HYDROGEN 3.0.- REALITY CHECK -FRANK

AUTHOR NOTE

Welcome to the 'Reality Check' Books series, a journey through science and technology unfettered by sponsors and undistorted by university dogmas.

In my books, you will explore innovations and discoveries in their most authentic form—celebrating achievements, yet candidly addressing challenges.

This series stands as a beacon of independent thought, free from external biases and preconceived notions.

My goal is not to guide your conclusions but to empower your own informed perspectives, unswayed by underlying agendas.

Join me to embrace the pursuit of knowledge and champion the spirit of open inquiry, revealing the unvarnished truth behind each story.

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2023 Publications Earth Polycrisis – Reality check Topics: Climate Change issues & solutions

AI 2.0 – Reality check – Topics: AI new paradigm deep research 2024 Publishing program Hydrogen 3.0 – Reality check Topics: H2 complete tour on all matters of interest Astropolitics – Reality check: Space geopolitics, new actors & new challenges

2025 Program in project Nuclear Fusion 2.0- Reality checkTopics: Technology status and prospective For more information feel free to mail to: frank@frank.blue

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contents PAGES

Foreword : The Dawn of Hydrogen 3.0 PART

1

8-9 DEFINITIONS

History of Hydrogen H2 Basics for beginners Decoding H2 rainbow color Black horror to H2 Villian No gas but H2 Capture me for an H2 A Turquoise twist for an H2 Wind me up to H2 Solar to H2 the easy match Orange Peels of earth crust Striking gold in abandoned oil fields Do you see Red enough Cute in name-Brutally efficient White hydrogen enigma The electrolyser at the core of H2 3 electrolyser tehnologies breakdown H2 Vs Natural Gas Pipeline blending H2 and NatGas, seriously ?

E-Fuels: magic wand or ?

The risks of liquid hydrogen The very dark side of H2: The leaks Finally Six positive!

11-13 14-15 16-18 19-20 21-22 23-24 25-26 27-28 29-30 31-32 33-35 36-37 38-40 41-43 44-46 47-49 50-54 55-57 58-61 62-64 65-69 70-73

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PART

2

APPPLICATIONS

Aviation industry is “mentally” H2 ready 75-77 H2 and Ammonia in Marine decarbonisation 78-79 Trains: The ideal and evident H2 adopter 80-81 Trucks natural candidate for H2 82-83 Bus lane acceleration towards H2 84-86 EV’s Vs H2 cars 87-89 Synfuels+H2 ICE Enginer for Racing first 90-92 Data centers power hungry new H2 projects 93-94 Ammonia + H2 ready for agriculture 95-97 Greening Aluminium with H2 98-99 Green Steel ready to go 100-101 Hydrogen storage options 102-104 PART

3

-VISION

Geopolitics of Hydrogen 106-107 Beware China move fast to gain dominance 109-111 Japan: Do they know something we don’t? 112-113 USA: will it survice the next administration 114-116 India: Hydrogen market fresh start 117-118 Europe: Ambitious plans-But is it too short? 119-122 EU parliament bill on H2 123-126 First EU H2 auction: 2.2 Bln Euros 127-128 Summary of the H2 budget per nations 129-130 Australia: Billion surprise push in H2 131-132 The French won the pink battle in H2 133-135 Germany pressing the accelerator button 136-137 Scaling up a GW electrolyser factory 138-142 Page | 5

Netherlands: A 1.5 bilion Euros H2 pipeline 143 -145 How to mitigate early China competition 146-150 I.A.E.A. net zero reports results 151-156 HPA finance tool 157-158 H2 Market forecasts 159-161 LCOH Market labyrinth 162-165 The big issue with Off Take 166-171 Hydrogen Trading 172-179 H2 finance is very fragile 180-183 An off-ramp convenience for Big Oil 184-187 PART

4

INNOVATIONS

A race to patent hydrogen is led by Europe Milestone for Liquid H2 fuel cell aircraft H2 combustion enginer first flight A counterintuitive brilliant move World first H2 mix NatGas turbine H2 fuel cells new catalyst go mainstream Norway: Solid hydrogen breakthrough Flash Joule heating for graphene Waste plastic into H2 Storage in disk innovation Atmospheric air harvesting Burning H2 to produce heat at 700c Semiconductors process for H2 batteries New liquid organic hydrogen carrier

189-190 191-192 193-194 195-196 197-198 199-201 202-204 205-207 208-209 210-212 213-215 216-217 218-220 221-223

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MOFS for solid electrolyte material HUC Enzyme miracle Sun to H2 from lab to 1 M2 panel Chicken feathers for better H2 fuel cells H2 from Sea water Photo-Electrodes new advance for H2 Germans: Back to the caverns Sound waves increase efficiency 14 times

225-227 228-230 231-233 234-236 237-238 239-241 242-243 244-246

Part

OPINION

5

EU needs billions for H2 aviation H2 Europe policy reality check International projects reality check Headwinds and Tailwinds Accelerationism Vs Reactionary futurism

248-249 250-254 255-265 266-267 268-272

Part 6- CONCLUSION

274-276

Sources : Specialised newsletters and Scientific research

277

Books Published by the Author

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Foreword: The Dawn of Hydrogen 3.0 The evolution of hydrogen technology into its current phase, Hydrogen 3.0, marks a significant milestone Here's a brief overview, to understand this progression: The Genesis: Hydrogen 1.0 - First Wave (Late 1800s 1970s): Originating in the late 19th century, Hydrogen 1.0 was primarily focused on industrial usage, particularly in ammonia production and oil refining. This era was defined by large-scale, centralized hydrogen production, heavily reliant on fossil fuels, resulting in considerable carbon emissions.

The Transition: Hydrogen 2.0 - Emergence of a New Vision (1980s - Early 2000s): The second generation saw hydrogen stepping into the limelight as a clean energy carrier, starting from the 1980s.

This period was marked by experimentation with renewable energy sources for hydrogen production and the introduction of fuel cells, particularly in the automotive sector and energy storage solutions.

Technological Advances with significant breakthroughs in storage, transport, fuel cell efficiency, and scalability have been achieved, shaping the hydrogen economy of the future.

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The Breakthrough era: Hydrogen 3.0 - Current Focus (Mid-2000s - Present): This Book is dedicated to unfolding the story of Hydrogen 3.0, highlighting its transformative impact across various sectors.

We will thoroughly investigate the integration of hydrogen in energy systems, the advances in ecofriendly production, and the global dynamics propelling this revolution.

Crucially, our narrative will consistently underscore a Reality Check, ensuring a balanced and critical examination of these developments against practical and real-world benchmarks.

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PART 1

DEFINITIONS

History –key facts– colors code–e-fuels

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History of hydrogen: Gas to liquid form Robert Boyle, a scientist, created hydrogen for the first time in 1671. He dipped several metals in acid to see how they reacted. As a byproduct of the metals' individual interactions with the acid, hydrogen was created.

However, Henry Cavendish did not identify hydrogen for the first time until 1766. In a study, he established that hydrogen was a distinct element and provided more information regarding the highly flammable nature of this as-yet-undiscovered gas.

Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)

Robert Boyle (1627–1691)

Additionally, Cavendish found that when fire and hydrogen gas combine, water is created. A few years after this discovery, Antoine Lavoisier named the gas hydrogenium (from the Greek "hydro" and "genes," which means "water-maker".

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It wasn't until William Nicholson and Sir Anthony Carlisle discovered a method to generate hydrogen in 1800 that the production of hydrogen really took off.

By passing electricity through water, the electrolysis process yields hydrogen and oxygen gas.

Hydrogen was just gaseous at the time. Only a few decades later, researchers from all around the world began studying the liquefaction of gas. Professor Heike Kamerlingh Onnes of Leiden University was one of these researchers. In an intense competition with other scientists, he constructed a chilly laboratory and worked hard to synthesize liquid hydrogen first.

Although Scottish physicist James Dewar was the first to successfully convert hydrogen into a liquid, Kamerlingh Onnes was on the right track. He recorded the first temperature of -252.9 °C in 1898. In 1906, Kamerlingh Onnes had similar achievement in producing liquid hydrogen in his cryogenic facility in Leiden, where the lowest temperatures on record were attained, he achieved this.

Simultaneously, the investigation into the utilization of hydrogen persisted. This led to the creation of the first gas battery in 1945 and, soon after, studies into the potential of hydrogen as a fuel cell energy carrier.

The possibilities of hydrogen started to show during the 1990s. Trials on vehicles, ships, and airplanes started, and the aerospace industry quickly emerged as a potential significant customer.

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The advantages of sustainability were also becoming clearer. John O. M. Bockris coined the phrase "hydrogen economy" in 1970 outlining an economy where our current energy sources would be replaced by renewable hydrogen as the main energy carrier Illustration: Apparatus to study carbon dioxide, atmospheric air, and water. Henry Cavendish (1731–1810)

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H2 basics - FOR BEGINNERS

Hydrogen, derived from renewable sources through electrolysis, offers a carbon-neutral alternative to traditional energy carriers. This process, crucially CO2free, enables the storage and seamless integration of hydrogen into existing gas networks and the global market.

The energy density of hydrogen is nearly equivalent to that of natural gas, allowing it to be distributed through the existing pipeline infrastructure. This adaptability makes hydrogen a key player in providing the necessary capacity for climate-neutral energy.

Europe integrated natural gas networks are an economically favorable platform for distributing hydrogen. These networks, widely accepted and already in place, can transition to hydrogen with minimal investment, estimated at just 10-15% of the cost of new construction.

Hydrogen production from renewables is inherently variable. To counteract this, the existing gas storage and pipeline systems can be used to balance supply and demand, incorporating both 'green' hydrogen from excess renewable energy and 'blue' hydrogen when needed.

Converting gas infrastructure to hydrogen is already within our technical capabilities. The anticipated Page | 14

widespread adoption is supported by the current level of technological maturity and standardization, suggesting a cost-effective approach to this transition.

Establishing a robust hydrogen industry requires a uniform regulatory framework that ensures market competitiveness for climate-neutral hydrogen.

Additionally, policies governing public gas network access must evolve to facilitate hydrogen transport, enabling a smooth transition to a hydrogen-based energy system.

Collectively, these points underscore hydrogen's potential to become an integral part of a sustainable energy future, leveraging existing infrastructures and technologies to make a significant impact on energy consumption and climate change mitigation.

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Decoding h2 rainbow color spectrum

The fuel of the future, hydrogen, has been specially coded using a range of colors, each of which stands for a distinct production technique.

This color-coding scheme represents the different environmental effects and technological procedures involved in hydrogen production, in addition to providing a straightforward means of classifying the numerous hydrogen production techniques.

Every hue in this "rainbow" of hydrogen, from conventional to avant-garde, conveys a unique narrative about the difficulties and possibilities involved in using this adaptable element as a sustainable energy source.

The necessity to distinguish between the various production methods with ease is the driving force behind this colorful classification.

The world is turning more and more toward sustainable energy sources, so it is imperative to comprehend the subtle differences between each type of hydrogen.

This methodology offers a simple means of identifying and contrasting the different approaches, arranged from the most to the least environmentally beneficial.

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As we traverse the hydrogen rainbow, we will examine every hue individually.

Each variety of hydrogen, from the conventional gray hydrogen made from natural gas to the exciting green hydrogen made from sustainable energy sources like solar and wind power, has its own special opportunities and problems.

We'll explore turquoise hydrogen, which provides a cleaner option through methane pyrolysis, and blue hydrogen, which uses carbon capture to cut emissions from natural gas processing.

White hydrogen, which comes from natural formations, and gold hydrogen, which uses depleted oil wells, are examples of cutting-edge methods in the industry.

We will also investigate somewhat yellow hydrogen produced by solar energy and pink hydrogen produced by nuclear energy.

From approaches with considerable environmental effect to those aiming for sustainability, each kind represents a distinct aspect of the hydrogen generation spectrum.

The hydrogen rainbow provides a striking representation of the state of hydrogen technology today as well as possible future developments.

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With a clearer grasp of the opportunities and difficulties associated with each hue, we can see the significant contribution hydrogen can make to our shift to a greener, more sustainable energy source.

This vibrant categorization of hydrogen is more than just a straightforward labeling scheme; it's a story of advancement and promise, a tool to see how energy technology is changing, and a roadmap for sustainable energy in the future.

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BLACK HORROR TO H2 villain Black hydrogen refers to hydrogen produced from coal through a process known as coal gasification. This method has been a traditional approach in hydrogen production, particularly in regions with abundant coal reserves.

While green hydrogen technologies are emerging as sustainable alternatives, understanding black hydrogen's role in the energy landscape is crucial, especially as the world transitions towards cleaner energy sources.

Black hydrogen production involves converting coal into hydrogen gas. This is typically achieved through coal gasification, a process where coal is subjected to high temperatures and pressures in the presence of steam and controlled amounts of oxygen.

This results in a mixture of gases, primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Further processing, including the Water Gas Shift reaction, increases hydrogen yield and separates carbon dioxide.

Black hydrogen has been fundamental in industries where large quantities of hydrogen are required, such as chemical production, refining, and steel manufacturing.

It has been especially prevalent in countries with significant coal reserves and infrastructure, like China, the United States, and India. Black hydrogen's Page | 19

widespread use is partly due to the established infrastructure and the relatively low cost of production compared to other methods.

Economic Factors: For regions reliant on coal, shifting away from black hydrogen involves significant economic restructuring and investment.

Infrastructure Adaptation: Existing infrastructure is predominantly tailored to coal-based hydrogen production, necessitating substantial modifications for greener technologies.

Energy Policy and Regulation: Strong policy frameworks and incentives are required to promote the adoption of green hydrogen over black hydrogen.

Despite the challenges, the future of hydrogen production is increasingly leaning towards more sustainable methods.

Innovations in carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology might provide a transitional solution, enabling the continued use of coal with reduced environmental impact.

Black hydrogen, sourced from coal, has been a cornerstone in hydrogen production, especially in coalrich regions. While it has played a critical role in meeting industrial hydrogen the role of black hydrogen is expected to diminish, replaced progressively by sustainable alternatives.

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NO GAS, BUT H2 Grey hydrogen is a significant player in the current hydrogen production landscape. It is predominantly produced from natural gas through a process called steam methane reforming (SMR).

Steam Methane Reforming is a process where methane from natural gas reacts with steam under high temperatures and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. This reaction produces hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The hydrogen is separated and purified for use, while the carbon dioxide is often released into the atmosphere.

Grey hydrogen’s dominance in the hydrogen market is largely due to the established natural gas infrastructure and the relatively low cost of production compared to other methods. It's extensively used in various industries, including refining, fertilizer production, and chemical manufacturing.

The main downside of grey hydrogen is its environmental impact. The SMR process results in significant carbon dioxide emissions. As the world grapples with climate change, these emissions have become a critical point of concern, leading to a push for more sustainable methods of hydrogen production.

But they are Challenges in Moving Away from Grey Hydrogen. Economic Factors: Grey hydrogen currently

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has an economic advantage due to the mature natural gas market and infrastructure.

Transition Period: Shifting to low-carbon hydrogen production methods requires significant investment and time for technology development and infrastructure changes.

Policy and Regulation: Effective policies and incentives are necessary to promote the transition from grey to greener hydrogen production methods.Numerous countries are actively developing strategies to reduce their reliance on grey hydrogen: European Union: The EU is investing in green hydrogen projects as part of its strategy to achieve carbon neutrality.

United States: The U.S. is exploring various methods, including blue hydrogen, to lower the carbon footprint of its hydrogen production.

Japan and South Korea are investing in technology to transition from grey to green and blue hydrogen.While grey hydrogen plays a dominant role today, its future is likely to evolve as the world shifts towards more sustainable energy solution.

Its significant carbon emissions are driving a global shift towards cleaner hydrogen production methods.

As technology advances and the world intensifies its focus on sustainability, the role of grey hydrogen is expected to diminish, making way for greener alternatives in the pursuit of a low-carbon future.

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CAPTURE ME FOR AN H2 Blue hydrogen represents a significant advancement in the hydrogen production landscape, addressing the environmental concerns associated with grey hydrogen. Blue hydrogen differentiates itself by incorporating carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies. This approach aims to significantly reduce the carbon dioxide emissions typically associated with grey hydrogen production.

The production of blue hydrogen primarily involves SMR, where natural gas is reacted with steam under high temperatures to produce hydrogen and CO2. The key addition in blue hydrogen production is the implementation of CCUS technologies.

These technologies capture the CO2 produced during hydrogen production and either store it underground in geological formations or utilize it in various industrial applications. This process significantly reduces the amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere.

The primary advantage of blue hydrogen is its reduced environmental impact compared to grey hydrogen. By capturing and storing or utilizing the CO2 emssions, blIt serves as a bridge between the current reliance on grey hydrogen and the future potential of all the others greener hydrogen alternatives with two main challenges.

Cost and Efficiency of CCUS: Implementing CCUS technology adds to the cost of hydrogen production.

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Additionally, the efficiency of carbon capture and the long-term viability of storage or utilization methods are critical factors in the success of blue hydrogen.

Infrastructure Requirements: Developing the necessary infrastructure for CCUS, including transportation and storage facilities for captured CO2, is a significant challenge.

Blue hydrogen is viewed as a transitional strategy towards green hydrogen. It allows for the use of existing natural gas infrastructure while reducing carbon emissions.

Regions with significant natural gas reserves, as the Middle East, are rapidly showing interest in blue hydrogen.

Blue hydrogen, by integrating CCUS into grey hydrogen production, offers a more environmentally friendly alternative while capitalizing on existing natural gas infrastructure.

It stands as a crucial step in the evolution of the hydrogen industry, providing a path towards a more sustainable energy future while acknowledging and addressing the current limitations in green hydrogen production and infrastructure .

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A TURQUOISE TWIST IN H2 Turquoise hydrogen represents an emerging category in the hydrogen production landscape. Distinct from other types, it is produced through a process called methane pyrolysis, which breaks down methane (CH4) into hydrogen and solid carbon.

This method is gaining attention because it potentially offers a more environmentally friendly alternative to traditional hydrogen production methods.

Methane pyrolysis involves heating methane in the absence of oxygen to very high temperatures. This process results in the production of hydrogen gas and solid carbon, rather than carbon dioxide.

The absence of CO2 emissions in the process is what makes turquoise hydrogen particularly intriguing in the context of global efforts to reduce greenhouse gases.

The primary advantage of turquoise hydrogen lies in its reduced environmental impact. Traditional methods of hydrogen production, particularly those involving fossil fuels (like grey and black hydrogen), result in significant CO2 emissions.

In contrast, methane pyrolysis produces solid carbon, which can be either stored safely or used in various industries, such as tire manufacturing, construction, or even in electronics.

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Despite its potential, there are several challenges to the widespread adoption of turquoise hydrogen: Technical Complexity: The process of methane pyrolysis is technically complex and requires high temperatures. Developing efficient and reliable systems for this process is a significant challenge.

