At present, the petroleum industry contributes over 85% annually to Nigeriaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foreign exchange revenues. Environmental pollution from these industries is regulated by FEPA
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and various state and other regulatory agencies. Between these agencies, the relationships are overlapping and not harmonized for regulatory environmental enforcement.
Hazardous Waste A special class of waste known as hazardous waste, mostly discharged into the environment from industrial and related sources attracts special attention and management considerations because of their harmful nature to man and other components of the ecosystem. A waste classified as hazardous waste, by definition and convention usually has one or more of the following four characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity. These definitions show that a wide range of substances of different physical forms (liquid, gaseous, solid, or in solution) fall into the class of hazardous materials which may become waste. Hazardous wastes have been known to cause serious environmental and epidemiological disasters as a result of the lack of or inadequate handling and management of these wastes. All the three systems are available within the country but the framework for its management is not really distinct. Hence the assessment will focus more on municipal waste with the understanding that the industrial and hazardous waste which are often mixed together are managed along with municipal waste in similar manner. The coverage therefore and limitations of the study will be on municipal waste as defined above. Statistically the municipal solid waste generation has been estimated to be 1,467,820 Monthly and
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18,285, 589 tonnes yearly as of 2005 across the 36 states and the Federal capital Territory. Current estimates puts the annual generation of waste of Nigerians at 20millions tons of municipal waste. As a developing economy, the composition of the waste is 50% -70% organic waste, 9%-20% plastic, 6%-10% paper and the rest taken up by glass metal and wood. Various factors influence the quantity of waste being generated. In general the two primary factors influencing the rate of are per capita income and degree of urbanization of the city.
The volume of waste generated varies from day to day and season to season. Therefore before a technical or management plan can be adopted, the nature of city and future trends of change need to be studied in detail to project the future quantity of solid waste likely to be generated. There is no general to determine the quantity of waste in advance other than from statistical information. Among the state visited most relied on guestimates that are not sound for planning. For instance the Federal Ministry of Environment last database on solid waste is based on a guestimate
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of 2005 which states that Total waste generation in participating municipalities is 1,467,820 Tons monthly and 18,285,589 tons per annum. In justification for the Mega city project, The Lagos State Waste Management Authority LAWMA claims waste generation stands at about 21,140 Metric Tons of Waste Daily at a Generation Per Capital (GPC) of 0.7kg/Person/Day. There is, however, no certainty that these rates represent underlying trends. Collection of baseline data on waste characterization and quantification and to analyze future trends is grossly lacking in all the states nationwide and a key challenge to integrated solid waste management Except for Lagos State who has installed weighbridge at its dumpsites, current data for the 36 State could not be accessed to determine the waste stream and quantity produced.
One of the major issues related to solid waste management in Nigeria is open and uncontrolled burning of solid waste and release of environmental pollutants associated with it especially the persistent organic pollutants (POPs). As also presented in the project document for “Establishment of BAT/BEP program for Industry”, the NIP UP-POPs inventory concluded that the total dioxin and furan released in all sectors is 5383.2 g TEQ/a with nearly 98% of the UP-POPs release is from open burning (mostly waste materials) and 1 the waste incineration processes. The release estimates are presented in Table 3 below . The same Table is also presented in the project document for “Establishment of BAT/BEP program for Industry”
Uncontrolled open burning processes (involving mostly solid waste materials) source category is by far the largest source for PCDD/PCDFs releases with 5273.183 g TEQ/a contributing 97.96% of the total emissions; followed in descending order by heat and power generation with 57.503 g TEQ/a (1.07%); ferrous
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and non-ferrous metal production with 20.301 g TEQ/a (0.38%); waste incineration with 20.201 g TEQ/a (0.38%); production of mineral products with 10.717 g TEQ/a (0.20%); transportation with 1.3 g TEQ/a (0.0001%); production and use of chemicals and consumer goods - specifically gas flaring from petroleum production with 0.01 g TEQ/a (0.0%); and lastly miscellaneous (tobacco smoking) with 0.00002 g TEQ/a. The annual releases of PCDD/PCDFs are visualized in the following figure (Figure 3.).
Open burning activities are by far the largest sources of PCDD/PCDFs releases. Within this source category 94% of the releases are due to uncontrolled burning of municipal waste, specifically landfill fires, in the case of Nigeria mainly dump site fires, and uncontrolled domestic trash burning. The other 6% of the releases are due to forest fires and grassland and moor fires. Therefore, one of the major endpoint of this project is to have control on open burning activities with particular attention from municipal waste management point of view, which will help in reducing the PCDD/PCDFs release in the environment. Hazardous waste incineration is the leading contributor to UP-POPs releases from the waste incineration sector. The facilities are generally at medium level in terms of the technology applied. It means that there is room for improvement. This sector is also expected to increase in the future as waste to energy concept in municipal waste management is more and more supported. Regulatory context Environmental management in Nigeria is hinged on the 1989 National Policy on the Environment as revised in 1998, as well as a set of laws, regulations and guidelines to ensure the conservation of natural resources and the protection of the environment and human health. The goal of the National Policy on the Environment Government of Nigeria is to achieve sustainable development in Nigeria, and in particular to: • Secure for all Nigerians a quality of environment adequate for their health and well being; • Restore, maintain and enhance the ecosystems and ecological processes essential for the functioning of the biosphere to preserve biological diversity and the principle of optimum sustainable yield in the use of these natural resources and ecosystems; • Raise public awareness and promote understanding of essential linkages between environmental and development and to encourage individual and community participation in environmental improvement efforts; and • Cooperate in good faith with other countries, international organizations/agencies to achieve optimal use of trans-boundary natural resources and effective prevention of trans-boundary environmental pollution. The FEPA Act is the major framework law on environment in Nigeria as its provisions provide the framework for further legislations in specific aspects of environment. At the onset of democratic governance in 1999, the FEPA metamorphosed into the Federal Ministry of Environment in June 1999. Since a ministry is more of a policy-making organ, the Federal Government established in November 2006 the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA) with powers similar to the defunct FEPA for effective enforcement of environmental regulations in the country. All FEPA’s laws have been repealed with the NESREA act signed into laws by the President of Nigeria in July 2007. The federal laws are the minimum standards in the states. The Constitution allows states to establish stricter standards than the Federal and also impose stiffer penalties on violators. Nigeria has various Ministries, Agencies and Departments (MDAs) involved directly orindirectly with
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environmental issues including: Federal Ministry of Environment, State Environmental Protection Agency, State Ministry of Environment, various Local Government and Area Council and the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA). The local Government has been given the assignment of municipal solid waste management by law, however due to inefficiency hence the interception of the activities by various States Environmental Protection Board/Agency. The National Environmental Protection (Pollution Abatement in Industries and Facilities Generating Wastes) Regulations S.I.9 of 1991 imposes restrictions on the release of toxic substances and stipulates requirements for monitoring of pollution; it also makes it mandatory for existing industries and facilities to conduct an environmental audit. The National Environmental Protection (Waste Management) Regulations S.I.15 of 1991 regulates the collection, treatment and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes from municipal and industrial source. The National Guidelines and Standards for Environmental Pollution Control in Nigeria 1991 provide the basic instrument for monitoring and controlling industrial and urban pollution in Nigeria. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Act Cap131 LFN 1992 makes EIA mandatory for all new major public and private development projects in Nigeria. Following the enactment of the Act, a National EIA Procedure was developed in 1994. The procedure indicates the various stages to be followed for EIA in Nigeria and the steps to be followed from project conception to planning and commissioning (and all stages in the life cycle) in order to ensure that the project is implemented with high consideration for the environment. Environmental Audit (EA) is the assessment of the compliance of environmental administration and performance of an operating business with environmental protection requirements, with sound environmental practice in general, and with the principles of sustainable development. It is a systematic, independent internal review to check whether the results of environmental work tally with the targets and whether the methods used to achieve goals are effective. Environmental Management System (EMS) is the process used by an organization to manage, review, correct, and improve the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach to business. Employees are asked to consider how they affect the environment every day. An EMS offers a structured way to incorporate environmental considerations into day-to-day operations; it promotes continuing improvement of the environment and human health of the workplaces and conditions and empowers individual employees to make environmentally friendly decisions in their day-to- day activities. The Federal Ministry of Environment requires every industrial establishment to have in place an EMS. There is no comprehensive framework presently in Nigeria on Municipal Solid Waste Management. Each state has their environmental protection agency or ministry coming up with different guidelines. There is a need for a regulatory framework at national level, which can act as a basic guideline document, which in turn can be used to develop a state level solid waste management plan. This project will aim to do that along with development of business model on its implementation at the state level. Institutional settings The Federal Ministry of Environment (FME) is the government coordinating agency for the project. In addition, few key stakeholder agencies will play crucial roles in the project. The National National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA) inspire personal and collective responsibility in building an environmentally conscious society for the achievement of sustainable development in Nigeria. Project activities within the governmental sector will also address State Environment Protection Agencies (SEPAs), State Ministry of Environments, State Ministry of Health, State Waste Management Authorities/Boards. In addition, local government Environmental Health Officers, Community based Organizations (CBO) and Non Governmental Organizations will also be involved in the project.
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FME has responsibility to administrate and enforce environmental laws in Nigeria. The main function of the ministry is to formulate and implementation of policies and programmes on environmental protection and natural resources conservation for sustainable development in Nigeria. Other specific responsibilities of the ministry include: • Monitoring and enforcing environmental protection measures; • Enforcing international laws, conventions, protocols and treaties on the environment; • Prescribing standards for and making regulations on air quality, water quality, pollution and effluent limitations, atmosphere and ozone protection, control of toxic and hazardous substances; and • Promoting co-operation with similar bodies in other countries and international agencies connected with environmental protection. FMTI inherited the role of the former Federal Ministry of Commerce and Industry. FMTI industry related mission is to translate national industrial goals into a concrete programme and projects. FMTI also has a mandate to transform Nigeria into an industrialized nation. The ministry is also to design and implement policies, programmes and strategies for an efficient, competitive and diversified private sector-led industrialization process. FMTI performs the following fundamental functions: • • •
Provision of incentives for industrial development in order to speed up the growth of Cottage/Micro industries, Small and Medium Scale Industries and the Large Scale Industries. Enhancing Industrial Coordination and cooperation with African and other Countries of the world. Provision of industrial training through the Industrial Training Fund (ITF), and the Staff Welfare and
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• •
• • •
• • •
Training division of the Ministry. Standardization and quality control, through the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) Coordination of inter-governmental cooperation on Industrial development matters. NESREA is the dedicated agency at the federal level entrusted with environment related enforcement. Some of the functions of the Agency, amongst others include to: enforce compliance with guidelines, and legislation on sustainable management of the ecosystem, biodiversity conservation and the development of Nigeria’s natural resources; conduct environmental audit and establish data bank on regulatory and enforcement mechanisms of environmental standards other than in the oil and gas sector; create public awareness and provide environmental education on sustainable environmental management, promote private sector compliance with environmental regulations other than in the oil and gas sector and publish general scientific or other data resulting from the performance of its functions; and prohibit processes and use of equipment ortechnology that undermine environmental quality; conduct field follow-up of compliance with set standards and take procedures prescribed by law against any violator; subject to the provision of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999, and in collaboration with relevant judicial authorities establish mobile courts to expeditiously dispense cases of violation of environmental regulation.
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While the government of Nigeria is continuously putting in place measures to strengthen regulatory bodies engaged with environmental protection and industrial development, these efforts so far are lagging behind the expectations of the regulated and local communities. The adoption of environment related international agreements requires institutional straightening measures, which in many cases are challenging. For example there is no comprehensive federal framework for integrated solid waste management. The duties of environment inspectors therefore need to be updated to include these new measures which in Nigeria are beyond the current capacity of the regulatory bodies. The project also envisions the development of organized waste management information system, training of waste management professionals in integrated solid waste management as part of institutional strengthening, development and demonstration of successful business model in integrated solid waste management (e.g., waste to wealth) using the concept of public private partnership (PPO), national integrated solid waste management strategy. Different stakeholders will be brought together to work on this project as a team. Education, training outreach with the help of the CBOs and NGOs will also be a big part of this project. Table 5 below present the list of stakeholders relevant to this project and their roles (intended as well what they do practically). Industrial activities One of the key beneficiaries of the project are planned to be small and medium scale industrial enterprises as they are the engine of economic growth and job creators for upcoming working age population of Nigeria. Demonstration activities are planned to build capacity in this sector to gradually implement integrated solid waste management measures that would generate new business proposition, bringing newer green industry jobs (through recycling activities, pollution prevention, green engineering) and can also help supply energy to industry and households from waste to energy projects using public private partnerships as has been demonstrated at similar economies in India, Brazil and other countries. The National Policy on Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) aims to create, nurture and promote the necessary conditions for the growth and development of MSMEs through public-private partnership, collaboration and cooperation among stakeholders. The policy encompasses seven broad policy/programme areas with detail objectives and strategies for their implementation. These policy areas are: • Institutional, legal and regulatory framework which aims at providing an appropriate institutional and legal framework for the promotion and support of the development of MSMEs and their full integration into the key concerns of national economic policy. • Human resource development, which aims at creating a critical mass of entrepreneurial, managerial and technological skills for the growth and competitiveness of Nigeria’s MSMEs. • Technology, research and development, which aim at promoting, sound technological infrastructure as well as effective research and development systems for the growth and competitiveness of MSMEs. • Extension and support services, which aims at promoting capacity building for MSMEs to ease business start-ups and expansion. • Marketing, which aims at ensuring that MSMEs’ share of local markets, is enhanced through building tendering capacities, improved share of public sector procurement and strategic alliances and greater cooperation between MSMEs and the large enterprises. • Infrastructure, which aims at providing adequate and reliable infrastructure power, water, sanitation, social amenities, in order to improve the growth and competitiveness of the MSMEs sector, particularly in designated industrial clusters and business districts • Finance, which aims at eliminating the financing constraints to MSMEs. FMTI aims to enhance industrial investments in several sectors, with industrialization; there will be need for better control and management of the industrial waste that is produced at the facilities to prevent human health and environmental impact. One man’s waste is other man’s treasure, with the concept of sustainable integrated was management technique, pollution prevention (addressed as part of another project) will help develop new industry in the area of waste recycling, treatment and disposal. FMTI has also invested in job creation and development of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) through a training programme designed to turn workers imbued with a commitment to hard work and the pursuit of excellence. SMEs are the major sector for employment, so supporting their activities through this project will inevitably improve employment. Manufacturers’ Association of Nigeria (MAN) was established by private sector manufacturers to promote, in close cooperation with its members, other organs of the organized private sector, the government and other stakeholders in the economy, and to create and promote enabling environment for industrial development.
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2 Despite the efforts of the government according to the annual reports of accounts 2010 of the MAN , the manufacturer sector in 2010 was not isolated from the harsh economic environment as evidenced by declined activities compared to the previous years. The growth rate declined from 7.03% in 2009 to 6.43% in 2010 as a result of poor state of infrastructure, especially energy, increased cost of funds, multiplicity of taxes, weak demand as a result of low purchasing power and trade malpractices. Industrial activities are expensive in Nigeria and thus MAN members expects the government to reduce such costs. According to the report, the contribution of the manufacturing sector to the GDP was declining, the capacity utilization has decreased by 2%, employment figures dropped, the production output declined and most importantly the investment profile in the first half of 2010 had sharply declined by approximately 75% (from N 1,280,592 billion in first half of 2009 to N 360,232 billion in the corresponding period in 2010). The question the project asks is whether this trend will continue in the future; and the answere is obviously no. It is expected that industrial activities will improve in the next ten to fifteen years. The collective desire of the Nation as enunciated in the Nigeria Vision 20:2020 is for Nigeria to be one of the top 20 Economies by 2020. Planning for the increased production and economic improvement shall start now, which is firmly established in the project through establishment of a policy framework for pollution control. Consequently the Green Industry project under the UNIDO country programme aims to address these issues in a broader sense. The private sector has developed several options that would assist them to strengthen their capacities. MAN members proposed 0% duty rate on plant machineries, requested grant loans with low interest rates from commercial banks, just to mention few.
Barrier Analysis Institutional Solid Waste Management related activities are carried out by a number of different organizations at various government levels (Federal, State, and Local). The common constraints faced by environmental agencies include lack of institutional arrangement, insufficient financial resources, absence of bylaws and standards, inflexible work schedules, insufficient information on quantity and composition of waste, and inappropriate technology. There is no clarification of relationship between NESREA, SEPAs line Ministries & LG with respect to policy development enforcement and implementation, hence the current waste management process is not environmentally friendly and sustainable, no policy exists for sorting at waste generation points, recycling, reuse, recovery, composting or sanitary landfills. The main institutional hindrances to an effective solid waste management are: ¾ The Institutional framework is fragmented, there is no definitive strategy or National/State policy or plans on management of waste. ¾ There is an issue of policy reversal with different administration where it exists and also non implementation of the national guidelines on solid waste management and possibly non awareness of the guidelines in some states ¾ Where there are plans, there is no clear delineation of roles and responsibility between local government and states and other Stakeholders; and limited collaboration among MDAs; ¾ Inadequate statistical data exist on waste generation, collection, treatment and disposal, there is inadequate funding/logistics to achieve a quality database on waste management practices; ¾ There is a huge lack of adequate trained personnel; and inadequate capacities building of technical staff. Lack of demonstration activities concerning the feasibility of public private partnership achieving successful business models for integrated solid waste management projects. SMEs are generally lack the capacity to participate in pollution prevention and waste management projects partly because they do not have expertise and experience to assess their technologies with the vision of resource efficiency and pollution and waste reduction and partly because they lack the required financial mechanisms. Legal infrastructure Inappropriate coordination is observed amongst regulatory stakeholders involved in the management of industries and environment. State level and federal level legislations addressing environment and industries many times overlap. In general, the legal constraints affecting solid waste management including: • Inadequate enabling Laws, Regulations, Standards, Policy etc.; • Inadequate enforcement of the existing laws; • Inadequate courts for prosecution; • Delaying cases in court;
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• • •
Political interference; Insufficient qualified personnel; and Weak penalty/sanction.
Technical No primary waste data is available, both for the municipalities and also the amount of pollutants and wastes industrial facilities are generating is not properly understood and assessed. Industries do not see innovative integrated waste management practices as an option to increase their competitiveness. Demonstration projects to convince industrial stakeholders to invest in waste recycling, treatment and management related industries are also missing. Local capacity and expertise for identifying and adopting the most appropriate technology options for integrated solid waste management practices is also weak. Lack of scientifically proved studies on what benefits the society, state and country may get by implementing integrated innovative solid waste management practices in Nigeria. The financial sustainability of the innovative public private partnership based business model is not known for waste management industry in Nigeria. There are noticeable limitations on the interpretation of waste issues by personnel at state and local government levels responsible for waste management.There is no standardization for waste categorization and data generation, hence no organized waste management information system except guestimates which are unreliable for planning purposes or integrate waste management. There is a limited understanding of staff on means to calculate/ generate qualitative or quantitative data with respect to composition of waste. No data entries for vehicle equipments, chemical laboratories, stores and personnel in addition to characteristics and volume of waste generate at any given facility or community or landfill site. Most of the cities open dump site do not have a weighbridge to obtain an accurate estimate of the total quantity of waste generated in the cities designated dumps or landfill. Reliance is on estimate of tonnage of a truck or tipper, there is therefore the tendency to overestimate the amount of waste generated when planning for system improvements. Poor accessibility within a number of the municipality (often bad roads & narrow streets too small for trucks to access) and difficulty in the movement of wastes from the collection point to the final disposal site due to heavy traffic – (turnaround time of trucks particularly in Lagos and major commercial cities) and Inadequate trucks for collection of waste; Main process that increases the value of the waste recovered is sorting. The deeper the sorting differentiation, the higher the value of waste. For instance, if plastic is grouped into one major category, its value is lower than when it is further separated into sub-categories of hard and soft, then HDPE, PET, LDPE, etc. Sorting according to colour, size, shape and potential use or re-use of the materials so as to meet the endusers quality specifications improves the value chain. Yet Separation or sorting of waste at household level is a myriad across the state; Lack of transfer loading station in most parts of the country and also the lack of sanitary engineered landfill sites; Financial constraints Waste management Activities is still based on ad hoc business- as usual strategy that allows task force to arbitrarily perform mandates of institution without recourse to them, and the concessional private sector to abandon areas of service because of down turn in business. ¾ No proper costing for waste management hence recovery of cost is low by private sector ¾ Inadequate funding of the Waste Management Authorities; ¾ Lack of recycling plant and market for recycled products; ¾ Ability and willingness of the residents to pay for the services provided ; and ¾ Insufficient profitability making it unattractive to private companies Social aspects of Solid Waste Management Lack of information on the social impacts of solid waste management issues and measures on the workers and local communities. The general population in Nigeria has poor public awareness on environmental issues. A large number of people have their living associated with the waste disposal sites in the form of “rag picker” or “informal recyclers”. Nigeria being a highly populated country with high unemployment rate, the informal recycling sector needs to be organized and supported and innovative approach is needed to integrate them as part of integrated solid waste management plan for the country and states.
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Awareness General knowledge on solid waste issues and waste minimization, green engineering is very low. Appropriate public awareness tools and programmes are missing to convey integrated solid waste management related information to public and more importantly to industrial enterprises. Waste management is generally not part of the decision making process within industries. The NGO sector is lacking capacity to implement programmes on public awareness activities concerning solid waste management. The current tools for conveying environment related information to the industries and the public in general are missing solid waste management and related measures. The impact of public awareness activities is generally low. Education The human resource capacity for the sustainable integrated solid waste management is missing. Partly because there is a lack of tools and educational programmes concerning solid waste management in the country in higher education.
Local, Regional and Global Benefits Global benefit of the interventions will be protecting human health and environmental from harmful impacts of poor management of solid and hazardous waste materials including the UP-POPs and other environmental pollutants release due to uncontrolled open burning and waste incineration. In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s global economy, the environmental impact in one part of the world does affect population around directly or indirectly (e.g., tainted products from a particular country spread around the world leading to recalls). Since POPs from open burning of waste material travel large distances in the air or in aquatic environment the reduction of their releases in Nigeria will have positive impacts on the global environment. Impact indicators are presented in section F. The project aims to facilitate local economies through adoption of innovative integrated solid waste management practices including as part of private public partnership. This will have a positive effect on the local economy. The banking sector will also be sensitized to put in place loans dedicated for green projects (e.g., waste minimization, recycling activities, and waste to energy among others). This measure will diversify bank products and presumably increases local investments. Local investments, specifically from the SME sector are expected to increase thanks to the project. This shall have positive impacts on the industrial development in Nigeria. By adoption of waste minimization, pollution prevention, green engineering techniques in selected industrial facilities the working conditions of the employees will improve. Local communities living around these facilities will also improve due to reduced waste releases. Consequently exposure of recipient environmental compartments and wildlife to pollutants will be reduced. By creating appropriate policy framework for Integrated Solid Waste Management through strengthening regulatory enforcement bodies at the federal, state and local levels, existing institutions will be able to carry out their respective duties in a more coordinated manner. Responsibilities of each authority will be clearly developed, synergies addressed and overlapping of responsibilities removed. The Stockholm Convention and other chemicals related conventions will be better understood in Nigeria and the country will be able to play a more active role in their implementation and management at the international level. Through the public awareness and advocacy arm of the project, NGOs working in the field of environment and industries will have more capacity to take on integrated solid waste management related measures within their programmes and regular activities. Tertiary educational institutions will also benefits from the project as the current educational programmes will be amended with integrated solid waste management principles.
Integrated Solid Waste Management Concepts What is Integrated Solid Waste Management Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is a comprehensive waste prevention, recycling, composting, and disposal program. An effective ISWM system considers how to prevent, recycle, and manage solid waste in ways that most effectively protect human health and the environment. ISWM involves evaluating local needs and conditions, and then selecting and combining the most appropriate waste management activities for those conditions. The major ISWM activities are waste prevention, recycling and composting, and combustion and disposal in properly designed, constructed, and managed landfills (see Figure 4). Each of these activities requires careful planning, financing, collection, and transport, all of which will be incorporated in this project.
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Figure 4: Integrated solid waste management Waste Prevention Waste prevention also called source reduction â&#x20AC;&#x201C; seek to prevent waste from being generated. Waste prevention strategies include using less packaging, designing products to last longer, and reusing products and materials. Waste prevention help reduce handling, treatment and disposal costs and ultimately reduce the generation of pollutants escaping to atmosphere from waste treatment and disposal processes. Recycling and Composting Recycling is a process that involves collecting, reprocessing, and/or recovering certain waste materials (e.g., glass, metal, plastics, paper) to make new materials or products. Some recycled organic materials are rich in nutrients and can be used to improve soils. The conversion of waste materials into soil additive is called composting. Recycling and composting generate many environmental and economic benefits, for examples: they create jobs and income, supply valuable raw material to industry, produce soil enhancing compost leading to better agricultural productivity. All of these are very relevant and needed for the country of Nigeria. This project will focus on the demonstration of successful business model with public private partnership in this area. Disposal (Landfilling and combustion) These activities are used to manage waste that cannot be prevented or recycled. One way to dispose of waste is to place it in properly designed, constructed and managed landfills (none is available in Nigeria as of date), where it is safely contained. Another way to handle this waste is through combustion. Combustion is the controlled burning of waste, which helps reduce its volume. If the technology is available, properly designed, constructed, and managed landfills can be used to generate energy by recovering methane. Similarly, combustion facilities produce steam as a by-product that can be used to generate energy. All of these are very relevant and needed for the country of Nigeria and can be developed using the business model of public private partnership as is being practiced in other countries (see Examples from India as Annex 4). Developing a Plan for Integrated Solid Waste Management Planning is the first step in designing or improving a waste management system. Waste management planners should, for example, take into consideration institutional, social, financial, economic, technical, and environmental factors (see Table 6). These factors vary from place to place. Based on these factors, each community has the challenge of selecting the combination of waste management activities that best suits its needs. Because integrated solid waste management involves both short- and long-term choices, it is critical to set achievable goals. While developing ISWM plan, one should identify goals or objectives (e.g., protect human health, protect water supplies, reduce POPs from open burning of trash, increase recycling or composting). The ISWM plan helps through the implementation process. Input from community should also be sought to ensure an informed public and to increase public acceptance. Government plays an important role in developing and enforcing waste management standards, providing funding and managing day to day operations of solid waste management activities. Each level of government may have responsibility in your ISWM plan: national governments typically set the guidelines for solid waste
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management. The state, provincial and regional governments will develop detailed regulations from these guidelines and may help monitor and enforce these standards. The local government often play the primary role of managing solid waste activities on a daily basis. All levels may also provide funding for solid waste management activities. Two primary cost must be considered in any solid waste management system: initial capital costs (to purchase equipment of to construct new facilities) and ongoing operations and maintenance costs. These costs can be funded in a number of ways including private equity, government loans, local taxes or user fees. Table 6: Important Questions to Consider and Steps to Take When Developing an Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan
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Implementing an Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan Once ISWM plan is developed and written, one can begin to implement the various combinations of waste management activities. Implementing an ISWM plan is an ongoing process with adjustments to the pan along the way. System inefficiencies should be evaluated and adjustments should be made to improve or expand solid waste management services. Figure 5 illustrates how one can implement an ISWM plan.
Figure 5 Comprehensive Integrated Solid Waste Management Planning Process
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Chapter- VII-42 Zero Waste Management in Boras, Sweden Karthik Rajendran, Hans Björk & Mohammad J. Taherzadeh* School of Engineering, University of Boras, Boras, Sweden Email: Mohammad.Taherzadeh@hb.se Introduction Sweden is one of the pioneers in resource recovery and waste management sector for more than 30 years. City of Boras has a great impact on Sweden in sustainable waste management byreducing landfill, recovering fuel from the waste and recycling. From 2006, collaboration called “Waste Recovery – International Partnership” between University of Boras, Boras Energy and Environment (local municipality), SP technical research institute of Sweden, and about 20 other private companies and organizations was started in order to share Swedish knowledge and technology on sustainable waste management with other countries. The first project of this organization was carried out in collaboration with Indonesia, and expanded since 2008 to Southeast Asia (Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos and recently India), Latin America with Brazil in focus, West Africa (Nigeria, Ghana), the USA, etc.
Dimension of waste in different countries Waste is a waste elsewhere, but for Boras it is wealthy resource. Having a population of more than 100,000, a positive economic system was designed back in 1986 to convert wastes into value-added products such as biogas, electricity and heat. The waste management system in Boras was started with 3,000 households as a pilot project. Then, the complete city was adopted to the waste management system. Nowadays, some countries in Europe have proper waste management, including Sweden, Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Netherlands, in which less than 1% of waste is ended in landfill. However, Eastern European countries such as Romania and Bulgaria end up with more than 99% of waste in landfills. The situation is worse in many developing countries. Ending up the waste in landfills leads to loss of land, loss of useful materials, generation of poisonous gas and leachate, climate change etc. Utilizing the waste in a useful and economical way can protect the environment for a better future.
Figure 1.General waste management hierarchy.
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Globally, more than 2,000,000,000 tons per year municipal solid wastes (MSW) is generated, in addition to agricultural, forestry and industrial wastes. Most of these wastes end up in landfills, as the most common way to get rid of the waste problem and ‘throw-away’ strategy. However, throwing away leads to health hazards, safety issues and loss of the valuable resources. The local government has a major responsibility in collection, transportation and processing of waste. Many governmental companies dump the waste, as they cannot generate value and positive economy from the wastes. However, back in 1960s and 1970s,the waste was increasing beyond the acceptable levels, and led to the change in the framework directives and policies which formulated waste management hierarchy. According to the waste management hierarchy, the wastes should follow “reduce, reuse, recycle and recover energy” before it is dumped in to the landfills. Sweden’s view on sustainable waste management was supported by policy makers, public, industries, governments, universities and research institutes. By incorporating garbage collection fees, easy access to recycling stations, and awareness campaigns, the recycling rates in Sweden has increased significantly in the recent years. Some laws have also been formulated with respect to this regard, including a ban on landfilling combustible waste since 2002 and organic wastes since 2005. Even before 2004, aboout96% of all glass packaging, 95% of metal, 86% of corrugated cardboard and 80% of electronic waste was recycled in Sweden. Wastes which could not recycled, are recovered through biological and thermal treatment in form of biogas, biofertilizer, electricity and district heat.
Boras Model Back in 1996, more than 40% of wastes were landfilled in Sweden. But then with implementation of innovative and integrated new technologies for waste separation, fractionation, biological treatment, and thermal treatment, the landfilling reduced drastically to about 10%and then gradually approached zero landfill. Today in Boras, the household waste is sorted in 30 different fractions, which is either recycled or converted to electricity, fuel or heat. Almost zero percent is landfilled today, which is an enormous achievement. A key factor behind this success is the cooperation of the citizens. Children are taught at school about waste sorting and management. Furthermore, regular sports and social activities are conducted to create awareness among adults in the city. The success behind boras waste management system has several crucial factors such as citizens, policy and decision makers, research and development, and children. Policies are e.g. formulated in such a way that citizens pay less tax when the sorting rate goes higher and vice versa. At the University of Boras, a wide research program is performed to utilize the wastes into innovative value products.
Material recycling Biological treatment
Energy recovery Landfilling
Figure 2.Household waste treatment in Sweden1994-2011. In Boras, each household is given a booklet by the municipality which contains how to handle different wastes. Approximately, 130 different materials are listed in the booklet, so that the citizens could look what to be done with a particular waste. For example, white glass bottles are sorted separately and colored bottles are distinguished separately. The lamps are sorted in bulb, florescent, halogen, LED and other low energy lamps which are treated separately. Recycling containers are placed in walking distances from each household all around the city to collect pure fractions of each material, which are sent to industries for further processing. The
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municipality also provides white and black bags for every household for free. All compostable waste are collected in black bags, while other waste goes in white bags for combustion. The black bags and other organic flows are sent to biological treatment for production of biogas. More than 3 million m3 biogas is produced every ev year, which is enough to run the buses in the city, garbage collecting trucks and around 300 CNG vehicles in the city. The white bags and other industrial waste are sent to two 20 MW combustion plants, where 960 MWh heat and electricity is produced every ry day. The complete block diagram of household waste flow is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Block flow diagram of household waste flow in Boras. Another interesting way of recycling is the deposit system so called â&#x20AC;&#x153;Pantâ&#x20AC;? in Sweden. According to this system, all PET, aluminum and some glass bottles are recycled in supermarkets by collection machines. Every time a PET or aluminum bottle is bought by the customers, an additional fee of 1-44 SEK is charged depending on the size of the bottle, which is returned when the empty bottle is returned to the collection machine. More than 90% recycling of PET and aluminum bottles is reached in Sweden. This system is very attractive and innovative as managing the waste is easier, efficient and economic. Fraction of waste recycled, sent for biological and thermal treatment is shown in Figure 4.
Biological 30%
Thermal 43%
Recycling 27%
Figure 4. Fraction of waste utilized in different forms in Boras
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Transferring the knowledge Boras is now a zero waste city and its time to think beyond Boras and Sweden. With this thought, sharing knowledge organization was founded namely Waste Recovery – International Partnership (WR). In this organization, the politicians, cians, citizens, industries and the universities are brought under one roof and a Public, Private Partnership was created. The politicians discuss with the partner country to have better policies, while industry implement the technology developed by the university. university. WR includes City council of Boras, Boras Energy and Environment AB, University of Boras, SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden and about 20 different companies involved in waste management. The international collaboration started in 2006 and now it is in connection with Southeast Asia, Africa, Latin America, North America and Europe. WR is a non-commercial non organization with an objective to see a better environment for the planet. The collaboration could be at different levels for different countries, countries, but the starting point of collaboration for any country has usually been started with collaboration between the two universities in Boras and the partner city. Universities play a major role as education is a powerful tool to initiate changes. University Uni of Boras and its collaborating country university exchange faculty, researchers, and students at MSc and PhD level to develop an appropriate technology for the collaborating country. The industries and other members in the group will help in their part to achieve the goal. A research at PhD level called “Sandwich-PhD” “Sandwich PhD” where a student spend half time in the home country and half time at University of Boras specially working on the research aspects related to home country. The network also offers a specially specially designed course for companies and municipality employees in Sustainable Waste Management in Boras for 1-4 1 4 weeks which is usually followed up by one week in collaborative country. During this second part of the course, the local situation is analyzed analyze to support strategic decisions for local development. The first collaboration was made with the largest and oldest Indonesian university named GadjahMada University and Sleman municipality to create competence on waste management, research on biogas, good go examples on waste sorting and converting fruit market waste into biogas for producing electricity. The fruit market produces 4-10 10 tons of fruit waste, which was dumped before. Now, the wastes are sent to biogas digester to produce 500 kWh electricity perr day. Before the biogas digester was installed, around 14 truck of waste was landfilled every week and after the installation the number reduced to one.
Figure 5. Waste Recovery- International partnership collaborative model
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University of Boras is invited to conduct workshops in various universities and municipalities all around the world, which is starting point for international networks and relationships for collaboration. Contacts created are shared with collaborating partners for possible collaborations. In parallel, the governments are connected through embassies for making a smooth and faster collaboration. When a collaborative initiative is taken, a mutual exchange of visits between Boras and the partner cities is to be started. The meetings are financed by the collaborating parties or international organizations or by different authorities in Sweden. After this initial step, decisions about the future collaborations are to be taken. WR in Boras expects the collaborative part to create a similar Public, Private Partnership. A good startpoint is to start student exchange and to organize the introduction course for mayors and other important people from the local society.
Conclusion Boras is open to transfer knowledge and technology on waste management in a context of open innovation. Boras is open to share its knowledge developed during the last 30 years. With the Public, Private Partnerships created in Boras in collaboration with a Public, Private Partnership in another country, a strong productive international platform is created. The long term vision has to be a planet without waste but just resources.
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Chapter-VIII Sustainability and Knowledge Management
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Chapter- VIII-43 Rational for Resource Efficiency in India – A Key for Sustainable Growth Dieter Mutz & Kristin Meyer GIZ-IGEP, New Delhi, India Email: dieter.mutz@giz.de The Context of Resource Efficiency – What are we Talking about? India’s economic growth, combined with a pace of urbanization and population increase that’s above Asian’s average, is changing the consumption pattern of a wide range of resources, including raw materials, energy, land and water, on an unprecedented level, using often resource-inefficient and open loop processes. Substantial quantities of solid waste and waste waters are produced; air pollutants, greenhouse gas, contaminated water and water losses as well as inefficient land use are negative symptoms of the economic growth which threaten the prosperity and sustainable development in India.We depend on resources like metals, minerals, fuels, water, timber, fertile soil and clean air for our survival, and they all constitute vital inputs that crucial to the functioning of our economy functioningand to our quality of life.Resource efficiency means using the Earth's limited resources that are consumed in producing a unit of product or services in a sustainable manner. Practically speaking, this involves using smaller amounts of natural resources and generating less waste to produce the same product or to deliver the same service. It also encourages patterns of consumption that use fewer resources through the design of products and services and their delivery to consumers. Efficiency of resource use in the production and service sectors remains low by global standards and is generating high levels of waste per unit of product or services. India’s economy is thus throwing away some part of scarce resources without utilizing their full value. In addition the consumption pattern of an increasing consumer class is directed towards a substantial increase in packing waste and short living consumer goods as well as inefficient use of material, energy, land and water. As a result India runs the risk that there is a widening gap between the demand for goods and services from its growing, consumption oriented population and the availability of natural resources. In parallel the risk is increasing that India’s economy slows down due to short comings of raw material, energy and water. There is no doubt and it’s scientifically proofed that using resources more efficiently has clear economic and environmental benefits and hence supports sustainable development. More resource efficiency improves productivity, lessens negative environmental impacts (local and global), reduces costs and increases competitiveness, creates employment opportunities and enhances security of future supply. We can use more efficient alternatives instead of many of the current resources, and we can boost the use of secondary raw materials through recycling, for example. There are also many growth and employment opportunities in the provision of green technologies and services, in renewable energy provision, eco-industries and recycling. The less firms and consumers are dependent on the availability of certain resources, the less vulnerable they are to supply constraints and volatile market prices. The same is true for all infrastructure development – which is of upmost importance especially in a fast growing economy. The competition for raw materials increased, number of conflicts over resources areincreasing, and the ‘price’ to be paid for overexploiting nature and its related environmental impacts is getting ever higher.
Policies for Resource Efficiency– Current Situation in India Even though the rapidly expanding economy has been beneficial at various levels,the rising growth, a growing consumer class and expanding infrastructure are going along with a significant rising demand and consumption for resources in absolute terms as well as per cap. The material consumption per capita in India is expected to quadruple; reaching up to 15 tons by 2050. This not only leads to severe environmental/ climate impacts but also makes India more vulnerable to increasing and volatile commodity prices, as well as to economic and geopolitical burdens of import. By India gaining growing importance as a global player in global negotiations (e.g. WTO, UNFCCC), associated responsibilities as an emerging power have also surfaced. To achieve the objective to become more resource efficient, millions of firms, consumers and public institutions need to be mobilized. Experience teaches us that developing a more resource-efficient economy is not going to happen on its own and cannot be left to market forces alone. Supportive framework conditions are needed, whether in the form of rules and regulations (e.g. environmental and efficiency standards for production processes, for recycling processes and products) or in the form of economic instruments that, depending on the type, make resource consumption either more expensive (by charging taxes, duties, or tradable emission rights) or cheaper (through tax deductions and subsidized promotion programs). Prices need to change to better reflect environmental and social costs: this would improve the economic system, providing the right incentives and price signals for producers and consumers. ‘Soft’ policy instruments, such as information and communication
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initiatives are also crucial part of any policy intervention. The environmental quality of products and services must become more transparent to consumers and institutional buyers, e.g. through a market relevant ecolabeland/or an independent comparative testing. The question is how to combine and tailor different policy measures to provide a balanced and sound policy mix that meets the objectives of mainstreaming resource efficiency and shifting toward sustainable consumption and production patterns within the unique Indian context. Resource efficiency is already a key element in many international and national policies (e.g. 10-year program of “Sustainable Consumption and Production” (SCP) of the United Nations; EU Flagship Initiative “Resource-efficient Europe”; German Resource Efficiency Program “ProgRess”). The concept of resource efficiency is also part of various Indian policies such as the 12th Five Year Plan (2012-2017), the Low Carbon Strategy for Inclusive Growth and the National Action Plan on Climate Change. However, a comprehensive, coherent and overarching resource efficiency strategy is still missing in India. For the time being, Indian policies with regard to resources prominently address energy, land, forest and water (e.g. National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency) and less focus on materials. The National Mineral Policy, however, contains the encouragement of efficient use of resources as well as the ‘reduce, reuse, recycle’-approach, even though framing it quite generally.The given various policy initiatives, overall still, lack of a systematicand integrated approach, adequate policy instruments and precise action programs for implementation.In addition, unclear jurisdictions, conflicting national and local frames, inefficient administration and capacities even further impede the appropriate designing and enforcement of policies on resource efficiency. Nevertheless, it is assumed that the potential for resource efficiency in various sectors is high and the development of an approach for enhancing overall resource efficiency offers many advantages for India’s future development.
Fostering Resource Efficiency in India – Activities ofGIZ-IGEP Given the background described, the concept of resource efficiency is substantial part of the IndoGerman Environment Partnership (IGEP) implemented by GIZ on behalf of the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). GIZ-IGEP is focusing on urban- and industrial environmental management by making of a multi-level approach (macro-meso-micro) of implementation and cooperation with our Indian partners on national-, state- and local-level. Within this framework GIZ-IGEP strives to promote the efficient use of natural resources, mainly raw materials, water, and land, applying the 3R (Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle) principle. A guiding principle of the work being done isthat “resource efficiency pays”, and that is not only true for individual companies, but for entire industries, cities and, ultimately, for the whole national economy. In December 2012, GIZ-IGEP commences the “Resource Initiative for India” in collaboration with The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) and the German-based Institute for Energy and Environmental Research (IFEU)to further promote resource conservation and resource efficiency. In order to focus, the Initiative considers not all natural resources. Instead main emphasize is given to the efficient use of materials (metals and minerals, biomass, fossil fuels) in the realm of the urban and industrial sector, taking into account potential and actual interdependencies with other natural resources (such as water, land etc.) and keeping central India’s need for development. The “Resource Initiative”, on the one hand, seeks to contribute some of the analysis and data needed with regard to consumption, availability, access, affordability and sustainability of materials in India, as well as to enhance the understanding of substance flow management within relevant sectors. On the other hand, the Initiative strives to instigate and develop appropriate policy initiatives, measures and strategies by involving relevant stakeholders and strengthening international and best-practice exchange, making the case that resource efficiency is key to meeting both growing demand and supply constraints. To achieve environmentally sustainable economic development in India and to allow the successful implementation of a low carbon strategy for inclusive growth, inefficient patterns of resource use need to be improved without questioning the right of India’s population towards an increased living standard.
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Chapter- VIII-44 Sustainability & Sustainable Development Sadhan K. K. Ghosh Professor & Head, Mechanical Engineering Department Coordinator, Centre for Quality Management System Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India Email : sadhankghosh9@gmail.com Abstract Sustainable development is the economic growth and activities that do not encourage depletion or degradation of the environmental resources upon which present and future economic growth depend. The major goal of sustainability development is the conservation of natural resources including living things. With increasing purchasing power, wasteful consumption linked to market driven consumerism is stressing the resource base of developing countries further. It is important to counter this through education and public awareness. In several areas, desirable limits and standards for consumption need to be established and applied through appropriate mechanisms including education, incentives and legislation. Other goals of sustainability development include slowing human population growth and developing new methods of agriculture and technological intervention in several areas of improvement. Sustainable development is called for three priorities to be built into development policies : the maintenance of ecological processes; the sustainable use of resources ; and the maintenance of genetic diversity. Moreover Sustainable development focuses on, Environment, Economic and Social aspects. Waste generation is expected to increase from 50 million tones today to 300 million by the year 2047 (490 per capita to 945 grams per capita) in India. This is an alarming figure. The problem of solid waste is to be resolved sustainably. Sustainable development presents a framework for change rather than a list of prescriptions to achieve it. There is, however, a growing consensus that the transition to a more sustainable society requires new ways of meeting our needs which can reduce the level of material consumption and reduce environmental damage without affecting quality of life. This paper reviews the situation with respect to the sustainability issues including energy and waste management in India, analysed the results of different actions already implemented and put forward possible sustainable solutions in Waste Management in India putting emphasis on Waste to Energy, incineration plants etc. Keywords: Sustainable Development, Waste Management, Waste-to-Energy.
Introduction India makes up 2.4 percent of the world's land, while supporting 16 percent of the world's population. The compounding result is a severely unsustainable use of natural resources for several generations. Currently, India is experiencing rapid and widespread environmental degradation at alarming rates. Tremendous pressure is placed upon the country's land and natural resources to support the massive overpopulation. Efforts to meet the needs of a growing population in an interconnected but unequal and human-dominated world are undermining the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s essential life-support systems. The extraordinary complexity of the challenges that lie ahead is suggested by today's emerging interactions among global environmental changes and the profound transformations underway in social and economic life. The present development path in the world is not sustainable. The year 2012 marked twenty years since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) or Earth Summit, held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992, when 108 Heads of State and Government, and representatives from international agencies and NGOs, from across the globe, met to discuss issues around sustainable development. The Earth Summit arrived at Agenda 21, an action plan for a sustainable future. The world will came together once again at Rio in June 2012, at what is more commonly known as Rio+20. At this point, it becomes extremely important to take stock of where we as a global community are in terms of our efforts at addressing sustainability concerns. The last few decades have made it clearly evident that economic development can no longer be viewed in isolation from environmental protection and social progress. The nature of issues confronting us along with an increasing interdependence among nations necessitates that countries act collectively, in the spirit of multilateralism to chart a sustainable course of development.4 As a President, International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water (ISWMAW) Phone : 0091 3324146207 / 09830044464; Email : sadhankghosh9@gmail.com
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large complex democracy, committed to enhancing the quality of life of its people, and actively involved with the international coalition for sustainable development, the path that India has taken, is taking, and needs to take, will, we think, be of interest to those who believe that a better world is not just essential, but possible. Environmental protection and conservation has been promoted through various policy measures across the domains of forestry, pollution control, water management, climate change, clean energy, and marine and coastal environment. The National Environment Policy, 2006 is a response to India’s commitment to a clean environment and intends to mainstream environmental concerns in all development activities. There has been a net gain of 728 km2 in forest cover and 1,106 km2 in tree cover in 2009 as compared to 2005. India has successfully reduced its energy intensity with respect to GDP from the 1980s to the early years of the 21st century (TERI, 2006). The country is also making progress in the spread of renewable energy— amounting to about 11 % of the total grid installed capacity in the country as on March 2011. Meeting fundamental human needs while preserving the life support systems of planet Earth will require a world-wide acceleration of today’s halting progress in a transition toward sustainability. A significant response to this challenge from the scientific community has begun to emerge from various global and regional programs of environmental research, from the World’s Scientific Academies (including individual reports from the India, African, Brazilian, United Kingdom and United States academies), from independent networks of scholars and scientists. Above all, a response has begun to emerge from science itself and the growing recognition across many disciplines of the need for synthesis and integration – needs that are being reflected in many new multidisciplinary research efforts and institutions. There are no major issues raised in Our Common Future for which the foreseeable trends are favourable. The erosion of biodiversity due to the effect of global warming supported by non-sustainable efforts are such that the biomass of fish is estimated to be 1/10 of what it was 50 years ago and is declining and at the current rates of human destruction of natural ecosystems, 50% of all species of life on earth will be extinct in 100 years.
Figure 1. Sustainability – Sustainable Development : The Pearl Academy is sunk into the ground with air drawn into courtyards and cooled by water features. The air is drawn into the classrooms above which feature traditional screens to shade the building (The building is built using local stone and features traditional ideas such as covering the roof with earthenware pots to reduce heat absorption. These strategies add up to a temperature of 29ºC inside the building when it is 45ºC outside. The only air-conditioned areas are the library and dean’s office, and this is needed for just two months of the year. “A green building should not cost more - it should cost less and be cheaper to run,” The building will cost 10% more for a saving three years later is a hard sell.” The building costs €25/ft2. A mechanically cooled building would have cost nearly double due to all the HVAC equipment, back-up power, high-performance glazing and insulation.) The important sustainability challenges facing society includes energy security, global climate change, ecosystem degradation and sustainable development strategies - with a focus on improving the systems for meeting human needs in developed and developing countries. Followings are the Sustainability Themes : I) Conservation and Biodiversity, E.g. Wildlife Corridors, II) Balancing Socio-economic Demands and the Environment, E.g. Policies for harvesting renewable resources and III) Renewable Energy, E.g. Biofuels. Figure 1 shows an example of green building that supports sustainability.
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The competitive pressure and regulatory requirements that compel global companies to think and act more sustainably are increasing every year. What is helping drive this new reality is the need to balance the world’s limited energy resources with the growing demand for energy from increasingly urbanised populations. This is especially true in high-growth growth economies like China, India and Brazil. As per Gartner, India’s spending spend on green IT and sustainability initiatives will double from $35 billion in 2010 to $70 billion in 2015. Whereas companies have historically approached sustainability with an eye to compliance, there is an agreement among global executives that taking a more proactive approach towards sustainability and policy management will play an important role in their business strategy over the next several years. A recent Economist Intelligence Unit survey of global C-level level executives showed nearly 80 per cent of of executives believe energy efficiency will be more important to their business in five years. Also, 61 per cent of non C-level C level execs said their organisation does not do enough to integrate energy efficiency into its strategy. And in a surprising find, the survey showed that just a minority (22 per cent) of executives believe that regulation is a burden to their business. Rather, their perception is that regulation can actually create a level playing field across geographies and help develop new markets.
The sustainability – what does it mean ? Sustainability is an in-built built feature of all natural environmental systems, provided that human interference is absent or minimized. Researchers argue that the use and depletion of resources can stimulate research & development, substitution of new materials and the effective creation of new resources. The search for single definition of ‘sustainability’ seems elusive partly because it embodies a number of ideas from different disciplines, including economics (no growth growth or slow growth), ecology (integrity of biosphere, carrying capacity), sociology (critique of technology) and environmental studies (eco-development, (eco development, resourceresource environment links). Sustainable development is ‘development that meets the needs of the present present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs’ (Brundtland Report, according to the 1987 United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development also known as the Bruntland Commission humanity). humanity Sustainable developmentt is a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technology development and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future to meet human needs and aspirations. The The commission envisions the possibility of continued economic growth, population stabilization, improvements in the Global economic equity between rich and poor nations and environmental improvement all occurring simultaneously and in harmony. The major goal of sustainable development is the conservation of natural resources, including living things. For example, fresh water is a resource that exists in limited amounts on Earth’s surface, but is needed by most of Earth’s organisms for their survival. In places places on Earth, the bodies of fresh water have become polluted through the activities of humans or have unsafe for use because of contamination with pathogens. Sustainable development practitioners seek to ensure that portable water is used widely, so that it remains in adequate supply to meet the demands of a growing population. Sustainable development is called for three priorities to be built into development policies: the maintenance of ecological processes; the sustainable use of resources; and the maintenance ntenance of genetic diversity. Moreover Sustainable development focuses on, Environment, Economic and Social aspects where the major actors are related as seen from the agenda 21 in Rio 1992 in figure 2.
Figure 2. Environment, Economic & Social aspects where the major actors are related, Agenda 21 in Rio 1992.
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Preserving biodiversity is another goal of sustainable development. Other goals of sustainable development include slowing human population growth, developing new methods of agriculture that will ensure e that soils can sustain the growth of crops in a manner that does not degrade the environment, and making use alternative energy resources that will decrease international dependence on fossil fuels and result in the release of fewer pollutants into the environment. The Solar capital provides 99% of our energy we use on earth. Figure 3 shows the interconnectivity of the solar capital. The Earth capital is the life-support life support and economic services. Sustainability - is the ability of a specified system to survive survive and function over a specified time. Followings are the issues within sustainable development: 1. Inter-generational generational implications of patterns of resource use: how effectively do decisions about the use of natural resources preserve an environmental heritage heritage or estate for the benefit of future generations? 2. Equity concerns: who has access to resources allocated between competing claimants? 3. Time horizons: how much are resource allocation decisions oriented towards short-term short economic gain or long-term environmental onmental stability? Principles of sustainable development a. Keep within the Earth’s carrying capacity. b. Change personal attitudes and practices. c. Enable communities to care for their own environments. d. Provide a national framework for integrating development and and conservation. e. Create a global alliance.
Figure 3. Solar Capital - Provides 99% of our energy we use on earth. Earth capital - life-support life & economic services. Sustainability - is the ability of a specified system to survive and function over a specified time.
The extension of sustainability into the wider corporate ecosystem Companies with core sustainability values innovate in order to protect their values. These innovations go beyond mere product tweaks, occurring across all business functions, from marketing to accounting to corporate structure. No company is an island. In order achieve meaningful sustainability improvements, companies must extend their influence to their wider ecosystem of suppliers and customers. Sustainability is indeed i “the mother of all collaborations”. ”. Education was consistently emphasised by the companies interviewed as vital to their work to spread their responsible and sustainably profitable approach to business. For sustainability improvements to take hold in large multinationals, the inside of the company must be treated as an ecosystem in itself. Key individuals influence the culture within their ‘megasystems’. Large
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companies often emphasise the importance of finding sustainability ‘ambassadors’: these individuals need to be sought out and supported in their efforts to move their networks within these multinationals towards more responsible frameworks of business. Once there is a critical mass of people who are aware of these more responsible business frameworks, long term needs (financial, social and environmental), are easier to see and consider. Interface has a formal education programme for Ambassadors; the HR department at Coca Cola Enterprises actively seeks individuals out who have the talent and desire to take on this extra responsibility; and Cisco has found it far easier to find internal leadership support for sustainability since it embarked on its Circular Economy journey – switching to the language of business rather than environmental protection is helping to develop an organisational understanding of sustainability.
Measuring sustainability At first sight, measuring sustainable development seems impossible. The subject is so vast and the influences so many – climate change, child care, business ethics, government policy, consumer trends to name but a few. We know that sustainable development involves economic, social and environmental variables – all of which must be measured to some extent. There exists a wealth of indicators from traditional macroeconomic measures, such as gross national product (GNP) and productivity; to environmental indicators, such as water consumption and emissions; to social statistics, such as life expectancy and educational attainment. But which indicators are the most important to sustainable development? The issue is made even more difficult by the fact that as well as being multidimensional, sustainable development is a dynamic concept. Quantifying it requires juggling a number of parameters including time horizons. Economic, social and environmental phenomena operate at different rhythms to each other. Consider the economy: if you’re planning a major energy project, you have to think at least 50 years ahead, but if you’re trading on financial markets, the nanoseconds it takes price data to go from one exchange to another can mean substantial gains or losses. Moreover, we have to bear in mind that sustainable development is a process linking what happened in the past to what we’re doing now, which in turn influences the options and outcomes of the future. And developing measures is not a purely statistical or technical exercise. It touches on two very sensitive areas for all societies: government accountability and social participation. Measuring progress on sustainable development with reliable information is a key ingredient of the democratic process. It makes governments more accountable and gives people a tool to participate more actively in defining and assessing policy goals. The key idea of sustainable development is the linkage between the well-being of the current generation and the well-being of future generations. To make this connection we can use the “Capital Approach”, a framework for measuring sustainable development which operates on the principle that sustaining well-being over time requires ensuring that we replace or conserve wealth in its different components. With this model, a society’s total capital base encompasses five individual types: financial capital like stocks, bonds and currency deposits; produced capital like machinery, buildings, telecommunications and other types of infrastructure; natural capital in the form of natural resources, land and ecosystems providing services like waste absorption; human capital in the form of an educated and healthy workforce; social capital in the form of social networks and institutions. Conceiving these different forms of capital as inputs into the production of well-being allows us to calculate national wealth as the sum of the different kinds of capital. Some of our most serious environmental problems are, a) Corruption in governments and businesses, and bad economic policies b) Destruction of biodiversity c) Environmental impacts from human poverty and hunger d) Genetic engineering of organisms e) Greenhouse Effect (global warming) and resulting climatic changes f) Human diseases (cancer, malaria, AIDS, etc.) g) Human overpopulation h) Nuclear, chemical and biological weapons of mass destruction i) Poor farming techniques (soil erosion, overuse of pesticides, livestock wastes, etc.) j) Wasting of valuable and nonrenewable resources Six important environmental issues are, a) Population growth, b) Increasing resource use, c) Global climate change, d) Premature extinction of plants and animals, e) Pollution and f) Poverty.