Quality of Solid Carbon: The commercial viability of turquoise hydrogen depends on the quality of the solid carbon byproduct. If the carbon can be sold for industrial use, it would offset some of the production costs. However, the market for solid carbon is not yet fully established.

Source of Methane: The environmental benefits of turquoise hydrogen depend significantly on the source of methane. If the methane is derived from fossil fuels, it reduces but doesn't eliminate the environmental concerns. Biogas or biomethane, however, can be a more sustainable source.

Scaling Up: Like many emerging technologies, scaling up methane pyrolysis to meet industrial-level demand is a challenge. This includes developing infrastructure and reducing costs through technological advancements and economies of scale.

Turquoise hydrogen offers an intriguing path forward in the hydrogen economy. It has the potential to produce hydrogen with a lower environmental footprint, especially if the methane used is sourced sustainably.

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WIND ME UP IN H2 Green hydrogen, a key player in the push towards renewable energy, is hydrogen produced through the electrolysis of water using electricity generated from renewable sources like wind power.

When the electricity used for electrolysis is sourced from renewable energies, such as wind power, the hydrogen produced is free from carbon emissions. This is a stark contrast to traditional hydrogen production methods, which often rely on fossil fuels and emit substantial amounts of CO2.

Wind farms Offshore , can be directly linked to electrolysis units, maximizing efficiency and minimizing energy loss with the following advantages: Environmental Benefits: The most significant advantage is its minimal environmental impact, producing zero greenhouse gas emissions during production.

Energy Storage: Green hydrogen can be stored and transported, offering a solution for the intermittency of wind power and other renewable energy sources.

Energy Security: Producing hydrogen locally from wind power can reduce dependence on imported fossil fuels, enhancing energy security.But with the following challenges

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Cost: Currently, producing green hydrogen is more expensive than traditional methods. However, costs are expected to decrease with technological advancements and increased scale of production.

Infrastructure: Developing the necessary infrastructure for large-scale hydrogen production, storage, and distribution is a significant challenge.

Efficiency Improving the efficiency of electrolysis and integrating it effectively with renewable energy sources is crucial for the viability of green hydrogen.

Several countries and regions are investing heavily in green hydrogen projects:The European Union has launched the European Hydrogen Strategy, aiming to significantly scale up green hydrogen production, particularly leveraging its substantial wind energy resources.

Australia is exploring green hydrogen as a major export commodity, developing projects that combine wind farms with electrolysis.

The United States and Canada are also advancing in green hydrogen, with projects that integrate wind power with hydrogen production facilities.

While challenges in cost and infrastructure development remain, the continuous advancements in technology and growing global commitment to clean energy are steadily paving the way for a greener, hydrogen-fueled future.

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SOLAR TO H2- the easy match Yellow hydrogen, associated with solar energy, is a significant and emerging sector in sustainable energy.

This method involves producing hydrogen fuel using solar power and is noted for his low environmental impact but low efficiency.

The process employs photovoltaic (PV) cells to convert sunlight into electricity, which then powers electrolysis – the splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen.

When the electricity used for this process comes from renewable sources like solar power, the produced hydrogen is considered a green contribution with a yellow color identification!

One of the major advantages of yellow hydrogen is its renewable and clean nature, using abundant solar energy. Solar installations can be set up in various locations, allowing for decentralized hydrogen production, which could reduce transportation costs and losses.

There are ongoing improvements in solar panel efficiency and electrolyzer technology, which are steadily reducing costs and enhancing the feasibility of yellow hydrogen.

However, there are challenges. The variability of solar energy requires efficient energy storage solutions or hybrid systems to ensure continuous hydrogen production. Widespread adoption of yellow hydrogen Page | 29

requires substantial investment in infrastructure for production, storage, and distribution.

Globally, several initiatives highlight the growing interest in yellow hydrogen.

In Australia, with its vast solar resources, projects like the solar-powered hydrogen plant in Queensland demonstrate the integration of solar energy with hydrogen production.

The European Union, under its Green Hydrogen Strategy, is pursuing numerous projects, many incorporating solar-to-hydrogen conversion. Countries like Spain and Portugal, benefiting from high solar irradiance, are leading these efforts.

Economically, yellow hydrogen has the potential to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and create new markets and job opportunities.

Environmentally, it offers a pathway to significantly cut greenhouse gas emissions, crucial for meeting global climate goals .In conclusion, yellow hydrogen, produced through solar energy, is a promising frontier in the quest for sustainable energy solutions.

While it faces challenges, in terms of cost and infrastructure, ongoing technological advancements and global initiatives are steadily paving the way for its broader adoption.

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ORANGE PEELS OF EARTH CRUST Orange hydrogen represents an innovative step forward in the quest for sustainable and eco-friendly energy resources. As we delve into the realm of alternative energies, the familiar terms grey, blue, and green hydrogen have now been joined by a new player: orange hydrogen. This novel concept emerges from the groundbreaking research conducted by the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS).

The Earth's crust, rich in iron that comprises about 5% of its mass, has the untapped potential to be a vast hydrogen generator. Certain geological formations are known to produce hydrogen naturally through the oxidation-reduction reactions between iron in the minerals and water.

Capitalizing on this natural phenomenon, a team of scientists, including members from CNRS-INSU, has pioneered a technique to amplify this natural hydrogen production, aptly named "orange hydrogen" after the rust-like hue of iron oxides that are a byproduct of the process.

The brilliance of orange hydrogen lies not only in its ability to generate energy but also in its environmental benefits. The same geological formations that facilitate the production of hydrogen also offer a dual advantage—they can act as natural storage sites for carbon dioxide.

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When water saturated with CO2 is introduced to these formations, a secondary chemical reaction is triggered, resulting in the precipitation of carbonates. These solid forms of CO2 effectively lock away greenhouse gases, preventing it from exacerbating the effects of global warming.

The practical extraction of orange hydrogen mirrors the techniques used in geothermal power plants.

Water, laden with CO2, is injected deep into the targeted rock formations through a series of wells. As the water meanders through the rock, it not only sheds its carbon dioxide load, forming stable carbonates, but also becomes enriched with hydrogen.

This hydrogen-enriched water is then brought to the surface through extraction wells, ready for use as a clean energy source.

While initial experiments have proven successful on a small scale, the true challenge lies in scaling the process.

The task at hand is to harness this technique for widespread use, potentially unlocking millions of years' worth of hydrogen lying dormant beneath our feet.

The implications of this for the energy transition are profound. Orange hydrogen not only holds the promise of a renewable energy source but also offers a built-in solution for carbon capture and storage.

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Striking gold in abandoned oil fields Gold hydrogen is an innovative concept in the hydrogen energy sector, focusing on the use of depleted oil wells either for the production or storage of hydrogen.

This novel approach not only proposes a sustainable energy source but also leverages existing infrastructure that would otherwise be obsolete, offering a unique solution in the field of renewable energy.

The concept of gold hydrogen involves two primary methods: producing hydrogen directly in the depleted oil well through techniques like underground coal gasification or methane pyrolysis, and storing hydrogen, produced elsewhere, in these wells.

Depleted oil wells are considered ideal for this purpose due to their proven capability to contain gases securely for extended periods.

One of the key advantages of gold hydrogen is the utilization of existing infrastructure, which can significantly reduce the costs associated with new storage facilities.

This method transforms a former fossil fuel site into a resource for green energy, contributing to environmental sustainability.

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Moreover, using these wells for hydrogen storage can enhance energy security, functioning as a strategic reserve. It also presents an economic opportunity by breathing new life into old oil fields, which can be particularly beneficial for regions previously dependent on the oil industry.

However, the approach is not without its challenges.

The technical feasibility of in-situ hydrogen production in depleted oil wells is still being assessed, and there are safety and environmental concerns associated with the storage of hydrogen in large quantities.

The economic viability of this method compared to other hydrogen production and storage techniques is another aspect under scrutiny.

Despite being in its early stages, several projects and studies are exploring the potential of gold hydrogen. In Europe, proposals exist to use depleted North Sea oil fields for hydrogen storage, making use of the extensive existing infrastructure.

In the United States, research initiatives are underway to examine the feasibility of using depleted oil and gas fields for this purpose.

It offers a way to repurpose old fossil fuel sites, reducing the need for new land and resource use for hydrogen production and storage.

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From an economic perspective, it could revitalize regions with a history in the oil industry, providing new employment and development opportunities.

In conclusion, gold hydrogen represents a forwardthinking approach in the hydrogen sector, offering a sustainable and economically viable solution by repurposing depleted oil wells. While it presents certain challenges, the potential benefits in terms of environmental sustainability, economic revitalization, and energy security are substantial.

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DO YOU SEE RED ENOUGH? Red hydrogen represents a significant advancement in the field of sustainable energy. It is produced through a process known as high-temperature catalytic splitting of water, utilizing nuclear power as the primary energy source.

This innovative method harnesses the immense thermal energy generated by nuclear reactors to facilitate the splitting of water molecules (H2O) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2).

The process begins in a high-temperature reactor, where nuclear fission generates substantial heat. This heat is then directed towards a water-splitting unit. In this unit, a catalyst, often made from robust materials capable of withstanding extreme temperatures, is used to accelerate the water-splitting reaction.

The high temperature, usually above 800°C, is critical for the efficiency of this process. At these elevated temperatures, water molecules are more receptive to splitting, thereby enhancing the rate of hydrogen production.

One of the most significant advantages of red hydrogen is its environmental impact. Unlike traditional methods of hydrogen production, which often rely on fossil fuels and result in considerable carbon emissions, red hydrogen is a much cleaner alternative. Since the primary input is water and the Page | 36

only byproduct is oxygen, the process is remarkably eco-friendly.

This aspect of red hydrogen makes it an attractive option for industries and sectors looking to reduce their carbon footprint.Furthermore, the use of nuclear power as an energy source for producing red hydrogen offers a reliable and consistent supply of energy.

Nuclear reactors can operate continuously, providing a steady heat source necessary for the water-splitting process.

This reliability contrasts with some renewable energy sources like solar or wind, which can be intermittent.

However, there are challenges associated with red hydrogen production. The high operational temperatures require advanced materials and technologies to ensure the reactors' and catalysts' longevity and safety.

Additionally, the integration of nuclear power into hydrogen production raises questions about nuclear waste management and safety concerns, which must be rigorously addressed.

In conclusion, red hydrogen stands out as a promising avenue for sustainable hydrogen production. By leveraging the power of nuclear energy, it offers an environmentally friendly solution with the potential for high efficiency and output.

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CUTE IN NAME - BRUTALLY EFFICIENT Pink hydrogen is the preferable option to all the other forms. Because nuclear energy does not release carbon dioxide during manufacturing, it is an environmentally beneficial method -at scale- to produce it using water electrolysis.

Pink hydrogen generation has the lowest emissions and is more sustainable than the widely used commercial process of steam-methane reforming, which creates gray hydrogen. Large-scale emissions sequestration presents also difficulties for blue hydrogen, which uses carbon capture.

Despite not producing any emissions, green hydrogen is still confronted with high production costs, which means that in 2021 it will make up less than 1% of the world's total hydrogen output. On the other hand, because it uses nuclear power, which can result in lower production costs, pink hydrogen is without questions the most affordable.

Moreover, according to a UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association report, a 3 GW nuclear reactor could generate enough pink hydrogen to power 40,000 hydrogen buses or decarbonize the heating of one million households.

This demonstrates pink hydrogen production's enormous potential and effectiveness. These elements Page | 38

support the idea that pink hydrogen is a more practical, affordable, and sustainable fossil fuel substitute.

Pink hydrogen production initiatives and technologies are being developed by a number of nuclear power facilities. The US Department of Energy and Constellation Energy Group successfully launched the country's first pink hydrogen production facility at the Nine Mile Point Nuclear Plant in New York.

With an hourly 1.25-MW energy demand from the plant's reactors, which generate a total of 1907-MW, this system produces 560 kg of hydrogen every day. By 2026, Constellation Energy will start producing hydrogen on a commercial scale.

Energy Harbor is conducting a low-temperature electrolysis system pilot project at the Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station in Ohio. Together, Xcel Energy and Bloom Energy are developing a high-temperature electrolysis method to produce pink hydrogen. By 2024, they will begin construction at the Prairie Island Nuclear Generating Plant in Minnesota.

Pink hydrogen generation is still progressing globally.

For example, in Sweden, industrial gas provider Linde Gas and power company OKG formed a business deal for pink hydrogen delivery. This contract is the first of its kind for hydrogen produced using nuclear power.

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Furthermore, Ultra Safe Nuclear Corporation, SK Ecoplant, and Hyundai are working together on a joint initiative called the Hydrogen Micro Hub initiative.

The development of a cost-effective pink hydrogen generating system is the goal of this partnership.

Hyundai will handle the engineering, procurement, and construction, and SK Ecoplant will supply the initiative's technologies.

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WHITE HYDROGEN ENIGMA White hydrogen A new player has emerged, cloaked in mystery and brimming with potential. This naturally occurring hydrogen, nestled within the earth's crust, presents a tantalizing prospect for the future of clean energy.

But its story is one of scientific puzzles, environmental considerations, and economic promises.

Discovery and Exploration The narrative of white hydrogen began to unfold dramatically with a serendipitous discovery in the Lorraine region of France.

A team from the University of Lorraine, the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), and energy producer La Française de l'Energie, while investigating methane, stumbled upon a hydrogen deposit of colossal proportions.

Their preliminary estimates suggested a reserve of about 46 million tonnes, dwarfing the world's annual production of grey hydrogen.

This French discovery isn't solitary. From the depths of Australia to the heart of West Africa, and across various locations in eastern Europe, Spain, and the United States, the hunt for white hydrogen has intensified.

Each new finding fuels the hope of a clean, abundant energy source, lying just beneath our feet.

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Production and Environmental Impact Dr. Michael Webber, a professor at the University of Texas, Austin, notes the inherent cleanliness of white hydrogen.

Unlike the energy-intensive methods of producing grey or even green hydrogen, white hydrogen asks of the earth to do most of the heavy lifting. This potentially reduces the carbon footprint associated with its production significantly.

However, this gift of nature is not without its challenges. The environmental impact of potential hydrogen leaks raises concerns.

Hydrogen, known for its elusive and explosive nature, can, if released, upset the atmospheric balance, potentially diminishing its own environmental benefits.

The lack of advanced monitoring technology for hydrogen leaks marks a significant blind spot in its exploitation Economic Viability Economically, white hydrogen shines with promise. Its cost of production, as per reports by Science, stands at a mere €0.50 per kilogram, a fraction of the cost of green hydrogen.

This positions it as a potentially game-changing player in the energy market, offering a cheaper alternative to its counterparts.

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Safety and Sustainability Safety remains a paramount concern. Hydrogen's small and light molecules, more elusive and explosive than natural gas, necessitate stringent containment measures.

But research from UT Austin suggests that the greenhouse risks from hydrogen leaks might be overstated.

They argue that the global warming impact of fugitive hydrogen emissions is relatively minor compared to other greenhouse gas impacts.

The Future Prospect The story of white hydrogen is one of potential and precaution. As companies like Helios Aragón in Spain plan to start drilling in 2024, the industry stands at the cusp of a possible energy revolution.

The promise of a clean, abundant, and cheap energy source is compelling, but it is accompanied by significant scientific, environmental, and safety challenges that must be navigated carefully.

In Conclusion White hydrogen, in its enigmatic presence beneath our feet, offers a glimpse into a future where clean energy is not just a dream but a tangible reality.

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THE ELECTROLYSER AT THE CORE OF H2 Like Solar power depends on the solar cell, Wind power on the wind turbine,the electrolyzer is at the core of H2.

The electrolyzer, a little-known device with a name straight out of 1950s science fiction, is the key to the green hydrogen economy. Additionally, the electrolyzer's time has arrived after a century of neglect.

The apparatus splits water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity. There are no carbon emissions produced during the production of electricity if it originates from solar panels, wind turbines, or nuclear reactors. Hydrogen can subsequently be burned in factories, power plants, and even jet planes without causing global warming.

Hydrogen fuel can also be made from coal or natural gas in different methods. However, the electrolyzer is essential to carbon-free technologies that do not require emissions to be caught and stored.

Andy Marsh, CEO of Plug Power Inc., the company that manufactures the electrolyzers, stated, "I don't think people understand what an electrolyzer is." It serves as the foundation for green hydrogen.

Electrolyzers are not as intuitive to understand as solar cells or wind turbines. Smaller, more modular versions Page | 44

are groupings of electronics and machinery packed into boxes the size of shipping containers or even refrigerators, while larger ones can resemble a disorganized mess of tubes and pipes.

The Plug Power electrolyzer stacks that are displayed here employ a solid electrolyte-based technology known as "proton exchange membrane," or PEM. Adam Glanzman/Bloomberg took the photo.

More than two centuries ago, scientists developed the electrolysis process that the electrolyzer uses, and commercial electrolyzers first appeared on the market in the 1920s. They were the primary method of producing hydrogen until the 1960s, when a method of removing hydrogen from natural gas using steam took their place. Today, natural gas supplies almost all of the hydrogen utilized globally in chemical plants, oil refineries, and fertilizer factories. The market for electrolyzers became less active.

Now, that has altered in the last few years alone.

BloombergNEF, a clean energy research firm, reports that global electrolyzer sales doubled from 200 megawatts in 2020 to 458 megawatts in 2021, measured by the amount of power the machines require. According to BNEF, they are predicted to quadruple this year, perhaps reaching 2,464 megawatts or 1,839 megawatts. It might be the same kind of hockey-stick moment that solar power went through ten years ago.

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There's probably going to be even more rapid growth to come. There have been announcements of electrolyzer "gigafactories" in Australia, China, India, and Spain that can produce enough electrolyzers annually to consume a minimum of 1,000 megawatts of electricity.

When someone declares, they are going to construct a gigafactory, they mean to develop one with a capacity more than what is now installed worldwide within a year. Wishful thinking still to be encouraged!

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3 ELECTROLYSER TECHNOLOGY BREAKDOWN Comparing three key electrolyser technologies—Solid Oxide Electrolyser Cell (SOEC), Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyser (PEM), and Alkaline Electrolyser (AKL)—involves assessing their operational principles, efficiency, durability, and cost. Here's a technology breakdown: Solid Oxide Electrolyser Cell (SOEC) Utilizes a solid ceramic material as electrolyte and operates at high temperatures (700°C to 800°C).with High efficiency due to high operating temperatures, which reduce the energy required for electrolysis. It Can potentially reach over 90% electrical efficiency.

High-temperature operation can lead to faster degradation of components. However, advancements in materials are addressing this issue.

Currently high costs due to the complexity and materials required.

However, the potential for higher efficiency and the ability to use heat from external sources (like industrial waste heat) can offset the initial cost.

Overall More suitable for large-scale, industrial applications where waste heat is available.

Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyser (PEM) Uses a solid polymer electrolyte and operates at relatively low temperatures (around 80°C) with an Page | 47

efficiency generally lower than SOEC but higher than AKL, with efficiencies around 60-70%.

Durability is good enough due to lower operating temperatures that can be rapidly adjusted to changing power inputs, making it suitable for pairing with intermittent renewable energy sources.