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The governance of uncertainty The media often emphasise the role of corporations and individuals in sustainable development, but governments can have far more influence than even the biggest multinational. Their ability to influence behaviours and co-ordinate efforts can make all the difference in producing substantial results. Finding the right policy tools to encourage good production and consumption practices and avoid overlap and inconsistency is one of the biggest challenges that governments face. The individual producer or consumer generally has little power to change things or interest in doing so. Governments have the enormous advantage however of being able to make laws and impose regulations. One solution at their disposal is simply to outlaw products and behaviours that are seen to be doing more harm than good. This is what happened to CFCs (gases used in refrigerators and aerosol sprays) that were damaging the ozone layer environmentally related taxes (“green” or “ecotaxes”) and emissions trading can also be efficient instruments. They can force polluters (whether producers or consumers) to take into account the costs of pollution and can help to reduce the demand for harmful products. Ireland's 2002 “plastax” led to a 90% reduction in the use of plastic bags. In India, with the introduction of Plastics Waste ( Management & Handling) Rule 2011, payment for plastics bags in some shopping centres / malls only has reduced the consumption of plastics bags by 50%. Governments perform a number of tasks that can contribute to sustainable development. Through their data gathering and analysis, policy making and co-ordination, they can provide support and leadership for moving society in a given direction. They can make sure that individual interests do not detract from the common good. Sustainable development inherently demands a cogent view of resource management and this implicitly covers materials, wastes and energy. The main aim has been further developed into social progress to address the requirements of all, effective environmental stewardship, the maintenance of high and stable economic growth, levels of employment and the utilization of natural resources in a prudent fashion. These goals also tend to offer strong commercial benefits and as a result, businesses have not been slow to see their potential.
Energy Potential in India India’s energy-mix comprises both non-renewable (coal, lignite, petroleum and natural gas) and renewable energy sources (wind, solar, small hydro, biomass, cogeneration bagasse etc.). Information on reserves of non-renewable sources of energy like coal, lignite, petroleum, natural gas and the potential for generation of renewable energy sources is a pre- requisite for assessing the country’s potential for meeting its future energy needs. The changes in the reserves over time indicate the research and development going into the discovery of new reserves and the pace of their exploitation. They also facilitate in devising effective conservation and management strategies for optimal utilization of these resources. Though there is some initiative for installation of nuclear Power Plants in India, the initiative of installing more number of waste-toenergy facilities need to be strengthened. Indicators of installed capacity and capacity utilization throw light on the state of preparedness of the country for generation of the energy it requires and the quality or efficiency of the technology used in the generation, respectively. The dynamics of these indicators prompts the planners and policy makers to take appropriate steps for improvement.
Renewable energy sources There is high potential for generation of renewable energy from various sources- wind, solar, biomass, small hydro and cogeneration bagasse. The total potential for renewable power generation in the country as on 31.03.11 is estimated at 89760 MW (Table 1.). This includes an estimated wind power potential of 49132 MW (55%), SHP (small-hydro power) potential of 15,385 MW (17%), Biomass power potential of 17,538 MW(20%) and 5000 MW (6%) from bagasse-based cogeneration in sugar mills. The geographic distribution of the estimated potential across States reveals that Gujarat has the highest share of about 14% (12,489 MW ), followed by Karnataka with 12% share (11,071 MW) and Maharashtra with 11% share (9596 MW), mainly on account of wind power potential. The total installed capacity of grid interactive renewable power, which was 16817 MW as on 31.03.2010 had gone up to 19971 MW as on 31.03.2011 indicating growth of 18.75% during the period (Table 2a & 2b). Out of the total installed generation capacity of renewable power as on 31-03-2011, wind power accounted for about 71%, followed by small hydro power (15.2%) and Biomass power (13.3%). Tamil Nadu had the highest installed capacity of grid connected renewable power (6500 MW) followed by Maharashtra (3005 MW) and Karnataka (2882 MW), mainly on account of wind power. As on 31.03.2011 out of total Biogas plants installed (41.98 lakh) (Table 3.), maximum number of such plants installed were in Maharashtra (8 lakh) followed by Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Gujarat each with about 4 lakh biogas plants. Out of about 6.6 lakh Solar Cookers installed as on 31.03.2011, 1.7 lakh were installed in Gujarat and 1.4 lakh were installed in Madhya Pradesh. Further, as on 31.03.2011 there were 1,352 water pumping Wind mills systems installed and 6,975 remote villages and 1,871 hamlets were electrified. Figure 5 and 6 shows sourcewise estimates potential
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of renewable power in India as on 31.03.2011 and statewise estimated potential of renewable power in India as on 31.03.2011. Tables are displayed at the end of this paper.
How can organic waste contribute to Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change? Organic waste can be materials such as food, garden waste, paper, cardboard, timber, textiles, rubber and sludge (solids from the sewage treatment process). Burying organic waste in a landfill is of concern and not just because of the resource we lose. Organic waste in a landfill will begin to decompose aerobically (with oxygen). Once this oxygen is depleted, the process changes to anaerobic (without oxygen) decomposition. Anaerobic decomposition produces carbon dioxide and methane gases generated (both greenhouse gases), which enter the atmosphere and enhance the greenhouse effect, contributing to global warming and climate change. Methane gas emitted globally from landfilled waste has been estimated at approx. 40 million tonnes per year. Comparison of incineration plants in India and EU - Learning from EU In India, there is hardly any improvement in diverting the municipal waste from landfill / dumping to other treatment facilities like waste-to-energy, composting, recycling or other options by law. In 2009-10, 49% of domestic waste in the UK was disposed of by landfill, which represented a fall of 15% from 2005-06. The UK is obligated to have 35% of its biodegradable municipal waste produced in 1995 sent to landfill by 2020 (defra, 2012). In order to meet this target, the UK’s landfill tax has increased rapidly from 24 £/tonne in 2007 to 80 £/tonne by 2014, where it will remain till 2020 (HM Revenue & Customs, 2013). This reduction in waste sent to landfill is primarily a result of the EU Landfill Directive. In India no landfill tax is imposed. However, in comparison to the average European country, landfill rates in the UK are still 12% higher. Recycling and composting, and incineration rates in the UK are also respectively 4% and 8% lower than the EU27 average (Defra, 2011a). After the European Landfill Directive, it was suggested that as many as 170 new incineration plant in the UK could be required to met the 2020 target (Burnley, 2001). Table 4 shows the growth in incineration plants in UK. Table. 4. Growth in incineration plants in UK Year Number of incineration Treatment of million plants in operation tonnes of MSW per year 2000 12 1.4 2010
27
4.6
Growth
225% with respect to number of plants; 328% with respect to amount for treatment
Growth Planned as in September ‘12 100 Number of incineration plants will be installed
In England in 2011, 18% of MSW was incinerated, 42% (10.8 million tonnes) was recycled and composted, and 40% was sent to landfill (Amutha Rani et al., 2008; defra, 2011b). In comparison, in 2009, Germany recycled and composted 67.3%, incinerated 31.9% and landfilled 0.4% of their MSW, see Figure 1 (Defra, 2011a). As of September 2012, 31 incineration plants were in operation in the UK with an additional 100 potential plants being planned or considered (UKWIN, 2012). In India there are only three visible initiatives of municipal waste to energy plants and quite a good number of Bio Gas Plants converting biodegradable wastes to energy (either gas or electricity thus producing nearly 92 MW). A significant number of these proposed plants will remain in planning for many years or eventually be cancelled as result of strong opposition from communities and environmentalists. Objections arise from concerns over health risks from emissions, visual impact, noise, traffic and the perception that incineration is detrimental to recycling and waste prevention efforts. In India, strong lobby of NGOs and some groups interested in composting were always pushing back the implementation initiatives of waste to energy. Moreover the initiatives from the government need to be strengthened to install waste to energy plants with proper social models.
Evaluating the effectiveness of national sustainable development strategies Although sustainable development is widely regarded as requiring bottom-up processes, it is strongly conditioned by strategic policy-making at the national level. All aspects of development, from the local to the global, are both enabled and constrained by national policy decisions. Evaluation at the national level can therefore, in principle, make an important contribution to making sustainable development a practical reality. At the Rio earth summit of 1992 (the UN Conference on Environment and Development), governments committed to “adopt national strategies for sustainable development [which should] build upon and harmonise the various sectoral, economic, social and environmental policies and plans that are operating in the country” (Agenda 21). At the UN General Assembly Special Session of 1997 (Rio plus 5), this commitment was confirmed, and a
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target date of 2002 was agreed (Rio plus 10) for introducing national sustainable development strategies. In 1996 the OECD established a number of International Development Targets, one of which required that “there should be a current national strategy for sustainable development in the process of implementation in every country by 2005, so as to ensure that current trends in the losses of environmental resources are effectively reversed at both global and national levels by 2015”.
The OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050 for sustainability Humanity has witnessed unprecedented growth and prosperity in the past decades, with the size of the world economy more than tripling and population increasing by over 3 billion people since 1970. This growth, however, has been accompanied by environmental pollution and natural resource depletion. The current growth model and the mismanagement of natural assets could ultimately undermine human development. The OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050 asks “What will the next four decades bring?” Based on joint modelling by the OECD and the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL), it looks forward to the year 2050 to find out what demographic and economic trends might mean for the environment if the world does not adopt more ambitious green policies. It also looks at what policies could change that picture for the better. This Outlook focuses on four areas: climate change, biodiversity, freshwater and health impacts of pollution. These four key environmental challenges were identified by the previous Environmental Outlook to 2030 (OECD, 2008) as “Red Light” issues requiring urgent attention.
UN climate change talks in Doha in 2012 toward sustainability The key objective of the conference was to address the post-2012 period of international negotiations, when the emission targets for the Kyoto Protocol’s first commitment period end. The UN climate change talks in Doha have ended with a commitment from developed countries that they'll help pay for the costs of climate change for poorer nations. However, what exactly this will entail is unclear, and there's disagreement about whether the funds should be disbursed by a new body or by existing institutions. Countries have agreed to extend the Kyoto Protocol, with a new treaty due to be signed in 2015, coming into effect five years later. However, Russia, Japan and Canada have now withdrawn from the agreement, while countries China, India and the US are not covered by the protocol. Doha has opened up a new gateway to bigger ambition and to greater action – the Doha Climate Gateway. Now governments must move quickly through the Doha Climate Gateway to push forward with the solutions to climate change. The US fought strongly against proposals to compensate poorer nations - and particularly against the use of the word 'compensation' as this could imply legal liability. Instead, the fund will use the word 'aid'. However, some $100 billion is to be set aside for this, with Germany, the UK, France, Denmark, Sweden and the EU Commission announced concrete finance pledges of around $6 billion by 2015. One glaring issue for the talks was the growing gap between what countries commit to do in terms of emissions and the actual amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) The UN Climate Change negotiations must now focus on the concrete ways and means to accelerate action and ambition. The world has the money and technology to stay below two degrees. After Doha, it is a matter of scale, speed, determination and sticking to the timetable. Below are three key decisions agreed by the participating parties. 1) Parties agreed on a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol : The first commitment period included binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the EU to achieve average emission reductions by 5.2% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012 – already a non-ambitious target in the light of ‘mitigation gap’. States agreed in Doha that the second commitment period “can” be provisionally applied from 1 January 2013. However, it is well documented that the agreed average 18% emission reduction by Annex I parties (developed countries and economies in transition) from 1990 levels in 2013-2020 is not nearly enough to put the world on track to avoid the 2ºC temperature increase limit. Moreover, many of these pledges are underspecified and it is difficult to measure the progress made towards the achievement of the targets. The final negotiating text is also short on details on participation in pre-2020 emissions cuts by non-Kyoto partners, like developing nations China and India, as well as the developed nation United States. 2) The agreement reached in Doha “encourages” developed countries to increase efforts to provide finance between 2013 and 2015 : The Doha final agreement for the first time addressed loss and damage in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, and requested developed countries to provide developing countries with finance, technology and capacity building. It urges all developed country parties to scale up climate finance from a wide variety of sources, to achieve the joint goal of mobilizing US$100 billion per year by 2020. A challenge of the international community now is to establish potential channels for resources from the private sector and financial institutions. Flow of finance is expected to come from REDD+ and other market mechanisms established by the convention. Yet, a large volume of work is still required on this issue, particularly MRV (measuring, reporting and verification) of support and tracking of climate finance and national forest monitoring systems.
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3) Parties expressed support for the decisions taken in Durban (2011) to develop “a protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed outcome with legal force under the Convention applicable to all parties” with the objective to be developed no later than 2015, so it can be implemented beginning in 2020 : To begin with, many have expressed doubts whether it is feasible to establish a legal and biding instrument at an international level. In order to ensure participation and meaningful engagement some sort of compliance mechanism is needed. This is difficult as national sovereignty is still the dominant principle. It implies that no international organisation has the power to enforce an efficient outcome – or enforce law on sovereign states; thus, we are essentially relying on voluntary cooperation. In addition, divergent views prevailed in Doha on how the mandate will be “applicable to all,” and whether the Convention principles, including the principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities, will be at the core of the new regime. Particularly, developing and developed countries still disagree on the principles that would define the scope of countries’ involvement in emissions mitigating activities. Developing countries point to the responsibility of industrialized countries for the historic build-up of greenhouse gas concentrations, and, more controversially, claim that developing countries are entitled to some form of compensation for taking on environmental commitments, especially if doing so may impact poverty reduction efforts.
Municipal Solid Waste and its Role in Sustainability Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is primarily waste which is produced by the household, but also includes some commercial and industrial waste that is similar innature to household waste and has been deposited in municipal landfill sites. MSW can be a liability if requiring disposal but also represents a considerable resource that can be beneficially recovered, e.g., by the recycling of materials such as aluminium cans, metals, glass, fibres, etc., or through recovery operations such as conversion to energy and composting. However, significant quantities of MSW continue to be disposed of in landfill largely due to its low cost and ready availability. In landfill the biodegradable components of MSW (e.g., paper and food wastes) decompose and emit methane – a greenhouse gas 23 times more potent than carbon dioxide (IPCC, 2001) and the cause of significant environmental problems. Other components (e.g., leachate) can also cause significant environmental pollution in air and ground water, and give rise to odour. In general, valuable resources are wasted. For these reasons most countries aim to reduce their dependence on the use of landfills for MSW. The EU countries in particular have set ambitious targets for reduction in the biodegradable component of MSW consigned to landfill and a consequent increase in MSW subjected to recycling and recovery operations. Some European countries, e.g., Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands, have already decided to ban the biodegradable fraction from landfills in the coming years. In state-of-the-art landfills the gas is extracted and used for energy purposes. Many developed countries have adopted the principle of the waste hierarchy in order to guide their policies on MSW management. The hierarchy lays out the preferred options for managing the waste from the point where it arises through to final disposal namely, minimisation, re-use, recycle, recovery and disposal. In India, still the focus on landfill exists but in some urban local body initiatives of energy recovery from MSW is prevailing. Where it is economically viable, and environmentally sound, recycling of materials is preferable to treatment for energy recovery. In practice, however, even in countries with highly developed recycling infrastructure, significant tonnages of MSW remain after recycling to make energy recovery an environmentally justified and economically viable option – ahead of final disposal to landfill. Research, demonstration and dissemination are now focusing on the balance between waste minimisation, material recycling, energy recovery and landfill of the non-biodegradable fractions. As the composition of MSW can be highly variable, particularly between developed and developing nations, the removal of materials for recycling tends to leave a residue that has a significant calorific (heat) value making it suited to energy recovery operations. Typically, a tonne of MSW has about one-third of the calorific value of coal (8-12 MJ/kg as received for MSW and 25-30 MJ/kg for coal) and can give rise to about 600 kWh of electricity. Of course it has been observed that the heat content in the MSW depends on many factors like socio economic structure of the location, climatic condition etc. Traditionally, mixed waste is incinerated in mass burning facilities; however, the trend with new installations is to higher efficiencies in power and Combined Heat and Power (CHP) production. Some countries have a minimum efficiency requirement. Recent legislation in the EU and Australia classifies only the renewable biomass fraction of MSWbased power production as renewable electricity and UK has taken a target of 20% of power from renewable sources by 2020. MSW should thus be seen as a resource to be exploited rather than a waste requiring disposal. As with all renewable energy technologies, the major benefit associated with energy recovery from MSW is a reduction of the gaseous pollutants that cause both local and global effects. Recently a comprehensive study of the positive and negative impacts of a range of renewable energy technologies adopted a life-cycle-based approach so that emissions related to the manufacture of systems, their construction, operation and disposal were taken into account. The study found that, for conventional MSW energy recovery systems (e.g., mass burn), the total emission of CO2 is 1100 kg per tonne of MSW and 1833 grams of CO2 per kWh. Various
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assessments have shown that about 20-40% (depending strongly on the degree of separate collection of paper and organic waste) of the carbon in MSW is derived from fossil sources, e.g., plastics. The remainder is derived from biomass and can be considered a renewable resource. Thus the non-renewable element of the emission is about 367 grams of CO2 per kWh (i.e., 20% of the total emission of 1833 grams of CO2 per kWh). In Figure 2 typical CO2 emissions from MSW are compared with those from fossil fuel sources. The CO2 emission shown for MSW in Figure 4 does not take into account emissions that are avoided as a consequence of recovering energy from MSW. For example, if the MSW was consigned to landfill then about 70 kg of methane (actual range 50-100 kg) could be released for each tonne of waste. Given the higher global warming potential of methane, this is equivalent to 1610 kg CO2 per tonne of MSW. In modern landfills about half of the methane can be extracted and utilised for energy production, therefore reducing the overall emissions. Further, the generation of energy from MSW avoids the emissions related to generating that energy from fossil sources. The recovery of energy from MSW can therefore lead to a net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (see Figure 5).Thus, taking even the most pessimistic view, i.e., ignoring the benefits of avoiding landfill, energy recovery from MSW leads to significant savings of greenhouse gas emissions when compared to conventional generation of energy from fossil fuels. Other recent results of studies on the impact of solid waste treatment systems on greenhouse gas emissions are presented in Figure 6. In landfill, about half of the CH4 is recovered (range of recovery rate 2080%) and therefore some emissions still occur. If landfill gas is used in electricity generation, some equivalent CO2 emissions can be avoided. With decreased landfilling of biodegradable materials the potential for energy recovery will be reduced. With mass incineration, no degradable organic material is deposited in landfill. Some materials with high-embedded energy, but zero calorific value (e.g., steel and glass) can be recovered before incineration and hence some CO2 emissions can be avoided. It was assumed that the generated electricity replaces coal-condensing power, as with landfill, and the energy-related emissions are therefore negative even though quite significant amounts of CO2 are emitted from incineration. In Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) recovery, the landfill emissions are small due to the very small amount of disposed organic waste. Due to more efficient waste separation and subsequently recycling, more CO2 emissions from steel and glass manufacturing can be avoided than with mass incineration. The largest effect on emissions is due to substitution of SRF for coal. With the SRF and paper fibre recovery, the effect on energy-related emissions is smaller than in the previous categories because a part of the combustible material (paper fibre) goes to material recycling. Although more paper manufacturing emissions are saved, the total effect is of the same magnitude as the SRF production case. The substitution of energy from MSW for energy from coal, leads to significant savings in greenhouse gas emissions. Even where the MSW is consigned to landfill there exists the possibility of utilising the generated landfill gas (rich in methane) for energy recovery, but the potential for substantial recovery will be reduced as the amount of biodegradable material is reduced. In addition, the recycling of secondary materials saves energy which otherwise would have been consumed for the manufacture of products from primary raw materials (e.g., compost versus chemical fertilisers) Recovering energy from MSW also avoids all other potential impacts associated with the deposition of waste, e.g., leachates /groundwater contamination and longer term pollutant liabilities. The deployment of any technology will have local environmental impacts and it is these rather than national or global environmental concerns which influence public acceptability and siting decisions. For MSW energy recovery, local impacts are associated with traffic movements, noise, visual intrusion, loss of amenity and local effects of pollutants. As with other technologies these impacts can be minimised if best practices in the design, sitting and operation of plant are adopted. The benefits of energy recovery from waste fuels are such that any state-of-the-art waste management policy should include energy recovery irrespective of the individual local strategic preferences (e.g., composting versus anaerobic digestion).
Contribution to Sustainable Energy Life-cycle-based assessments of the major environmental impacts (or sustainability indicators) of MSW have shown the positive benefits to be gained from MSW energy recovery. These gains are in the form of: 1. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions 2. Reduced acid gas emissions 3. Reduced depletion of natural resources (fossil fuels and materials) 4. Reduced impact on water (leaching) 5. Reduced land contamination In the long term the potential for MSW energy supply is limited by the availability of raw material â&#x20AC;&#x201C; there is a finite resource in each area. Nonetheless, reviews of the short- to medium-term potential for the range of renewable sources indicate that MSW energy recovery could be an important contributor to power generation. For example, the ATLAS study indicates that at present about 7% of energy produced from renewable sources
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in the EU is derived from MSW – making it the third largest contributor after large-scale hydro and use of biomass for heat.. Energy recovery from MSW is therefore one of the major players in the early introduction of renewable energy. For which UK has taken a target of 20 % power generation from renewable by 2020. In India the statistics for renewable energy in table 5, shows arise during plan period of 10th to 12th but a slow growth in 12-13th plan period. MSW energy recovery has the potential to make a significant contribution to sustainable development. Table 5. Power situation in India - Capacity addition (plan-wise) - mode-wise Mode-wise 9th Plan 10th Plan 11th Plan 12th Plan 1997-02 2007-02 2007-07 2007-12 Actual in MW Actual in MW Actual in MW Provisional in MW Thermal 13,597 12,114 48,540 72,340 Hydro 4,538 7,886 5,544 10,897 Nuclear 880 1,080 880 5,300 Renewable 6,761 14,267 30,000 Total 19,015 27,841 69,231 118,537
13th Plan 2012-17 Provisional in MW 49,200 12,000 18,000 30,500 1,09,700
Initiatives in International Organization for Standardization (ISO) ISO standards provide solutions and achieve benefits for almost all sectors of activity, including agriculture, construction, mechanical engineering, manufacturing, distribution, transport, healthcare, information and communication technologies, the environment, energy, safety and security, quality management, and services. ISO only develops standards for which there is a clear market requirement. The work is carried out by experts in the subject drawn directly from the industrial, technical and business sectors that have identified the need for the standard, and which subsequently put the standard to use. These experts may be joined by others with relevant knowledge, such as representatives of government agencies, testing laboratories, consumer associations and academia, and by international governmental and nongovernmental organizations. An ISO International Standard represents a global consensus on the state of the art in the subject of that standard. ISO 20121:2012 is a standard on “Event sustainability management systems – Requirements with guidance for use”. ISO 20121 is a practical tool for managing events so that they contribute to the three dimensions of sustainability – economic, environmental and social. To tackle the world’s problems most effectively, people need to combine their energy and act together. The visual world of the Internet and social media creates great new possibilities, but does not remove the efficiency, buzz and sheer enjoyment of the face-to-face contact offered by events. Events come in all shapes and sizes. From rock concerts to the Olympic Games. The annual meeting of an association of small and medium-sized enterprises, to international trade fairs. A village barbeque to raise money for a school outing, to a political summit of global leaders. However, there can be a downside to events. The “great time we had today” can leave an aftermath of problems for tomorrow. When people get together, particularly in large numbers, they can put a strain on local resources such as water and energy, and create significant waste, or tensions related to culture or sheer proximity with neighbouring communities. An added challenge is the number of different partners and suppliers involved in organizing and servicing an event. In response, individual event professionals and companies have begun developing tools to address one or several of these challenges. ISO 20121 so important is that it provides state-of-the-art solutions for the event industry worldwide because it tackles the event industry’s challenges in all three dimensions of sustainability, at all stages of its supply chain. ISO 20121 is applicable to any organization or individual – including clients, suppliers and event managers – involved with all types of events, including exhibitions, sporting competitions, concerts, etc. Offering a common international language for events management, it provides a framework for global tendering and comparison of offers, encouraging international trade in the sector. ISO 20121 allows commitment to sustainability to be demonstrated in a globally recognized manner. Events based in different geographical locations around the world will experience different sustainability issues, but they will all be able to implement the ISO 20121 framework. ISO 20121, published on 15 June 2012, was developed by the event industry for the event industry, working within the ISO project committee, ISO/PC 250, Sustainability in event management. There are many other standards in ISO which support the sustainability initiatives.
Conclusion Underlying the principal of sustainable development is the belief that economic development and related issues of poverty and human well-being cannot be separated from environmental protection. Environmental damage in the long run harms human well-being and contributes to poverty; in turn, people who are living in poverty and lack adequate levels of economic development do more to the environment, thereby creating a
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vicious cycle. By promoting development that simultaneously seeks to minimize harm to the environment, the reasoning goes it is possible to lift people out of poverty while creating the conditions for long term environmental protection. The developed countries can also implement sustainable development by making their industries and practices more environmentally benign. Part of the sustainable development strategy, in which the United States is expected to take a central role, is the provisions of new additional financial and technological resources that will help developing countries raise their living standards while also protecting the natural environment. Sustainability science focuses on the dynamic interactions between nature and society. Substantial understanding of those interactions has been gained in recent decades through work in environmental science that includes human action on the environment and environmental impacts on humans, work in social and development studies that seeks to account for environmental influences, and a small but growing area of interdisciplinary research. But we urgently need to move beyond these beginnings to shape a better general understanding of the rapidly growing interdependence of the nature-society system. A growing body of evidence and experience suggests that the needed understanding must encompass the interaction of global processes with the ecological and social characteristics of particular places and sectors. The regional character of much of what sustainability science is trying to explain means that relevant research will have to learn how to integrate the effects of key processes across the full range of scales from local to global. It will also require fundamental advances in our ability to address such issues as the behavior of complex selforganizing systems, the responses, some irreversible, of the nature society system to multiple and interacting stresses, and the options for combining different ways of knowing and learning so that social actors with different agendas can act in concert under conditions of uncertainty and limited information. Energy recovery from MSW is already contributing to reducing global and local environmental impacts. The potential contribution and cost of deployment are such that it is likely to continue to make a contribution on a par with other renewable technologies currently entering the market place. Deployment of MSW energy recovery should be encouraged wherever it presents a viable and attractive way of integrating with recycling and re-use activities and minimising the impact of waste disposal. Energy recovery from waste can reduce emissions of greenhouse gas and other gaseous, liquid and solid pollutants, has a great potential for assisting in meeting the Kyoto obligations, and can significantly contribute to sustainable development.
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Sustainable Development in India: Stocktaking in the run up to Rio+20, Prepared and published by TERI (The Energy and Resources Institute), New Delhi, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, 2011 Businessweek. (2010) Cisco: Giving Back Is “Good Business” | Bloomberg Businessweek. [Online] Available from: http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2005-08-10/cisco-giving-back-is-goodbusiness [Accessed 01/09/12]. Polman, P. (2012) In: Ignatius, A. Captain Planet | HBR. Harvard Business Review. 90 (6), p.114 Amutha Rani, D., Boccaccini, A.R., Deegan, D., Cheeseman, C.R., 2008. Air pollution control residues from waste incineration: Current UK situation and assessment of alternative technologies. Waste Management 28, 2279-2292. Bovea, M.D., Powell, J.C., 2006. Alternative scenarios to meet the demands of sustainable waste management. Journal of environmental management 79, 115-132. Burnley, S., 2001. The impact of the European landfill directive on waste management in the United Kingdom. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 32, 349-358. Burnley, S.J., 2007. A review of municipal solid waste composition in the United Kingdom. Waste Management 27, 1274-1285. Contreras, F., Hanaki, K., Aramaki, T., Connors, S., 2008. Application of analytical hierarchy process to analyze stakeholders preferences for municipal solid waste management plans, Boston, USA. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 52, 979-991. DECC, 2012. The Future of Heating: A strategic framework for low carbon heat in the UK, Department of Energy & Climate Change. DECC, 2013. Renewable Obligation Certificate (ROC) Banding, Department of Energy and Climate Change. Defra, 2011a. Environmental Statistics – Key Facts. Accessed 21st January 2013, Available from: www.defra.gov.uk/statistics/files/Environmental-key-statistics-Dec-2011.pdf defra, 2011b. Local authority collected waste management statistics for England – final release of quarters 1, 2, 3 AND 4 2010/11. Defra, 2012. Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme. Accessed 17th October 2012, Available from: www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/local-authorities/landfill-scheme/ ElementEnergy, 2011. Achieving Deployment of Renewable Heat. Element Energy Limited, Cambridge.
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14. Sustainability and Waste Management, Susan A. Thorneloe and Keith A. Weitz, Air Pollution Prevention and Control Division, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 27711, USA, Thorneloe.Susan@epa.gov, Center for Environmental Analysis, RTI , International (RTI), 3040 Cornwallis Road, ResearchTriangle Park, NC 27709, USA. kaw@rti.org 15. Energy from waste plant, Oxford, United Kingdom. Courtesy AEA Technology Environment, United Kingdom. 16. Anon. 1997.The ATLAS project: Energy Technology Information Base 1980-2010, a. THERMIE STR/519/95, European Commission DG XVII. b. http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy/library/atlas.pdf 17. Anon. 2001.Towards a sustainable energy future, OECD/IEA. a. www.iea.org/public/studies/sustain.htm 18. Anon. 2003. Proceedings of the Waste Symposium 2003: 4th International Symposium onWaste Treatment Technologies (Thermal, Non-Thermal and Clean-up). Sheffield, United Kingdom. In press. 19. Smith, A., Brown, K., Ogilvie, S., Ruston, K. and Bates, J. 2001.Waste managementoptions and climate change: Final report of a study contract for the European Commission Directorate General Environment undertaken by AEA Technology.http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/waste/studies/climate_change.htm 20. Tuhkanen, S., Pipatti, R., Sipil채, K. and M채kinen,T. 2000.The effect of new solid waste treatment systems of greenhouse gas emissions. Fifth International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies (GHGT-5). Cairns, Australia. 21. Watson, R.T. et al. (Eds.). 2001. Climate Change 2001:Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. ********
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Chapter- VIII-45 In search of sustainability of urban solid waste management the emerging second USWM ‘Revolution’ in Bangalore Hoysall N. Chanakya Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India Email: chanakya@astra.iisc.ernet.in Abstract The management, processing and disposal of urban solid wastes (USW) is firstly an aesthetic and environmental issue and secondly a sustainability issue that few cities across the world have come to grips with these two components in a satisfactory manner. The citizens and city governance of Bangalore were pioneers in India to take up the issue of USW management (USWM) on a large scale over a quarter century ago driven primarily by aesthetic and secondly by environmental (including health) concerns. While publicly discussing these issues, the energy angle emerged in a big way c.1994 and thus emerged the spirit behind the PIL that gave birth to the MSW Rules 2000. Today, over a decade after elaborate implementation attempts across Karnataka, the energy and sustainability issues have re-emerged squarely. Bangalore USW is unique with >85% fermentables and high moisture. This property challenges centralized treatment systems as being energy, resource and socially wasteful to carry a predominantly water bearing material over long distances making decentralized systems more appropriate. Today since the single and large centralized treatment and disposal system has also failed to provide environmentally safe treatment option, the city is thrown into a crisis of “unlifted” garbage full of fermenting food, flies and odoriferous leachate. From this experience the city is now going ahead with several decentralized and centralized anaerobic digesters that has found renewed interest and is a lesson for towns and cities of India. The current discharge patterns and technology access favour decentralized options that have lower costs, lower environmental foot-prints and negative C-emissions compared to the current types of centralized options. Decentralized, ward level ‘fermentable-USW’ processing plants obviate the need for daily transport of USW over long distances using fossil fuels, generates energy locally (for local uses) and favours high levels of recycling of dry wastes hitherto not possible. Such practices also lead us to the concept of “near zero-waste metropolis”. This paper discusses the sustainability (technological, planning, social and environmental) transformations occurring in Bangalore that seem to enable this dream to become a reality.
Introduction Bangalore is a city that has been a subject of several infrastructure improvement and developmental studies as well as debates on the USWM components starting as early as the ‘80s (Reddy and Vyasulu, 1987). Very early in this history of USW studies the resource (soil conditioner and nutrients), economic (including energy and resource recycling), social (USW dependents), threat (environmental and health) and (to a lesser extent) sustainability dimensions have been studied, analyzed, reported and incorporated gradually into city planning and implementation. ASTRA is perhaps one of the few academic units that carried out a detailed study on the composition of USW from generation to its being dumped in open landfills outside city limits. The analysis also quantified the extent and types of USW components that were picked up and sent for recycling (ASTRA, 1987; Rajabapaiah, 1988; Nunan 2000 ). Further on, the social dimensions of resource recovery by ‘itinerant rag picker’ and their role in then and future USWM plans have been well studied and attempts were also made to integrate them into modern decentralized USWM systems (Rozario et al, 1992). While, the itinerant rag pickers were one of the starting points of the recycling system, Bangalore is also known to be a key city in South India with a large and effective recycling industry involving several stages of value addition (Nunan, 2000). Several attempts have also been carried out to evolve city level models involving predominantly small-scale decentralized collection accompanied by treatment and recycling while minimizing the extent of USW consigned for landfills (INEP, 2003; 2008; Velu et al, 1994). The major driver for most of the early studies had been the haphazard collection systems involving long holding time in street bins, the dispersion of collected wastes in these bins and also interference by street animals and sometimes by rag-pickers (Chanakya et al, 2005). The problem perceived was generally that of the aesthetic one in the early days and a little later on an issue of health (especially after the Surat episode). It has also been shown to be an energy and environmental issue in the nineties (Velu et al, 1994). These studies advocated household level collection systems as well as “low volume transporters” to meet the efficiency, energy, environment, aesthetic and social needs and thinking of that period and is reproduced here. “Collection of garbage from individual house holds (HH) using rag pickers overcomes all the evils inherent in the conventional system. Door to door collection of sorted or unsorted garbage removes the need for
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maintaining a roadside bin. Secondly as the primary solid waste is delivered to the rag pickers themselves littering during picking recyclables from DB's is also avoided. Finally USW would be sorted by the rehabilitated rag picker, who in turn would dispose the non recyclables at pre designated sites for onward transport or treatment. This arrangement serves two purposes 1. No litter would be found in the residential areas covered by such an arrangement. 2. Greater quantities of USW would be available at a fewer locations making the task of collection trucks much simpler and effecting greater savings in daily fuel consumption. Examples exist of NGOs having successfully achieved this objective.” (Velu et al, 1994). The rationale for advocating a decentralized collection system was strengthened by the energy inefficiency concepts arising out a typical 10ton truck collecting a 30kg load of garbage from each street bin in 5 minutes, consuming about 15L diesel per hour and taking about 8-10 hours for one full load of 4-5tons. This would translate to 35L diesel per ton of USW street bin collection alone (350MCals/t, 257kg CO2/t USW collected) and is therefore energy-wise extremely inefficient. In today’s parlance it also possible to show that it increased the environmental footprint from the collection activity. In most of the cities with poorly filled street bins, in order to overcome this above problem, the collection trucks would normally clear the USW from such bins once every 3-4days only so that the collection quantity per visit was large enough and economic. However, fermentable wastes tend to become odoriferous and an olfactory pollution if allowed to continue spoilage for over 24h in typical Bangalore weather and faster during humid and warm rainy periods. The composition (with high levels of fermentables) therefore significantly decided the collection options that were technically sensible and socially acceptable. The more frequent (daily) collection system while being ideal would be energetically speaking inefficient leaving behind a large environmental footprint. This left out the issue of the large number of rag-pickers who were dependent upon this activity for their daily incomes. It also required that the ragpickers be involved in this collection and transport system. Although the three tier sustainability was not defined as it is done today, the role of the rag picker as a key player in the recycling system and transforming the dirty task to a socially acceptable one was the key to social sustainability that we conceive and advocate today. Similarly, facilitating the rag-picker and subsequent recyclers by segregating at source was the key to an efficient recycling system where paper and plastics (polythene) formed the bulk of the non-fermentable components of the wastes.
Sustainability Components In today’s understanding of the ‘triple bottom line’ approach to sustainability there exists an interplay between the three 'pillars' of sustainability namely, a.economic, b.social and c.environmental components of sustainability. This is more so today – although there is a strong deviation in weightages to each of these from the earlier understanding of these components and the interaction of these components of sustainability. The economic understanding of sustainability has been the most transformed and interesting of these pillars. A brief introduction of the changes to economic understanding of sustainability is presented here. Economic Sustainability The early drivers of economic sustainability have largely been cost reduction of the collection process (operating system) to an urban local body (ULB, government body) run system. The collection system was generally welfare driven and was intended to reach everybody and often wasteful or poorly optimized. The collection system as discussed and criticized earlier (Velu et al, 1994), required large trucks that collected between 30-50kg from each road-side bin that were normally placed about 100-200m apart from each other on each street. This has been shown to be very much fossil fuel intensive and therefore expensive especially since a truck of 10ton capacity needs to travel slowly at walking pace and remain with its engine running and needing a stop of about 3-5 minutes at each street bin only to collect between 30-50kg of USW. This was especially important because USW around these bins were most often littered by the action of rag-pickers as well as by large animals such as dogs, pigs and cattle that scavenged recyclables or edible portions of the food wastes within (ASTRA, 1987; Velu et al, 1994). During this period, as domestic USW and street sweepings (largely fallen leaves and some dust) were also mixed and put into these bins, such USW made excellent material for composting. The Karnataka Compost Development Corporation (KCDC) that started around 1978 became a profitable entity that paid for all its expenses and also held a small surplus even as a government run corporation. The presence of leaf litter emerging from street sweepings as well as from domestic wastes (most houses had trees and ornamental plants – the “Garden City”). Further, in the absence of excessive use of plastics, much of the wastes were compostable and marketing efforts of KCDC enabled cost recovery and small profits. This also provided inspiration for many ULBs to go in for composting as a processing option. In the post MSW (M&H) Rules 2000 era, once again, as the ULBs were expected to create the necessary collection, transportation, processing and disposal infrastructure that would make the overall process measured as cost of handling a ton of USW from collection up to disposal stages. Between the years 2003 to 2010 the
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overall contracting and bidding systems were streamlined and codified â&#x20AC;&#x201C; so much so a simple thumb rule was evolved for the bid processes based on the extent of USW that was expected to be land-filled by the contractor (generally assumed to be 30% of the total USW collected). This approach led to various unexpected and undesirable outcomes instead of helping the small and dispersed ULBs to rapidly accept and adopt an economically viable USW management system, this short-cut procedure led to contractors at various towns and cities to increase the quantity of USW consigned to the landfills. In such cases greater the quantity sent to landfills, greater was the profitability to the contractors because they were paid tipping fees based on the extent of material landfilled. This did not give room to the ideal concept of an efficient recycling and processing system that avoided or greatly minimized the wastes consigned for landfills. As a result, most landfills planned for a life of 20-25 years and designed based on a <10% USW to be landfilled scenario. It was even assumed that with time and experience, the extent of USW consigned to landfills will rapidly decrease considering that there was a fortune in materials that could be recycled and such economic incentives would naturally encourage recycling and reduction of need for landfills. The following text on the composition clearly explains that the future would go towards low demands on the landfills.
Composition and Contribution from different Sectors The composition of USW in Bangalore is unique because firstly, a major part of the USW collected originates from the domestic sector (55%, Chanakya and Sharatchandra, 2008; Figures 1 and 2). Second, the composition is dominated by fermentables that are largely emerging from food as well as fruit and vegetable wastes (60-85%; Chanakya and Sharatchandra, 2008; Chanakya et al, 2009). Over 85% of the wastes are rapidly fermentable and emerges from only three sources, households (HH), eateries (hotels, restaurants and marriage halls) and fruit and vegetable markets (Table 1, Fig 2). Owing to this rapidly fermentable nature, USW generated needs to be lifted daily. Table 1: Composition of USW in Bangalore (% by weight) Domestic
Market s
Hotels/ eatery
Trade and commercial
Slums
71.5 8.39
90 3
76 17
15.6 56.4
29.9 2.49
Park /street sweepings 90 2
1.39
0.33
3.95
0.54
0
1.01
2.29 6.94 0.29
0.23 2 0.26
0.65 16.6 0.38
8.43 1.72 0.23
0 3 0
1.43 6.23 0.23
8.06 4 8.17 56.7 Source: TIDE, 2000; Chanakya and Sharatchandra, 2008
5
6.53
Waste type
Fermentable Paper and cardboard Cloth, rubber, PVC, leather Glass Polythene/plastics Metals Dust and sweeping
7
Fig 1: Composition of USW
72 11.6
Domestic Markets Hotels and eatery Trade and commercial Slums Street sweeping and parks
Fermentable Paper /cardboard cloth, rubber, PVC, etc Glass Plastics Metals Dust & sweeping Fig 2: Contribution of sectors
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Composition of USW, Sector-wise Generation and Collection Methods The household sector dominates the USW generation and has predominantly fermentables. Today as a lot of development has taken place leading to significantly improved homes, the extent of dust collected from daily sweeping of houses is relatively insignificant compared to the past. Much of the HH generated USW is collected today from door to door and occurs between 0630 and 0930am using small hand carts, tri-cycles and auto-tippers. As a result, this collection system receives a majority of HH generated USW instead of mixed USW as was in the past. This waste therefore contains predominantly moist fermentables, and if collected in a segregated manner, much of these wastes could be treated in locally installed modern biomethanation /composting plants without need for elaborate transportation needs (Velu et al, 1994). Today, the corporations spend up to Rs1500/ton of USW transported. From the composition, it may be surmised that with about 50-70% moisture, a major cost of transportation is for carting away the moisture content of the USW. The decentralization of treatment of fermentables avoids this. Most of the modern high-rise buildings, large apartment blocks and institutions have now been stipulated to treat the solid wastes on their premises. As a result, many of these apartment blocks and institutions opt for aerobic composting or biomethanation. Having seen the successful implementation of such systems, the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (Greater Bangalore Metropolitan Corporation, BBMP) has also gone in for biomethanation in a big way. About 20 decentralized plants have been taken up for construction in selected wards of BBMP. Further, an attempt is being made to collect restaurant (food) wastes separately and treat them by a biomethanation plant dedicated to this waste (about 200tpd size). Similarly, efforts are being made to build and operate a 600tpd “wet-segregated” USW treating plant on a design, finance, build, operate and transfer (DFBOT) basis. All these go out to show that urban waste management options are being now linked to energy outputs or energy based revenues. Much of the waste to energy options are not merely converting wastes to energy but in reality it is a complex milieu of energy, wastes and social development options as discussed subsequently.
Composition and Energy Option Considering that much of the USW is really in some form domestic food and kitchen wastes (Figures 1 and 2) that tend to decompose easily (Chanakya et al, 2009) and have fermentation properties that favour biomethanation (Chanakya et al, 1998), it is important to make a choice between getting rid of wastes ‘at any cost’ [using centralized or decentralized composting options] or using wastes as a resource for recovery of multiple outputs such as “energy, nutrient recovery and creating value added products (VAP)”. This latter VAP option makes USW treatment and disposal an economic and sustainable option in the long term. It must be emphasized that in the past several “waste to energy” options based on combustion of wastes have been tried in India. However, owing to the high moisture content or due to the high mineral content, these direct energy recovery options have failed. It is therefore important to look for options that address sustainability goals rather than merely economic /commercial goals. While addressing these, the options for USW to energy become narrow. Owing to the high moisture content of the USW, drying and direct combustion, firstly denies the recovery and utilization of the primary nutrient content such as N, S, and several micro nutrients and organic matter for soil (humus). The high moisture content in USW of Bangalore reduces the energy recovery for options that can recover heat through direct and indirect combustion routes. For example, when the fermentable organic content of USW is about 85% and 50% of this is moisture, heat content of USW is very low (3100 Kcal/kg X 85% X 50% = 1318kCal). This level borders the limit where sustained combustion can take place. Further, the current Supreme Court Guidelines clearly indicate that when the fermentable component of USW is more than 5% of total weight, such USW should not be burnt or landfilled. Landfilling such a wet and easily decomposable leachate tends to produce a high level of dark and odoriferous leachates that are difficult to treat or get rid off. Most often they infiltrate into ground water and render it unusable. At a few locations in the country, attempts have been made to segregate the USW received at the processing site into fermentables and non-fermentables using a set of dry sieving techniques (trommels). The wet and fermentable components are composted in open yards while the remaining dry wastes are further segregated into plastics, clothes, rags and paper (fluff) which are briquetted and converted to energy by direct combustion or through gasification. In such cases, e.g. of Mandur South, a major part of the USW is consigned for composting without recovering its energy content. An ideal option that maximizes the energy recovery from USW is a combination of biomethanation of the fermentables along with the reuse of anaerobically digested residues (liquid and solids) in agriculture. The combustible biogas produced by anaerobic digestion would be used as LPG substitute or for captive power generation. Quite often, because MSW Rules (2000) permits only two treatment options for the fermentable component of USW, it is advisable that biomethanation plants be set up first and only then segregated collection be taken up. In the normal case, most of the time segregation and door to door collection is attempted very early in the USWM cycle while the technology infrastructure to use segregated wastes is established up very late in the cycle. During such a long interval between setting up a good collection system and a good processing system, the urban population would have gone back to non-segregated discharge and collection of USW. This
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
has been the case of Bangalore and needs to be avoided in other cities that are now establishing the USW infrastructure.
Social Sustainability Current Approaches to USW Infrastructure The need to abide by the MSW(M&H) Rules 2000 necessitates that the state and the urban local bodies (ULB) take a lead in the creation of USWM infrastructure at all the cities and towns of the state. In Karnataka State it is the Department of Municipal Administration (DMA) that oversees this and therefore according to the availability of financial resources in the state, it allocates the same to various ULBs under it. A typical process for this system along with responsibilities are presented in Figure 3 below.
Figure 3: Processes highlighting activities and responsibilities to be taken up at a ULB for SWM. It is seen from the above that in the logical sequence followed by typical ULBs have always been to first create a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;draft action planâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; with four clear components as indicated in Figure 3. Park and street sweeping is an activity (#2) that was always being done by the municipalities. In the new scenario it is expected that the park and street sweeping would be greatly reduced when the USW is collected daily and from door to door, reducing the needs of local citizens to spread litter around streets and parks. However, engaging with communities and providing the IEC supports is generally contracted to NGOs in this area. This leaves the third and fourth components i.e. arranging for the door to door collections using small-sized motorized and non-motorized collection vehicles as the additional activities that would be taken up by the ULBs and added to the current list. This provides immediate visibility to the local bodies and is therefore taken up immediately. Most of the available financial resources are spent on this rapidly. As a result it was found that most ULBs in Karnataka as well varios wards in Bangalore have reached a very desirable level of compliance and capability with respect to this component. However, very few ULBs (including BBMP) have completed the fourth component of creating a socially and environmentally acceptable processing, recycling and disposal infrastructure for USW. In Bangalore there are only two processing and disposal sites that together are capable of handling only about a third of the wastes generated today. As a result over two thirds of the USW is being landfilled without being processed or rendered inert. Further, both these sites are in the northern periphery of Bangalore and wastes collected from all over Bangalore needs to reach this site â&#x20AC;&#x201C; sometimes covering as much as 40km of travel through the city. At a daily generation of about 3600t and a >90% clearance this accounts for over 600 truck loads reaching these two sites. Such a system is therefore inefficient and raises a question as to what should be
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
the minimum number of processing units for large towns and cities as well as the question as to how to resolve the issue of centralization versus decentralization. This also raises the issue of the sequence in which the infrastructure needs to be readied â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the current collection system to processing and disposal, as we see in the case of Bangalore, is not ideal because it raises hopes of clean cities and surroundings and this has remained unfulfilled for periods ranging between 12 and 20 years in different cities. Also the reverse sequence of first completing the treatment and processing systems and and only then taking up the collection system is politically not acceptable and is financially less attractive. This leaves the approach of creating the infrastructure sector and segment wise â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a yet untested approach which also threatens the social components of sustainability. Centralized Vs Decentralized
Figure 4: Map of unauthorized dumpsites in and around Bangalore city. Among a total of 993 illegal dumps in and around the city, 339 were inside old city boundary and 654 dumps were found at the newly created city boundary (periphery, data prior to May 2012.
Centralized one or two USW processing and disposal system infrastructure shows up as economically efficient, capable of financially sound companies and JVs to operate with economic efficiency and sustainability; easy to monitor and control (including placing orders /contracts). As seen in this study and in many other cities of India, a single centralized system has become vulnerable to several types of socio-political forces and can easily be stopped (interrupted) without any prior notice or ability to adopt or switch to alternative methods. Environmentally, politically, aesthetically and real-estate motivated blockades of the single large USW treatment system are common in India and is a lesson learnt from at least three Indian cities in south India, namely Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and Bangalore. In the last three months, USW in Bangalore was left uncleared in most areas for periods of over three weeks leading to a major scare of epidemics. Although, financially speaking a single large system enjoys economy of scale, is easy to monitor and administer, such a vulnerability to blockades and peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; opposition brings about unheard of risks that are never considered in all the processes of planning that is currently taken up for creating USW treatment and processing systems. Obviously, multiple systems are now desirable. In a large city like Bangalore, only two USW processing and treatment systems in the north, receiving about 300 trucks each daily is a nightmare both from the point of view of management and its relative monopoly. It leaves large risks in case they are closed. Incidents such as the most recent opposition and blockades make the presence of centralized systems vulnerable to abrupt non-technical causes of stoppages and leaves behind no or very limited alternative options. Multiple and decentralized systems are therefore ideal in such situations and is applicable to all cities in India. Further, as seen for Bangalore, taking 600 USW truck-trips through city roads to a single location is also
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poor planning as well as socially, environmentally and economically wasteful. Ideally, USW collection and transport needs to always move away from the heart of the city towards its periphery where the processing, recycling and disposal systems can be located. In the case of Bangalore there is thus potential for 8-12 locations that allow radially outward movement of USW therefore indicating suitability of quasi-centralized and radially located USW processing and disposal stations that appear suitable with current growth and land availability patterns. This approach is expected to reduce the distance of daily USW transportation, makes possible USW movement from densely populated areas to sparsely populated peripheral areas, reduce incidents of forced and unauthorized dumping of USW across the cities (Shwetmala et al, 2011; Figure 4). Owing to the risk of carrying USW late in the evening to a closed USW processing facility, very often 2-5% of truckloads of USW is dumped on roadsides leading to the processing facilities. In Bangalore over 600 such locations have been identified (ASTRA, unpublished study). Easy truck access to a large number of decentralized USW processing facilities reduce sporadic incidences of unauthorized dumping habits described earlier. At over half of these ‘illegal’ dumpsites on the periphery of Bangalore, most wastes are rejects from recycling industries and building debris (30-35%). Therefore it is wise to site the recycling industries close to the waste processing sites itself by providing various incentives for such recycling systems to come-up in these decentralized locations. There is also a need to find alternatives to recycle and reuse building debris – a clear problem for all urbanizing metropolises.
Scale of Decentralization In reality, most of the cities today practice a combination of largely centralized USW processing and disposal systems as well as decentralized systems for institutions and large housing complexes which are mandated by law to manage and process their wastes. They are generally allowed to dispose only materials suitable for landfills. Today many laws passed by the city corporations, the State Departments of Environment as well as the State Pollution Control Boards (PCB) which stipulate that large group housing systems, apartment blocks and institutions need to manage and treat their solid wastes as per provisions of MSW(M&H) Rules 2000. This means that USW needs to be segregated at source in these units in order to enable recovery of reyclables and subjecting fermentables to composting or biomethanation. In Bangalore there have been successful models of recovery and reuse of recyclables such as plastics, paper and metals by ITC supported recycling endeavour, or housing complex level processing system (Exnora). Such efforts have been ‘successful’ only when there exists firstly a critical size and second there is sufficient motivation in the locality. In most of such cases these efforts have been spearheaded by a single person and the systems collapse after these yeomen leave or retire. Similarly, in the case of the fermentables, there have been a variety of technologies adopted by such systems and range in sizes between 2kg to nearly 2-3 ton/day of fermentable wastes. The technologies range from forced air composting, mixed waste composting, vermicomposting and even a few biogas plants. Today, in many cases because the builders have not provided any space for waste processing (especially in older apartment dwelling units or institutions), the most popular systems are the waste pulverizer-composters that take up a lot of vertical space, energy, skilled manpower and therefore indirecty are handled at a large unit costs (Rs/kg wet waste). Although these are uneconomic and energy intensive these ‘waste composters’ are being run largely because of their advantage of being smaller (in size) compared to other options and mostly because of their ability to be operated from basements. In the more modern and emerging dwelling units, where space is compulsorily being made available for waste processing, there is an emerging preference for anaerobic digesters. Similarly, many planners are also attempting to create ward level anaerobic treatment systems. Further, because of the inconveniences caused by the current situation of having no USW clearance on a daily basis, many homes and small apartments are attempting to go in for their own waste processing unit in the form of biogas plants. Several entrepreneurs have also brought in new forms of anaerobic digesters /biogas plants to the market. Today urban biogas plants have become available from sizes of 2kg per day to 5 tons per day (tpd; Figure 5). While most of the cattle dung digester design derived models require domestic wastes to be first be nearly 100% segregated and secondly pulverized /ground into a slurry before feeding USW into such biogas plants, R&D has also evolved to use fermentable wastes intact without size reduction. In such a rapid transition from ULB based centralized collection as well as an adaptation to these new technologies of aerobic ‘composting machines’ and ‘biomethanation plants’ many serious problems have emerged because today there are no standards for the method /materials of construction of these devices, their performances or outputs and byproducts produced from such anaerobic digestion units. As a consequence many USW biogas digesters have been sold in various metros of South India at a wide range of prices; quite often by vendors without any past experience of maintaining such units. Therefore sustainability requires that technology followup and service infrastructure is an urgent need as well as a need to create standards, quality control measures and follow-up support for these plants to deliver what is desired of them. Most important to cognize in this situation is that there is now some kind of partial trade-off between economic and ‘control’ efficiency of centralized treatment and processing plants on the one side and the decentralized, smaller biomethanation plants where the biogas and digested slurry will be used by
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
local entrepreneurs or residents increasing stake for long term operation as well as social sustainability. Thus in today’s USW crisis of Bangalore, a new equilibrium in this trade-off has not been found and is expected to be slow process. This when gradually achieved would lead to a new understanding, social responsibility, social efficiency driven treatment plants and recycling units that can be expected to greatly strengthen the bottomline foundation of social sustainability – increase the stake of local residents while evolving competition from earlier large scale landfill and USW transport contractors. While many cities have given up finding this new equilibrium, the citizen’s bodies are moving in towards a new equilibrium and this process, aided by the judicial processes is expected to provide new technology options as well as new responsibilities at the residential locality level.
Figure 5: Biogas plants for USW available range from a paltry 2kg/d (left) to a 2 ton per day (right). An even larger impasse is of the consequences of large scale usage of decentralized biogas plants for USW processing on the environment. For example there is little understanding as to what will happen to digested household wastes, predominantly food and fruit and vegetable wastes that constitute over 85% of the domestic USW. When such is the composition of USW will there be any compost generation at all? And if so why will these predominantly perishable material form compost. If all the wheat and rice based food wastes and vegetable rejects in USW are converted to a digested liquid full of fine particles where will this digester liquid be disposed by a typical apartment house? Will this liquid wastes be disposed off into the sewers and thereby increase the load on STPs – i.e. convert a solid waste problem to liquid waste problem?