Moderate cost, but the use of precious metals like platinum as a catalyst can be a cost driver especially for for dynamic operations and smaller-scale applications.

Alkaline Electrolyser (AKL) The oldest technology, using an aqueous alkaline solution as an electrolyte. Operates at temperatures around 70°C to 80°C with an efficiency: Lower than SOEC and PEM, typically around 60%. Good durability but sensitive to impurities in the water and electrolyte.Relatively low cost due to simpler construction and absence of expensive catalyst materials and Suitable for steady, large-scale operations.

While each of these 3 technologies has its merits, SOEC stands out: SOEC's high operational efficiency makes it a promising option for sustainable hydrogen production, particularly in scenarios where excess heat is available.

Its ability to utilize potentially external heat sources, such as industrial waste heat, enhances its overall energy efficiency and reduces operational costs in the long run.

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It is well-suited for large-scale industrial applications, making it a viable option for integrating into existing industrial infrastructures. Continuous advancements in materials and technology are rapidly addressing the initial cost and durability challenges, increasing its potential as a leading technology for hydrogen production.

While PEM and AKL have their specific use-cases, the high efficiency and scalability of SOEC, combined with its ability to integrate waste heat, make it a particularly promising technology for future hydrogen production, in industrial settings.

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H2 Vs. natural Gas The scientific debate points per points to fact check the realities.

What distinguishes natural gas from hydrogen fuel?

H2 and natural gas are not the same, despite the fact that H2 is frequently suggested as a possible substitute.

Numerous organizations and governments are investigating the potential of using hydrogen fuel in place of natural gas for a variety of purposes. Many have been left wondering what the differences are between these two chemicals as a result of this.

There is a wide range of distinctions amongst them, even if they have many commonalities.

Many uses for hydrogen fuel, including replacing natural gas entirely or blending it with it, are being investigated. It's crucial to keep in mind that the two chemicals are not the same, even though it can offer a useful answer throughout this decarbonization transition. While there can be a similar usage for them, there are also significant differences between them.

One of the main advantages of using H2 instead of or in addition to natural gas is that it may be utilized with combustion turbines that are already in place. In order to provide emission-free energy, several power plants that are currently being built are designed to run on a

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combination of natural gas and hydrogen in the future, before switching completely to hydrogen.

When developing these plants, the distinctions between natural gas and hydrogen fuel will be crucial.

The two compounds have distinct chemical formulas to begin with. While natural gas, sometimes referred to as methane, is CH4, hydrogen is H2. Carbon emissions come from the combustion of methane, not H2.

Just glancing at the periodic table reveals yet another distinction. CH4 has a molecular weight of 16, while H2 has a molecular weight of 2. In other words, H2 is substantially lighter.

The limit of flammability for H2 is 4%/75%, while the limit for CH4 is 7%/20%. In contrast to CH4, this indicates that H2 burns at both lower and higher air concentrations. This implies that H2 combustion is more difficult to regulate.

Whereas the flame speed of CH4 is approximately 30– 40 centimeters per second, that of H2 is approximately 200–300 centimeters per second. The rate at which a flame spreads through the fuel and unburned air combination from a starting point is known as its flame speed. Compared to natural gas, hydrogen fuel burns almost ten times faster.

Because the higher flame speed makes managing combustion site more difficult, this is one of the most crucial design considerations for H2 combustion.

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Methane's adiabatic flame temperature is approximately 3,565, while that of H2 is approximately 4,000. This is an illustration of the temperature of a flame produced during combustion.

The temperature of hydrogen fuel is approximately 500 degrees Celsius higher than that of natural gas. As a result, all machinery and parts need to be able to tolerate this kind of heat. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions are also more likely as a result of this.

Energy Density?

The heating value of H2 is significantly less than that of methane. What is meant by heating value is the amount of energy that one pound of fuel can provide Natural gas's energy density is roughly 2.5 times that of hydrogen fuel. Nevertheless, to produce the same amount of energy as CH4, around three times the volume of H2 is needed due to its noticeable reduced weight.

Globally, businesses and governments are putting in great effort to reconcile the discrepancies between hydrogen (H2) and natural gas (CH4), mainly because H2 is a greener option. This is how they're managing it: The design of combustion systems must account for the high flame speed of hydrogen (H2) in order to provide both safety and effective operation. To guarantee steady and effective combustion, this entails creating novel burner designs and control schemes.

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Material Selection: Due to the greater adiabatic flame temperature of H2, businesses are devoting resources to R&D in an effort to discover materials that are resistant to these elevated temperatures.

This increases the equipment's lifespan while also guaranteeing operational safety.

Control of NOx Emissions: The possibility of NOx emissions is also increased by the greater flame temperature of H2.

A variety of mitigating measures, including selective catalytic reduction and exhaust gas recirculation, are being investigated by businesses to address this problem.

Efficient Storage and Transportation: Methods for efficient storage and transportation are being developed because of the decreased energy density of H2. Subterranean storage, sophisticated pipeline networks, and high-pressure tanks are a few examples.

Hydrogen Production and Purity: Another difficulty is generating H2 in a sustainable and economical way.

Many production techniques are being investigated by businesses, such as steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage and electrolysis driven by renewable energy.

Furthermore, maintaining the purity of H2 is essential for its effective and safe application.

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Regulation and Standards: As the use of H2 grows, rules and guidelines governing its creation, storage, transportation, and consumption are required. These regulations are being developed by governments and international organizations to guarantee effectiveness and safety.

Last but not least, there's a need to raise people's knowledge and acceptance of H2 as a practical substitute for natural gas.

This includes informational campaigns and examples of applications for H2.

In conclusion, even if there are a lot of differences between natural gas and H2, they are not insurmountable.

A significant amount of hydrogen can be included into an energy system that replaces one that is mostly fueled by natural gas.

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PIPELINE Blending H2 AND NAT GAS seriously?

When comparing the transportation of hydrogen and natural gas (methane) through pipelines, we must consider not only their individual characteristics but also the dynamics of blending these gases. Natural gas has traditionally been the mainstay for pipeline transport due to its high calorific value, providing substantial energy by volume. Hydrogen, though lower in energy content per unit volume, can be optimized for pipeline transport, especially when blended with natural gas.

The blending of hydrogen with natural gas is an area of growing interest, as it can allow for the use of existing infrastructure with minimal modifications. Studies have shown that hydrogen can be safely transported in natural gas pipelines in concentrations up to 5% with relative ease, ensuring the integrity and safety of the existing pipeline network.

Some sources, however, suggest that with certain pipeline materials and conditions, blends of up to 15% to 20% hydrogen could be achieved without significant alterations. In fact, infrastructure companies like Snam in Italy have experimented with up to 40% hydrogen blends, pushing the envelope on how much hydrogen our current systems can handle.

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The capacity to blend higher percentages of hydrogen with natural gas could significantly impact the efficiency and environmental footprint of energy transportation. Hydrogen's lower calorific value is offset by its clean-burning properties, producing only water vapor when combusted. By transporting hydrogen in combination with natural gas, we could reduce greenhouse gas emissions and transition more smoothly to a hydrogen economy.

However, the transport of hydrogen, whether as a pure gas or blended with methane, presents unique challenges.

Hydrogen's compressibility differs from that of methane, affecting how pressure loss is calculated and compensated for in pipelines.

To transport hydrogen efficiently, pipelines may operate at higher pressures compared to methane, accommodating hydrogen's lower energy density and higher compressibility.

Converting existing natural gas pipelines to carry hydrogen or a hydrogen-natural gas blend does not come without challenges.

For example, the issue of hydrogen embrittlement—a phenomenon where metals become brittle due to hydrogen exposure—must be addressed, particularly when considering higher concentrations of hydrogen.

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In summary, while natural gas and hydrogen have distinct properties affecting their transport through pipelines, the potential to blend hydrogen with natural gas presents a promising avenue.

With careful management and technological innovation, we can maximize pipeline capacity and energy flow, paving the way for hydrogen to be a viable and sustainable alternative to natural gas in our energy.

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E- FUELS magic wand or?

E-fuels refers to synthetic fuels, also known as electro fuels, which are made from hydrogen produced by electrolysis, carbon dioxide (or nitrogen in the case of e-ammonia), and renewable or low-carbon power.

Their advent in liquid or gaseous form, in conjunction with biofuels derived from biomass, presents a viable alternative means of de-fossilizing industry and transportation without causing conflicts with agricultural goods, thereby mitigating the climate impact of these activities.

Which chemicals are we discussing here? What processes are involved in the production of these molecules?

What are these compounds' benefits and limitations?

What output levels should be expected, and what are the roadblocks to their advancement? In an effort to give as many individuals as possible definitions and insights into e-fuels and their future deployment, this policy brief tries to address all of these topics.

The use of e-fuels as synthetic fuels for mobility is the main topic of this paper. Four e-fuels are covered in detail: e-methane, e-methanol, the paraffinic e-fuel family, which includes e-petrol, e-diesel, and ekerosene, and finally e-ammonia.

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Alternative fuels: e-fuels Water electrolysis converts renewable or low-carbon electricity into hydrogen, a molecule that is simpler to move, store, and distribute than electricity. In addition to its conventional use in industrial and fertilizer chemistry, hydrogen can be utilized directly as fuel in a combustion engine or in mobility to power an electric motor using a fuel cell.

As a gas at atmospheric pressure, hydrogen has a high energy density by mass but a very low energy density per unit volume. For this reason, it needs to be compressed at very high pressure—between 300 and 700 bar—or liquefied at -252°C. Both processes require a significant amount of energy, and the on-board equipment faces significant technological and technical challenges. Hydrogen can therefore only be stored in tanks of a reasonable size.

Utilizing renewable or low-carbon hydrogen to create synthetic fuels, or e-fuels, through reactions with nitrogen or CO2 is another method.

These fuels, which are typically liquid but can occasionally become gaseous under ambient conditions (e.g., e-methane), are easier to transport, store, and use than hydrogen.

They offer a very promising alternative for air and maritime transportation, where pure hydrogen seems challenging to use over long distances due to the Page | 59

aforementioned reasons, as well as for some river and road transportation.

What applications for which e-fuels?

Methane -e The main benefit of e-methane in liquid form is that it can be added to LNG (liquefied natural gas), which allows it to take advantage of present infrastructure and regulations. When in its gaseous state, it can be utilized for both marine and road transportation, as well as for the conventional uses of natural gas, such as electricity and heating.

Methanol eA prospective fuel for the marine sector is e-methanol, whose manufacturing is already somewhat industrialized, mainly for the chemical industry.

Industrialists are aware of it; it is liquid at room temperature and dense in energy.

E-methanol can be quickly deployed and is easily mixed into gasoline for automobile engines now in use.

It can also be utilized in "dual fuel" engines for marine vehicles.

Additionally, it seeks to decarbonize the olefin (ethylene, propylene) and chemical (formaldehyde, acetic acid, etc.) production processes. When using methanol as a fuel, however, caution is necessary due to its high level of toxicity.

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E-fuels paraffinic Paraffinic e-fuels are therefore plausible for use in air, sea, or road transportation due to their attributes being similar to those of their fossil equivalents.

The primary use of e-diesel is in vehicle transportation. It can be used pure or blended into commercial diesel oil, and its qualities are on par with or even better than those of ordinary diesel fuel.

E-kerosene is meant to be used in aircraft. It is a component of SAF, or Sustainable Aviation Fuels.

Ammonia-e Since e-ammonia is the only synthetic fuel that is not carbon-intensive and is inexpensive and easy to create, maritime transportation has given it considerable consideration. Its extreme toxicity and environmental risks, particularly in enclosed spaces like ships, continue to prevent its widespread use as a fuel, nevertheless.

It still takes R&D to operate safely in this kind of setting. Decarbonizing the manufacturing of chemicals (fertilizers, explosives) is another goal of e-ammonia.

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The risks of liquid hydrogen

Using hydrogen, either as a gas or a liquid, carries some dangers. An explosion is produced when the proper amount of oxygen gas and hydrogen combine to unleash a huge amount of energy. Besides being extremely flammable, hydrogen burns at a comparatively low temperature.

Furthermore, it is challenging to find a leak in a system because hydrogen has no color and no smell. Even a flame made of hydrogen is nearly invisible, making it challenging to put out.

Furthermore very cold (-252.9 °C), liquid hydrogen will freeze on contact. And last, if the hydrogen is not well insulated, oxygen may condense and provide a greater fire risk.

How the aforementioned dangers stack up against those of other fuels is up for discussion. Actually, compared to natural gas or gasoline, hydrogen presents a marginally larger fire danger, according to study. It remains to be seen what this elevated risk means for hydrogen's future.

All fuels have risks, though, and hydrogen can be handled safely and effectively with the right infrastructure and knowledge.

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Thankfully, security and infrastructure have advanced dramatically over the past few decades, and hydrogen has long been utilized in a variety of businesses.

These days, sophisticated sensors can detect leaks from hydrogen infrastructure instantly. Strict testing guidelines also apply to applications, pipes, and tanks holding hydrogen.

Before this equipment is put into service, it is subjected to intense pressure and extremely high temperatures.

Hydrogen can be safely maintained without any issues if the right infrastructure is in place and the end user handles the gas responsibly.

Accurate information provision is crucial in this regard.

The risk will be lower the more closely the user complies with the directions and is informed of potential risks.

Liquid hydrogen insulation is the solution by chance!

Compared to certain other liquid gases, liquid hydrogen requires a higher caliber of insulation. The primary cause of this is the gas's abnormally low temperature.

Because liquid hydrogen is so cold, it is possible that a tiny crack in the foam insulation of a pipeline used to transport hydrogen could be the cause of oxygen condensation.

If hydrogen or any other combustible substance comes

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into touch with this condensed oxygen, a fire or explosion will result.

Fortunately, the best insulation is provided by a certain type of insulation. The safest way to move, store, and use liquid hydrogen is through the application of vacuum technology. When it comes to pipes, fittings, tanks, and cryogenic equipment, vacuum insulation can outperform other insulating materials by up to 15 times.

Transfer lines or systems can be optimally insulated using vacuum or high-vacuum technology. Enclosing these systems or lines with two walls and vacuumizing the area between them creates a vacuum environment.

Since most of the molecules have been removed, the vacuum ensures that there is no heat transfer between the chilly interior and the heated exterior.

Hydrogen systems that use vacuum insulation are safe and compliant with the stringent regulations governing hydrogen infrastructures. Liquid hydrogen transfer lines on ships, for instance, are supposed to have a double containment for added safety (in the event that a leak occurs in the process line, the extra containment will be in place).

Additionally, the vacuum tube serves as a direct double-containment if the pipelines are equipped with vacuum insulation. Therefore, vacuum insulation accomplishes two goals at once.

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THE VERY DARK SIDE OF H2: the leaks The problem of fugitive hydrogen emissions in a future hydrogen economy is the subject of numerous studies, which dampens the fervent excitement for his large-scale development. Because hydrogen can decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors, it is not included in any government plans for new green energy initiatives.

Therefore, it is important to analyze potential leakage to the atmosphere.

Even while hydrogen doesn't release carbon dioxide, it is nevertheless considered an indirect greenhouse gas since it can counteract some of the advantages of a hydrogen-based economy by reducing the amount of naturally occurring hydroxyl radicals, which aid in the removal of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas.

Numerous mechanisms of hydrogen emissions have been identified by research, including intentional venting or purging, unintentional leaks from joints, piping, and storage, and attempts to quantify these emissions.

The position of hydrogen in the energy system of 2050 is illustrated using a core scenario, in which it is "ideally" anticipated that the European gas network will switch entirely from natural gas to hydrogen.

Fuel cells and electrolysis are two examples of the technology advancements that can drastically cut pollution. We do not yet know, nevertheless, what the Page | 65

minimal scale and economic feasibility of these technologies are.

The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of hydrogen and its impact on decarbonization policies important variables to consider seriously from start.

Future research on leakage mechanisms, technologies for fuel cells and electrolysers, and experimental studies to comprehend leakage flow regimes within distribution networks are all suggested in order to further our understanding of hydrogen leakage and its consequences.

The conversation factor from natural gas to hydrogen leakage is the main source of uncertainty in distribution network leakage calculations.

Nowadays, the ways in which hydrogen is transported and stored pose serious containment issues.Because of its low volumetric energy density, hydrogen must be stored at high pressure, which increases the risk of leakage. In addition, The physical characteristics of this energy carrier make it more difficult to contain than traditional energy sources like natural gas.

Leaks of hydrogen will be detrimental to the climate.

While hydrogen alone does not directly cause greenhouse gas emissions, it can contribute significantly.

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Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that is indirectly increased by combining with and consuming naturally existing hydroxyl radicals, which remove methane from the environment. Intentional venting for operational or safety purposes, as well as accidental leaks from joints, storage, and pipes, are potential sources of leaks. For instance, leakage rates are predicted to be between 0.12 and 0.24% per day while carrying compressed hydrogen gas.

Furthermore, because liquid hydrogen has a boiling point of 20K, some vaporization, or "boil-off," is unavoidable while working with it; this boil-off is frequently released into the atmosphere.

When using hydrogen for home heating, the largest source of hydrogen emissions is leakage from residential plumbing, which creates a great deal of uncertainty.

Furthermore, because natural gas and hydrogen have different properties and different leakage pathways in pipework, the conversion factor from natural gas to hydrogen leakage within a hydrogen distribution network contributes more than any other element to the uncertainty in leakage forecasts.

Thus, it is critical that these leakage issues are resolved in order to fully reap the rewards of a hydrogen-based energy system.

Among the tactics could be enhancing the design and upkeep of infrastructure, putting rules and safety Page | 67

precautions into place, looking into and utilizing new technology, and reducing leakage.

Several strategies have been put forth to lessen these leaks. Technological advancements in electrolysis and fuel cells in particular have the potential to lower emissions while taking into account the economics of producing hydrogen, including the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH).

Other factors to take into account are the technologies' possible inclusion in low-carbon hydrogen standards and their viability at a minimum viable scale.

It is advised to look at potential leakage pathways for hydrogen provided by carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) and the process industry.

Finding methods to recombine vented and purged hydrogen into water is suggested to reduce emissions from fuel cells and electrolysers.

But this procedure also has to consider how it may affect levelized costs (LCOH). Furthermore, observation and experimental research are required to better understand the leakage flow regimes of both gas distribution networks and natural gas leakage from the Transmission System.

To improve leakage prediction, slow leaking processes inside the pipes that haven't been taken into account yet need to be identified.

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Finally, for more extensive uses, methods that lower emissions of liquid hydrogen, such as compression and reliquification of hydrogen for process heat, might be investigated.

This time, we are being warned at a very early stage of the process since a large-scale development of H2 is expected to occur between 2030 and 2050.

The numbers are clear, and we shall immediately take precautions to ensure that we are not going to be taken by surprise especially after reading the alarming data.

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FINALLY, SIX POSITIVES! After two negative: explosion risks and leaks, here are six positive : Why hydrogen is probably going to be a crucial future renewable energy source.

1. No emissions of CO2 directly When hydrogen is used, no carbon dioxide (CO2) is created. Hydrogen only reacts with oxygen to produce heat, water, and energy. Additionally, no CO2 is produced because it has no carbon.

This implies that direct CO2 emissions can be avoided when using hydrogen instead of fossil fuels in boilers, fuel cells, gas turbines, and engines. By converting to hydrogen co-firing and eventually 100% hydrogen firing, plant owners can transition to hydrogen technologies such as the hydrogen gas turbine from Mitsubishi Power, a power solution brand of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI).

2. A high density of energy Hydrogen ignites at high temperatures and speeds.

Heat is released and water is formed when it ignites when mixed with oxygen.

As our understanding of how to manage hydrogen's flammability has grown, so too has hydrogen's promise as a resource for our long-term energy demands.

Hydrogen can now be used to create extremely efficient greener fuels.When used, hydrogen emits no Page | 70

CO2, making it a clean energy source for heating and power.

3. Abundant and adaptable The most prevalent element in the universe, hydrogen is found all around us, mostly as water (H2O) and hydrocarbon-containing fossil fuels. However, pure hydrogen is not often found in nature as a gas; normally, one finds less than one part per million by volume. Therefore, hydrogen needs to be generated from either biomass, water, or fossil fuels in order to be pure hydrogen.

The majority of hydrogen used today is created by a thermal process. In order to create hydrogen, high temperatures are used to create steam, which is then combined with hydrocarbons. However, the use of solar-powered, electrolytic, or even biological methods is growing in its production.

Hydrogen can be also produced from biomass or wastewater by using microalgae.

4. Capacity for storage Weather has a tendency to affect how much energy is generated from renewable energy sources, such wind and solar power. The intermittent aspect of renewable energy production is lessened when energy storage technologies are combined with renewable energy sources, and hydrogen is a tried-and-true source of efficient storage.

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By producing hydrogen through electrolysis, renewable energy may be stored for later use and stabilizes the energy grid by offering a "on tap" supply of energy.

Even better, there won't be any major losses when the hydrogen is held for extended periods of time.

5. A fuel used in industry Hydrogen has the potential to serve as a fuel source for energy-intensive industrial operations, such glass and metal processing. Heavy industry, which will account for about 40% of global final energy consumption in 2021, faces a difficult decarbonization journey ahead of it.

Hydrogen is anticipated to play a significant role in displacing fossil fuels in industries that are difficult to electrify, as many of their processes are difficult to carry out. Already, efforts are in motion. ArcelorMittal, a steel producer, is creating Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) produced entirely of hydrogen on an industrial scale.

6. Robust commitment The explosive growth in investment in hydrogen is evidence of its promise. In 2021, electrolysis deployment reached all-time highs, adding over 200MW of new capacity—three times as much as in 2020.

There are around 1,500 low-carbon projects listed in the International Energy Agency's (IEA) Hydrogen Projects Database. By 2027, the "green" hydrogen Page | 72

market alone, which was estimated to be worth $676 million in 2022, is expected to grow to $7.3 billion.

Significant subsidies are available in the US under the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) for the production of green hydrogen, which is anticipated to significantly accelerate industry expansion.

Businesses are also trying to create hydrogen hubs. In central Utah, work is currently ongoing to construct the first industrial-scale green hydrogen center in the world, which is expected to be operational by 2025.

Green hydrogen will be supplied by the Advanced Clean Energy Storage hub, a joint venture between Mitsubishi Power Americas and Magnum Development, to assist the IPP Renewed Project of power provider Intermountain Power Agency. With further expansion, the hub might store enough green hydrogen to help with decarbonization efforts throughout the western part of the United States.

A fuel for today and tomorrow Although hydrogen has demonstrated its utility in numerous industries, the IEA characterizes it as “a key pillar of decarbonization for industry” and notes that it has not yet reached its maximum potential in aiding decarbonization, far from it.

H2 will continue to enable emerging technologies and play a crucial role in achieving net zero emissions worldwide given its numerous useful applications.

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PART 2

APPLICATIONS

MULTI MODAL TRANSPORT – HEAVY INDUSTRIES – MARINE - CAR RACING

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AVIATION INDUSTRY IS “MENTALLY” H2 READY As the hydrogen value chain continues to grow and mature, aviation industry look to hydrogen as a means of achieving decarbonization.

Compared to battery storage, hydrogen has several advantages in terms of energy density in both volumetric and gravimetric measurements. Faster turnaround times are also made possible by the fact that hydrogen fueling an airplane is quicker than battery charging. The refueling procedure is comparable to the kerosene process, which will facilitate the switch from outdated to modern procedures.

Based on the limitations and competitive advantages of the numerous sustainable solutions available, the creation of distinct aircraft types is envisaged. Due to projected gravimetric and volumetric power density issues at the necessary weights and ranges when using all-electric, hybrid-electric, or hydrogen solutions, larger, long-haul aircraft will need to rely on Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs).

In narrowbody and middle-of-the-road aircraft, hydrogen is expected to compete with hybrid electric power but not for long. Hydrogen has several advantages over hybrid electric vehicles in the narrowbody/middle-of-the-market segment.

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It completely removes carbon emissions, whereas hybrid vehicles only partially do so. Moreover, it still has a far higher power density per unit weight than batteries.

However hydrogen technologies have a number of obstacles that the aviation sector needs to find pragmatic solution: -In first a comprehensive overhaul of the aircraft, including the fuel storage and powerplant systems.

-In second at scale developments in cryogenic cooling technologies and lightweight storage tanks to capitalize on the high energy density of hydrogen.

-To be followed by a large rise in "green" hydrogen generation to make sense of the efforts and boost the proportion of hydrogen production that is emissionsfree.

-In parallel it will need a crucial enhancement to hydrogen infrastructure for airport fuel distribution and refilling.

And an overall decrease in the cost of "green" hydrogen manufacturing techniques to make them cost-competitive with nowadays Jet fuel/Kerosene.

It appears that hydrogen combustion will take off first because it doesn't require as much of a technological leap as hydrogen fuel cell aircraft.

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This might contribute to the development of the aviation hydrogen supply chain, which could open the door for more efficient fuel cell aircraft to come later.

In summary, several sustainable options are available to the aviation sector at this critical juncture, and significant capital decisions have need to be made.

The vast potential of hydrogen technology must be taken into consideration, and obstacles to hydrogen propellant must be removed, as stakeholders throughout the value chain have the power to shape the industry's future.

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H2 and Ammonia in Marine Decarbonization

The marine industry is at a critical turning point in its unrelenting quest for decarbonization, with ammonia and its derivative hydrogen emerging as leaders in the switch to greener energy sources.

Despite contributing only to 3% of the world's emissions, the shipping sector is essential to logistics and international trade. This industry, which is entirely dependent on fossil fuels, is currently aiming for a paradigm change due to research into engines that run on alternative fuels including methane and, more significantly, ammonia.

Ammonia-based engines are attractive because they can cut emissions significantly—possibly to almost nothing in the best of circumstances. This puts the shipping sector on the verge of a significant environmental transformation.

Adopting such ground-breaking technologies is fraught with difficulties, though. Shipowners that are thinking about entering this new age face many unknowns.

The main issue is fuel supply logistics: making sure there is a steady supply of ammonia for these new engines along the way of goods transport.

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The complexities involved with bunkering, or using ammonia to fuel ships, add even more complexity and necessitate the development of new infrastructure and procedures.

And there's the financial side as there will always be a cost premium associated with the transition to greener technologies, particularly in the early stages.

Persuading charter firms to accept this green premium is still a formidable obstacle. They have to balance the financial and environmental benefits, a decision that is greatly impacted by regulatory and market constraints.

Ammonia's toxicity also poses a risk to public health and the environment. Strict safety precautions must be used when handling and storing ammonia in order to reduce hazards to the environment and public health.

This calls for legislative frameworks, industry-wide safety standards, and technology solutions as well.

In summary, although there are many obstacles in the way of using hydrogen and ammonia to decarbonize the marine industry, there are also many potential.

The shipping sector has the potential to become a global leader in environmental stewardship, guiding the world toward a more sustainable future, with the correct combination of innovation, investment, and governmental support.

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TRAINS: THE IDEAL EVIDENT H2 ADOPTER Trains are ideal candidates to be powered by hydrogen, because they are big enough to accommodate the equipment and fuel its use requires.

This zero-emission process makes hydrogen trains a crucial player in systemic decarbonization.

Compared with airplanes and trucks, trains are already a lower-carbon mode of transport. Fueling trains with hydrogen holds the potential to fully decarbonize this vital mode of transporting people and goods, including heavy-duty long-haul.

There is enthusiasm for technology—especially in Europe, where 25% of trains are powered by highpolluting diesel instead of electricity.

Decarbonizing the railway industry will depend on the adoption of cleaner fuels, but it also depends on reducing the carbon footprint of the rolling stock’s production process.

TGV “M”, which is the new generation of high-speed trains in France, is using aluminum profiles from recycled sources and produced with renewable electricity. This cuts emissions by 50% and they are aiming to use this ‘eco-design’ approach on 100 per cent of their new products by 2025.

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A promising start does not mean implementation is easy. In first adapting existing fuel cells from other industries to a rail environment is one of the challenges of Like for the other transport industries the issue is the price of green hydrogen. At a price of between €6 and €8/kg, depending on the region where it is produced, green hydrogen remains more expensive than fossilfuel based grey hydrogen which costs €1 to €2/kg.

However Green hydrogen will become more economical thanks to potential subsidies and steadily decreasing renewable energy production costs, economies of scale, and technological advances.

Another key driver will be cross-industry collaboration.

Transportation sub-sectors would benefit from breaking down existing silos to work towards a common goal, such as the development of refueling solutions. This could lead to the creation of refueling hubs that also serve other hydrogen-powered vehicles, such as trucks or buses.

This kind of collaborative approach will drive innovation and investment in the hydrogen economy across all industries.

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Trucks natural CANDIDATE for H2 Trucks can find great value in hydrogen as an energy source. playing a key part in the heavy-duty, long-haul transportation industry's decarbonization.

This is due to the fact that it is seen as one of the very few solutions that can both be practical for transferring bulk renewable energy globally and be able to handle energy imbalances in a future energy system dominated by renewables.

Importantly, in the transportation industry, hydrogen is the only fuel that has no carbon footprint and no emissions and can offer both quick recharging and extended intervals between refuels. This means that it will become a necessary fuel for trucks in the future, necessitating an acceleration of the industrialization of hydrogen fuel cell vehicle technology.

With rapid refueling periods (less than 15 minutes) and a range that can rival that of modern diesel cars (up to 800 km, even with large loads, depending on the technology employed), hydrogen fuel cell trucks can function similarly to diesel vehicles.

Hydrogen solutions, as opposed to battery trucks, may be able to satisfy long-haul trucking needs.

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Because hydrogen vehicles have a longer range than battery charging stations, hydrogen also has the advantage of requiring fewer filling stations.

The relatively small maximum radius that a vehicle can go from a charging station creates operational issues.

Moreover, the suggested approach of setting up a network of catenary lines for in-route charging raises concerns about the cost of modernizing electricity networks to supply the power needed by these catenary networks and would necessitate a large investment from governments. Additionally, Furthermore, the economic case for battery-powered cars will be unaffordable in a future where autonomous trucks may run around the clock due to the impact of charging times.

On the other hand, hydrogen trucks have lower total cost of ownership over battery alternatives, faster refueling (less than 15 minutes), a range that is comparable to diesel cars (over 800 km even with the largest loads), and operational simplicity.

As a result, the businesses spearheading the hydrogen movement are getting ready to introduce trucks that run on hydrogen to the market because they believe hydrogen to be a crucial component of the solution for long-distance road transportation in Europe and beyond.

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BUS LANE ACCeLERATION TOWARDS H2 With its efficient and environmentally friendly substitute for conventional diesel-powered buses, the market for hydrogen fuel cell buses marks substantial progress in public transportation.

Analysts of this market indicates that there is a great deal of room for expansion and innovation in the years to come.

Buses with hydrogen fuel cell technology run mostly on hydrogen. The sole pollution from these buses is water vapor when they transform hydrogen into electricity to run an electric engine.

In addition to offering zero emissions, this technology outperforms traditional electric buses in terms of range and refueling speed, which makes it especially well-suited for longer routes and continuous operation.

The market for hydrogen fuel cell buses is growing quickly due to the demand for sustainable public transportation options, stricter emission restrictions, and growing environmental concerns.

The adoption of these buses has been accelerated in recent years by a notable decrease in their pricing. The long-term advantages and operating efficiency are strong arguments for many transportation bodies and governments, even though they are now more expensive than their electric counterparts.

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China has become a leader in this field, with an increasing number of buses powered by hydrogen being used on the road. The nation's significant investments in hydrogen infrastructure and its dedication to lowering pollution are credited with this increase.

Asia's other countries actively implementing this technology are Japan and South Korea. Driven by their aspirations to lower carbon emissions and promote green transportation, European nations are likewise exhibiting a noteworthy surge in the deployment of hydrogen buses.

Pilot projects and studies are being conducted in the Americas to evaluate the feasibility and advantages of hydrogen fuel cell buses in a number of US states and Canadian provinces.

Recognizing the environmental and operational benefits of these buses, countries throughout Latin America are also joining the bandwagon.

It appears that there will be significant growth in the hydrogen fuel cell bus business in the future. Worldwide adoption of these buses is anticipated to be fueled by advancements in fuel cell technology, falling costs, and growing government assistance.

Hydrogen fuel cell buses are expected to grow at the quickest rate in the bus industry by the 2030s, and they will be essential to the shift to more sustainable and effective public transportation systems.

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According to Information Trends' most recent report (October 223), hydrogen buses will generate $73.4 trillion in sales over the next 15 years in the United States.

In conclusion, the hydrogen fuel cell bus market is poised for rapid expansion, marked by cost reductions, increased global adoption, and technological breakthroughs.

This trend supports the larger push for environmentally friendly transportation options and emphasizes the value of cutting-edge technologies in solving environmental issues and improving the effectiveness of public transportation.

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EV’s Vs H2 cars Electric vehicles (EVs) are often celebrated for their zero tailpipe emissions, a feature that has positioned them at the forefront of the green transportation movement.

This accolade, however, only tells part of the story. The environmental impact of EVs extends beyond their clean operation to encompass the entire lifecycle of the vehicle, particularly the extraction and processing of minerals for their batteries.

Lithium, cobalt, and nickel, essential components of these batteries, are mined in processes that are not only environmentally invasive but also socially and ethically challenging.

The mining activities, in remote and ecologically sensitive areas, lead to deforestation, soil and water contamination, and a host of other ecological damages. Additionally, communities living near these mining sites frequently suffer from displacement, health hazards, and economic upheaval.

Contrastingly, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) offer a seemingly perfect green alternative. Like EVs, FCVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, emitting only water vapor and heat. The technology underpinning these vehicles is mature and reliable, having been refined over several decades.

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The main appeal of hydrogen is its abundance and the potential for green production methods. However, the reality of hydrogen fuel production is currently far from this ideal.

The majority of hydrogen is today produced using fossil fuels in a process known as steam methane reforming, which itself is a significant source of carbon emissions. While 'green hydrogen'—hydrogen produced using renewable energy sources—is a promising avenue, it remains hampered by high costs, low efficiency, and a lack of necessary infrastructure.

Looking at the broader landscape, the momentum behind EVs is strong, driven by technological advancements, decreasing battery costs, and increasing consumer acceptance. Governments worldwide are implementing policies favoring EVs, further bolstering their market position. In contrast, FCVs, despite their potential, lag in commercial development, hindered by high costs and a lack of refueling infrastructure.

In conclusion, while EVs are currently in the spotlight as a green transportation solution, they carry significant environmental and ethical concerns, particularly in their battery production.

Hydrogen vehicles, offering an environmentally friendlier alternative, are still grappling with production and infrastructure challenges. It is likely that EVs will continue to dominate the market in the near future.

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However, as we approach 2030 and beyond, the landscape could shift dramatically. Advances in hydrogen production, synthetic fuels , Combustion engine powered by H2 (read Innovation section) and fuel cell new tech, coupled with growing environmental consciousness, may see hydrogen vehicles overcoming their hurdles, positioning them as the next leaders in sustainable transportation.

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SYNFUELS+h2 ice engine -FOR RACING FIRST Synthetic fuels are the promising alternative to traditional fossil fuels that maintain the ICE engine alive . They can be made from a variety of sources, including biomass, carbon dioxide, and waste . Here are some benefits of synthetic fuels: •

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Zero environmental footprint: When produced using renewable electricity, synthetic fuels have no environmental footprint .

Drop-in solution: Synthetic fuels share the same physicochemical properties as conventional fuels like petrol and diesel. This makes them compatible with internal combustion engines and existing fuel industry infrastructure. The drop-in technology means most of the 1.4 billion cars currently in circulation could stay on roads, instead of being scrapped or retrofitted with electric engines .

Removes CO2 from the atmosphere: Synthetic fuels not only slash emissions but actively remove CO2 from the atmosphere using carbon capture technology .

Energy security: Synthetic fuels offer energy security and reliability, which is important for many regions .

Porsche and international partners working with the Chilean operating company Highly Innovative Fuels (HIF) have started the industrial production of synthetic

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fuels (November 2022) now a fully operative plant in Punta Arenas, Chile.

The plant will produce synthetic fuels made from water and carbon dioxide using wind energy, which enable the nearly CO2-neutral operation of petrol engines .

The e-Fuel production of around 130,000 litres per year is planned for the pilot phase, and initially, the fuel is to be used in car racing projects such as the Porsche Mobil 1 Supercup and at Porsche Experience Centers and more importantly at the “24 Hours Race of Le Mans”.

After the pilot phase, the first scaling will take the project in Chile up to a projected 55 million liters per year by the middle of the decade, and around two years later, the capacity is expected to be 550 million liters The south of Chile offers ideal conditions for the production of e-Fuels, with the wind blowing for around 270 days a year and enabling the wind turbines to operate at full capacity .

Researchers are working extensively to get the price below $2 per liter or $7.6 per gallon, as this level make -synthetic fuel more expensive than regular petrol. For the time being the main hurdle of this ideal E Fuel. Well if you drive a Porsche you can spend a bit more than the layman to green up right !

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The 1.5 MW fuel cell Hypercar from Hyperion Motors (usa) A hydrogen-electric supercar was showcased at the Los Angeles Auto Show by the Californian startup Hyperion Motors. Papers suggest that the XP-1 has an exceptional range and great driving performance. The infrastructural solution needed was also given by the company. With four electric motors totaling more than 1.5 MW of output, the Hyperion XP-1 can accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h in 2.2 seconds, reach a maximum speed of 356 km/h, and travel 1,016 miles or 1,635 kilometers. Therefore, today XP-1 clearly outperforms the majority of EV Supercars.