Importance of Segregation on Technologies Adopted One of the key assumptions underlying the emerging USW processing and management is that the average citizen will segregate household wastes into fermentables and dry wastes (or as suggested by the urban local bodies (ULB) from time to time. This requires a strong interaction between the ULB and the predominant and the ‘unorganized’ USW producer, the citizen. This also needs ensuring social components of USWM sustainability components. This far, most of the source-level segregation is founded on the understanding and acceptance of the average citizen’s responsibility or an acceptance of civic responsibility of ensuring reasonably perfect household level segregation – primary segregation. The segregation into wet and dry has been the most ideal segregation that needs to be done at the household level. However, while this approach and strategy was being thought as most ideal, the BBMP in its current drive has attempted to collect USW in six different (segregated) categories namely, Wet Waste, Dry Waste, Garden Waste, Debris and Rubbish (inerts), Sanitary Waste, and Household Hazardous Waste. This approach however, assumes and expects citizens who perhaps have never segregated wastes in their entire life to now (quickly) segregate HH USW into these six categories as specified by the BBMP within a month of the announcement – which is also unlikely to provide ideal results. In the first month after this declaration, a preliminary survey of a single ward suggested that unlike anticipated, only about 13% of a cross section of the respondents could segregate as per the stipuation of the BBMP. Such trends indicate that it will take a much longer time than expected for all the citizens to comply with such complex methods of USW segregation and feed into the local recycling /energy recovery system. And since, the success of the downstream processing technologies depend heavily on the compliance to proper segregation, in the absence of a good segregation system, it is unlikely that the centralized and decentralized USW processing technologies
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will function effectively and achieve the desired results. This process and perfection of HH level segregation will be crucial to all other cities that take up a city level USWM and this lesson from Bangalore is important to take cognizance of.
Figure 6: Dark leachate emerging from direct landfilling of USW in Bangalore.
Environmental Sustainability The current use of large treatment, processing and disposal systems have largely functioned as merely landfills and open dumps operated out the â&#x20AC;&#x153;in-distressâ&#x20AC;? situation. As a result there is a large build up of leachates at these sites and there is little attempt to treat it and render it environment-friendly as well as economically viable. As much of these are considered necessary evil, complete processing of USW prior to landfilling does not occur and landfills leak out large quantities of leachate (Figure 6). This leachate is neither treated and recirculated back to the landfill t oenhance the decomposition process within nor converted to economically useful byproducts that avoids its accumulation and concomitant accidental discharge and creating environmental liabilities to nearby areas. To a large extent, the current method of simple contracting procedure generally encourages maximizing landfilling of USW (even without treatment), because for the accounting system related to the tipping fees, it is necessary to maximize landfilling to maximize profits to contractors. On the other hand, the ideal practice would be to penalize increased use of landfills and reward lower use of landfills brought about by higher levels of resource recovery and materials recycled. In this way the current contracting systems are environmentally unfriendly and needs to be changed. The delays in collection, use of temporary storage areas to minimize transportation infrastructure (lower trucks), lack of co-ordination between the primary collection and their pick up by large vehicles is conducive to short duration holding of USW is specific points. This increases the leachates, incidences of insects and undesirable vectors. Unaesthetic surroundings, etc. The current system of collection and transport and the use of a single processing and landfill site maximizes the use of fossil-fuel based transport and thereby providing a high C-footprint. Similarly the mixed waste dumping in landfills (against the MSW rules) increases potential of methane releases and GHG-footprint of the system. Ot one of the ULBs have attempted to sell certified (or voluntary) emission reductions wherein minimizing landfill needs and minimizing input of deceomposable organic material into landfills should provide a higher reward than not adhering to good practices. In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s practices there is neither emission accounting nor provision for making these compulsory to enhance profitability. Unless these are brought in, environmental sustainability of USW processing in centralized systems would be poor and requiring alternative strategies to achieve the same.
Conclusion The 25 year lesson learnt in Bangalore about the segregation, collection, processing and disposal through single centralized plants and its vulnerability to socio-political forces is a lesson to be learnt by other cities in India going in for USWM and take necessary precautions to avoid the same pitfalls. The contracting systems and procedures need to penalize higher use of landfills (or dumping) and economically reward increased recycling and resource recovery.
References Application of Science and Technology to Rural Areas (ASTRA Centre), 1987. Bangalore, a preliminary report.
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Chanakya, HN, K.G Srikumar, V Anand, J Modak, K.S Jagadish, Fermentation properties of agro-residues, leaf biomass and urban market garbage in a solid phase biogas fermenter, Biomass and Bioenergy, Volume 16, Issue 6, June 1999, Pages 417-429. Chanakya HN, Rajabapaiah P and Modak M (2004). Evolving biomass-based biogas plants: the ASTRA experience. Curr. Sci. 87:917-925. Chanakya HN, Sharatchandra HC (2008). Nitrogen pool, flow impact and sustainability issues of human waste management in the city of Bangalore. Current Science, Vol:94 (11):pp1447-1454 Chanakya, HN, Isha Sharma, T.V. Ramachandra, Micro-scale anaerobic digestion of point source components of organic fraction of municipal solid waste, Waste Management, Volume 29, Issue 4, April 2009, Pages 13061312 Chanakya HN, Shwetmala, Ramachandra TV (2011) Estimating Unauthorized Dumping of USW around Cities. In Sustainable Waste Management. Ed Sadhan Ghosh. Vol 2. 636-646. Oxford Publishing House, Kolkata. ISBN 81-86862-41-2 (Proc. ICON-SWM2011, Kolkata INEP (Indo-Norwegian Environment Project, KSCST, Bangalore 2003). Proposal for setting up demo biogas plants for USW in Chikkamagalur and Raichur towns. INEP (Indo-Norwegian Environment Project, KSCST, Bangalore 2008). Final report of sub-project â&#x20AC;&#x153;conversion of USW to biogas in small towns. Nunan F (2000). Urban organic waste markets: responding ot change in Hubli-Dharwad, India. Habitat International 24:347-360. Rajabapaiah P (1988). "Preliminary study on energy from Bangalore garbage." Bangalore: Indian Institute of Science. Typescript, unpublished. ASTRA Technical Report, IISc, Bangalore. Rosario Anslem (1994). . "Socio-environmental initiatives in solid waste management in southern cities: developing international comparisons." Workshop on Linkages in Urban Solid Waste Management, pp. P1- PI3." Bangalore: April, 16 1994. Karnataka State Council for Science and Technology. Shwetmala, Chanakya HN, Ramachandra TV (2011). Assessment of solid wastes choking open sewers and vulnerability to urban flooding. In Sustainable Waste Management. Ed Sadhan Ghosh. Vol 1. pp213-220. Oxford Publishing House, Kolkata. ISBN 81-86862-41-2 Velu JS (Capt.), Chanakya HN and Dinesh KJ (2004). Urban solid waste management: USWM-Model â&#x20AC;&#x2122;94. Proc. of Natl. Workshop on Linkages in USWM; KSCST-UA-BCC, 16 April 1994. KSCST, IISc Bangalore.
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Chapter- VIII-46 Resource utilization and environmental management R.K. Srivastava,* A.K. Shukla & K.K. Dube Environmental Research Laboratory, P.G. Deptt. of Environmental Science, Govt. Model Science College (Autonomous), Jabalpur, M.P., India Email: srivastavaratna@yahoo.co.in Abstract Environment is very complex entity, any compartment of environment which supports the life is called biosphere. The components of the environment are getting polluted due to various activities, principally by human beings. India is a rapidly industrializing nation. Management of environment specially resource, continues to be an important challenge we are facing in this century. Generation of variety of wastes causes deterioration in the quality of environment, ultimately affecting the health and safety of human beings. Proper resource utilization is the fundamental aspect for environmental management and Waste Management is the integral part of sustainability of environment. In the present paper various aspects of waste management, resource utilization and environmental management are discussed. Human survival depends on the principles of sustainable living through appropriate ecosystem management. Evaluation of relationship between man and the nature requires a holistic approach. The need of such an approach has been realized during recent years due to mounting pressure of escalating human population on the natural resources. Increasing industrialization, population, commercialization and consumerism together has formed a highly explosive combination. Number of factors like misuse of nature, destruction and degradation of habitats, contamination and destruction of natural resources are leading to extinction of several species of organisms. The problem of over population, urbanization and industrialization has overstrained our resources. Pollution of the environment has become a subject for national and international considerations. As humanity enters the 21st century, the world is experiencing the ecological strain produced by twentieth century thinking. The onslaught of environmental statistics, darkly portrayed has left many people with a sense of numbers of helpless resignations. In an average day, as estimated 260 thousand peoples are added to the world population, 30-100 species of plants are prematurely extinguished, over 90000 new motor vehicles take on road, 57 metric tones of CO2 are released to the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuel, over 4200 hectares of tropical forests are destroyed, 68 million tones of topsoil are lost to erosion and 38000 children under the age of five die from hunger of contaminated drinking water. Statistical projection of this type help to convey the enormity of environmental challenge but not the pathos that it represents, specially when the collision of people and carrying capacities occur in far away places or future times. We have arrived at the millennium with the means to remake ourselves and the world but without the ecological wisdom to do so safely and sustainably. As we stand on the cuts of new millennium, humankind faces challenges of unprecedented scope, especially environmental challenges. We are more critically dependent than ever on the environmental resource base, energy, water, topsoil, vegetation, biodiversity, climate etc that ultimately underpins all human activities. Yet we are degrading and depleting our environmental resources at rates for surpassing any of the past, and to an extent that is leaving a severely impoverished planet. Coupled with this regrettable insight is a positive insight, that our environmental underplanning as far more valuable in strictly economic terms that we had even supported. Because most environmental goods and services are not tested in the market place and have no price evaluations, they have been treated as not only priceless but also worthless. And for this very reason, they have been misused and overused as if with impurity. Resources are defined by man, not by nature, human beings are continuously surveying the physical environment and assessing the value of particular organic and inorganic elements within it. Before any element can be classified as resource, two basic preconditions must be satisfied, first, the knowledge and technical skill must exist to allow its extraction and utilization and secondly, there must be a demand for materials and services produced. If either of these conditions are not satisfied, then the physical substance remain natural stuff. It is, therefore, human ability and need which create resource value not more physical presence. Anything made available from the physical environment in order to meet our needs and wants may be regarded as resource. They may be made available directly (air, fresh water, soil etc.) or indirectly (groundwater, mineral etc.). Indirect resource require some technology in order to make them available to mankind.
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Physical and biological process of the natural environment system operate in such a way that any change in any part of the environment at any place in a specific time period is suitably compensated by negative feedback mechanism in natural condition. Thus the natural environmental system has inbuilt self regulating mechanism known as “Homeostatic Mechanism”, through which any change in the natural ecosystem/environmental system is counter balanced by responses of system to the change and ultimately ecosystem ability or environmental equilibrium is restored. In other words, any change in the environment brought by the natural processes is suitably compensated by changes in other component. Thus there is a reciprocal relationship between various components of environment. Thus the physical processes create suitable habitats for biological communities & those modify the environment on the other hand. Tremendous increase in human population in the present century has put enormous pressure on natural resources which has resulted into accelerated rate of exploitation of these resources in order to meet the growing demand. All these have modified a few of the components of the environment to such an extent that the adverse effects on the environment can not be set right by the “Homeostatic Mechanism” or self regulatory mechanism of environments. The sustainable development is usually defined as development that meet the needs of present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. Improved living standards depend largely on increased consumption of resources. Therefore, this definition of sustainable development means that present level and method of resource exploitation should not degrade the environment to such an extent that resource availability in future will decline. However, living levels also depend on other environmental factors that are uncorrelated to economic or physical resource yields including the availability of clean air and adequate living space and in many circumstances, people’s ability to maintain a spiritual, cultural and aesthetic relationship with their environment. Environmental management is related to the rational adjustment of man with nature involving judicious exploitation and utilization of natural resources without disturbing the ecological balance and ecosystem equilibrium. Environmental planning and management is a compromise between ecosystem and ecological balance and human material process. Environmental management involves socio economic development of the society on the one hand and maintenance of environmental quality on the other. Conservation and management of resources are the essential prerequisites for environmental planning. Conservation does not mean stoppage of development activities, rather it adds value to available resources through appropriate technology and thus accelerates growth process. Our long term goal for environmental management should be sustainable prosperity for all. Concerted efforts are needed to examine quantitatively the detailed requirements in terms of population, and, resource use and handling of polluting effluents which must be met if we are to find long terms stability. These efforts are necessary to provide a factual support structure for issues such as sustainable development, environmental management and sustainable prosperity. The basic and foremost thing is that how efficiently we utilize our resources and reduce wastes. The efficient utilization of resources can foster more flexible, resilient, diverse, self reliant and sustainable economies. This will move us towards the ultimate goal of providing “The maximum of well being with the minimum of consumption”.
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Chapter- VIII-47 Protecting our planet by recycling waste Narendra Jindal E- 43, Mannipuram Colony, Char Imli, Bhopal, M.P., India Email: narendrajindal48@yahoo.co.in What is environment? Environment is something that makes up our surroundings and affects our ability to live on earth—the air we breathe, the water that covers three–fourth of the earth's surface, the plants, trees and animals around us, and much more.
How is environment affected? We each affect our environment in many ways - driving, flying, and heating our homes. Even the type of food we eat makes a difference. With all these different things to think about, it's hard to work out our overall impact.
What is carbon footprint? Carbon footprint is the total quantum of carbon emissions of an individual or a household as result of air/bus/train travel, uses of electricity and other household appliances.
How can we reduce our footprint? There are many ways by which we can reduce or offset carbon emissions. These include planting trees, switching to CFL/LED bulbs, walking, cycling or using public transport or simply by purchasing carbon credits in the voluntary market I undertook the following activities to reduce my carbon footprint: • Used-Water Recycling • Biogas Plant • Rain-Water Harvesting • Centralized Cooling • Terrace Gardening • Toilet from Beer Bottles • Composting
Used-Water Recycling Source: Kitchen, bathroom and washing machine Set-up: 500 liter storage tank, 500 liter overhead tank, plus 500 (100 liters x 5) liter tank and submersible pump. (The installation cost does not include pipe and drainage pipe cost and fitting charges.) Installation Cost: INR 20,000 (USD 400) Benefits: Filters 1,000 liters of waste water per day; recycled water used for flushing toilet, washing car, watering plants and in biogas plant. Prospects: If 1,000 independent houses adopt this technology at least 1 million liters of waste-water could be saved per day. Imagine the impact on a city?
Biogas Plant (Capacity: 1 cubic meter) Source: Daily kitchen-organic waste (vegetables and food) around 1.5 kgs. Set-up: Digester tank of PVC 1,000 liters, gas holder tank of PVC 750 liters, 4” inlet pipe, valves 4”, outlet pipe 2”, ½” gas pipe, valves, sundry fittings. Installation cost: INR 15,000 (USD 272) Benefits: Daily yield of gas for about one and half hours. The by-product slurry can be used as fertilizer for plants. Prospects: If 1,000 independent houses adopt this technology, 1,500 hours of gas can be produced a day or 547,500 hours/year. Up to 4 tons of garbage can be used in gas production per day, or 1,460 tons/year. The cost incurred in transport and disposal of garbage to dumping ground will thus be saved.
Rain-Water Harvesting Source: Rain water and water overflowing from overhead tanks.
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Set-up: 5 x 5 x 6 ft. pit at a distance of 6 ft from the bore well. Overflowing water connected with pipe to the system. Installation cost: INR 10,000 (USD 181). Benefits: Underground aquifers get charged during the rainy season and also when excess water overflows from overhead tanks. Consequently, underground aquifers are charged continuously. Prospects: If 1,000 independent houses adopt this technology, and assuming that 100,000 liters of water flows in the system from the terrace of 1,000 sq. ft charging underground aquifers during four months of rainy season, 100 million liters of water can be accumulated per year. Imagine the impact!
Fig 1: Used water is recycled in the basement of the Jindal house in Bhopal
Fig 2: Biogas plant erected by Narendra Jindal on the terrace of his house
Fig 3: Some of the biogas generated is used for lighting
Fig 4: A garden on the terrace of the house provides some fresh vegetables
Centralized Cooling Source: Cool air from atmosphere Set-up: One big cooler on terrace fixed with 8â&#x20AC;?diameter PVC pipe connected to a hall and 3 bedrooms with a total area of approximately 700 sq. ft. Installation cost: INR 30,000 (USD 545). Benefits:Cools a hall and three bedrooms, which is equal to the effect of using 4 air-conditioners. The total cost of the ACs would amount to INR100,000 (USD 1,818) plus electricity consumption of 1,000 units/ month, or INR 7,000 (UD$127). Prospects:If 1,000 independent houses adopt this technology, there will be a saving of 1 million units of energy.
Terrace Gardening Source: Soil, plastic sheet, bricks, seeds of vegetables, flowers etc. Set-up: Developed on terrace in an area of 45 x 3 sq ft. Installation cost: INR 10,000 or (USD 181). Benefits: Home-grown organic cabbage, cauliflower, tomatoes, coriander, radish, spinach, beans, peas and other vegetables.
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Prospects: If 1,000 houses utilize similar size terraces for gardening, this would be equivalent to growing vegetables on 3 acres of land. This could help offset tons of carbon emissions per year.
Toilets from Beer Bottles Source: Empty beer bottles Set-up: Used for toilet walls on terrace. (I built only one side for demonstration, but the entire toilet can be constructed this way.) Installation cost: INR 5,000 (USD 90) Benefit: Creative use of waste material in construction. Adequate light in toilet during the day Prospects: If a thousand toilets were built in a similar fashion, imagine the reduction in the volume of dry garbage in the landfills.
Compost Source: Bio-degradable waste (such as mango pits, lime peels and other citric fruits, paper waste (not used in the bio-gas plant), biogas slurry and water. Setup: PVC container of 100 liters, 2 ft. diameter with two holes of 2â&#x20AC;? diameter in opposite direction just above the base on wall of container. The system is set up in the open space on the ground of the house. Installation cost: INR 1,000 (USD 18) Benefits: Compost rich in Nitrogen, Potassium and Phosphorus with no trace of metals can be ready in 60 days. Current market value of compost in Bhopal is about INR 15 (23 US cents) per kg. If wet soil and cow dung are added once a week, the share of NPK in the compost will increase. Prospects: If 1,000 households take up composting, tons of garbage will be saved from being dumped in landfills resulting in immense savings in collection and disposal costs to municipalities. About 50% of Indian garbage comprises organic waste. As seen above, from just a thousand urban households in a single city huge quantities of energy can be produced by use of waste, water can be saved, non-degradable waste can be put to constructive / decorative use.
Challenge of Municipal Solid Waste Management Municipal solid waste management (MSW) in India is a challenge due to sheer volumes and expenses incurred for collection and disposal. The localities, roads and streets are visual eyesore. The data below highlight challenges in MSW management. MSW MANAGEMENT CHALLENGE Number of Indian cities 366 Population of 366 cities 377 Million MSW generation 69 Million Tonnes MSW / Person / Day 0.25 - 0.66 kg (0.5 kg average) Source: Conference on Waste to Energy organized by the Earth Engineering Center, Columbia University, New York; National Environment Engineering Research Institute; (NEERI) and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Mumbai, 25-26 August 2012 About 50% of the waste generated is biodegradable, so if this quantity is recycled within household, municipal corporations will need to manage only the other half.
Waste Within the Household I believe it is possible to install small biogas plants in all households. Low capacity biogas plants do not cost large sums of money and require space equivalent to the size of an overhead water tank. Biogas plants are easy to operate. The maintenance cost is negligible. These plants have life span of 10 years or more and can be built with local materials with the help of a local plumber. Biogas plants can be installed on a roof-top or at ground level so long as they are exposed to sunlight. The salient features of a low-capacity plant is summarised below. BIOGAS PLANTS OPERATING ON BIO WASTE Capacity Space Cost Output (in LPG cylinders) 1 Cubic Meter 2M x 2M INR 15,000 2 / Annum (Minimum) Note: The output is equalised to domestic LPG cylinders in view of cooking value. It is arrived at after observation of a 1 cubic meter biogas plant for 14 months. A one-cubic meter plant can process feed of 1.5 kg to 4 kg / day.
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Financial analysis Household Biogas Plant (Household View) The financial benefits of a low-capacity biogas plant are shown below. The price of domestic LPG cylinder value is valued at INR 500 per cylinder. FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF BIOGAS PLANT (HOUSEHOLD VIEW) Type
Cost
Annual Return
Return
1 Cubic Meter
INR 15,000
INR 1,000
6.6 %
With financial returns lower than bank interest rates, consumers will not have an incentive to install a biogas plant. But several incentives can be provided, nonetheless. Providing a rebate on property tax for those who install a biogas on their premises is one way. The rebate can be INR 1,200 per annum for 8 years for each registered household property, without any ifs and buts. Tax rebate will increase the financial benefit to a household to 14.67%, as shown below: FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF BIOGAS PLANTS (HOUSEHOLD VIEW) Type
Cost
Annual Return
Return
1 Cubic Meter
INR 15,000
INR 2,200
14.67%
Households in apartments complexes or housing societies, who install biogas plants on a co-operative basis, can also be given rebates. Household Biogas Plant (Corporation View) Can municipal corporations afford rebates on property taxes? How the corporations meet financial outflow due to property tax rebate? The expenditures incurred by municipalities in disposing MSW provide part of the answer. Given below are per-capita expenditures in some cities obtained from various sources. EXPENDITURE INCURRED BY MUNICIPALITIES ON MSW DISPOSAL (per capita per annum) City
FICCI (2007)
NIUA (2005)
NSWAI (2001)
Delhi
INR 431
INR 135
INR 497
Mumbai
INR 428
INR 372
INR 392
Jaipur
INR 301
INR 185
INR 301
Chennai
INR 295
INR 150
INR 295
Ludhiana INR 258 INR 73 INR 1 Sources: The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce (FICCI); National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA); and National Solid Waste Association of India (NSWAI). The cost of the rebate to municipalities is lower than the cost of MSW disposal per family. For a family of five, MSW disposal cost is Rs 2,400 (480x5), the rebate on property tax is Rs 1,200, resulting in net savings of Rs 1,200 to the municipality. Where can a biogas plant be set up? Biogas plants can be useful in individual houses, factories, residential complexes, hospitals, hotels, and on farms. In fact, almost everywhere and for everyone. POTENTIAL BIOGAS OUTPUT FROM WASTE OF TARGET CITIES Number of Indian cities
366
MSW generation / Annum
69 Million Tones
Bio Waste @ 50% Equalised LPG Cylinders Output @ 1.0 MT feed/annum (@ 1.5 kg to 4 kg feed, average 2.75 kg per day) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2 LPG cylinders per annum
69 million cylinders
Market value of 69 million cylinders at Rs 500 per cylinder
Rs 3,450 crores/ USD 627 million
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34.5 Million Tones
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Conclusion Biogas plants operating on kitchen and food waste provide an effective and viable strategy to manage MSW. It reduces municipal expenses on solid waste management and taps the energy hidden in bio-degradable waste. The emphasis here is on domestic cooking use, because the generation waste and utilization of biogas is within the same household. While biogas can be converted into other forms of energy (e.g., electricity), there are some limitations. As biogas production for home use is well within the means of most citizens, there is no need for additional budgetary allocation by municipalities. Instead of biowaste becoming a cost to local governments, it can become a source of revenue. The potential for converting urban waste into biogas is substantial. I have estimated the benefits to India at Rs 3,450 crores (USD 627 million) per year from converting about 35 million tonnes of waste into 69 million gas cylinders in 366 urban cities. This biogas output should meet the needs of about 12 million households. The details are shown below. *********
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Chapter- VIII-48 ESTs and Empowering Community: Community: As Keys to Sustainability in Waste Wealth and Health V. Jagannatha Environmental Engineer/QMS-EMS Auditor/Training Manager, Mysore, Karnataka, India Email: Jagannatha@istrac.org Abstract Over two decades of a critical review by the UN Systems during 1970-90s on the process of Development in Agriculture. Industry, Urban and Services sectors revealed that Participation is the key to Sustainability. This issue was further reinforced in to the Vision, Agenda and Strategies of AGENDA-21 (UNCED,1992). The compliance to various Strategies ( Caring for Earth, 1991) signed by over 150 heads of state for sustainable development is mixed and hardly adequate to be happy. Waste Management and HDI and similar indices also do not reflect a good trend. Notwithstanding, an apathy by the political will at all the three worlds the various time bound targets signed under AGENDA-21 at Rio are almost orphans today. As a deviation, we also do have systems which are having some role models in various sectors including Waste Management all over the World. In the KNOWLEDGE-Urban Solid Waste domain, the three city- Chennai, Bengaluru & Hyderabad- field survey embarked by the University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands along with the Karnataka State Council for Science & Technology, KSCST, IISc Bengaluru in the early 1990s remain a pioneering work. This activity facilitated development of a USWM’94 Model and also set the opportunity of Public Interest and Supreme Court pro-active role leading to evolving MSW Rules 2000. The emergence of Environmental Sound Technologies(ESTs) reference point under UN(IETC,1992), provided a data base for the first time on ESTs for Urban Waste Management. Later, Environmental Impacts of Waste Management Technologies (Rimini, Italy, 2007) have been able to provide a historical perspective on the techno-management scale of reference. Especially, after denouncing of blind incineration and landfilling techniques by EU directives, there has been an awakening in the EU and outside. Internet Conference under UN University on Material Flow Analysis of Integrated Bio Systems(2000) and Eco City Development(2003) have provided bench marks in the Knowledge domain for the Solid Waste and Governance. The sad part of it is, the concept of Incineration and Landfilling which are rejected in EU are lobbied and forcibly integrated only to fail at ULBs in India. This is happening even at the cost of Public Health and Irreversible damages. In the CAPACITY BUILDING & TRAINING for Waste Management, a unique activity under World Bank (2006) has thrown many insights to the Municipal Solid Waste Management in India. In the state of Karnataka, a dedicated six months training for over 800 Technical and non-technical personnel of 218 Urban Local Bodies during 2009-2010 has shown the benefits and constraints in empowering communities. This is primarily taking place for lack of a vision and definite time targets at ULBs. Thus, even today over 5000 ULBs in India pay for the Municipal Solid Waste Management at Rs 500 to 3000 per ton while it is on the contrary elsewhere. In this presentation, an effort is made by the author to capture the trends in Knowledge domain and Capacity building & Training as a participant in the processes mentioned above for over two decades.
Introduction The alternative urban future in developing countries by environmentally benign strategies with community participation in making best use of local skills, knowledge, culture and resources is essential for sustainable cities( Jagannatha. V, 1995). Studies predict trend in urban population to be 1.3 billion more people living in the Asia Pacific cities in 2025. This is an increase of over 90 per cent from the 1995 number(IAS/UNU,1999). Absence of adequate participatory tools in urban planning, design and management can cause disastrous economical and ecological impacts. These impacts could be irreversible. Conventional school of planners believe that all human settlements planning and development begin with a premise that people are central focus and the city is its people (L R. Vagle,1996). Yet the reality is otherwise and inadequacies remain due to poor policy and lack of a definite agenda. Water supply and sanitation is a classical case of non-integration. • • • • •
Scientist/Engineer-SE,CMD,ISTRAC,ISRO Bengaluru (Paper in professional/personal capacity) Member, Technical Advisory Committee, SWM DMA, Govt of Karnataka Formerly Professor, HUDCO Chair, SIUD ATI Mysore Jan 2008- Jan 2012 Founder Director, Environmental Training Institute/KSPCB/DANIDA, Jan 1995- Jan 1997 Contact : “Panya Sadana”173, 3rd Main D Block 3rd Stage Vijayanagar Mysore 570 017 Karnataka, India e-mail : jagsiobbindia@gmail.com M: +919448050595
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The projects on water supply and sanitation are planned and executed almost independently totally ignoring the common denomination. In Indian urban sector an estimated 1,000 MW of energy production potential from solid and liquid wastes has been identified.(Bio-energy news, 1996) Over 65 per cent of Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban population today live in class one town cities with population of over 0.1 Million. Further anticipating a massive urban infrastructure development activity with or without external supports, ESTs and Capacity Building are significant tools. Thus, appropriate interventions preventing irreversible damages in health, resources and ecological stability, related to urban development are essential. .