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DATA CENTER POWER HUNGRY NEW h2 PROJECTS The use of fuel cells in climate-neutral techniques is the focus of the latest developments in sustainable power supply solutions for data centers. Fuel cell-based environmentally friendly power systems are now undergoing testing By 2025, a complete emergency power solution that includes a hydrogen infrastructure, batteries, a UPS system, and a fuel cell system should be accessible.

These remedies seek to be evidently CO2 neutral and sustainable.

The sustainability program referenced in the document aims to lower greenhouse gas emissions from 2019 levels by 35% by 2030. By using innovative technology and essential combustion engine goods that operate as early as 2023 on sustainable EN 15940 fuels like ediesel and second-generation biofuels, it seeks to achieve this reduction.

Additionally, hydrogen fuel is being created for gas engine applications, providing a climate-neutral energy source.

Complete hydrogen fuel cell systems based on modules that only release water vapor are also under development.

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The goal of these fuel cell technologies is to enable data centers and other vital applications to generate emergency power without using CO2 and in a climateneutral manner.

There is already one fuel cell demonstrator in operation, and others are anticipated to be put into service within the next year.

Standard production fuel cell systems are scheduled to launch in 2025, with the first client pilot plants anticipated in 2023.

Because of its great dependability, scalability, and capacity to achieve zero emissions of both climatedamaging gases and pollutants, fuel cells are considered perfect for data centers. Fuel cells are a desirable option because of their modular design, low maintenance needs, and affordable operation.

The best part is that all pollutants can be eliminated when hydrogen produced through regenerative means is used as fuel.

In the future, solar and wind power plants may replace public power grids to meet the fundamental power needs of data centers. When enough "green" energy is available, electrolysis could be used to create hydrogen from water for on-site storage.

In the event of a power outage, hydrogen can take over supply, preserving the infrastructure of the data center.

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Ammonia + H2 ready for agriculture A vital component of worldwide agriculture, ammonia is essential for feeding crops and guaranteeing food security. But conventional ammonia production techniques are not at all sustainable.

They use hydrogen produced from natural gas, which is a process that produces a lot of carbon dioxide (CO2) and adds to the emissions of greenhouse gases.

Actually, only the manufacturing of ammonia accounts for 1% to 2% of the world's CO2 emissions.

It is impossible to exaggerate how traditional ammonia production affects the environment. Considering that agriculture produces over 25% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions, switching to more sustainable methods is essential.

This is where green hydrogen's potential as a clean, renewable energy source lies.Green hydrogen is a game-changer in the ammonia industry. It is created via electrolysis using renewable energy sources like solar and wind power.

Green hydrogen substitutes the carbon-intensive hydrogen from natural gas when used as a feedstock for ammonia production.

This technique transforms ammonia's carbon footprint by producing almost zero carbon emissions.

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The following points enhance the potential 1. Reduction of Carbon Emissions: When compared to traditional techniques, green hydrogen can cut CO2 emissions connected to the manufacture of ammonia by up to 95%.

2. Energy Efficiency: Green hydrogen is an extremely effective and environmentally benign solution, with electrolysis driven by renewable energy sources achieving energy conversion efficiencies of 70–80%.

3. Global Impact: Making the switch to green hydrogen in ammonia production could have a major impact on reaching the Paris Agreement's goals for reducing global emissions.

4. Sustainable Agriculture: By eliminating the environmental cost of fertilizers, green ammonia— which is produced from green hydrogen—has the power to completely transform sustainable agriculture methods.

There are several obstacles in the way of producing green ammonia, such as the requirement to build a reliable supply chain and increase the production of green hydrogen. But the advantages are substantial.

The agricultural industry can lessen its carbon footprint, slow down global warming, and ensure a more sustainable future for food production by embracing green hydrogen.

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The creation of ammonia by green hydrogen s offers a workable answer to the problem of fertilizers' negative environmental effects, enabling the world to feed its expanding population while preserving the environment for coming generations.

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GREENING ALUMINIUM WITH H2

An important participant in global manufacturing, the aluminum sector is ready for a green revolution.

Traditional methods of producing aluminum rely on electricity, which is primarily generated from fossil fuels, which contributes significantly to carbon emissions. But a radical move toward "green aluminum" that runs on hydrogen indicates a sustainable future.

Clean hydrogen must take the place of fossil fuels in the manufacturing of green aluminum. The keystone of this transition is green hydrogen, which is produced by electrolysis using renewable energy sources. In the smelting of aluminum, hydrogen replaces carbon as a reducing agent, greatly lowering emissions in the process.

This change has profound effects. The manufacturing of aluminum is well known for having a high carbon intensity, accounting for up to 2% of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. Emissions drastically decrease and the aluminum industry fits with global sustainability targets thanks to the adoption of hydrogen as a key enabler.

Leading the way in the switch to green hydrogen-based steel production, Sweden's H2 Green Steel provides insightful information to the aluminum sector. They are leading the charge to use green hydrogen in the Page | 98

smelting of aluminum, paving the way for the manufacture of aluminum without emitting any emissions.

Towards environmentally friendly aluminum, there are obstacles to overcome. There are several obstacles, including increasing the production of green hydrogen, guaranteeing a consistent supply of renewable energy, and modernizing the current infrastructure. Still, the attraction is irresistible.

Green aluminum is attracting a lot of attention from the automotive sector in particular because it may be used to build lightweight, environmentally friendly vehicles.

Aluminum is a material that automakers are using more and more to lighten vehicles and increase fuel economy. The combination of hydrogen and green aluminum creates exciting new opportunities for more environmentally friendly and sustainable mobility.

The aluminum sector faces a critical juncture as the globe rushes towards being carbon neutral. Hydrogenpowered green aluminum is the compass directing the way to a more environmentally friendly and sustainable route.

It offers a vision of a future where aluminum's strength is matched by its green credentials, and it is a light of hope for an industry historically linked with high emissions.

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GREEN STEEL READY TO GO! The steel sector is well-known for its robustness and durability, but it also has a large carbon impact. Due to its high carbon content, coal is a primary fuel used in traditional steel production, which produces significant greenhouse gas emissions. But green steel, fueled by hydrogen, is a revolutionary force that is just around the corner.

A paradigm change in the steel industry is represented by green steel. Fundamentally, it involves using hydrogen as the main reducing agent in the blast furnace instead of carbon. This novel method significantly lowers emissions of carbon dioxide. For an industry that accounts for 7-9% of global CO2 emissions, it's a game-changer.

What is the mechanism of operation though? Green steel is propelled by green hydrogen, which is created by electrolyzing renewable energy sources. There are almost no emissions when hydrogen combines with iron ore in a blast furnace because it produces water vapor rather than carbon dioxide. Direct reduction using hydrogen, or H2-DRI, is the name of this procedure.

The HYBRIT project in Sweden, a collaboration between the steelmaker SSAB, the mining firm LKAB, and the energy business Vattenfall, is a leader in the manufacturing of green steel.

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HYBRIT uses green hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources to produce steel without the use of fossil fuels .

To further satisfy environmental goals, steel behemoths like ArcelorMittal are investing in hydrogen-based steel production. Steelmakers are being forced to embrace greener processes, with hydrogen at the forefront, as a result of the European Union's pledge to becoming carbon neutral by 2050.

Although the manufacturing of green steel is still in its early stages, the potential is enormous. The steel sector can ensure a sustainable future while lowering emissions by switching to green hydrogen.

The circular economy is made possible by hydrogen's adaptability, which makes it possible to recycle steel using hydrogen-based methods.

The obstacles are great, ranging from increasing the production of hydrogen to guaranteeing a steady stream of renewable energy. Still, it's impossible to deny the appeal of green steel, with its promise of decarbonization and benefits for the environment everywhere.

It is a significant step toward a future where steel's strength and environmental friendliness are equal— one in which the material is equally resilient and environmentally sensitive.

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Hydrogen Storage Options Harnessing the full potential of hydrogen requires efficient storage solutions. The ability to store excess hydrogen generated from renewable sources is vital for ensuring a stable and reliable energy supply.

Various hydrogen storage options are being explored, each offering unique advantages and challenges.

1. Compressed Hydrogen Gas (CHG): - Compressed hydrogen gas is a straightforward and widely adopted storage method.

- Hydrogen gas is compressed at high pressures (typically 350-700 bar) into tanks or cylinders.

- It is a mature technology and relatively simple to implement.

- However, the energy required for compression and the need for robust, high- pressure storage tanks can be limiting factors.

2. Liquid Hydrogen (LH2): - Liquid hydrogen is stored at extremely low temperatures (around -253°C) to maintain its liquid state.

- This method offers a high energy density, making it suitable for applications requiring compact storage.

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- However, the energy-intensive liquefaction process and the challenges of maintaining low temperatures can be drawbacks.

3. Metal Hydrides: - Metal hydrides are compounds formed by hydrogen and metals, such as magnesium or lithium.

- They can absorb and release hydrogen gas reversibly, making them suitable for compact and safe storage.

- The main challenge is achieving sufficient hydrogen storage capacity at reasonable temperatures and pressures.

4. Chemical Hydrogen Storage: - Chemical hydrogen storage involves reactions that release hydrogen when needed.

- Solid or liquid chemical compounds are used to store hydrogen, and the release is triggered by temperature, pressure, or other factors.

- While this approach offers potentially high energy density, finding suitable materials and managing the release mechanisms are ongoing challenges.

5. Underground Hydrogen Storage: - Underground storage facilities, such as salt caverns or depleted natural gas reservoirs, offer large-scale hydrogen storage options.

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- Hydrogen is injected and stored in these geological formations.

- This method provides ample storage capacity but requires suitable geological conditions and safety measures.

6. Carbon Adsorption: - Activated carbon materials can adsorb and desorb hydrogen gas at near-ambient conditions.

- This technology is being explored for portable and stationary applications.

- Achieving high adsorption capacity and rapid release rates are areas of development.

7. Cryo-Adsorption: - Cryo-adsorption combines low-temperature cooling and adsorption materials to store hydrogen at moderate pressures.

- It offers a balance between energy density and storage conditions.

- Researchers are working to optimize materials and storage systems.

The choice of storage method depends on specific applications, from mobile fuel cell vehicles to grid-scale energy storage. As hydrogen gains momentum innovative storage solutions will play a crucial role in realizing a sustainable and flexible energy landscape.

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PART 3

VISION

Policy – Geopolitics - finance - forecasts

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GEOPOLITICS OF HYDROGEN The emerging global hydrogen market presents a transformative shift in the geopolitical landscape. This market's growth risks disrupting the established order and the intricate trade relationships between nations.

A new energy geography is emerging, characterized by a few regions that are major hydrogen importers, while numerous potential exporters are entering the fray.

Some of these exporters are nations traditionally reliant on fossil fuel exports, now seeking to pivot towards hydrogen as a cleaner alternative. Others are nations that envision becoming dominant forces in the global market due to their ability to produce hydrogen inexpensively through renewable resources.

This shift towards renewable hydrogen exports represents a significant change in global energy dynamics.

However, the transportation of hydrogen, or its derivatives, across vast distances poses a considerable challenge.

This logistical hurdle is a central obstacle in the development of a truly global hydrogen market. The transportation issue not only impacts the cost and feasibility of hydrogen as an energy source but also influences the geopolitical strategies of potential exporting and importing nations.

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Furthermore, the competition in the hydrogen market extends beyond resource availability and into the technological realm.

A critical aspect of this technological competition centers on the development and optimization of electrolysers, which are essential for the efficient production of hydrogen.

The countries that can innovate and lead in electrolyser technology may gain a significant advantage in the burgeoning hydrogen economy.

In conclusion, the rise of hydrogen as a key player in the global energy market is reshaping traditional power structures and trade relationships.

It opens new avenues for countries to emerge as leaders in renewable energy, but it also brings challenges that need to be addressed to fully realize the potential of hydrogen in the global energy mix.

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BEWARE CHINA MOVE FAST TO GAIN DOMINANCE China's strategic approach to hydrogen technology is not merely an aspect of its climate change initiatives; it's a very clear concerted effort to gain an early lead in the global hydrogen sector.

This ambition mirrors China's current dominance in the solar cell equipment market. By prioritizing hydrogen in its long-term planning, China aims to establish a similar position of influence and innovation in the rapidly evolving hydrogen industry.

This strategy encompasses advancements in technology, significant investment in renewable energy, and a strong push towards manufacturing capabilities, positioning China at the forefront of the global hydrogen market.

China's Hydrogen Strategy 1. First Long-Term Hydrogen Plan (2021–2035) - Objective: To develop a robust domestic hydrogen industry, mastering key technologies and manufacturing capabilities.

- Implementation Date: March 2023.

- This is China's first comprehensive plan for hydrogen, emphasizing the phased development of the hydrogen industry.

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It aligns with China's broader climate commitments, including carbon peaking and neutrality goal.

2. Integration with the 14th Five-Year Plan - Objective: To position hydrogen as a priority area for technological and industrial advancement.

- Hydrogen is identified as a "frontier" area in the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025), signifying its importance in China's economic strategy.

The focus is on promoting the production and consumption of lower-emission hydrogen to meet energy needs and facilitate economic decarbonization.

3. Clean Hydrogen Production and Use - Objective: To increase the production of renewablebased hydrogen and the use of hydrogen-fueled vehicles.

- Target: Producing 100,000 to 200,000 tons of renewable-based hydrogen annually and deploying 50,000 hydrogen-fueled vehicles by 2025.

- This initiative is part of China's strategy to become a leader in clean hydrogen, aiming to reduce carbon emissions significantly. China is already a major player in fuel cell electric vehicles and aims to use clean hydrogen across various industrial sectors.

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4. Renewable Energy Expansion - Objective: To expand renewable energy capacity to support hydrogen production. Target: Doubling solar and wind generation capacity from 600 GW in 2020 to 1,200 GW by 2030.

- The expansion of renewable energy is critical to support the production of renewable-based hydrogen.

The China Hydrogen Alliance projects that by 2060, renewable-based hydrogen could account for 20% of China's final energy consumption 5. Focus on Hydrogen-Related Technology and Innovation - Objective: To advance research and development in hydrogen technologies. The plan emphasizes overcoming the current deficits in expertise and infrastructure for low-carbon hydrogen production. It highlights the need for China to acquire competence in advanced hydrogen production technologies, such as polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzers.

6. Enhancement of Manufacturing Capacity - Objective: To become a global leader in manufacturing electrolyzer equipment and components.

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plan aims to further expand this capacity, positioning China as a dominant manufacturer in the global market, particularly for advanced hydrogen technologies.

China's comprehensive hydrogen strategy showcases its ambition to lead in the global hydrogen sector.

The focus on innovation, manufacturing capacity, and integration with national economic plans reflects China's commitment to establishing a sustainable, lowcarbon hydrogen economy.

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JAPAN: do they know something we don’t?

Japan's hydrogen strategy, updated by the Kishida administration, is an integral part of its commitment to decarbonization, stable energy supply, and economic growth.

The strategy involves establishing international hydrogen supply chains with partners like Australia and the UAE encompasses the Basic Hydrogen Strategy, with a focus on safety, energy security, economic efficiency, and environmental considerations.

Key aims include expanding hydrogen supply and demand, transitioning to low-carbon hydrogen, and utilizing hydrogen in various industries. Japan prioritizes sectors where it has technological advantages, such as hydrogen supply, decarbonized power generation, and fuel cells.

Notably, the government plans to invest 15 trillion yen ($107.5 billion) over the next 15 years to develop its hydrogen infrastructure. This investment highlights Japan's ambition to be a global leader in the hydrogen sector, aiming to significantly increase its hydrogen and ammonia supply by 2050, reduce supply costs, and expand water electrolysis equipment globally.

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capable of achieving decarbonization, stable energy supply, and economic growth simultaneously. It is structured into five chapters, with a Basic Hydrogen Strategy for carbon neutrality and a hydrogen-based society, along with policies for safety, energy security, economic efficiency, and environmental considerations.

Specific goals include expanding hydrogen supply and demand, transitioning to low-carbon hydrogen, developing renewable energy production and supply chains, and using hydrogen in various industries.

Key focuses of the strategy include improving hydrogen's competitiveness across industries and enhancing safety standards. It prioritizes areas where Japanese companies have technological advantages, such as hydrogen supply, decarbonized power generation, fuel cells, and hydrogen use in industries like steel production and vehicle manufacturing.

Overall, Japan's 2023 Hydrogen Strategy aims to increase hydrogen and ammonia supply substantially by 2050, reduce hydrogen supply costs, expand electrolysis equipment globally, and attract significant public and private investments into the hydrogen and ammonia supply chain sector.

Japan's ambitious hydrogen plan reflects its commitment to becoming a key player in the hydrogen sector, positioning itself strategically in the world race.

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USA: WILL IT SURVIVE THE NEXT ADMINISTRATION The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), acting on behalf of the Biden-Harris Administration, announced on March 15, 2023, the availability of $750 million for research, development, and demonstration initiatives aimed at significantly lowering the cost of clean hydrogen part of a 7 billion budget for the development of clean hydrogen hubs The administration's comprehensive approach to accelerating the widespread use of clean hydrogen includes this funding, which is the first phase of the $1.5 billion in President Biden's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. This funding is essential to advancing electrolysis technologies and improving manufacturing and recycling capabilities, and it will play a crucial role in achieving commercial-scale hydrogen deployment this decade.

Clean hydrogen will be necessary to fulfill the President's objectives of having a net-zero carbon emission by 2050 and a 100% clean electrical grid by 2035.

Section 1: The Biden-Harris administration has set lofty targets to reach net-zero emissions by 2050, develop a carbon-free power sector by 2035, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50 to 52 percent from Page | 114

2005 levels by 2030. The Justice 40 Initiative, which guarantees that underprivileged communities receive 40% of the total benefits from federal investments in climate and clean energy, complements these initiatives.

Since hydrogen can facilitate the switch to clean energy in industries that are challenging to decarbonize, it is seen as a component of the plan to accomplish these goals.

Section 2: Methods for Utilizing Clean Hydrogen A number of strategies are presented to encourage the use of clean hydrogen: lowering the cost of clean hydrogen; concentrating on regional networks with diverse production, storage, and end-use potential; and focusing on strategic, high-impact uses of clean hydrogen in transportation, power sector, and industrial applications.

For a market adoption that is both cost-effective and sustainable, the focus is on various supply chain pathways across sectors.

Section 3: Overarching Concepts and Measures The U.S. national clean hydrogen strategy is supported by guiding principles and national actions, such as identifying appropriate points of interaction among Federal agencies engaged in clean hydrogen and identifying geographic zones for the cost-effective and efficient introduction of clean hydrogen technologies.

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The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) and the Hydrogen Energy Earths hot Initiative is to bring down the price of clean hydrogen by 80% in ten years, to $1 per kilogram.

These objectives are given additional impetus by significant initiatives funded by the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act , which concentrates on local clean hydrogen hubs, clean hydrogen production, and clean hydrogen recycling.

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INDIA HYDROGEN MARKET fresh start India's National Green Hydrogen Mission, initiated under the guidance of Prime Minister Narendra Modi and approved on January 4, 2023, signifies a major leap towards the country’s renewable energy future.