Sustainable Community Centred Urban Development strategies Based on varied and rich experiences gained during 1972-1992 all over the world, a number of sustainable strategies have been evolved. These strategies in essence are community centred approaches. A sustainable community safeguards itself while not damaging that of others (David A Munro,1991). Further, in the context of water supply and sanitation too, its resources are used frugally and in a sustainable way. It recycles materials, minimizes wastes and disposes of them safely. Six overlapping types of action are needed to sustain the above strategies for enabling communities to care for their own environments. They are: Action # 01 : Provide communities and individuals with secure access to resources and an equitable are in managing them. Action # 02: Improve exchange of information, skills, and technologies Action # 03: Enhance participation in conservation and development. Action # 04: Develop more effective local governments Action # 05: Care for the local environment in every community Action # 06: Provide financial and technical support to community environmental action.
Environmentally Sound Technologies Environmentally Sound Technologies(ESTs) encompass technologies that have the potential for significantly improved environmental performance relative to other technologies. Broadly speaking, these technologies protect the environment, are less polluting, use resources in a sustainable manner, recycle more of their wastes and products, and handle all residual wastes in a more environmentally acceptable way than the technologies for which they are substitutes.(IETC,1999). ESTs should also be compatible with nationally determined socio-economic, cultural and environmental priorities and development goals. UNEP-IETC has come out a data base maestro which is an information tool. It contains information on a full range of environmental sound technologies, institutions and informationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sources related to water pollution, environmental management, human settlements, hazardous substances, solid waste, waste water, water augmentation and more. Networking Institutions, Information Systems and Technologies involved with ESTs all over the world reveal that conventional practices have less economical and ecological benefit. Thus, ESTs are not just "Individual technologies, but total systems, which include know-how, procedures, goods and services, and equipment as well as organizational and managerial procedures" (Agenda 21, Chapter 34, UNCED 1992)
Techno Management Scale of Operation : USWM 94 Model A pioneering work took place during early 1990s at Bangalore, India in Urban Solid Waste Management. Dept. of Studies in Human Geography, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands and Karnataka State Council for Science & Technology, IISc Bangalore embarked on field study for establishing the trends between formal and informal sectors in Urban Solid Waste Management. This lead to a national workshop at Prof Satish Dhawan Auditorium, IISc Bangalore where a women Waste Pickers inaugurated the workshop. This culminated in to a Long USWM March to Urban Local Bodies and Parallel Public Interest Litigation in Supreme Court. After years of legal deliberations led to the drafting of a Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules 2000. Thus, for the first time in India a statutory bench mark with time targets was fixed. This took place almost a decade after Rio Agenda 21. Scale of operation for a minimum scale of operation for Composting, Biogas, Palletisation, Mushroom (Velu et al, 1994)
UN IETC EST Examples of Performance Indicators Continuous monitoring of performance in Urban Local Bodies is essential to assess and validate ESTs Technological interface and Community Participation which are two vital components of a sustainable Waste Management. (IETC, INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT SCOREBOARD,A tool to measure performance in municipal solid waste management
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Generation Demographic Information: 1. Administrative or political service area (in square kilometres) 2. Population (urban, rural, and total) 3. Number of households, commercial/industrial establishments, and institutions in service area. Quantities of Waste Generated: 4. Waste generation rate for households, commercial/industrial, and construction and demolition sectors (in kilograms/capita/day) Waste Characterization: 5. Waste composition (major categories including paper, plastic, glass, metal, wood, food waste, yard waste, textiles, and inerts). Collection and Transport Service Performance Indicators: 6. Waste collection coverage (by population, households, etc.) 7. Waste collection frequency 8. Waste service complaints Resource Input Indicators: 9. Human resources involved in solid waste management (number of employees) 10. Physical resources (list of equipment) Efficiency Indicators: 11. Weight or volume collected daily per dollar of collection cost 12. Population served per worker 13. Population served per vehicle 14. Households served per worker Resource Recovery Service Performance Indicators 15. Processing plant capacity and throughput Resource Input Indicators: 16. Human resources involved in solid waste management (number of employees) 17. Physical resources (list of equipment) Efficiency Indicators: 18. Weight or volume processed 19. Processing cost per ton 20. Quantity of materials recovered per worker Final Disposal Service Performance Indicators: 21. Disposal capacity (total and remaining) 22. Waste acceptance rate 23. Waste service complaints Resource Input Indicators 24. Human resources involved in solid waste management (number of employees) 25. Physical resources (list of equipment) Efficiency Indicators: 26. Cost for disposal (per ton or cubic metre)
Capacity Building & Training for Waste Management Local Agenda-21 (LA-21) at Earth Summit 1992 provided ULBs time targets in Water Supply, Sanitation and Municipal Solid Waste Management. As a signatory at UNCE, Indian compliances to UNCED are meagre. 74th CAA, 1992 provided statutory foundation for decentralized urban governance in India. Analysis of a case of Training in MSWM reveal good practices and bottle necks. Under Karnataka Municipal Reforms Project (KMRP) through SIUD and DTIs, ATI, a total of 870 ULB functionaries from 218 ULBs were trained in 19 district Hqs in the state. The training got implemented in a record time of 133 days. Professor, HUDCO Chair anchoring a team and a host of qualified resource persons remained a pioneering work. Karnataka state pioneered MSW State Policy-2003.Templates provided ULBs Action Plans on MSWM. Many good practices of MSW, source segregation, collection, transportation, treatment and disposal are in the process. HRD has been significantly reinforced by posting over 120 environmental engineers in 2005 and with sustained technical and financial support. Earlier in KMRP at SIUD-ATI, DMA & KUIDFC identified 15 training modules during Jan 2009. SWMâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;LP module is one of them. DoPT, GOI guidelines were used in planning, design, implementation and evaluation of the SWM-LP training module. Some of the bottle necks observed are absence of a Project document on Training in KMRP at SIUD, poor follow-up at District Urban Development Cells (DUDCs) and low priority for training in ULBs. However, a quality validated training module, vast experiences of trainers and DTIs infrastructure sustained a highly quality training in local language. Initial feed back and assessment of the impact of the training reveal an immediate need of documentation of good practices. Handholding by replication of good practices in ULBs is urgent. Developing SIUD as an information clearing house and resource centre is
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
felt. “Municipal mind-set” in training with incompetency may not provide the necessary facilitation of a training cycle. A Citizen Charter and Services Bench Marking at SIUD itself could be a trend setter. Business as usual may hinder the effective training & capacity building for all. Based on the trainings many follow-up activities such as IEC, source segregation and treatment have been achieved in many ULBs such as at Mysore, Karkala, Ranibennur, Jamkhandi and Bellary to name few. This paper is based on the first hand account of the author involved in MSWM in India for over two decades both at community and formal sectors.
National Strategy on Training and MSWM in India Training Policy in India(1996) “Training for All” provides a bench mark and basic guidelines for all ATIs in India. In the recent past specific recommendations are submitted by ATI for the Training Policy in Karnataka... An important issue as per the 12th Schedule of the 74CAA focus on the ULB is the responsibility of Municipal Solid Waste Management. However, the All India Council of Mayors(AICM) an apex body of the Mayors of more than 102 cities has requested for central intervention in transforming power to the ULBs in as early as 2004. One of the important demands has been formulation of a Model Municipal Act.. Further, It was believed that Private Sector Participation in Urban Infrastructure sectors such as Water, Sewerage and Solid Waste was in a nascent stage till recently, . To quote Ramanath Jha : Unfortunately, private sector participation in core municipal infrastructure(water, sewerage, solid waste, traffic and transportation) is itself in its very nascent stage in India. After decades of efforts in the privatization of water supply in the country there is very little to show and emulate. Quite similar is the situation in many other areas. This is sadly on account of a municipal mind-set that refuses to change it. It is plain, that holding on to monopolies and the power of discretion and dispensation that accompanies them will not hold good in the background of feeble capacity to deliver infrastructure. Time is the part of cities and state governments to create the climate for change. The climate would encourage the private sector to build its own capacities and confidence and deeply engaged in the provision of urban infrastructure.”(NIUA, 1995) . Now, after a decade of PPP models in urban sectors, a number of good practices are available for replication with much ease.. The present capacity building initiatives under DMA also vouches the above perceptions and has been able to involve Private Initiatives in MSWM. As of date over 20 ULBs have expression of interest in PPP on the MSWM at DMA.GOK.
Good Practices at SIUD ATI Mysore SIUD at ATI Campus under the leadership and direct guidance of the ATI Director General. o provide a unique initiative since 2009. Capacity building of the faculties involved in training has been taken up so seriously so that no faculty is left out in undergoing DoPT, GOI based Direct Training Skills(DTS), Design of Training (DoT), Training Need Assessment(TNA), Evaluation of Training (EoT) and Systematic Approach to Training (SAT) programmes. Skills and knowledge base of each of the faculties has been thus reinforced by national level and international exposures in training. ATI conducted about 120 Training Programs for Group A and B officers during 2009-10. A list of areas of training are Administrative and Service Matters, Contract and Project Management, Disaster Management, E-Governance, Financial Management, Financial Management HRD and Management, Resource Management, Social Sector, Women Studies and Development, Trainers Development, Programmes, Trainers Development Disaster Management . In the year 2010 few unique training programmes were implemented at ATI under the direct guidance of Director General in collaboration with UN and National organizations, few programmes are listed below; • Right To Information Act 2005 : National and State Level and district level • Disaster Management at District Levels on District Disaster Management Plans • Project Management • Karnataka Municipal Reforms Project : Training at state and district levels There are 22 District Training Institutes(DTIs) conducting training for group C level Functionaries. Thus, the Director General’s priority for promotion of excellence in Training Administration at ATI Mysore has been able to induce an element of motivation amongst the faculties in State Institute of Urban Development(SIUD). SIUD has been conducting training in Urban Governance for officials and non-officials since 1999. The areas of Training include ; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Municipal Administration, HRD and Office Management, Municipal Solid Waste Management Learning, Public Private Partnership- Outsourcing and Implementation, Legal Aspects, Social Sector, Financial Management,
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
8.
Decentralized Training,
Processes of MSWM Training under World Bank Project Now, SIUD has taken up a project of Rs 8.0Crores by KUIDFC under KMRP to train all Levels of officers and staff. The elected representatives and NGOs also are being trained in selected modules among 15 training modules. Table:1.3.2:furnishes the actual training activities at ATI Mysore through three institutes namely, ATI, State Institute of Urban Development(SIUD), State Institute of Rural Development (SIRD) including DTIs in the past three years. A unique activity which is a part of ATI Mysore is the application of Space Technology by way of a dedicated Satellite based Training at SIRD. This has a wide reach and only disadvantage being one way Video services unlike the new ISRO initiative of two way communication as in over 500 Village Resource Centres all over the country. 2.0 SWM-LP 2d Workshops in Karnataka : A unique experience in Training & Capacity Building During 2006-08 World Bank Institute (WBI) conducted Training Studies in four states on MSWM. Karnataka was one of the States chosen. By June’08 a Seven Module of MSWM was released in a Workshop at New Delhi by WBI in presence of Ministry of Ecology & Forests (MoEF), GoI and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). Thus, a training module was available for training at ULBs in Karnataka also. Based on a specific guidance, the Commissioner, Directorate of Municipal Administration Karnataka led a two day consultative meeting during Aug’08 at Mysore where the training modules were validated for Karnataka by 23 experts with over 108 observations and modifications. Later, SIUD with AIILSG and CMAK designed the three modules by Sep’08. Later a technical advisory committee was constituted at DMA by GoK in Nov’08. During Dec’08 a revised norms for MSWM were approved by the technical committee. A ToT in SWM was organized during Dec’08 wherein experts from WBI also anticipated. The Trainers were sourced from DTIs, DMA and CMAK. In Jan’09 under the KMRP. Target groups at different levels were identified. By March 09 the modules were prepared with PPTs by the resource persons. .
Lessons in MSW Training After completion of the designing Training Modules with a Hand Book in English language , Kannada translation of PPTs along with a Hand Book was completed at SIUD . Later, nominations were sought from DMA and training implementation was taken up from Nov’09.. Table: 2.1: furnishes the details of the 19 Workshops along with officials and non-officials along with sex wise breakup details. Totally 870 ULB functionaries were trained from 218 ULBs. Each ULB was represented by 5 trainees, President/Vice President, Chairman Standing Committee, One technical Person and one NGO.. # 01 : Out of the 870 participants there were 189 Women (22 %) and 681 men (78%). # 02 : Officials constituted 472 of the total (54.%) and 91 % of Officials were Men. # 03: Women participation was 141 in the Non-Official & only 42 in Official category # 04 : There was no women representation in the Officials category at Bidar # 05: Women were more than men in non-officials at Mysore,Tumkur & Ramnagar # 06 : Men & Women were of same number as non-officials at Bangalore & Hassan # 07 : Maximum trainees were 69 at Mysore and a minimum of 21 at Ramanagar # 08: An average value of 44 persons per training was found in the 19 workshops
Few observations on SWM-LP training Positive 1. A high experience level amongst the ULB functionaries especially in officials are evident. 2. Good number of good practices are prevalent in SWM in all ULBs. 3. Pro-active and definite guideline by DMA for the past 7 years has built a good rhythm. Negative 1. Training is a priority if not mandatory at Directorate of Municipal Administration.. 2. Trainees do not turn up for the training and especially non-officials are uncertain. 3. Non-Official trainees often expect lodging and boarding for accompanies also. Suggestions 1. Specific incentives for the faculties and supporting staff especially for Contract staff.. 2. Outsourced agencies training modules shall be compatible to DoPT format.. 3. Documentation of the Training Cycle and Systematic Approach to Training practice A Service Level Benchmarking for SIUD with a Citizen Charter is essential to sustain the minimum quality assurance in the training cycle. A vision and agenda for SIUD
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will be highly relevant. A Project document on KMRP training can improve the competence and delivery of training objectives.
References Agenda-21, Chapter 18 a, Targets for Sectors :United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio, Brazil 1992 Caring for Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living : Chapter 7, Enabling Communities to Care for their own Environments, IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991 ATI, Mysore, Short note on Issues in Training & Capacity Building, 2010 RCUES/AIILSG/MoUD, GOI : Research Study on Assessment of the Impact of the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act(CAA),1992 on the Working of Urban Local Bodies, Sep’2004 Ramnath Jha, Resource Mobilization for Urban Infrastructure, SIUD YASHADA, National Institute of Urban Affairs(NIUA), Peer Experience And Reflective Learning (PEARL).1995 International Certification Program on Managing PPP models in Urban Sector, ASCIVEOLIA, Hyderabad, India & Rabat, Morocco Jan 2010. IETC, INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT SCOREBOARD,A tool to measure performance in municipal solid waste management,2005 KSCST-ASTRA IISc, USWM’94 Model, Working Group on alternate models for USWM, Text circulated at the National Workshop on Linkages in Urban Solid Waste Management, KSCST, IISc Bangalore Capt. J.S.Velu. (Co-ordinator). Dr. HN Chanakya (ASTRA.),Mr. KJ Dinesh (KSCST.),Resource Persons, Mr. SM Acharya I.A.S. Commissioner (BMRDA),Dr. Jayachandra Rao, Addl. Health Officer (BMP),Mrs Almitra Patel (EXNORA),Er. V. Jagannatha (ISRO.), Mr. Anslem Rosario (Waste Wise.),Mr. N Sampath Kumar (EnviroConsultant),1994
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Chapter- VIII-49 Training and capacity building for water and sanitation hygiene (wash) in Madhya Pradesh, India Rajesh Puranik Associate Professor and Project Director, SRC WALMI Bhopal, M.P., India Email: rajeshpuranik@gmail.com Abstract MP WALMI, Bhopal in association with UNICEF Bhopal and Few local Non Governmental Organizations has demonstrated a unique model of Public Private Participation in delivering the training capacity building programme for water and Sanitation Hygiene. Careful selection of NGOs through proper process, negotiations and interactions in a transparent manner is crucial in translating the learnings in effective manner. During the delivery of contyents all the parties are found in win-win situation. The partnership may further strengthen the process for achieving the goals of Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan and Maryada Abhiyan besides framing useful policies to benefit the rural people."
Background Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru reminded the country men on his first ever speech on independence day that the task ahead of us is “the ending of- poverty, ignorance, disease and inequality of opportunity”. The initial years of the independent India were devoted to stabilize the disturbed economic, social and political front all over the country. Country adopted five year planning process with a sole objective of initiating the process of development which would generate opportunities for the people to improve their standard of living. India, in 21st century with area of 3.29 million square kilometers and a population over a billion, has many challenges to face on varied fronts which include poverty, sustainable management of natural resources, improvement in child and maternal health, increase in access to water and sanitation facilities, increase participation of women in social, political, cultural and vibrant democracy. The competitive situation demands for more rigorous efforts for improving very basic social and economic development indicators especially in the rural areas where majority of our population lives. The biggest challenge is that a big rural area is without sanitation facilities and still facing acute water shortage. Due to lack of awareness and traditional beliefs open defecation is very common.
Relevance of WASH in Madhya Pradesh The Sanitation challenges of the state are not different from that of India. It inherits the same chronic problems of open defecation, high mortality, low education and malnutrition. State efforts combined with the various national schemes have hightened the hope in recent decade and some remarkable improvement paved in.
Sanitation Coverage in MP It is evident that state governments alone can not achieve real development if majority of its people are exposed to an unhealthy and unclean surroundings due to lack of access to safe water and sanitation. So water and sanitation facilities have many other serious effects. There exist a direct link between water, sanitation and, health and nutrition and human well being. Consumption of contaminated drinking water, improper disposal of human excreta, lack of personal and food hygiene an improper disposal of solid and liquid waste have been major causes of many diseases and it is found that millions and millions of people suffer from water related diseases. Children particularly girls and women are the most vulnerable to these diseases. Many children, particularly girls drop out of school either due to the fact that they are detained in home for water related problems or due to non availability of proper sanitation facility within the school premises. Girls often suffer from lack of privacy, harassment and need to walk large distances to find a suitable place for defecation in the absence of household/ appropriate neighborhood toilet facilities. Poor farmers and wage earners are less productive due to illness, and it has its effect on their incomes. Without safe water and sanitation, sustainable development is beyond reach. The practice of open defecation comes from a combination of factors the most prominent of them being the traditional behavioral pattern and lack of awareness of the people about the associated health hazards. “The day every one of us gets a toilet to use, I shall know that our country has reached the pinnacle of progress”, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India
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Water and Sanitation Hygiene Implementation Mechanism Thre are evidances of Government commitment to achieve the MDG goals and serious efforts have been made in recent years. Reformation of water and sanitation related programmes for incorporating the learninings of various programmes was seen as a continuous process. One can refer to the revision of guidelines by central and state governments from time to time. Real time improvement paved in with a concept of convergence and linking the major schemes to have synergetic impact. Presently, framework of institutional structure is fully developed from state to village level and allocation of responsibilities has been spelled out more clearly than earlier. This has relieved the clumsy process and people find it easy to participate in water and sanitation hygiene. Rural sanitation has always been on priority for Government of Madhya Pradesh. In the late nineties the State policy was confined to the construction of physical infrastructure i.e. toilets and drainage with a large subsidy component. The huge investments made by the Government under various schemes resulted in better rural sanitation coverage. The no. of districts covered under the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) now renamed as Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan increased to all the 48 rural districts. The State has streamlined decentralized implementation at Zilla Panchayat level. Till 2007 the programme was implemented through Public Health Engineering Department and thereafter transferred to Rural Development Department. The State has been able to scale up the water and sanitation after the transfer of programme to RDD and it has resulted in pioneering the implementation of community driven approaches combined with demand driven approach and educated and motivated rural communities for undertaking overall village development and particularly to prioritize the sanitation agenda. The open defecation free villages aspire for becoming Nirmal Grams.
Strategic Interventions To scale up the Campaign GoMP conceptualized the strengthening institutional capabilities at all levels and provide the experts services to take the movement ahead. In a span of six years 2068 Panchayats have reported to achieve the status of Open Defecation Free Village and many more are in the process. First Nirmal Gram Panchayat was reported in Madhya Pradesh in the year 2007. Thereafter many panchayats are reported to have Nirmal Gram Awards. To accelerate the sanitation movement the department has devised a comprehensive strategy for awareness generation and demand creation. The districts have developed the strategy as per the local needs. The initiatives include mass & inter-personal communication campaigns through news-letters, TV programs, hoarding at public places, Swachhata Melaws, Swachhata Yatras, posters, pamphlets, audio-visuals and collective oath. With support from UNICEF communication material, booklets and training manuals have been distributed to the districts.
Awareness For capacity building large number of training programs for the district coordinators, Block Coordinators, Brand Ambassadors, Engineers, PRI representatives, Masons, Teachers and non governmental organizations, district & block level functionaries etc. have been conducted. The training programs focus was mainly on Water and Sanitation, SD, role of the facilitators, technological options, IEC strategies etc. State Resource Centers (SRCs) are responsible for training and capacity building activities for the various stakeholders across the State. The SRCs conducts training programs for various stakeholders.
Key highlights of the SWSM in the State
• • • • •
• •
Decentralized implementation at district level leads to achievement of desired success. Deployment of District and Block Level Coordinators Identification of credible agencies in the form of State Resource Centers (SRCs) has helped in supporting the district, blocks and villages to implement NBA successfully. Brand Ambassador- Government Madhya Pradesh Rural Development Department issued a circular indicating that the services of Sarpanchs of all the Nirmal Grams will be utilized for disseminating, promoting and strengthening the concept of Nirmal Gram in the district. Nirmal Watika Government Madhya Pradesh Rural Development Department issued a circular through National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) on Nirmal Watika indicating that the convergence of the NREGS and NBA can be done for sustainable rural livelihood and strengthening the rural economical infrastructure. Nirmal Neer- on similar provisions under NREGA as mentioned above, a concept of Nirmal Neer has been introduced as a sub project. Ujjawal Gram Puraskar – State Level Award: Ujjawal Gram Puraskar is a state level award given to those Nirmal Gram Panchayats who maintain their status of Nirmal Gram at least for a period of One year from the date of their NGP award.
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•
Deployment of Block Level Agencies for IEC: Rural Development Department SWSM issued a circular to all the districts administration to identify the appropriate agencies to work at the sub block level.
Reorganization of Institutions SWSM RDD have strengthened its institutional framework and a society is made functional at the State level in the chairmanship of Hon,ble Chief Minister to provide the direction to the NBA. This is registered society under the firms and society registration act. SWSM have already conducted meetings and initiated policy decisions like deployment of district coordinators and block level coordinators to coordinate the various activities envisaged in NBA programme.
DWSM and DWSC District Water and Sanitation Mission has been activated all over the state. This is again a registered society under the chairmanship of Zilla Panchayat Chairman. DWSM gives direction to NBA in entire district and suppose to monitor the progress periodically. All DWSM have been appraised about the concept and operational mechanism of NBA. These societies will be further strengthened by providing them a team of consultants belonging to different field of specialization like technical, social, gender, MIS, finance etc. In this direction services of District Coordinators and Block Coordinators have already been positioned.
VWSC at Village level A committee of villagers has been constituted in every village to look after the water, sanitation and Health related programmes. This committee is called Gram Stariya Tadarth Swasth evam Swaschhata Samiti. SWSM have further visualized the development of the capabilities of these committees and develop the manual for training District and Block Level Master Trainers.
Training and Capacity Building Activities conducted by WALMI in Association with State Water and Sanitation Mission and UNICEF Bhopal Training and capacity building of human resource and stakeholders associated with Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan has been considered essential to have adequate human resources available at the state, district, and block and at gram panchayat level. To improve the functioning of the internal environment to address water and sanitation challenges, SWSM is having clear mandate to oversee statewide capacity development activities. UNICEF have facilitated the various provisions like providing consultants to SWSM, developing technology park, organizing training and capacity building initiatives, conduct research and studies in the field of sanitation, wise water management etc. As a result of such initiatives and collaborative efforts of line departments MP have registered more than 2068 NGPS till date. A concerned has been expressed at various levels to give hand holding support and agenda for ensuring sustainability of these NGPs to maintain their status. An effective strategy of developing capacities of human resources was devised jointly by SRC WALMI Bhopal and UNICEF Bhopal to conduct training in joint collaboration.
Training Strategy WALMI and UNICEF Bhopal has jointly organized activities to develop the master trainers in different categories viz. teachers, masons, motivators, PRIs etc. WALMI as a “hub” resource centre was selected at State level to help UNICEF and support RDD in accelerating the implementation of the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan. WALMI as the State Resource Centre is providing support to its empanelled Regional Training Centers, who are the leading non governmental organizations having capacities both in terms of infrastructure and manpower to support the training and capacity building initiatives in water and sanitation. The strengths of these centers and their human resources are being utilized under commonly drawn agreement between WALMI and UNICEF Bhopal and also between WALMI and concerned Regional Training Center. Terms of Reference of the centers have been elaborated by WALMI. The State Resource Centre of WALMI also conducts state level orientations at its head quarter Bhopal. All the trainings fit into the overall capacity building of the GoMP for the NBA programme.
NGP plus Training NGP plus Training programmes are devised for the Nirmal Gram PAnchayats of Madhya Pradesh. The Participants were Sarpanch , Sachive), and Village Water and Sanitation Committee Members from each Nirmal Gram Panchayat. Theese programmes were supported by UNICEF Bhopal and were conducted in association with Regionalk Training Centers.
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Wise Water Management Training There are 400 wise water management schemes operational in 22 districts. Training on Wise Water Management were conducted in the field with the help of RTCs. These trainings were specifically designed for the tribal hostel wardens, teachers, cook, peon and waterman. Tribal department was also actively associated with training activity. UNICEF has supported these training. Before implementation of the training orientation of RTCs was done on pre designed training modules developed by WALMI Bhopal. Training manuals were specially developed for these training programmes. Training implementation calander was prepared by WALMI Bhopal. A team of SRC WALMI visited all the training sites to ensure the quality and delivery of contents. This is sixth consecutive year of WALMI UNICEF partnership and involving NGOs as regional training centers. This is a unique example of Public–Private partnership for training and capacity building under Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan. As such with these efforts 4171 stakeholders were trained in a span of six years by conducting more than 125 training and capacity building programmes at state and regional levels. These includes Master Teachers, Master Masons, Master Motivators village level, Panchayati Raj Representatives of Zilla Panchayat and Janpad Panchayat level, NGOs representative state level and State and District Master Trainers, GP Sarpanchas and PRIs of village level and tribal hostel representatives. Year wise training details are attached at Annexure 1.
Monitoring of Training Faculty members mainly Project Director or Training Manager or Finance Manager or other trained person from WALMI visits the Regional training centers during active training days to monitor on going training activities. It ensures the delivery of training contents as per the training module and also maintains the quality of training logistics and training material. The continuous presence of the SRC personnel also ensures the exchange of information on various provisions of NBA and understanding the role of different stakeholders associated with NBA at different level. The certification of the monitors visiting the training site confirms the quality delivery of training at the regional level. Impact Performance of the trained personnel’s increased in the area of operation likeTeachers are now better delivering the School Sanitation and hygiene Education contents at their respective schools by using the various training tools and training manual provided to them during their training. Masons are also provided with the Mason Tool Kits which are being used by them for construction of toilets. These trained masons are also sharing information with the individual house holds on use of toilets at the time of construction activity. They usually exchange the dialogues in the local dialects which is more impressive and motivational. Master PRIs are the folks among the community and are actively sharing NBA contents among the villages where they belong to. The NGP plus trained sarpanch is now motivated to maintain the open defication free status of their villages and are now well aware of various activities after receiving the NGP award. They have planned to march ahead to take their villages further to claim Ujjawal Gram Puraskars. The Wardens /teachers and other staff trained during the wise water management training are now using various maintenance techniques of wise water management structures. They are also expressed being capapble og monitoring the various construction activities of rain water harvesting, play pumps, calculation of water demand, construction of wise water management structures etc.
Orientation of Zilla Panchayt Chairmens Janpad Panchyat Chairman’s and members In Madhya Pradesh Zilla Panchzyats are operational in all the 50 districts and Janpad Panchayat are operational in all the 313 blocks. It was decided to conduct orientation training programmes for the chairman and vice chairmans of these PRIs and apprise them regarding the existence of District Water and Sanitation Mission and also motivate them to monitor the NBA in their respective districts. A specific manual was designed for these training programmes. These orientations were financially supported by UNICEF Bhopal. State level resource persons and experts from outside the state were involved in delivering the training to the chairman’s. Most of the feed back was indicative of the fact that PRIs were not properly shared with the information on NBA. They were unaware about the programme in general and guidelines available for implementation of NBA. The impact of the training was visible when most of the districts whose PRIs representatives were trained at the state level started conducting meetings and regular reviews on progress of NBA.
Training of Collectors and CEOs Training programmes for the senior officials like Collectors, Chief Executive Officers were conducted under the NREGS at WALMI Bhopal. The main objective of the progranmme was to orient the senior officers
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on implementation of major schemes of Rural Development Department. It also covered Total Sanitation Campaign and a strategy for achieving the desired results was explained to them. Similarly training programmes for the block level Chief Executive officers and assistant project officers were conducted in WALMI Bhopal.
Orientation of NGOs and State level Resource persons Initiative was taken by UNICEF Bhopal to train the state level master trainers and NGOs representatives at the National Key Resource Center at Uttaranchal Academy of Administration, Nainital. The capacities of these resource persons are being utilized for various training and cpapcity building activities of SWSM and Sate Resource Centers.
Development of WATSAN Park or Technology Park UNICEF Bhopal supported the promotion of toilet construction technology and Wise Water Management Techniques in the state. A WATSAN Park or Technology park is the demonstration site of various options of toilets. Sate Government have decided to place one technology park at every training center in the state. As such six technology parks will be developed in various districts. A model technology park is constructed at SRC WALMI Bhopal.
WALMIs Regional Training Centers and their effort in promotion of NBA in MP MP WALMI, Bhopal demonstrated a unique model of Public Private Participation in delivering the training capacity building programme in the down stream areas. The selection of NGOs was done through a proper process by established procedure, negotiation and interactions which took place in a transparent manner and translated into the final plan of for partnership. During the delivery of goods both the parties are in win-win situation. The partnership initiated may further be considered useful to form policy and utilize the strength of both the sectors to benefit the rural masses. As such WALMI Bhopal is having 18 regional training centers which are the satellite organization working in non governmental structure and delivering the programme contents under the mutually agreed terms of reference. In water and Sanitation Sector eight out of eighteen institutions have their active presence and their potentials are being utilized for translating the knowledge â&#x20AC;&#x201C; skills-attitudes in action. Annexure1 Training and Capacity Building of Various Stakeholders in Year 2006-07 to 2011-12 Sl no. I 1 2 3 4 5 II 6 7 8 9
III 10 11 12
13
Name of Training Year 2006-07 AEs Training on TSC and SD - PHED Master Teacher Training Master Mason Training Workshop on Resource Book Master Motivators Training Total Year 2007-08 Panchayati Raj Institution Training - ZP and JP District Coordinators Training Sub Block level Out Sourcing Agencies Training Workshop of preparation of VWSC Manual Total Year 2008-09 Collectors Conference Brand Ambassador Training on TSC NGP Plus NGP Plus Training under WALMI UNICEF Joint Collaboration Wise Water Management Training under WALMI
No. of Trg.
Duration
Participants attended
Training Days
Sponsored
4
3
88
264
PHED
4 4 04 16 32
3 3 1 3
109 118 72 394 781
327 354 82 1182 2209
UNICEF UNICEF UNICEF UNICEF
10
2
317
634
UNICEF
1 4
01 3
48 104
768 312
TSC TSC
3
1
114
326
TSC
583
2040
18 1 4
2 2
20 92
40 184
NREGS TSC
10
3
275
825
UNICEF
10
3
322
966
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290
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
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Year 2010-11 Training on Swajal Dhara Wise Water Management Nirmal Gram Plus Training of Brand Ambassadors Training of MPRLP field functionaries on TSC
3 4 4 7
2 3 3 3
99 101 150 210
198 303 450 630
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42
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Chapter- VIII-50 Capacity building and Training for improving Governance and Accountability in Local Government Institutions K.B K.B. Kurup, S. Sarsaiya, R. Gour, V. Nigam, S. Gautam, G.S. G.S. Mandloi International Institute of Waste Management (IIWM), Bhopal, M.P., India Email: pdiiwm@gmail.in Abstract Capacity building and training in waste management is a necessary requisite and it has to be carried out on a regular basis. In view of the low priority given to the sector, the institutional capacity of local government agencies involved in SWM is generally weak. Many officers in charge of solid waste management have little or no technical background or training in environmental or waste management. Therefore, the development of human resources within the locality is essential for the sustainability of the project. The capacity mapping and training have to be considered as an integral part in the planning stage itself. IIWM has organized capacity building and training programme for improving governance and delivery of services among stakeholders. Keywords: Capacity building, training, MSW, environmental management, framework.
Introduction There has been a significant increase in the generation of MSW (Municipal Solid Wastes), Bio medical and hazardous wastes in India over the last few decades. This is largely due to rapid population growth, urbanization and industrialization. The daily per capita generation of municipal solid waste in India ranges from about 100 g in small towns to 500 g in large towns. The solid waste generated in Indian cities has increased from 6 million tones in 1947 to 48 million tones in 1997 and is expected to increase to 300 million tones per annum by 2047 (CPCB, 2000). The characteristics of MSW collected from any area depends on a number of factors such as food habits, cultural traditions of inhabitants, lifestyles, climate, etc. Due to the liberalised policy the pace of industrialization has been accelerated, which has resulted in increasing amounts of hazardous wastes every year. This along with a growing amount of municipal solid waste due to rapid urbanisation and hospital waste continues to remain a daunting issue of environmental concern to India. The public health impacts and environmental risks involved in solid waste management activities are serious, but often ignored. The solid waste management is also linked to emission of greenhouse gases, toxic fumes and fine particulates, discharge of different physico-chemical pollutants to water and soil, water contamination including that due to Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP) and various socio-environmental issues. Therefore, it is worthwhile to attempt an examination as to the major health and environmental risks involved with respect to various activities linked in solid waste management. Paucity of funds, lack of technical knowhow, inadequate human resources, and apathy of citizens to maintain cleanliness in the city have all contributed to reasons of inadequacy in service. Institutional weakness and lack of enforcement have added to the problems of waste management and the situation is becoming critical with the passage of time. The general tendency of the citizens is to keep their houses, shop and establishments clean, but there is apathy on their part to keep their surroundings clean. In absence of any system of primary collection of waste from the door step, it is an age old practice to dispose of the waste on the streets, open spaces, drains, water bodies, etc. as and when waste is generated. The system of having domestic, trade, institutional bin for the storage of waste at source has not evolved in the cities and towns across the country. The institutional arrangement for the management of municipal solid waste is ineffective in most of the municipalities. Waste management is a subject of environmental engineering or public health engineering; but it is being handled in all small urban local bodies by persons of the level of Sanitary Inspector or below and in larger municipalities or Corporation by Health Officers. The engineering inputs are by and large lacking. Moreover the existing staffs also do not have adequate training to scientifically plan and provide SWM services. Some efforts have been made by few cities to provide training to staff and officials at various levels, but it appears that municipalities need hand holding to put appropriate systems in place and have adequate qualified staff as recommended by the Supreme Court Committee on Solid Waste Management or in the National Manual on Solid Waste Management. The Ministry of Environment and Forest (GoI) framed â&#x20AC;&#x153;Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000 under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 making it mandatory for all Municipal
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authorities in the country irrespective of size and population to implement the directions contained in the rules. Most of the ULBs in the country have not been in a position to implement the aforesaid rules and situation has continued to remain highly unsatisfactory in spite of instructions given by the State Authorities and Hon. Supreme courts and High Courts from time to time. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendment gives constitutional recognition for Local Self Government institutions specifying the powers and responsibilities. Very few ULBs in the country have prepared long-term action plans for effective disposal of MSWM in their respective cities or towns. In this critical situation The International Institute of Waste Management (IIWM) came forward to provide capacity building and training on diverse aspects of waste management. In this paper an effort has been made to present the strategies and approaches evolved by IIWM based on practical experience.
Capacity Building and Training Programmes Ever since the establishment, IIWM has been actively undertaken advocacy, consultation with various stakeholders, organization of seminars, workshops, capacity building and awareness programmes on governance in Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM), Industrial Hazardous Waste, Agro Waste, household waste etc.
Objectives The capacity building programme refers to activities that improve an organization’s ability to achieve its mission or a person’s ability to define and realize his/her goals or to do his/her job more effectively. For municipality and other local bodies, capacity building may relate to almost every aspect of its work: improved governance, leadership, mission and strategy, administration, program development and implementation, fundraising and income generation, diversity, partnerships and collaboration, evaluation, advocacy and policy change, marketing, positioning, planning, etc. The ultimate objective of capacity building is to improve urban governance and promote effective and sustainable forms of service delivery to the community. It also aims at promoting national and regional networks of specialists and practitioners to exchange the ideas and disseminate best practices, linking those with existing international and national solid waste management associations. The objectives of the capacity building programmes undertaken by the IIWM are given below: • To develop a framework within which a municipal capacity building programme can be developed and implemented; • To identify local capacity building gaps in sanitation, hygiene and solid waste management; • To share capacity building experiences and best practices from local, regional and national programmes; • To promote municipal development and building consistently within countries, the region, and among development agencies. There is a need for a strong, systematic and built in IEC component across the LBs aimed at imparting the right information and positive attitude for healthy and hygienic waste disposal practices. Though the subject of solid waste management requires active community participation in storage of waste at source and its primary collection from the door step, the community participation is substantially lacking on account of lack of efforts on the part of the municipal authorities. Only a few municipalities have ventured to involve private sector in treatment of municipal solid waste and have involved private sector in setting up compost plants. Table 1 Illustrates the type of capacity building programmes undertaken by IIWM on waste management in selected localities.
Areas covered in the training Capacity building on Hazardous Waste Management” (2 day training) December 2011
Contents of the training
Target Group
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Industries, Govt officers, recyclers etc. Representatives of major industries such as Ramky Enviro Engineers Ltd., Dabur India Ltd, Bridgestone India Pvt. Ltd. etc. participated
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Industrial Hazardous Waste – An Introduction. Regulations and Guidelines for Handling, Storage and Disposal of Hazardous Waste. Procedure for Handling and Storage of Hazardous Waste. Methodologies and practices in
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Capacity Building on Waste Management in Industrial Sector ( 2 day training)
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January 2012 • • • Capacity Building Programme on Biomedical Waste Management
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February, 2012. Round table meet on “Waste to Wealth in Bhopal
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February 2012 •
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Hazardous Waste Management. Hazardous Waste Management (Case studies). Common Treatment and Disposal Facility. Field visit to familiarise the facilities Industrial Hazardous Waste – An Introduction. E – Waste: Management and Handling rule. Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000. Operation and maintenance of ETP and their related solutions. Evaluation of ETP parameters - A case study by Cadbury Visit of ETP Cadbury and MSW site of AKC Developers Ltd. BMW liquid waste treatment Bio Medical Waste Management (Handling and Management Rules). Hoswin Incinerator – Integrated Biomedical Waste Management System. Fild visit of Hoswin Incinerator. To develop strategic framework and operational plan for addressing the Municipal Solid Waste management in urban and rural local bodies of Madhya Pradesh; To review the different technology options and its potential and limitations; To determine capacity gaps, and oversee capacity development of government and non-governmental partners involved in waste management sector at local and national level; To develop comprehensive data base of agencies and service providers working in the Waste management sector; To provide platform for the exchange of ideas and discussions among various groups related to waste management; and
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Industries, Corporate, Govt officers etc Representatives of major industries such as Teve API ltd., Jamna Auto Ltd., Cadbury Pvt. Ltd., Ranbaxy Ltd., Surya Ind. Ltd. etc. participated
Medical personnel's and the paramedical staff, academics of Hospitals. Representatives of following Hoswin Incinerator, Choitram Hospital, MP TAST etc. participated. Policy makers and practitioners, apex government representatives, NGOs, industries and technology providers participated across India.
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
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Capacity building on Environmental Management in Mines
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May 2012
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Environmental Management and Monitoring in the Mining Sector
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• July 2012 • • International Workshop on Treatment of Incinerable Waste (Coprocessing/Plasma gasification /Rotary Kiln Incineration) "Blazing Waste technologies-Options and elucidations!" April, 2010
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Workshop on Management of Municipal Solid waste and plastic waste
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Environmental Management in Mining Industries: An Introduction Environmental Control Measures Methodologies and practices in Waste Management. Air Pollution Control System in Mining Case studies and field visit in mines & post closure plan Mines and Environment Regulations and Guidelines for handling, storage and disposal of mining waste. Environmental Impact Assessment Notification. Case studies and field visit in mines & post closure plan Utilization of solid waste of mines for value added material and products. Legal and compliance requirements of Waste Incineration in EU Experience and issues in operating a Rotary Kiln Incineration Facility in India CPCB guidelines and other legal requirements for Incineration in India Heat recovery from waste IncineratorsViability and Operational issues Sampling & Monitoring requirements for pollution during treatment of Incinerable waste Pre-treatment of Incinerable waste – Experience in developed countries Compliance Monitoring for Coprocessing a case study of Madhya Pradesh Experience of air pollution monitoring from Incinerators in India Competing waste streams – feasibility for states with small generation of Incinerable waste How to plan the implementation of the solid waste management plan in the slum areas Municipal solid waste (Handling and Management) Rule 2000.
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Industries involved in the Mining sector and Consultancies, Environmental professionals Representatives of major industries such as ACC Ltd., J.K. Minerals, Pacific Exports Ltd. etc. participated
Industries involved in the Mining sector and , Environmental professionals Representatives of major industries such as Satna Cement Works, Prism Cement, Maihar Cement etc. participated
Researchers', industries professionals, Policy makers and practitioners, apex government representatives, NGOs, industries and technology providers together.
Community leaders, population, civil organizations.
Resident society
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
• November, 2009 • • Awareness cum Training program on Waste management for School Teachers
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November 2009
Awareness program On Municipal Solid Waste and Plastic Waste Management in Slums of Bhopal (5 days)
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October, 2009 • • •
Demonstration of waste recycling and treatment technologies. Segregation and disposal of wastes at household level Key principles of sanitation and Hygiene Waste: An Introduction Community based technology options on waste management Biogas and composting Key principles of sanitation and hygiene Lesson learned from success stories Group discussion How to implement the solid waste management plan in the slum areas Municipal solid waste (Handling and Management) Rule 2000. Demonstration of waste recycling and treatment technologies. Segregation and disposal of wastes at household level Key principles of sanitation and Hygiene Best practices and success stories Group discussions
High School Teachers
Slum dwellers, mainly women groups Different localities of the slums in Bhopal were covered within 5 days
Challenges While conducting the capacity building and training programmes, it has been realized that participants are taking less interest on the subject and hence more focused re-orientation training is a mandatory requirement. Junior level staff are deputed for the trainings and some of them are not directly connected to the topic and they cannot take decision to plan and implement what they have learnt from the trainings. There is no post training mechanism to assess the effectiveness of the training in the actual situation in the field. Structured post training needs to be introduced for validating the effectiveness of the training. More over no systematic need assessment have been carried out before conducting the training programmes. It has been done in a mundane manner with the external influence.
Conclusion The training intervention has to be designed to meet the needs of the industries or institutions by satisfying the competence development requirements of the individual or the department. By achieving this goal we have a rational and justifiable case for conducting training. Training should not be for training sake. Creating dedicated workforce (field staff) and improving knowledge can be achieved only through structured and need based capacity building, educational and training programmes. The attitudinal changes of elected representatives and officials in the LAs are a necessary prerequisite to evolve a systematic capacity building programmes More specifically, there is a need for exchange of information and innovations amongst rural and urban bodies and technical support for introducing alternative technologies and processes. Senior level officers need to know the mandatory needs of SWM and the cost effective ways to meet them on time, best technological options and various financing options, and effective PSP models etc. Middle level, lower level staff and workers being the cutting edge functionaries, appropriate training programmes have to be organized for them on the new concepts of SWM, health, environmental, legal implications and functional aspects. Audio visual aids and exposure of new systems through visits to other local bodies should form a part of the training programme. Refresher courses for all levels of staff needs to be
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organized every three years for updating the knowledge to improve the services. The senior level officers should be frequently exposed to developments taking place in various parts of the state and country by sending them out on city visits and for attending workshops, seminars, training courses etc. Intensive capacity building programs, appropriate IEC materials, technical manuals and documentation, and sharing of best practices amongst facilitators are required urgently so that such experiences can provide solution to the waste management crisis that are unfolding.
References CPCB (2000). Status of Municipal Solid waste Generation, Collection, Treatment and Disposal in Class I Cities, Series: ADSORBS/31/1999â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2000. K. Balachandra K. (2012). Integrated solid waste management programme (ISWM)- Problems and prospects. 3rd National conference on Urban & Industrial Waste Management. June 29. pp. 50-54. http://www.cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadoffice/pcp/management_solidwaste.pdf. http://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html.
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Chapter-IX Abstracts
"Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Litter, it makes the world bitter!"
With Best Wishes from
International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-IX-51 Physicochemical analysis of the domestic waste water and Industrial effluents in Narmada River in Nimar regions Manoj Kumar Patidar & Yogendra Singh Chouhan Pt. Shambunath Shukla Govt. P.G. College Sahdol (M.P.), A.P.S. University, Rewa (M.P.), India Email: manojkumar_78614@yahoo.co.in Abstract Effluents from Industrial and domestic waste water are the Major source of environmental pollutions. Studies of pollution will be carried out at different point of Narmada River of Nimar Region in three different seasons' summer, Monsoon and winter. In this Investigation Physicochemical and pollutions parameters such as temperatures, PH, Electrical conductivity, TDS, TSS, BOD, COD, DO, chlorides, nitrite, sulphates, phosphates , Ca, Mg, Na & total Hardness of the water and heavy metal have been studied Standard Protocol APHA. The values of physicochemical parameters indicate the pollution of riverine ecosystem due to domestic wastes, municipal sewage, industrial effluent and agricultural run-off that Influence the water quality directly or indirectly. The values of these Parameters were found in excessive amounts as prescribed by WHO. Namrada's water is mainly used for drinking purpose, irrigation, fisheries etc. It's indicates towards pouring poisonous affects and deterioration of water quality of water body which Harmful effects on human beings & their environments. Therefore the treatments and management of this water is very much required as it supplies to many cities of Nimar and Malwa Regions. Keywords: Physicochemical analysis, waste water, industrial effluents, Narmada River.
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Chapter-IX-52 Study of inin-situ growth performance at early juvenile stages of Mahseer (Tor, tor) under seasonally changing limnological conditions of breeding grounds in Narmada River near Hoshangabad (M.P.) *Rajkumari Badkur & **Alka **Alka Parashar *Research Scholar, Govt .Sarojini Naidu P.G. College, Bhopal, M.P., India **Professor, Govt .Sarojini Naidu P.G. College, Bhopal, M.P., India Email: rajbadkur@gmail.com Abstract River ecosystems constitute one of important inland surface water resources’ with immense ecological, economic, cultural, hydrological and biological significance. So far as utility is prioritized, river water meets multiple human purposes related to some important sectors of development like public water supply, agriculture, sand and boulder supply, transportation, aquaculture, hydro-electricity, recreation, industry, etc. The growing flux of both within-systems as well as in the watershed area anthropogenic activities has resulted in sharp rise in the qualitative and quantitative deterioration of our river ecosystems with a considerable undesired impact on fish fauna. From ecosystem conservation and sustainable management point of view this has necessitated the regular monitoring of water quality coupled with biological characteristics of river ecosystems in order to evaluate their production capacity, utility potential and to plan restorative measures. Present study was aimed to know the length-weight relationship of juvenile forms of once commonly declared endangered cold riverine Mahseer (Tor tor) fish under the prevailing conditions of some physico-chemical and biological characteristics of their natural breeding grounds in River Narmada near Hoshangabad (M.P.). Investigation was conducted during two phases viz. pre monsoon (March - June) and post monsoon (October February) periods of two consecutive years (March 2009 to February 2011). Favored breeding habitats for fish spawning and thereby for primary growth of the seed mostly from fry up to fingerling stage were mostly found characterized by near-shore, clear-running, least torrential shallow areas with bed characteristics generally determined predominant by boulders followed by bedrock, sand, gravel, cobble and pebble. Water samples have been collected on fortnightly basis from natural breeding grounds of Budhani ghat (BG), Kharra ghat (KG) and Daugarwada ghat (DG) as part of the east-west flowing basin stretch of the River Narmada. Downstream spatial variation in case of physico-chemical characteristics of breeding grounds was not significant. The quality characteristics however, documented relatively more enhancement towards pre-monsoon and a marked decline towards post-monsoon phase of the present investigation. Ambient water of breeding grounds remained alkaline with pH fluctuating in a normal range of 7.75 units (Post-monsoon) to 7.91 units (Pre-monsoon). On spot analysis of breeding grounds at the system basin was made to study growth of juvenile forms. Qualitative analysis of the available phytoplankton of breeding grounds showed the community represented in order of their decreasing progression by Bacillariophyceae, Cyanophyceae and Chlorophyceae. Spatially change in the phytoplankton quality of breeding grounds was negligible during pre-monsoon with total species count of 48 species. In the pre-monsoon phase the magnitude of quality ranged between 45 species and 48 species with minimum count recorded at Kharra ghat (KG) and maximum count recorded at Daugarwada ghat (DG). Zooplankton population of breeding grounds was found composed of Rotifera, Copepoda, Cladocera and Protozoa. Rotifera followed by Copepoda were the dominant classes. During pre-monsoon phase s Daugarwada ghat (DG) showed the qualitative dominance with zooplankton species count of 27 species while Kharra ghat recorded the minimum species count of 24 species. During post-monsoon phase maximum zooplankton species count of 29 species each has been documented in the breeding grounds of Budhani ghat (BG) and Daugarwada ghat (DG) while minimum of 27 species were enumerated at Kharra ghat (KG). Growth condition factor ‘b’ of the juvenile forms recorded its minimum value of 1.62 and coefficient of correlation (r) value of 0.97 corresponding to the mean length (L) of 20.97 cm; SD ± 8.74; 95% CL = 2.69 and mean weight of 521.75 mg; SD ± 297.9; 95% CL = 14.12 during post monsoon phase of the present study. On the other hand the growth condition factor ‘b’ of the juvenile forms recorded its maximum value of 1.89 and coefficient of correlation (r) value of 0.97 corresponding to the mean length (L) of 62.11 cm; SD ± 17.84; 95% CL = 4.14 and mean weight of 2655 mg; SD ± 1197; 95% CL = 33.99 during post monsoon phase of the present study. Keywords: Mahseer, Juvenile, Growth, River, Plankton, Breeding ground.
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Chapter-IX-53 PhysicoPhysico-Chemical study of water quality of upper lake,Bhopal Smriti Bhargava & Pradeep Shrivastva Department of Zoology and Applied Aquaculture, Barkatullah University Bhopal (M.P.), India Email: smritibha35@gmail.com Abstract Water is one of the most vital component and essential requirement of all the living beings. When neil Armstrong saw the earth from the moon it appeared blue! This is because water covers more then two thirds of the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface. But fresh water less then three percent of the total water of the earth. The upper lake was created By Raja Bhoj, The king of Dhar in central India, in the eleventh century by constructing an earthen dam across the kolans river. The upper lake, in a linear east west alignment has a catchment area of 361 sq. km. and at present a water spread area at 31 sq. km. This stusy was carried out in Bimonthly for two years. The samples ware tested for their temperature, PH, conductivity, free CO2 turbidity, hardness (Ca & mg) alkalinity, DO. It is found from our study that the lake is less polluted comparatively Year 2009, The Higher percentage of Hardness & alkalinity was recorded in year 2009. At present Upper lake is good in quality and require proper management for better future. Keywords: Physico Chemical, Disolve Oxygen, Turbidity, Alkalinity & Hardness.
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Chapter-IX-54 Biodegradation of Dairy Effluent by Using Bacterial Isolates Obtained from Activated Sludge A.V. A.V. Mane, Mane, H. J. Porwal & S. G. Velhal1 Department of Environmental Sciences, Fergusson College, Pune, India 1 Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Pune, India Email: ashishmane145@yahoo.co.in *
Abstract Dairy industrial sector is of crucial importance to India. The country is worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest milk producer and consumer of dairy products, accounting for more than 13% of worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s total milk production. Water is a major utility in dairy industry, which results in significant effluent volumes being generated; hence the challenge of its disposal cannot be ignored. Dairy raw effluent is characterized by high concentrations and fluctuations of organic matter and nutrient loads related to the production cycle and machinery washing. The dairy wastewaters contain high concentration of biodegradable organic compounds which represent a favorable environment for the growth of microorganisms. Bacteria are the microorganisms which predominate in wastewaters. In recent time, though water management in dairy industry is well documented, effluent production and disposal remains a problematic issue. The removal of organic matter from the wastewater using chemicals is routinely followed practice in many industrial wastes. These methods are more expensive as compared to biotreatment. The chemical methods may cause further contamination of the environment. Bioremediation of wastewaters represents an important treatment methodology, especially when examined against the backdrop of ever stricter legislation that is evolving in order to regulate effluent release into the environment. It has been reported that bioremediation specifically holds promise in solving environmental problems. The present investigation was carried out for the biodegradation of dairy effluent rich in organic nutrient and to test the ability of some selected aerobic microbial cultures to degrade the dairy effluent with the help of a model associated with filtration medium. The study was conducted in two phases namely isolation of microorganisms from the dairy sludge and biodegradation of the dairy effluent. Two bacterial isolates and one yeast isolate were obtained from dairy sludge. The three isolates were named as DSI1, DSI2 and DSI3 (dairy sludge isolate). These microorganisms from the activated sludge were screened for their ability to reduce important physicochemical water parameters. Special plastic treatment model was prepared having a layer of sawdust and activated charcoal as the filtering media. From the results obtained it can be concluded that after aeration period of 48h, DSI4 (dairy sludge isolate mixed culture) was the most effective in reducing all the water parameters. DSI4 was the most efficient in TDS reduction, with reduction efficiency of 33.94% after aeration. DSI4 showed best reduction efficiency of the effluent, whereas; DSI2 showing the least reduction in COD. After aeration, the reduction efficiency of DSI4 was highest with 47.52% in BOD. DSI3 (bacteria) was second most effective in reduction of EC, TSS, TDS, TS, COD, BOD, Chlorides and Sulphates. However, DSI1 (Yeast) was found to be more effective for causing the reduction of turbidity and oil & grease compared to DSI1 and DSI3. Whereas, DSI2 (bacteria) showed very low reductions in all the parameters as compared to the other three cultures. Findings of this study indicate that DSI3 would be the best option amongst the three selected microorganisms for the treatment of dairy effluent. However the mixed culture (DSI4) would prove to be more effective and beneficial than a single culture. The details of the results obtained in the present investigation are discussed in paper. Keywords: Dairy effluent, biodegradation, bacterial isolates, activated sludge, dairy sludge isolates, wastewater, physicochemical parameters.