The mission has been allocated an initial budget of approximately $2.44 billion, which includes around $2.16 billion for the Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition (SIGHT) program, about $181 million for pilot projects, $49.4 million for research and development, and $48 million for other necessary expenditures.

This comprehensive initiative aims to establish India as a world leader in the production and supply of green hydrogen, fostering export opportunities and reducing the country's dependence on imported fossil fuels.

The mission leverages India's abundant renewable resources, particularly solar and wind energy, to meet domestic demands for clean hydrogen fuel and to position India as a key global exporter of green fuels like hydrogen and ammonia.

The ambitious plan sets a target for India to generate 125 gigawatts of new renewable energy by 2030 to support its green hydrogen projects. This is in line with the country's broader aim to produce 500 gigawatts of renewable energy by the end of the decade.

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As of November 2022, India had already made significant progress, with 61.9 gigawatts of solar power and 41.8 gigawatts of wind power capacity.

A major portion of the funding will be directed towards enhancing the production of electrolysers and green hydrogen in India, aiming to produce at least 5 million tonnes of green hydrogen annually by 2030.

This effort will not only contribute to energy production but also drive technological innovation and economic growth within the country.

Strategic regions across India are set to be developed into green hydrogen hubs, enabling large-scale production and utilization of this renewable energy.

This development is expected to yield significant environmental and economic benefits, including an estimated reduction of 50 million tonnes of CO2 emissions and savings of approximately $12.4 billion in imported fossil fuels over the next 7 years.

In essence, India's National Green Hydrogen Mission is a bold step towards an environmentally sustainable future, demonstrating the country’s dedication to green energy solutions and its role as a frontrunner in the global shift towards renewable energy sources.

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EUROPE ambitious plan - but is it too short?

In the race to lead the emerging hydrogen technology sector, the European Union, along with key member states like Germany, Denmark, Sweden, France, and Spain, is actively investing billions of euros.

This investment is a strategic response to the pressing challenge of climate change and a bid to secure a significant market share in this burgeoning industry.

Positioned between the technological and economic might of the USA and China, Europe is vigorously engaging in this global competition.

Through substantial financial commitments and collaborative efforts, the EU and its member nations are determined to not only keep pace but also to carve out their own substantial niche in the rapidly evolving hydrogen landscape with the following European Union Hydrogen Strategy: 1. Establishment of the European Hydrogen Bank - Objective: To stimulate and support investment in sustainable hydrogen production. Implementation Date: March 2023.

- Background: Recognizing the crucial role of hydrogen in the transition to a sustainable energy system, the EU has launched the European Hydrogen Bank. This initiative is designed to provide financial Page | 119

support and incentives for the development of renewable hydrogen projects, thereby accelerating the shift away from fossil fuel dependency.

- Expected Outcome: Increased investment in hydrogen production technologies, contributing to the EU's renewable energy targets and reducing carbon emissions.

2. Clean Hydrogen Partnership - €195 Million Call for Proposals - Objective: To foster the development of advanced clean hydrogen technologies.Implementation Date: January 2023.

- The Clean Hydrogen Partnership, a significant collaboration between public and private sectors, announced a call for proposals with a substantial funding allocation of €195 million. This funding is directed towards projects that demonstrate innovative approaches and technologies in the hydrogen sector.

- Expected Outcome: The initiative aims to catalyze breakthroughs in hydrogen technology, leading to more efficient and cost-effective solutions in the energy sector.

3. €300 Million Plan for Hydrogen Research - Objective: To finance research and development in hydrogen technologies.

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- The EU has earmarked €300 million for hydrogen research, reflecting its commitment to making hydrogen a cornerstone of its energy strategy.

This funding is allocated to various hydrogen projects that align with the EU's goals of energy efficiency, sustainability, and independence.

- Expected Outcome: The investment is anticipated to lead to significant advancements in hydrogen technology, thereby enhancing the EU's capability to meet its environmental and energy goals.

4. Clean Hydrogen Partnership - €1 Billion Funding - Objective: To support research and innovation in hydrogen technologies across Europe.Funding Period: 2021-2027.

- Budget: The partnership is set to receive €1 billion from the EU, with a potential additional €1 billion from private investments.

- This funding initiative underscores the EU's longterm commitment to hydrogen as a key energy resource.

The partnership focuses on bridging the gap between research and market application, ensuring that advancements in hydrogen technology can be efficiently translated into practical, scalable solutions.

- Expected Outcome: The combined public and private investments are expected to accelerate the Page | 121

commercialization of hydrogen technologies, contributing to a more sustainable and energy-secure Europe.

The European Union's comprehensive strategy in advancing hydrogen technologies demonstrates its dedication to achieving a sustainable, low-carbon future.

These initiatives, ranging from financial support to fostering public-private partnerships, are crucial steps in positioning the EU as a leader in the global transition to cleaner energy sources.

The success of these programs will not only contribute to environmental sustainability but also enhance the EU's energy security and economic growth.

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EU parliament BILL ON H2

The European Council and Parliament have cleared the EU Delegated Acts on Green Hydrogen, which will soon become law.

The eagerly anticipated bill introduces contentious additionality and temporal correlation requirements and defines "renewable fuel of non-biological origin."

After undergoing a four-month review process by the European Council and Parliament, the two Delegated Acts from the European Union that define what constitutes green hydrogen, or "renewable fuel of nonbiological origin" (RFNBO) as known in the EU, will soon go into effect.

Accordingly, the two pieces of legislation will take effect as soon as they are published in the European Union's daily Official Journal.

To achieve a 70% reduction in CO2-equivalent between the nearest comparable fuels, one of the acts lays forth a methodology for estimating greenhouse gas emissions from carbon fuels that are recycled and renewable.

Definitions of "renewable" hydrogen (or one of its derivatives) are provided in the second, more contentious act with a very precise terminology as follows:

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“Additionality” means that the green hydrogen would have to produced from new renewables projects, so that they do not utilise existing clean electricity facilities that would otherwise help decarbonise the power grid.

“Temporal correlation” relates to how frequently producers would have to prove that their electrolysers have been powered by 100% renewable energy — usually hourly, weekly, monthly or annually — and therefore to what extent they can use grid electricity at times when the wind isn't blowing and the sun isn't shining, and then send the same anount of renewable energy back to the grid at a later date.

"Geographic correlation" refers to how close the hydrogen-producing electrolyser is to the source of renewable energy it uses.

Distances can be set to ensure that an electrolyser in, say, Texas, is not powered by solar panels in California through renewable energy credits, which in practice could mean that green power is sent to a grid that doesn't need it, with the electricity actually used by the electrolyser coming from fossil-fuel power plants.

All three rules would prevent fossil-powered grid electricity being used directly or indirectly to produce "green hydrogen".

By establishing a kind of international standard for nations wishing to export renewable H2 to Europe,

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these regulations are designed to apply uniformly to green hydrogen imported into the EU. Daniel Fraile, chief policy officer of trade organization Hydrogen Europe, tells Hydrogen Insight that although these definitions are now final, adherence to the delegated acts will rely on certification methods "which are not yet known."

It is still necessary for certification bodies to receive accreditation from the European Commission (EC), thus there must be a broad consensus on the appropriate application of the regulations.

Additionally, the actual regulations requiring the conversion of grey to green H2 have not yet been implemented.

Disagreements about possible inclusions for H2 produced from nuclear sources in sub-targets are impeding the EU's current negotiations to amend the Renewable Energy Directive, or RED II. By 2030, 42% of the hydrogen used by European industry will have to come from renewable sources, with RED II calling for a 60% increase by 2035.

H2 produced from direct nuclear-powered electrolysis is not allowed to be considered an RFNBO by the Delegated Acts, despite the fact that projects in bidding zones where the grid has an overall carbon intensity below 18g of CO2-equivalent per megajoule of energy can avoid additionality criteria. This would give an Page | 125

advantage to countries like France with a high share of nuclear power in their energy mix.

Nonetheless, the present agreed draft contains a clause allowing member states to lower these targets by 20% if their proportion of H2 derived from fossil fuels is less than 23% in 2030 and 20% in 2035, and if their national contribution to the EU's overall renewables target meets their expected contribution.

France may be able to achieve the second criteria by using hydrogen derived from nuclear power, which has caused new division among the member nations and stalled the ratification of the modification.

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First EU hydrogen auction value of €2.2 billion Open for bids this week is the first €800 million pilot program of the European Hydrogen Bank, which was established in October of last year.

The goal of the pilot auction is to lower the price of H2 to the point where offtakers may sign agreements, although it's unclear whether the second competition in the spring will offer winners a "fixed premium" of up to €4.50 per kilogram of hydrogen..

Making direct connections between H2 producers and customers and "establishing a one-stop-shop under the European Hydrogen Bank" were two of the points made by Von der Leyen in her address.

"To achieve this, we intend to establish an open platform where buyers can express their needs and sellers can locate willing buyers," the spokesperson stated.

This suggests that the bidding process for the European Hydrogen Bank's next phase might function similarly to the German H2 Global import scheme's bidding procedure.

A government-affiliated organization purchases green hydrogen there on long-term contracts at the best price, and the difference is paid for by public funds before being sold to the highest bidder on one-year contracts.

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Von der Leyen also made hints that the EC is "working on the international leg of the European Hydrogen Bank," even if the pilot auction is only available to bidders from within the EU. Alternatively, instead of inviting bids from outside the EU for the second auction, this might be a reference to the pledges made by the European Union to finance hydrogen projects through the Global Gateway fund, which is available in countries like Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Kenya, and Namibia.

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SUMMARY OF THE H2 BUDGET PER MAIN NATIONS

Revisiting the global hydrogen strategies and their respective budget allocations, let’s sumamrise the significant financial commitments from leading economies: Number 1. Japan: Japan stands at the forefront with an investment of 15 trillion yen (about $107.5 billion) earmarked for developing its hydrogen supply infrastructure over the next 15 years. This substantial amount underscores Japan's long-term commitment to hydrogen technology.

Number 2. China: China has earmarked investments totaling $37 billion for hydrogen projects. This includes $17 billion in mature investments and an additional $20 billion in public funding, aligning with its goal to have hydrogen account for 10% of its energy mix by 2050.

Number 3. USA: The Biden-Harris Administration in the United States has dedicated a significant $7 billion for establishing the country's first clean hydrogen hubs.

This is part of a larger investment of $50 billion aimed at developing the clean hydrogen economy in America.

Number 4. India: India's National Green Hydrogen Mission, championed by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, has been allocated approximately $2.44 billion.

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This includes around $2.16 billion for the Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition (SIGHT) programme, about $181 million for pilot projects, $49.4 million for research and development, and $48 million for other expenditures.

This initiative aims to make India a global hub for green hydrogen production and use.

Number 5. Europe: The European Union's investment in hydrogen technology includes €195 million through the Clean Hydrogen Partnership, an additional €300 million for hydrogen research, and a total of €1 billion from the EU for the Clean Hydrogen Partnership.

With the potential for another €1 billion in private investment, the EU's total commitment amounts to approximately €1.45 billion (around $1.57 billion).

These figures highlight the diverse yet substantial financial efforts of major global economies in advancing hydrogen technology.

While Japan's investment is notably the largest, the commitments by the USA, China, Europe, and India represent significant strides in the hydrogen sector, each with their unique strategic focus and scale.

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Australia BILLION SURPRISE push IN H2

A total of $70 billion has been set aside by the Western Australian government for seven renewable energy projects.

The projects are mostly related to hydrogen, and businesses that benefit from the allocations include Fortescue Mining Group, POSCO, a South Korean steel manufacturer, and BP. The property is situated in two large industrial estates close to the Pilbara coastal towns of Onslow and Port Hedland.

The 4000-hectare Boodarie critical industrial region, south of Port Hedland, where most Australia's iron ore exports are loaded, has been awarded land to BP, POSCO, Fortescue, Alinta Energy, and UK company Tees Valley Lithium.

In order to secure the land for the $53 billion Australian Renewable Energy Hub that it has been running since June 2022, BP intends to gradually build 26 gigawatts of wind and solar energy at a remote 6500-hectare site 250 km from Port Hedland.

Green hydrogen production would be facilitated by the electricity.

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The large iron ore industry in the area, which Rio Tinto, BP, and Fortescue aim to decarbonize, might be supplied if BP connects the green electricity to Port Hedland and connects it to the transmission system.

POSCO, which collaborates closely with Gina Rinehart's Hancock Prospecting, intends to use hydrogen to produce hot briquetted iron, which is an excellent substitute for coal in electric-powered steel furnaces that eliminates high levels of pollution Alinta Energy, which currently operates a gas-fired power station in Boodarie, is thinking of producing green hydrogen, according to a company representative.

There was also land allocated at Port Hedland to Tees Valley Lithium, which intends to spend $444 million building the largest lithium hydroxide plant in Europe in northern England.

In the 8000-hectare Ashburton North, an important industrial area, Fortescue was given land near Onslow and in Port Hedland.

Green hydrogen production and use at both locations are being considered, according to a Fortescue spokeswoman. The 5.4-gigawatt wind and solar farm at Uaroo cattle ranch, south of Onslow, is requesting environmental certification in order to power the Ashburton North complex. This follows iron ore miner expansion into the green hydrogen market.

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THE FRENCH WON THE PINK H2 BATTLE! The European Commission has officially listed nuclear power as one of the possible sources of green hydrogen production after months of controversy. A triumph for the French!

The Renewable Energy Directive requires the Commission to enact two delegated acts, which were published on February 13, 2023, in order to define what renewable hydrogen is throughout the EU. In a press release released this Monday, February 13, the Commission emphasizes that "these acts will provide regulatory certainty to investors, given that the EU aims to reach 10 million tonnes of domestic production of renewable hydrogen and 10 million tonnes of imported renewable hydrogen in accordance with the Repower EU plan.

The additionality idea is made clear in the first act.

Therefore, rather of being connected to current capacity, the electrolysers meant to make hydrogen will need to be connected to new renewable electricity output.

The Commission argues that by producing hydrogen, decarbonization efforts will be supported and enhanced, and pressure on electricity production will be mitigated. For this reason, the Commission wants to incentivize investors to sign PPAs in order to unlock Page | 133

new renewable capacities for their decarbonized hydrogen production projects.

The Commission estimates that in order to meet the target of 10 million tons of green hydrogen by 2030 set forth in the REPowerEU strategy, 500 TWh of renewable electricity will be required.

The Commission stipulates that "the rules will be introduced gradually and designed to become stricter over time, in order to take into account existing investment commitments and to enable the sector to adapt to the new framework."

This includes a transitional period prior to the official application of the additionality rule, which is scheduled for January 1, 2028. "Producers, whether in the EU or in third countries, will be able to easily and simply establish that they respect the EU framework and market their products thanks to a voluntary certification system. "renewable hydrogen in the context of a single market."

A technique for estimating greenhouse gas emissions over the full life cycle of renewable fuels of nonbiological origin (RFNBOs) is provided by the second delegated act.

In actuality, the text allows for an exclusion. Thus, in areas where emissions related to the mix of electricity are less than 18g C02e/MJ,Hydrogen will be regarded as renewable.

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Only two of the 27 EU members are currently involved, according to estimates made public by Euractiv: Sweden, which gains from a large percentage of renewable energy, and France, which will consequently be able to deploy its nuclear fleet to manufacture hydrogen.

This has significant benefits because it opens up a large number of renewable nuclear energy installations in France to the possibility of producing hydrogen.

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Germany PRESSING the accelerator BUTTON. The nation wants to strive for renewable energy by rapidly constructing its H2 grid network. Germany is working strongly to shift to clean energy, and one of its objectives is to build infrastructure for hydrogen as soon as feasible.

As per a recent report by Bloomberg, Philipp Steinberg, the head of the energy security section of Germany's Economy Ministry, stated during a conference in Berlin that the department is "in the process of putting in place a hydrogen acceleration law."

With the final nuclear power reactors closed, Germany, the largest economy in Europe, is focusing on building hydrogen infrastructure to help supply the electricity that so many of its sectors sorely need.

A draft of a core hydrogen network, spanning 11,200 kilometers (6,960 miles), connecting Germany's major industrial hubs is among the first in the world, according to Bloomberg.

The nation has committed to sourcing hydrogen fuel from southern Europe by 2030 in order to meet its needs for the fuel required for this plan.

It is anticipated that a bill to expedite the development of hydrogen infrastructure will be introduced this year.

According to the Ministry of Economy, this year's fasttrack hydrogen law will be presented.

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Furthermore, it is probable that grid operators will start submitting applications for their first hydrogen infrastructure projects as early as November, per another proposed law.

Repurposing current gas lines and constructing new links are two of these projects' objectives.

It's probable that the proposed legislation may take inspiration from the expedited process used to obtain licenses for LNG terminals during the energy crisis of 2022.

Environmentalists harshly condemned the action, even though it helped Germany break its dependency on Russian pipeline gas.

The government wants grid operators to coordinate the planning of H2 and gas networks starting in 2025.

They also want operators to revise their plans every other year.

According to Frank Reiners, CFO of Open Grid Europe, construction on hydrogen infrastructure might start as early as Q1 2024 if all proceeds according to plan and financial concerns are resolved.

Data from the industry indicates that 97% of Germany's grid can currently transport hydrogen fuel.

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SCALING UP A Gw ELECTROLYSER FACTORY The evident secret to manufacturing competitive renewable hydrogen is to go to mass production and it what German and France private groups are building up in synchrony.

Hydrogen is essential because it may be used as an energy vector, a storage medium, a starting point for the production of synthetic liquid fuels, and a gaseous fuel that can reduce emissions from some of the hardest industrial sectors to regulate, such as steel, chemicals, heavy transportation, and power generation. Regrettably, the cost of producing so-called green hydrogen produced using renewable energy is currently prohibitive.

For this reason, natural gas steam reformation—basically, a fossil fuel—dominates the hydrogen market today.

However, other issues have made climate change more urgent, such as concerns about the security of the energy supply, which have been substantially heightened by the conflict in Ukraine, for example. This has caused the market to accelerate and highlighted the significance of creating a sustainable renewable hydrogen economy.

The expense of renewable hydrogen has remained a barrier to its general acceptance and replacement of the hydrogen obtained from fossil fuels, which now dominates the market, despite the growing interest in this technology.

By taking this action, access to electrolyzer capacity will be ensured and, more importantly, they will be obtained at the proper price without sacrificing dependability, safety, or quality.

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The first step in bringing renewable hydrogen production to commercial scales is building a global supply chain capable of supplying the thousands of megawatts of electrolyzer capacity required annually.

Siemens Energy and Air Liquide plan to do this by pooling their resources and knowledge, and they will do it by establishing a gigawatt-scale production in Berlin.

Initially, 1 GW of Siemens Energy's Silyzer 300 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer stacks will be produced annually at the plant, which primarily depends on automation and robots to build electrolyzers in bulk. With its high level of efficiency, PEM technology is perfectly adapted to the variable output that characterizes renewable energy sources.

Additionally, according to current plans, this production capacity will rise by at least 1 GW yearly by 2025, when it will have reached a substantial 3 GW annually with room for more. In a subsequent phase, the electrolyzer arrays are put together locally, such as at the Siemens Energy production facility in Muelheim, or in outside workshops in the Czech Republic, France, or in close proximity to potential project locations.

Along with the economies of scale that are resulting in lower costs—as has been the case in the past with renewable energy technologies like solar and wind PV—the joint venture anticipates a number of benefits.

For instance, the gigawatt-scale factory already has a strong business case with a dependable relationship that provides sustained, competitive, and reliable product off-take thanks to its cooperation with Air Liquide, which is taking a 25.1% Page | 139

equity position in the JV alongside Siemens Energy's 74.9%.

Both partners have enough hydrogen projects in their respective portfolios to meet the demand for electrolyzers Furthermore, there's a solid working relationship here with a company that specializes in the production of hydrogen and oxygen through operations including ammonia synthesis, methanol synthesis, hydrogen liquefaction, and ammonia cracking.

The Siemens Energy electrolyzer must both suit the requirements of the downstream processes and be able to be improved in the future in order to be successful in the long run. As part of the flagship Trailblazer project, Air Liquide already collaborates with Siemens Energy electrolyzers stationed at its Oberhausen, Germany, location.

This enables both parties to get comprehensive understanding of how to operate the system in conjunction with current assets, like compression and off-take, as well as how to incorporate electrolyzers into an existing plant architecture.

By pooling resources, possibilities, and risks, the partners hope to quickly speed the shift to reasonably priced renewable hydrogen.

Air Liquide's Normand'Hy electrolyzer project is among the first to use stacks from the multi-gigawatt Berlin facility. It is one of the biggest PEM electrolyzers being developed right now, with a 200 MW capacity.

The lessons learned from Air Liquide's Oberhausen Trailblazer project will be put to use in this project. Using the stacks made in Berlin, other low-carbon and renewable Page | 140

hydrogen projects are planned for development in the Netherlands and abroad.development employing the Berlinproduced in the Netherlands and abroad.

Air Liquide and Siemens Energy have also committed to investing R&D resources to the advancement of the upcoming generation of electrolyzer technology as part of the cooperation. Given the accomplishments made thus far, additional efficiency gains are expected.

With a modest lab-scale PEM, Siemens Energy began researching hydrogen electrolyzer technology more than ten years ago.

In 2015, a commercial device with a rated capacity of around 1.25 MW was released: the Silyzer 200. The Silyzer 200 was a significant capacity increase, but it was still unsuitable for large-scale hydrogen production.

With the introduction of the Silyzer 300, which can produce more than ten times as much hydrogen as the 200 version, that changed. In reality, the Silyzer portfolio experiences significant efficiency gains with each generation as it expands up by a factor of ten every four or five years.

Concurrently, production methods have changed, progressing from the manual Silyzer 100 and 200 to investigating the creation of automated machinery and introducing larger-scale apparatuses with the introduction of the 300.

Siemens Energy is also enhancing automation and eliminating manual procedures by working with outside companies to build manufacturing equipment.

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In Berlin, the emphasis is on producing the current stacks in large quantities and significantly increasing manufacturing volumes.

Only a fully automated large-scale mass manufacturing plant of the type being planned in Berlin will be able to increase production by a factor of 100 in four or five years.

The supply chain is now able to confidently invest in capacity expansion as a result of strong investments in manufacturing capacity, ramping up from single piece production to mass production in line with stack manufacturing quantities.

While the stacks will be mass produced in Berlin, the final product will be assembled closer to the project sites in order to reduce the specific cost of hydrogen.

The numerous ancillaries required for the PEM stacks' operation are layered around the 24 PEM stacks that make up the Silyzer product.

These components include, among other things, the electrical connections, the cooling system, the gas separation system, and the gas manifolds. This step of assembly will take place in Mülheim, Germany; However, the exact site will depend on where the finished product is located. Siemens Energy, for instance, will collaborate with a French business to manufacture the skidmounted electrolyzer array for the Air Liquide Normandy project.

To meet market demands, this strategy of collaborating with outside partners in the vicinity of the ultimate customers' locations is essential.

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NETHERLANDs shot: a €1,5 billion h2 pipeline A continent-wide initiative to wean Europe off of natural gas coincided with the Netherlands' formal start of construction on a 1,200 kilometer hydrogen pipeline.

The pipeline's initial segment will commence around thirty kilometers inland from the Maasvlakte, an extensive artificial extension of the Europoort in Rotterdam, the largest port in Europe, to a gas refinery in Pernis, which is operated by the petrochemical conglomerate Shell.

The opening of this phase, which will cost €100 million, is planned for 2025.

"As a vital link in Northwestern Europe, hydrogen presents economic opportunities for the Netherlands and is perfectly suited to make our industry more sustainable." The fact that we are the first nation to begin constructing a national network makes me proud.

The larger 1,200km network will link important industrial clusters in the Netherlands, Germany, and Belgium with import terminals and hydrogen generating plants starting in 2030.

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Repurposed gas pipes, many of which are about to become obsolete as the nation attempts to lessen its reliance on fossil fuels, will make up a sizable portion of the infrastructure. The massive project will set you back approximately €1.5 billion.

The proposals are part of the European Hydrogen Backbone effort, which seeks to construct a network of specialized hydrogen pipelines spanning 28,000 km by 2030 and growing to 53,000 km across 28 European nations by 2040.

Thirty-one energy infrastructure operators support the idea.Hydrogen was mostly utilized to make chemical products like plastics and fertilizers in 2022, making for less than 2% of Europe's total energy consumption.

A considerable quantity of CO2 emissions were produced during the production of about 96% of this hydrogen using natural gas.

Nonetheless, the EU has highlighted hydrogen as a crucial element of the bloc's future energy mix. This is especially true of the "green" hydrogen that is produced by electrolyzing water using renewable energy.

By 2030, the Union wants to produce and import 20 million tons of renewable hydrogen annually.

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To put things in perspective, one gallon (3.78 liters) of gasoline is equal to one kilogram of hydrogen.

Even while the Netherlands and many other countries are working nonstop to construct new infrastructure for the fuel's transportation, their efforts will be in vain unless the production of green hydrogen is increased concurrently.

When you realize that at the moment, green hydrogen produces only 1% of all hydrogen produced worldwide.

In addition, it costs around three times as much as its grey equivalent, which is made using fossil fuels.

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HOW TO MITIGATE -EARLYCHINA COMPETITION Politicians in the US and Europe are scurrying to challenge China's early hegemony in the production of electrolysers, a crucial component of the next wave of clean energy.

Ten years ago, China eliminated Western competitors in the solar panel industry by using low pricing to control the industry just as global demand for panels was beginning to grow. The US and Europe are committed to preventing a repeat of this scenario using hydrogen.

The electrolyzer is at the center of the next round of competition as the globe races to decarbonize.

Hydrogen may be extracted from water with these devices without emitting any greenhouse gases into the atmosphere by plugging them into clean electrical sources like solar energy.

To create a green fuel that can decarbonize industries like steel, cement, and shipping, that is an essential first step.

Globally, businesses are already increasing the output of electrolyzers, green hydrogen facilities are being built, and the industry is ultimately moving from pilot projects to large-scale production.

By 2030, global electrolyzer production will need to increase 91 times to fulfill demand, according to Page | 146

research by BloombergNEF, a clean energy research company. Many veterans of the Western clean tech industry, however, view the new competitors with a sick feeling of deja vu.

China produces more than 40% of all electrolyzers manufactured today, according to BNEF.Chinese electrolyzers cost roughly a fourth of what Western companies charge, but they aren't as efficient as those built in the US and Europe.

Chinese electrolyzer companies are beginning to increase their sales internationally, but they still primarily service the domestic market.

"Too many government officials have said that we cannot replicate the solar experience again," Xiaoting Wang, a BNEF hydrogen analyst, said.In Electrolyzer Price, China Outperforms already the West . For years to come, China's green hydrogen generators will be less expensive.

During the pivotal years when China took the lead in solar manufacturing, President Joe Biden held the position of vice president. Bringing clean tech production back to the US is a cornerstone of his climate plans, and he now sees China as a competitor rather than a provider. With funding for domestic hydrogen production provided by Biden's Inflation Reduction Act, the US is determined to keep China out of control of this new energy boom.

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The US will actually provide very large subsidies to make sure that local suppliers survive, Europe wants to be involved in this emerging market for various reasons. First the invasion of Ukraine by Russia has increased European hopes for hydrogen and brought home the importance of fuel produced domestically.

However, some supporters of hydrogen claim that because the EU isn't acting enough, China and the US are already ahead of it.

By 2030, EU wants to produce 10 million tons of green hydrogen annually, but it hasn't yet established which processes would be considered "green." This makes it difficult for businesses to commit to the large-scale hydrogen generation projects that would fuel the need for electrolyzers.

Chief executive officer of the Brussels-based lobbying group Hydrogen Europe Jorgo Chatzimarkakis expressed his fear that market shares in the electrolyzer business would be moved out of Europe and shipped to other regions. "The European Union is making already today mental mistakes."

In the meantime, a lot of observers predict that Chinese electrolyzers will become more efficient, undermining the current technological edge enjoyed

by US and European businesses.

According to Bridget van Dorsten, a senior hydrogen analyst at the research and consultancy company Wood Mackenzie, "I have no doubt that China is Page | 148

working on better electrolyzers." "China will no longer be a laggard on the day they choose to stop being one."

Certain Chinese businesses also have an advantage.

Large-scale water electrolysis systems have been installed by chemical equipment manufacturers there for many years, serving a variety of manufacturing businesses including the production of polysilicon for solar cells.

Most Chinese companies manufacture "alkaline" electrolyzers, which are less expensive initially but use more electricity to produce one kilogram of hydrogen compared to competing technology.

The "solid oxide" and "proton-exchange membrane" (PEM) electrolyzers, which are more expensive initially but require less electricity—a major selling feature in areas with high electricity costs are the focus of US and European firms.On the other hand, PEM electrolyzers and improved alkaline products are being developed

by Chinese firms. They also want to expand into overseas markets.

China's largest solar equipment manufacturer, Longi Green Energy Technology Co., with its headquarters in Xi'an, established a hydrogen unit in March 2021 and has already constructed 1.5 gigawatts of electrolyzer manufacturing capacity in China.

According to Wang Yingge, vice president of Longi Hydrogen, the company is developing PEM but believes Page | 149

that alkaline electrolyzers will rule the market for the next five years. According to him, in three years, the company anticipates that more than half of its revenues would come from outside markets.

One of the few Chinese PEM manufacturers, Shandong Saikesaisi Hydrogen Energy, now receives between 10% and 15% of its sales from outside the country, according to Huang Fang, the company's project director. In light of demand from Australia and Europe, Huang stated that it hopes to increase that percentage.

Although the electrolyzer is just as vital to green hydrogen as solar cells are to solar energy, there are several important distinctions: In essence, solar panels are off-the-shelf technology. The panels and the systems attached to them are largely the same whether they are installed in a massive desert array or arranged on a rooftop. With hydrogen production, it isn't the case.

One component of a hydrogen production plant, its electrolyzers' size and design are determined by the energy source and the needs of the end user.

Producing electrolyzers in the market they are meant to service has benefits.

In order to produce electrolyzers for China rather than other nations, the John Cockerill Group of Belgium founded Cockerill Jingli Hydrogen as a joint venture in China.

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I.A.E.A. Net zero report results By 2050, the IAEA estimates that a net-zero world "would require 306 million tonnes of green hydrogen per year."

A significant amount of clean hydrogen could account for almost 20% of global electricity use, per a groundbreaking analysis by a Paris-based organization.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) publication, Net Zero by 2050 – A Roadmap for the worldwide Energy Sector, states that around 306 million tonnes of green hydrogen produced from renewable energy will be needed annually to achieve worldwide net-zero emissions by that time.

The groundbreaking IEA analysis, which outlines the actions required to bring the world's emissions under control by the middle of the next century, also states that 197.6 million blue hydrogen atoms per year, produced from coal or natural gas with carbon capture and storage, would be needed (CCS).

A wake-up call regarding green hydrogen: enormous amounts of solar and wind power are required.

An additional 16 million tonnes of low-carbon electrolytic hydrogen would be generated yearly by electrolysis driven by nuclear energy and fossil fuel power plants utilizing carbon capture and storage.

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According to the paper, 520 million units of low-carbon and renewable hydrogen would be employed in a variety of businesses (see section below). I n contrast, 87 million tonnes of mostly gray hydrogen were produced in 2020, mostly for use in the chemical and oil refining industries, from unrestricted natural gas and coal.

The IEA estimates that in order to achieve this, clean hydrogen production would need to rise at a compound average annual growth rate (CAAGR) of 66% between now and 2030 and 23% between 2030 and 2050.

In order to produce 322 million tons of green and electrolytic hydrogen by 2050, the world would need to increase its electrolyser capacity from 300MW to 3,585GW. Additionally, 14,500TWh of electricity would be needed, or nearly 20% of the 71,164TWh of energy produced today.

The following power capacities (with 2022 installed capacities in brackets) would need to be installed by 2050 in order to achieve net-zero emissions, according to the IEA: • • • •

PV from solar: 14,458GW (737GW) Wind: 737 GW, or 8,265 GW Hydro: 1,327 GW (1,599 GW).

Plants producing hydrogen: 1,867 GW (none) Page | 152

• • • • • • •

Nuclear: 415 GW, or 812 GW 171GW of bioenergy, or 640GW Coal-fired at 222 GW (1GW) with CCS Gas fired and using CCS: 171 GW (none) 426 GW (6 GW) of concentrated solar power (CSP) Geothermal energy: 15GW/15 GW Marine: 55GW (1GW) (wave and tidal)

Given the current manufacturing capacity shortage, "rolling out electrolysers at the pace required in the NZE [Net-Zero Emissions by 2050 scenario] is a key challenge, as is ensuring the availability of sufficient electricity generation capacity," according to the IEA assessment.

Eight million tonnes of the 538 million tonnes of hydrogen required in 2050 would be grey. Of this amount, around 25% will be produced and used at the same industrial sites, with the remaining 25% being produced and sold on a worldwide hydrogen market.

The paper details how "global trade in hydrogen develops over time in the NZE," with significant volumes shipped from gas and renewables-rich regions in the Middle East, Central and South America, and Australia to demand centers in Asia and Europe.

In gas networks, ten million tonnes of hydrogen would be blended with natural gas at a 15% global average in 2030, resulting in a 6% decrease in CO2 emissions from methane consumption.

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According to the IEA, green hydrogen will cost between $1 and $2.50/kg by 2050, whereas blue hydrogen produced from natural gas would cost between $1 and $2 per kg.

Demand for hydrogen by industry According to the paper, by 2050, hydrogen would be needed for the production of electricity (to support renewable energy sources), transportation by road, shipping, aviation, and heavy industries including steel, cement, and chemicals.

Heavy industry will require the most hydrogen in 2050, making up over 35% of the total demand (187 million tonnes), of which 83 million will be utilized in the chemicals industry, 54 million in the steel industry, and 12 million in the cement industry.

Roughly 19% of the total, or 102 million tonnes annually, will come from the generation of electricity, which includes 13 million tonnes of ammonia made from hydrogen.The report suggests that after 2030, hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels will be a significant source of low-carbon electricity system flexibility. This will be achieved primarily by converting some existing gas-fired capacity to co-fire with

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hydrogen and some coal-fired power plants to co-fire with ammonia.

"Even though these fuels will only account for about 2% of all electricity generated in 2050, this translates into extremely large volumes of hydrogen, making the electricity industry a key driver of the demand for hydrogen."

Highway transit About 17%, or 91 million tons, of the world's hydrogen consumption will come from the transportation sector.

By 2050, about 35% of the world's big trucks will run on hydrogen, with batteries powering the remaining 65%.

10% of the world's light-duty vehicles (cars and vans), 90% of which are battery-electric vehicles (EVs), would run on hydrogen.According to the estimate, this will require 90,000 hydrogen refueling stations, 3.5 billion private EV chargers, and 200 million public EV charging stations.

In the event that "other technologies, such as FCEVs [fuel-cell electric vehicles] and advanced biofuels fail to develop as projected," the IEA research also presents a "all-electric case" for running all forms of transportation on electric batteries.

Marine 75 percent of the 90 million tonnes of hydrogen needed annually by the maritime industry would come from ammonia. Ammonia and hydrogen together Page | 155

would make up somewhat more than 60% of the energy used in the maritime sector.

Aviation Nearly 99 percent of the 50 million tons of hydrogen that the aviation sector would need annually would be blended with CO2 that has been captured to create synthetic jet fuel that is carbon neutral.

In 2050, this synthetic fuel would account for roughly 30% of aviation fuel use, with biofuels accounting for the remaining 45%. Less than 2% of fuel would come from planes running on batteries, with fossil fuels making up the remaining 10%.

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HPA FINANCE TOOL A Hydrogen Purchase Agreement (HPA) is a longterm agreement between a hydrogen producer and a buyer (also called an off taker).

Given the current market conditions where there isn't a well-established market for low-carbon hydrogen, such agreements are crucial in helping hydrogen development projects become bankable and providing them with access to available subsidies.

In an HPA, key commercial and legal factors are negotiated, such as the offtake price, volume, and quality of hydrogen.

To manage the various risks involved in the process, the agreement normally includes additional legal terms relating to issues like the construction, certification, operation, transportation, and regulation of the hydrogen production project.

The offtake price set in the HPA is influenced by multiple factors such as the costs of hydrogen production, storage, and transportation besides any subsidies available to the hydrogen producer.

The pricing structures may involve power-priceindexed Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs), fixed price PPAs, or less common ‘tolling models’ where the hydrogen off taker is responsible for purchasing the power required for hydrogen production.

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It's noteworthy that HPAs need to be structured carefully to not undermine access to subsidy payments, considering that most hydrogen projects currently are not economically viable without subsidies.

Therefore, HPAs often include terms to assure eligibility to subsidies by meeting criteria such as carbon intensity thresholds and off taker eligibility requirements.

In conclusion, an HPA is a key instrument through which the emerging hydrogen economy is being financed and guided towards sustainability and profitability.

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H2 MARKET FORECASTS The "Green Hydrogen Market by Technology (Alkaline and PEM), Renewable Source (Wind, Solar, Geothermal, Hydropower, and Hybrid of Wind & Solar), End-Use Industry (Mobility, Power, Chemical, Industrial, Grid Injection), and Region - Global Forecast to 2027" report, by ResearchAndMarkets.com, provides a comprehensive analysis of the burgeoning green hydrogen market.

Projected to expand from USD 676 million in 2022 to an impressive USD 7,314 million by 2027, the green hydrogen market is witnessing a remarkable compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 61.0%.

This substantial growth is fueled by several key factors: the reduction in costs associated with producing renewable energy, advancements in electrolysis technologies, and the surging demand from both Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) and the power industry.