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Chapter-IX-55 Application of vermicomposted fly ash for plants: Utility of industrial waste Debopriya Bhattacharyya & Shibani Chaudhury Department of Environmental Studies, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, West Bengal, India Email: shibani.chaudhury@visva-bharati.ac.in Abstract Fly ash an obvious waste from thermal power plant, causes serious environmental impacts in the form of land usage, health hazards and damage aesthetics of the surroundings. Problem arises because of its heavy metal content and fine particle size. Huge production of fly ash creates problem for its safe disposal. With the help of vermicomposting the volume of this waste can be reduced and it can be recycled as fertilizer. A pilot scale study was conducted to find out the different forms of some heavy metals in vermicomposted fly ash (VCFA), bioaccumulation of these metals in Beta vulgaris var .benghalensis , the effect of VCFA in soil before and after plantation and effect on some plant characteristics. The VCFA was applied to the red and lateritic soil in different doses (10, 20, 30, 40, 50%) where Beta sp. was planted for 45 days. It was found that the soil organic carbon, available NPK, alkalinity were increased with the increasing dose. After comparing the post harvesting soil qualities it was found that the utilization of organic carbon, available NPK by Beta sp. was high in the VCFA doses of 10%-30% and lower in 40% & 50%. Plant biomass, number of leaves, leaf area, chlorophyll content, ascorbic acid were observed in higher amount up to 30% VCFA and lower in 40-50%. Metals like Cd, Pb were found in bioavailable forms in plant parts at the higher doses (40-50%) of VCFA mixed to the soil. Metal uptake by plant roots were higher than shoot up to 30% dose of VCFA. Whereas at higher doses the metal content was found to be higher in shoot of Beta sp. which is the edible part and can be dangerous for health. The present study suggests that the application of 10-30% of VCFA to the red and lateritic soil is judicial for plantation of Beta vulgaris var .benghalensis. At 10%-30% dose the bioavailability of heavy metals in the soil is less and hence maintain the physiological vitality, improve growth and yield of plants. Keywords: Vermicomposting, fly ash, bioavailability.
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Chapter-IX-56 Wetlands: Conservation and Restoration for Sustainable Development Arun Kumar Namdeo & Pradeep Shrivastava Department of Environmental Science & Limnology, Barkatullah University, Bhopal (M.P.), India Email: arunnamdeobioinfo@gmail.com Abstract Present study done with the objective of understanding the wetland ecology with its interaction to mankind in its catchment area. An account of research has been made of certain wetlands in district Tikamgarh which is located on Bundelkhand plateau of Madhya Pradesh between latitude 24°26′ N and 25°34′ N and between 78°26′ E and 79°21′ E longitudes. There are 960 tanks; constructed by Chandela rulers during the 8th and 9th A.D., out of them127 tanks are in existence that nourishes the socio – economic condition of its catchment. In nut – shell, selected wetlands have been studied for a certain period and results reveal their increasing eutrophication leading to destruction due to change in land use, anthropogenic activities and through other point – non – point source of pollution. Wetland support livelihood through various ways like fish culture, trapa culture, fulfilling drinking purposes in some part of study area and being a major source of irrigation as well as recharge ground water resources hence they need to be conserved and restore for sustainable development. Keywords: Wetland ecology, Tikamgarh, Bundelkhand, Chandela rulers.
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Chapter-IX-57 An Overview to identify polluting industrial clusters: A perspective of developing Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index and its advantage Shubham Gandhi*, Gaurav Kumar Singh, Ajay Singh & Bhumika Kaushik Department of Environmental Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India Email: gauravkumardce@gmail.com Abstract Over the past decades India has experienced unprecedented industrial growth, with a focus on the development of industrial clusters. Not only has this increased industrial activity brought positive economic benefits to the region, but it has also deteriorated the environment. The paper attempts to bring to light the current environmental state of industrial clusters (case study on Bawana Industrial Cluster of NCR) forming the situation part of the research. Since industrial clusters have been contributing significantly in increasing the serious obstacles to environment sustainability and human health like pollution of air, water and land, they become the actors in the situation while the models that analyses the situation act as the process. A deep insight into the SAP framework reveals that there still exist enormous challenges in quantifying the environmental characteristics of critically polluted areas, forming the base of learning obtained. In response to learning, as action, the Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI) was developed, which evolved as a tool to rank the selected industrial clusters/areas based on various dimensions of pollution. The impact of CEPI on existing situation, actors and response of processes were measured as overall performance. This paper tries to find out the benefits of CEPI in terms of applicability, and the ease with which it can be used as an early sensor tool to assess the alarming situation, thereby helping to develop the action plan for remedial actions. Keywords: SAP-Lap models, environmental planning and management, comprehensive environmental pollution index, industrial clusters, sustainability, environmental assessment tools.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-IX-58 Municipal Solid Waste Management: A Case Study of Phursungi Plant, Pune * A.V. A.V. Mane, Parveen Anjum, S.S. S.S. Chaudhury & R.D. R.D. Gaikwad Department of Environmental Sciences, Fergusson College, Pune, India Email: ashishmane145@yahoo.co.in Abstract Solid-waste management is a major challenge in urban areas throughout the world. Without an effective and efficient solid-waste management program, the waste generated can result in health hazards with negative impact on environment. Solid waste management is associated with controlling the generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid waste in a manner that is in accordance with the best principles sustainability. It includes all administrative, financial, legal, planning and engineering functions involved in the solutions. Pune city is a known for its scenic beauty, rich natural resources as well as several educational institutes. However, this paradise has been turned into a dump just outside of the city area by depositing lakhs of metric tons of garbage, out of which 900-1200 metric tons comes every day. There are several solid waste treatment plants working round the clock to tackle this huge amount of garbage. The present case study is based on one of such solid waste treatment plants located at Phursungi, Pune. Presently the plant is using multi-product recycling and waste minimization (MPRWM) techniques. The technology used here in the plant is simple and efficient to treat the wastes. The principle of the process is to extract usable, commercially viable end products out of the municipal solid waste (MSW) and create a processed remnant of less than 20% of the input volume, for the landfills. Nowadays, huge chunk of land is used for the burial of non-biodegradable end products obtained after the treatment which cannot further be treated. This led to soil pollution and formation of highly hazardous complex leachates making groundwater prone to pollution. We observed that the company is trying best to reduce this land, soil and groundwater pollution to maximum extent and helping to save land from being wasted. We observed that bio-organic fertilizer is made by accelerated bioconversion process using remains of biodegradable wastes like fruits peels, vegetables, food and by-products of agro process industry. The plastic after being segregated from mixed MSW is sorted into various grades using infrared beams and then converted to ingots or granules. Such recycled ingots or granules reduce the requirement of fresh plastic and are used in manufacturing of trash bags, agricultural pipes, moldings, ropes etc. Overall the material being sent to the landfills is not more than 20%. Remnants of the sand can be used to supplement dredged sand for construction. The solid waste management should be well understood based on concept of three Râ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s i.e. recycle, reuse and reduce approach. It is well understood and incorporated by this plant. This is in fact very necessary to have positive impact on costs, environment and the community. In order to solve the problems faced by people living around the solid waste management units, there is need to reduce air pollution. There should be special health check up units for workers and nearby people at nominal cost. Heavy taxes should be laden by the municipalities on the groups that produce huge wastes. There is also need to form newer products like composts and recycled ones which are eco friendly and long lasting. The methane gas formation technologies should also be used by maximum extent to generate energy and use for various purposes. The Plant faces problem in storage and treatment of the waste in rainy days and local people suffer bad odour due to the continue decaying stags of garbage dumps. The people living surrounding are demanding that the plant to be shifted elsewhere for healthy conditions in the area. It is now well understood that the plant have already completed its waste dumping potential and the rapid growing housing patterns surrounding to it making the problem more complex. Many experts have already recommended that the Pune Municipal Corporation must shift the garbage dumping site to some other areas but getting a new site for dumping is also a big question. We suggest that an integrated solid waste management in sustainable approach is the final way necessary for waste management strategy needs. The government should take an initiative to improve or modify the solid waste management system and create a good monitoring system. Waste should not be treated as a waste for it is able to sustain part of living needs. We also urge for strict legislative efforts and effective implementation by active participation of community, public and private agencies is vital for the safe management of solid wastes. Keyword: Municipal solid wastes, management, treatment, conservation, sustainable approach, legal efforts.
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Chapter-IX-59 Dry flower of China rose rose (Hibisc iscus rosa sien iensis) can be utilize ilized for the co coloration of Punt Punti ntius sophor hore, An indigenous fish of Madhya Pradesh Prati ratibha Bagr Bagre, gre, Alka Pa Parash rashar, &Vipi &Vipin ipin Vyas Dept. of Applied Aquaculture, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, M.P., India Email: arunnamdeobioinfo@gmail.com Abstract The study was designed with the objective to utilize the dry flower of china rose as additive for the coloration of fishes. The flowers are collected from the out side of the temples and Total carotenoid were determined. Four iso proteicdiets(CR0,CR1,CR2.CR3)containing40%protein,withdifferentpercent age of china rose (0%,4%.8%,and12%respectively)were prepared and fed to the fingerling of puntius sophore for ninety days. The FCR ,SGR and Total carotenoid concetration in fish muscles and skin showed that 8% china rose impregnated diet can be adopted well for the coloration of the fishes. The diet also reduced down the cost of fish feed . No harm on fish health was observed by this weed. Therefore dry flowers of china rose can be utilized for the coloration of the fishes. Keywords: Puntius sophore, Indigenous, Hibiscus
rosa siensis, coloration.
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Chapter-IX-60 Phytoremediation: Municipal and waste water treatment Zeba parveen Department of Chemistry, Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology And Management, Raisen, M.P., India E-mail: zeba.parveen286@gmail.com Abstract Latex Exudates from Calotropis procera has a great potential for treatment of domestic and industrial waste water and possess efficient coagulatory and clarifying properties.It reduced the turbidity, colour, odor, pH, microbial load, and total Coli forms of all highly turbid samples (P< 0.001). The results obtained using latex, were comparable to those using already proved coagulants such as FeCl3, and Aluminum Sulphate (alum). The water treatment potential of latex of Calotropis procera on turbidity, pH,odour, microbial load and total Coli forms reduction is not only of good economic importance but could be the most cost effective alternative method to prevent pollution. This biological treatment (bioremediation) is therefore, preferred over and above other treatment methods because its techniques are cheap; do not need extensive training and controls Present investigation demonstrates the feasibility of adopting a "sustainable" and eco-friendly approach to waste water treatment using latex of Calotropis procera focusing on phytoremediation and resource utilization. Keywords: C. procera latex, water treatment potential, Phytoremedition, coagulation.
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Chapter-IX-61 A novel energy efficient process for making ceramic wall tiles using red mud and fly ash Jeeshan Khan, S. S. Amritphale & Navin Chandra Environment, Industrial Waste Utilization and Nano Materials Division, Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute, CSIR (Formerly Regional Research Laboratory), Bhopal, M.P., India Email: jeeshank@gmail.com Abstract A new process for utilizing the waste from alumina refinery plant namely red mud and thermal power industries namely fly ash in the making of ceramic tiles has been developed. Fly ash has been added to the red mud to improve the strength properties. The tiles are produced at comparatively lower (950°C) then the conventional process of making ceramic tiles using phosphatic binder. The physico-mechanical properties i.e. apparent density, impact strength, percentage linear shrinkage and percentage water absorption have been studied. Red mud with 20% (w/w) fly ash with sodium hexa-metaphosphate (SHMP) in the red mudâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;fly ash system (RMFA) optimized and meets the acceptable limit (19.6 J/m) set by the Indian Standards for ceramic wall tiles. The addition of fly ash in the RMFA system as little as 10 % only sufficient to obtain the ceramic tiles having impact strength as required in the IS No. 777â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1970. The major phases in the optimized RMFA 20 system are among the calcium aluminum silicate, aluminium phosphate, iron silicate, potassium titanium oxide and magnetite are responsible for observed reinforcement and strength leading to the densification in the matrix of ceramic tiles. The SEM micrographs reveal rhombohedral shaped crystal of calcium aluminum silicate and elongated crystal formation of metals silicate and phosphate in the ceramic matrix. These crystals act like whiskers, thereby providing reinforcement to the ceramic matrix and adequate strength in the sintered tile bodies. Keywords: Red mud, fly ash, Ceramic tiles, Energy efficient process.
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International Conference on Waste, Wealth and Health Organized by IIWM, Vigyan Bharati & MPCST, Bhopal in association with MPPCB, giz & NSWAI at Bhopal on Feb 15th - 17th, 2013
Chapter-IX-62 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ecoâ&#x20AC;&#x153;Eco-friendly, cost effective technologies on instant control of foul odor of organic waste and value added compost" K. B. Paudel1, A. Poudel2, P. Sipkhan3 & S. Mahat4 1 Nepalese Farming Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal 2 Nepalese Farming Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal 3 Nepalese Waste Management Pvt. Ltd, Lalitpur, Nepal 43 Nepalese Waste Management Pvt. Ltd, Lalitpur, Nepal E-mail: kbpaudel@hotmail.com Abstract The solid waste in Kathmandu valley is 450 tons/day, Municipalities and private sectors collect 300 tons and 100 tons respectively. The portion of organic waste is 65% and the solid waste of buffalo slaughter house is one of the worst, emitting foul odor. The community animosities in solid waste management are foul odor and delay in decomposition. So controlling foul odor and fast decomposition are the top concerns. In an effort to develop and disseminate eco-friendly technology to control foul odor, turn bio-degradable waste into value added compost as a source of income and input for sustainable agriculture system, Nepalese Farming Institute (NFI), a non-profit agriculture research and development organization, has developed a mixed culture of natural beneficial microbes called Jeevatu. Jeevatu is non-poisonous, eco-friendly; cost-effective, capable to control foul odor, prepare value added compost and managing diverse range of soil and plant problems. An application of the 10% solution of Jeevatu on buffalo slaughter house waste completely, instantly stops the foul smell and enhances fast decomposition process. The compost prepared by the use of Jeevatu contains more nutrient (4.025% Nitrogen, 1.125% Phosphorus and 2.250 % Potash) and microbes to solubilize fixed nutrients and manage several soil inhabitant pest problems. The technology being simple and cost-effective is applicable in household level to large scale projects, several organizations are using Jeevatu for eco-friendly, cost-effective city organic waste management. Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City & Nepalese Waste Management Pvt. Ltd. (Private-Public-Partnership) has signed Memorandum of Understanding for bio-degradable waste management by the technical help of NFI. Keywords: Solid waste, eco-friendly, odor, organic waste.
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Chapter-IX-63 Volcanic Ash For Permanent Confinement Of Calcium: Calcium: Generation Of Basic Sites And Application To Knoevenagel Condensation Reaction Stuti Katara & Ashu Rani* Department of Pure & Applied Chemistry, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India Email: stuti27oct@gmail.com, ashu.uok@gmail.com Abstract Modern environmental legislation calls for reduction of waste and waste production to reduce pollution level in air, water, soil etc to protect the beauty of earth. Use of environmental friendly alternative catalysts attracts us to develop some activation technique to make an innovative use of volcanic ash.VA is a siliceous waste material, commonly light gray with 2 to 5% of combined water, it can be expanded up to 10–20 times its original volume when heated quickly at 760–1000 OC. Most volcanic ash contains more than 70% silica. EVA is inert, non toxic, having small grain size, light-weight, less dense particles and high surface area which represent high surface activity. Due to these features EVA can be used as a good solid support material for preparation of industrially important solid base catalyst synthesis. Solid base catalyst is formed by using different activation techniques such as mechanical activation by ball milling and hand milling, thermal activation by calcination at temperature ranging from 100-1000oC and chemical activation by treatment with CaCO3 base. Physiochemical properties of prepared catalyst (CEVAC) were determined by using FTIR, SEM-EDX, XRD, TEM while the catalytic activity was measured by liquid phase, solvent free, single step Knoevenagel condensation reaction of benzaldehyde with ethyl cyanoacetate giving desired product ethyl (E)-α-cyanocinnamate. The catalyst can be reused and regenerated upto 4 reaction cycles with similar efficiency as in first run. The application of volcanic ash to synthesize a solid base catalyst finds a noble way to utilize this abundant waste material. Keywords: volcanic ash, activation technique, solid base catalyst.
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Chapter-IX-64 Synthesis of fly ash supported TiO2 photophoto-catalyst from coal generated fly ash Renu Hada1*, Ashu Rani1 & Vijay Devra2
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Kota, Rajasthan, India 2 Department of Chemistry, Govt. JDB Girls College, Kota, Rajasthan, India
1
Email: rosenrenu@gmail.com Abstract Coal generated fly ash is a waste material producing abundantly every year from thermal power plant industries all over the world. Due to its hazardous effects to the human body effective and efficient utilization of this waste is necessary. In this work fly ash was utilized for providing surface to adsorb TiO2 nanoparticles. A highly active fly ash supported TiO2 photo-catalyst was synthesized by loading TiO2 on activated fly ash with high silica content through impregnation method. XRD, FTIR, AAS, TEM and TG-DTA analysis revealed the presence of TiO2 in the bulk and at the surface of the fly ash. The activation of the fly ash by mechanical and thermal methods resulted to high surface silanol groups, which enables loading of chemical species on fly ash surface. The photo-catalyst thus obtained can be used in removing the organic chemicals which occur as pollutants in wastewater effluents from industrial and domestic sources. Keywords: fly ash; waste; TiO2, photo-catalyst.
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Chapter-IX-65 Synthesis of High Surface Area Adsorbent Using Thermal Power Plant (Fly Ash) Vishwajeet Singh Yadav*, Y. K. Mishra & A. K. Chaturvedi Madhav Vigyan Mahavidyalaya, Ujjain-456001 Email:vishusyadav@gmail.com Abstract Discarding of industrial waste is one of the major issue because if it is not disposed off correctly it may cause many environmental problems. The aim of this work is to utilize thermal power plant waste i. e. fly ash for the synthesis of mesoporous silica, a high surface are adsorbent. Fly ash is generally used by cement factories and in building materials since it is freely available. Mesoporous silica was successfully synthesized at room temperature by using fly ash. Its formation was confirmed by XRD, FTIR, and SEM. Study of surface area was analyzed by BET surface area analyzer. Surface area of mesoporous silica was observed to be 1230 m2/g Keywords: Mesoporous silica, fly ash, waste.
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Chapter-IX-66 Development of Activation Techniques for utilization of Fly Ash and Volcanic Ash in Adsorption of Environmental Hazardous Dyes and Heavy Metals Sakshi Kabra & Ashu Rani* Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India E-mail addresses: sakshi.aka.tinni@gmail.com, ashu.uok@gmail.com Abstract New environmental legislation appeals for proper and bulk utilization of wastes and use of more eco-friendly alternative catalysts attract us to develop some activation techniques to make an innovative use of fly ash and volcanic ash, solid waste products. The present work reports the synthesis of effective, low-cost adsorption catalysts from fly ash and volcanic ash through different activation techniques. Both materials are porous, so, they can be effectively transformed into good adsorption catalysts and better used for environmental pollution control by adsorption of various environmental hazardous dyes and heavy metals. Moreover, the main constituents of both fly ash and volcanic ash (silica, alumina, iron oxide) serve as active sites for dye and heavy metal adsorption processes. For this purpose, fly ash and volcanic ash were collected from thermal power plant and chemical industry respectively. Different activation methods such as mechanical activation by ball and hand milling, thermal activation at higher temperatures and chemical activation with sulphuric acid were applied to optimize the conditions for maximum adsorption of dyes and heavy metals. The physico-chemical properties of the support materials as well as synthesized catalysts were determined by using FT-IR, XRD, SEM, N2-adsorption-desorption studies etc. These prepared catalysts can be used in various filters for adsorbing dyes like methionine blue, methyl orange etc. and heavy metals such as copper, cadmium, lead, zinc etc. from atmosphere, in order to bring down environmental pollution. Keywords: activation techniques, adsorption catalysts, fly ash, volcanic ash.
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Chapter-IX-67 Solid waste pollution and health 1
Bal Krishan Sharma & Om Prakash Gyan Ganga Institutes of Technology and Management, Bhopal, M.P., India Email: bkrishan.krg@gmail.com Abstract
With the ever increasing population of urban areas including class-I and class-II and due to continuous migration of rural people in search of their livelihood , the load on cities is increasing sharply current reference indicates that the solid wastes containing domestic ,municipal, industries wastes even including animal and plastics, which is estimated to be thousands of tones in every city, every week. Due to lack of management and infrastructure ,the collection of garbage on roads and streets and even in market is increasing pollution and health problems with an alarming rates. A variety of solid waste with reference to their composition ,toxic and pathogenic ingredients .It is required to have a systematic classification of these solid wastes which may broadly be consider as municipal wastes containing a garbage , market wastes, wastes from hotels and industries , hospital wastes even plastic and electronic wastes are major causes . These wastes may further be divided in to two main types i.e. Non hazardous wastes like biodegradable solids, food processing, cotton mills, sugar mills etc .These also includes the wastes of steel industries ,drug industries etc. While the second class include hazardous waste which mainly include toxic chemical industries, manufacturing disinfectants, petrochemical and pesticide etc. Hazardous wastes also include medical or hospital wastes which are responsible for variety of infectious diseases like tuber culosis, cholera, skin infection, hepatitis, amoeba sis etc. The overall waste are responsible for detracting the health of common man. Therefore lot of precaution and suitable methods are to be applied for the safe collection and disposal of harmful wastes. The various methods are sanitary land fills of municipal and solid wastes, minimization of environmental impacts and mainly converting the house and municipal wastes in to vermicomposting , burning of very harmful material and utilization of various method for recycling also due to which cores of money per city can be saved. The most important part of this study is to save human beings from these toxic and pathogenic waste material .Therefore management of waste in a scientific approach for safe storage ,transport , treatment and its disposal is very important specially for infectious wastes . The waste should be collected in special bags which should be color coded and properly leveled to avoid any confusion .Infectious wastes segregated at the point of generation itself. Personnel involved in handling the infectious waste should be provided suitable protective gear, proper training for this waste as in handling emergency situation like spillage of waste to avoid every type of risk , in special case it is also recommended to autoclaving and microwaving and some time incineration in big fire clings which are must for every hospital but are rarely observed in the premises of the hospital .Government and local NGO,s should take concrete steps for awareness to common people and to provide seminars, workshops and group discussion etc. so as to save the masses from the hazardous of solid wastes. Keywords: Solid wastes, Pollution, Health hazardous and remedies.
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Author's Index A. K. Chaturvedi A. K. Shukla A. Poudel A. V. Mane Ajay S. Kalamdhad Ajay Singh Alka Parashar Almitra Patel Amit Vishwakarma Anjaly M. Anjum Ansari Arun Kumar Namdeo Ashok Pandey Ashu Rani Ashwini Sharma Asit Nema Babu J. Alappat Bal Krishan Sharma Bhumika Kaushik Brajesh Dubey Debopriya Bhattacharyya Deepak Mathew. D.K Dieter Mutz Dinesh Kumar E. Sunil Emmanuel Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Silva Francis Xavier G.S. Mandloi Gaurav Kumar Singh Girija D. H.N. Chanakya Hans Bjork Hari Kumar Parameshwar Harshul Parekh Hoysall N. Chanakya Jagdish Palsania Jaya Dhindaw Jaya Nair Jeeshan Khan Jiwan Singh K. B. Paudel K. K. Dube K.B. Kurup K.D. Yadav Kadambari Badami Karthik Rajendran Kristin Meyer Kriti Shrivastava Kuldeep Tiwari Kunwar D. Yadav Kurien M.O. M. Agrawal Mangalam Balasubramanyam Manoj Kumar Patidar Meena Bankhede Mithra Dey Mohammad J. Taherzadeh Mrinal Chadha Mukul Kulshrestha N.C. Shah Namrata Jain Narendra Jindal Navin Chandra
312 273 309 301, 505 38, 45 304 299 13 31 101 152 303 157 310, 311, 313 106 1 68 314 304 227 302 116 248 68 101 189 101, 116 141, 292 304 101 217 243 208 204 263 62 217 16 308 43 309 273 292 204 217 243 248 138 152 51 148 74 183 298 128 177 243 168 31 204 106 275 308
Om Prakash P. Prasada Rao P. Sipkhan Parveen Anjum Pinky Kaur Porwal H. J. Pradeep Shrivastava Pratibha Bagre R. Ajayakumar Varma R. Gour R.D. Gaikwad R.K. Srivastava R.P. Singh Ragini Kumari Rajeev K. Sukumaran Rajesh Puranik Rajkumari Badkur Regina Dube Rekha Chauhan Rekha Shrivastav Renu Hada S. Fareed Uddin S. G. Velhal S. Gautam S. Mahat S. S. Amritphale S. S. Chaudhury S. Sarsaiya S.M. Yadav Sabira Mohammad Sadhan K. Ghosh Sadhna Tamot Sakshi Kabra Sangeeta Palsania Sanjay K. Gupta Santosh Dhar Shibani Chaudhury Shivani Sharma Shubham Gandhi Shweta Dua Smita Joshi Smriti Bhargava Sreelakshmy P. Anandan Srinivasan C. Stuti Katara Sumedha Puranik T.A. Qureshi T.G. Sitharam Uday Bhawalkar Ulhas Parlikar Upinder Dhar V. Jagannatha V. Nigam V.S.S. Nair Vaishali Nandan Vijay Devra Vipin Vyas Vishwajeet Singh Yadav Y. K. Mishra Yogendra Singh Chouhan Zeba Parveen
314 7 309 305 123 301 300 306 21 141, 292 305 273 74 88 157 286 299 91 128 123 311 53 301 141, 292 309 308 305 141, 292 204 157 250 134 313 62 28 106 302 134 304 91, 199 138 300 101 193 310 47 123 217 120 111 106 280 141, 292 59 91 311 134 312 312 298 307
Important Links 1. Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1999 [Source: http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/hsm/mswmhr.html]
2. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 [http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/env/eprotect_act_1986.pdf]
3. The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 [Source: http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/env/env4.html]
4. Battery (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 [Source: http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/hsm/leadbat.html]
5. The Water (Prevention And Control Of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978 [Source: http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/water/water8.html]
6. The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997 [Source: http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/others/envapp97.html]
7. E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 [Source: http://envfor.nic.in/downloads/rules-and-regulations/1035e_eng.pdf]
8. Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 [Source: http://envfor.nic.in/legis/hsm/biomed.html]
9. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 [Source: http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/air/air3.html]
10. Manufacture, Storage And Import Of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989 [http://www.cpcb.nic.in/upload/Publications/(28)HAZARDOUS%20CHEMICALS%2 0RULES.doc]
11. Plastic Manufacture, Sale and uses Rule 1999 [www.cpcb.nic.in/upload/.../(33)%20plastic%20Rules%201999.doc.]
12. Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling & Transboundary) [www.cpcb.nic.in/upload/.../(33)%20plastic%20Rules%201999.doc]
13. Rules for the manufacture, use, import, export and storage of hazardous micro organisms genetically engineered organisms or cells [http://envirotrends.net/admin/images/Manufacture,%20Use,%20Import,%20Export%20and%20Storage%2 0of%20Hazardous%20Microorganisms%20Genetically20Engineered%20Organisms%20or%20Cells%20o %2016th%20July%202010-%20Update%20No.36-2010.pdf]
14. The Chemical Accidents (emergency planning, preparedness, And response) rules, 1996 [http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/hsm/gsr347.htm]
15. National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 [http://envfor.nic.in/downloads/public-information/NGT-fin.pdf]
16. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 [http://envfor.nic.in/legis/forest/forest4.html]
17. Forest (Conservation) Rules, 2003 [http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/forest/gsr23(e).pdf]
18. United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD [www.uncrd.or.jp]
19. Zero Waste Management in Bor책s, Sweden [http://iplaportal.org/upload/document/92/Zero%20waste%20management%20in %20Boras.docx]
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Cementing the Future.... Prism Cement Limited is an ISO 9001:2008, ISO 14001:2004, OHSAS 18001:2007, SA 8000:2008 & ISO 50001:2011 Certified Company.
Our Vision To be acknowledged as a leading player in the industry with the highest level of integrity
Our Mission • State of the art cement plants • Transparent dealings with all stakeholders • Committed to the principles of good corporate governance
Prism Cement Limited Village: Mankahari, Tehsil.Rampur Baghelan, Satna 485 111 (MP). Tel. No. 07672-275622/1, 410260, Fax No.07672-275303.
With Best Complements from
With Best Complements from
With Best Complements from The Supreme Industries Ltd
The Supreme Industries Ltd
Plastic Pipes & Fitting Division
Protective Packaging Division
K1 to K4, K8, K9 Ghironghi,
N1 to N12 Ghironghi,
Industrial Area,
Industrial Area,
Malanpur,
Malanpur,
Dist.Bhind - 477116 (M.P)
Dist.Bhind - 477116 (M.P)
Cell: 0 8461000901
Cell: 09301977401
Web: www.supreme.co.in