Green hydrogen, characterized by its zero-emission production process and increasing costcompetitiveness owing to technological advancements, is steadily supplanting conventional hydrogen types such as grey, brown, and blue.

Its sustainability makes it an attractive alternative to fossil fuels across various industries, including transportation, chemical, power, grid injection, and more.

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In 2021, the segment of green hydrogen based on alkaline electrolysis held a dominant 61% share in the market.

This technology, the most prevalent method for producing green hydrogen globally, uses two electrodes immersed in a basic electrolyte solution (like sodium or potassium hydroxide), separated by a diaphragm.

Alkaline electrolysis is favored for its ability to produce purer green hydrogen compared to PEM electrolysis, due to the limited diffusion of hydrogen ions in the electrolyte solution.

The mobility industry emerges as the most significant end-use sector for green hydrogen, with a forecasted highest CAGR during the projection period.

This industry's dominance is attributed to hydrogen's energy density, which is three times higher per unit than fossil fuels.

Prior to the commercial advent of fuel-cell-based engines, the mobility industry lacked sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels.

FCEVs offer a greener solution, making green hydrogen a practical and viable option for various transportation modes like mining vehicles, trains, planes, trucks, buses, and maritime transportation. This shift is pivotal in aiding advanced countries to meet their zero carbon footprint goals.

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Europe is at the forefront in the global green hydrogen market, with a projected highest CAGR during the forecast period. The presence of numerous green hydrogen manufacturers and their products solidifies this region's market dominance.

This trend underscores Europe's leading role in the green hydrogen market, driven by its commitment to sustainability and innovation in renewables.

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LCOH MATH LABYRINTH

The Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) is a financial metric used to assess the cost-effectiveness of hydrogen production. It represents the per-unit cost (usually per kilogram) of producing hydrogen over the lifetime of a production facility.

The LCOH is crucial for comparing different hydrogen production methods and for making investment decisions in the hydrogen industry.

Simplified Math Key Components Capital Costs: Initial investments required to build the hydrogen production facility. It includes costs for purchasing land, construction, equipment, and technology.

Operational Costs: Recurring costs associated with running the facility. This includes labor, maintenance, energy consumption, and raw materials.

Lifetime of the Facility: Expected operational lifespan of the facility influences the LCOH. A longer lifespan can spread the capital costs over more years, potentially lowering the LCOH. Efficiency of Production**: The efficiency of the hydrogen production technology directly impacts the LCOH. Higher efficiency means more hydrogen production per unit of input, which can lower the cost.

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Financing Costs: The interest on loans and the cost of equity used to finance the project are included. These costs can vary significantly based on the risk profile of the project and market conditions.

Depreciation Valuation: The method of depreciation value of the facility at the end of its life also affect the LCOH. Factors Influencing LCOH Math Technology: Advances in hydrogen production technology can significantly reduce LCOH, particularly through increased efficiency and reduced capital costs.

Energy Costs: Since hydrogen production often requires significant energy input, fluctuations in energy prices can greatly influence the LCOH. Economies of Scale: Larger production facilities can benefit from economies of scale, potentially reducing LCOH. Government Policies and Subsidies: Policies promoting hydrogen production can reduce the LCOH through subsidies or tax incentives.

Environmental Costs: Including cost of carbon emissions in the LCOH calculation can change the economic viability of different hydrogen production methods.

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Complex and more complete approach The more complex approach to calculating the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) involves a detailed analysis that accounts for the time value of money, varying production levels, and changes in efficiency and performance over time. This comprehensive method typically requires a series of steps: Estimating Annual Costs and Production: Determine the annual operational, maintenance, fuel (if applicable), and other relevant costs for each year of the facility's operational life. Similarly, estimate the annual hydrogen production for each year.

Discounting to Present Value: Apply a discount rate to calculate the present value of future costs and hydrogen production. This step is crucial as it accounts for the time value of money – the principle that money available now is worth more than the same amount in the future due to its potential earning capacity.

Summing Present Values: Add up the present values of all costs and hydrogen production over the lifetime of the facility.

Adjusting for Efficiency and Performance Changes: Include factors that might affect the efficiency of hydrogen production over time, such as wear and tear on equipment or advancements in technology.

Incorporating Decommissioning Costs and Salvage Value: Factor in the costs of decommissioning the Page | 164

facility at the end of its life and any potential salvage value from selling or reusing equipment.

Final LCOH Calculation shall Divide the total present value of costs by the total present value of hydrogen produced to get the LCOH. This approach results in a more accurate and nuanced understanding of the true cost of producing hydrogen over the facility's lifetime, taking into account both the financial and operational aspects.

However, it requires detailed data and involves more complex financial modeling.

The LCOH is a dynamic and complex metric influenced by a variety of factors. It is essential for understanding the economic feasibility of hydrogen projects and for comparing different production methods.

As the hydrogen market evolves and technology advances, the LCOH will play a crucial role in shaping the future of sustainable energy

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THE BIG ISSUE WITH OFF TAKE Hard offtake agreements will be only in place for a very small percentage of global clean hydrogen projects. By 2030, a legally binding purchase agreement will cover only 2% of planned yearly production capacity.

According to research firm Bloomberg NEF (BNEF), while hydrogen project developers worldwide have projected 47 million tons of clean hydrogen capacity annually by 2030, only approximately one million tons of this amount is secured by legally binding agreements with off takers.

Banks are hesitant to provide loans without a definite source of income for the duration of the payback period, therefore offtake is typically seen as a necessary condition for hydrogen projects to reach final investment decisions (FID).

Merely 7.9 million tons annually have an off taker attached, as per BNEF's database on hydrogen offtake, which monitors all projects that are announced and have a minimum output capacity of 20MW, or 2,800 tons, annually.

Additionally, three agreements for more than 100,000 tons annually significantly skew the results, even though 16 projects with a combined capacity of about one million tons have signed legally binding offtake agreements.

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Only non-binding memoranda of understanding (MoUs) cover the offtake of about 2.9 million tons of output, whilst offtake agreements that are not specific cover about 3.4 million tons of output.

Furthermore, 1.74 million tons are scheduled for selfofftake, or project developers using it themselves.

Examples of these developers are Sinopec and Shell, who are working on the Kuqa project and Holland Hydrogen 1, respectively.

For projects slated from this year to 2031, no legally binding offtake contracts have been signed; most of these volumes are covered solely by memorandums of understanding or vague agreements. Nearly 1.5 million tons of capacity is scheduled to come online in 2028.

BNEF warns that it is "unlikely" that projects scheduled to start up in 2026 that only have offtake MoUs will actually be able to be up and running by that year because construction takes two to three years to complete after FID, with the majority of the capacity contracted in binding agreements signed to date scheduled to come on line in 2026 or 2027.

According to the research, "these projects will probably have to extend the delivery timeline or quickly convert the memorandums into legally binding contracts.

The research firm notes that even if "many projects that have signed pre-contractual agreements [i.e., term sheets, letters of intent, and heads of agreement] are scheduled for 2029," " Page | 167

these projects will have to push for binding contracts by 2026 to come online as scheduled."

Regarding self-development, "these projects might be able to reach FID without binding offtakes, such as the Sinopec Kuqa project in China, but this is highly subject to the owner's willingness to fund — those with weak economics and no policy incentives will likely delay these projects, if not scrap them," according to the update's author, senior associate at BNEF Xitong Gao. Who is off taking?

In fact, 36% of offtake volumes come from users including the chemical, oil refining, and fertilizer sectors; the last sector accounts for the biggest portion (19%).

Meanwhile, 20% of the volume is accounted for by new uses like the manufacturing of steel, electricity, shipping, aviation, and more broadly, renewable fuels.It is unknown who is using the remaining volumes.

Certain industries exhibit a greater willingness to support their claims with tangible assets.

Due mostly to OCI's recent agreements for blue hydrogen from Linde and green ammonia (NH3) from New Fortress Energy, chemical producers account for 30% of binding agreements even though they only made up 8% of the overall offtake volume.

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In contrast to the 2% and 3% of total offtake volumes, the aviation sector and producers of renewable fuels account for 10% and 13% of contractual agreements, respectively.

With only 5% of legally binding contracts coming from oil refiners, they are the ones that are less willing to risk their money.

Even though businesses in the oil refining, chemical, fertilizer, utility, and metal sectors account for more than 75% of the overall offtake volume, only 46% of this hydrogen (and its derivatives) will be used in these industries.

This suggests that some of the off takers are cornering volumes to redistribute to third parties, rather than decarbonizing their own operations.

According to BNEF, approximately 2.8 million tonnes of capacity, or 36% of total offtake volumes, are intended for export.

Out of this, about 1.5 million tonnes of capacity annually are slated to go to Europe or South Korea; Germany, Japan, and Singapore are all listed as H2 destinations.

Only two legally binding contracts, meanwhile, have been inked for the offtake of export projects.Supply is dominated by the US, which is responsible for 33% of capacity covered by legally binding contracts and 19% of total offtake volumes.

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This may reflect the market's trust in the projects' ability to take advantage of the large tax credits provided by the Inflation Reduction Act for either carbon capture and storage or clean hydrogen production, even in the absence of written guidelines for the former.

Likewise, Canada is anticipated to provide 20% of binding agreements and 10% of total offtake. Canada provides investment tax benefits for hydrogen projects.

A fifth of contractual agreements are for projects in the EU, headed by Sweden, France, and Denmark, despite the fact that Europe lags in overall offtake. Spain is anticipated to be the leading supplier due to its relatively cheap renewable electricity.

What do off takers purchase?

The majority of volumes are marketed as green ammonia (36%) and are followed by green H2 (direct purchases, 25%).Blue hydrogen accounts for 17% of offtake, whereas blue NH3 accounts for an additional 10%. Green methanol accounts for about 10% of these agreements by volume.

Many of the contracts to purchase green ammonia, however, are vague as to how these quantities will be used; for example, Air Products' contract with Neom expressly states that they will sell this NH3 to third parties, but other agreements indicate they will use the chemical as a shipping fuel.

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In contrast, a specific use case has been identified for the majority of offtake volumes with hydrogen as the ultimate product.

The main applications for blue H2 are in the chemical and oil refinement industries. According to the research, "Green H2 projects are entering into agreements with a broad spectrum of users, including steel, power generation, and fertilisers."

The duration of the contracts has only been revealed in 12 offtake agreements thus far. Seven of these have terms of 10 to 20 years, which BNEF says "matches well" with typical PPAs (renewable power purchase agreements), which often have terms of 10 to 25 years.

But with the EU requiring hourly matching between H2 output and renewable electricity generation starting in 2030, many hydrogen developers in Europe are probably going to sign PPAs for significantly shorter periods of time.

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Hydrogen trading The key issue that will determine if trading in hydrogen is cost-effective will be whether the expense of transporting the gas from low-cost production locations to high-demand areas can be compensated by scale, technology, and efficiency benefits.

Electrolysis is used to transform renewable energy into hydrogen, which is then treated further to boost its energy density and create green hydrogen.

Additional processing methods include liquefaction, the utilization of liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC), and conversion to steel, synthetic fuels, ammonia, or methanol.

The cost per supplied unit of energy rises as a result of the extra conversion stages, which result in energy losses. Whether a conversion is carried out in an exporting or an importing zone won't affect these losses for any given conversion operation.

Because of this, they won't set themselves apart in the event that the finished good is utilized straight away without being converted to hydrogen.

The cost of manufacturing green hydrogen must therefore be significantly cheaper in the exporting zone than in the importing region to offset the cost of transportation in order to make trade profitable.

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As projects grow in scope and technology advances to lower transportation costs, this cost disparity will widen. Since hydrogen trading taps into less expensive energy, it may result in a more affordable energy supply for the region importing the gas.

Additionally, it may result in a more resilient energy system with more options for handling unforeseen circumstances.

The technical potential for green hydrogen is still over 20 times greater than the world's primary energy need in 2050, even after accounting for land availability limits including protected areas, forests, wetlands, urban centers, slope, and water scarcity.

However, green hydrogen potential is a continuous link between cost and renewable capacity rather than a single number (see Figure 5).

The production cost is directly influenced by the weighted average cost of capital (WACC), the electrolyser, and the cost of the renewable input, which is the primary cost driver.

A net zero emissions energy system will be achieved in 2050 with the help of roughly 14 TW of solar PV, 6 TW of onshore wind, and 4-5 TW of electrolysis. Because of innovation, economies of scale, and supply chain optimization, these deployments should result in a significant drop in technology costs.

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Under the most hopeful circumstances, green hydrogen production might eventually drop to levels as low as USD 0.65/kgH2 for the best locations. The lowest production cost is USD 1.15/kgH2 in a gloomier scenario with higher technology expenses, still for 2050.

The potential for green hydrogen worldwide is more than sufficient to meet demand, but in some nations, the potential is limited, and domestic production may not be enough to meet domestic need.

The most restricted countries are Korea and Japan because of the nature of their territories; 91% and 87%, respectively, of their total land mass is not used for the production of renewable electricity that may be used to produce hydrogen.

By 2050, Korea's domestic hydrogen needs would require the usage of almost one-third of its renewable potential.

But when other uses of electricity are taken into account, there is hardly little electricity left over for producing hydrogen.

Around 380 GW of PV and 180 GW of onshore wind power represent Japan's technical potential, which would be sufficient to produce roughly 20 MtH2/yr of hydrogen.

Nevertheless, the quality of the resources is very low (annual generation for most PV is less than 14% of full Page | 174

continuous capacity, and for wind it is less than 30%), and most of this potential is utilized to meet general energy demand.

Other nations that would need to use a sizable portion of their renewable potential in order to meet their domestic hydrogen needs include Germany (66%), Italy (62%), Saudi Arabia (94%), India (89% of its land is excluded primarily due to forests, cropland, and savannas), and Italy (62% of its land is excluded primarily due to slope, population density, and croplands).

The producing facility's size and the distance traveled during transportation are the two primary factors that determine the cost of transporting hydrogen.

The economies of scale are determined by the size of the production facility; the larger the facility, the lower the specific cost.

Project sizes of 0.4, 0.4, and 0.95 MtH2/yr for LOHC, ammonia, and liquid hydrogen, respectively, yield the highest possible benefit. To provide some context, 1 MtH2/yr is the same as the hydrogen consumption of five commercial ammonia plants or the equivalent of a 10 GW electrolyser operating for around 60% of the year.

Compared to current pilot programs, these sizes equate to a cost reduction of up to 80%. The 2050 technological trajectories are compared in Figure 6.

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Finding the most promising route by 2050 indicates where to concentrate short-term efforts and enables the identification of the long-term rewards that will be highest.About one-third of the world's hydrogen demand, or 18.4 EJ, or 150 Mt of hydrogen annually, may be met by international commerce by 2050 under the 1.5°C scenario. Domestic production and consumption would account for the remaining two thirds.

This represents a substantial shift from the current oil market, where the majority (about 74%) is traded worldwide, but it is comparable to the current gas market, where just 33% is sold abroad.

About half of the hydrogen that would be traded internationally by 2050 in the 1.5°C scenario would go via pipelines; the majority of the hydrogen network would be built around natural gas pipelines that have been converted to carry pure hydrogen, significantly lowering transportation costs.

The two regional markets where this pipeline-enabled trade would be concentrated are Europe (85%) and Latin America (15%) (see Figure 7).

Of the hydrogen that is sold worldwide, 45 percent would be sent in the form of ammonia, which is primarily consumed without being converted back to hydrogen.

Ammonia is currently traded extensively (about 10% of global production) and has a well-developed Page | 176

transportation infrastructure (ports, vessels, storage); the conversion of hydrogen to ammonia is already commercially viable and used on a large scale. It is not always necessary to turn ammonia back into hydrogen in order to use it as a fuel or feedstock.

To meet the 1.5°C scenario, however, the current and expanding ammonia market must be decarbonized.

Global green ammonia production may reach 610 Mt/yr by 2050. Merely 20% would be utilized as a hydrogen transporter, with the remaining 80% (480 Mt/yr) going toward chemical feedstock and shipping fuel.

Of the 480 Mt/yr used as fuel and chemical feedstock, roughly two thirds would be sourced domestically and the other third would be traded internationally.

Currently, pure hydrogen is only carried in extremely small quantities (gray hydrogen). Nearly 75% of the hydrogen generated, would be used for methanol production, steel production, ammonia (for fuel and feedstock), and synthetic fuels for aircraft.

Rather than being changed back into hydrogen, the majority of ammonia traded would be used directly for human use. Due to their lower transportation costs compared to hydrogen or ammonia, the conversion of hydrogen into iron and synthetic fuels would be even more appealing. Since there is a high demand for these two commodities, there is no need for reconversion

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even though they cannot be transformed back into hydrogen.

Additionally, they already possess a global infrastructure that wouldn't need to be altered, with the exception of the commodities' production utilizing green hydrogen rather than fossil fuels TRADING with EEX

In response to the global push for sustainable energy solutions, a significant development has emerged in the form of a dedicated hydrogen trading platform. T his platform, a brainchild of a European energy exchange, has been meticulously designed to support the technical implementation of hydrogen sale auctions and other trading instruments. The primary goal is to cater to both governmental and commercial entities interested in renewable hydrogen and its derivatives.

This innovative platform promises to deliver a competitive, transparent, and non-discriminatory auction environment, thereby facilitating the costefficient market launch of renewable hydrogen. By standardizing products with fixed one-year delivery periods, it aims to enhance market transparency and sustain it over time.

The platform is not just a commercial venture; it’s a strategic tool for the market ramp-up of renewable

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hydrogen, backed by public funding to bridge the gap between purchase and sale prices.

The initiative is set against a backdrop of growing recognition within the European Union and globally, of the importance of hydrogen in modernizing and decarbonizing industries. The approach is to use competitive auctions to develop a liquid market with strong price signals for renewable hydrogen, signifying a shift towards a more integrated energy market.

The strategic collaboration involves experienced energy trading entities and institutions dedicated to promoting the global market ramp-up of green hydrogen. With the anticipated auctions, the platform is expected to kickstart as early as the end of 2024, marking a significant milestone in the trading of renewable energy resources.

The platform reflects a broader commitment to energy transition, harnessing decades of expertise in energy trading to boost the liquidity in the renewable hydrogen market.

This concerted effort exemplifies a proactive step towards establishing hydrogen as a key component of the global energy mix, emphasizing the role of market mechanisms in driving the energy transition. With the collective efforts of market participants and public funding, the platform is poised to play a critical role in shaping a sustainable and economically viable hydrogen ecosystem.

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H2 FINANCE IS VERY FRAGILE Based on the shares of 17 H2 firms, the S&P” Kensho” Hydrogen Economy Index was developed. It dropped from $234.91 on August 1 to $160.01 on November 10 (2023), losing about a third of its value.

This indicates a larger issue facing the hydrogen industry as a whole.

Nevertheless, an S&P representative informed that "two stocks, Nikola and Plug Power, have been primarily driving the recent weakness and contributing more than half of the index's negative performance."

However, they also noted that, "on a longer scale, the index level has been relatively rangebound [i.e., fluctuating between periods of growth and decline] since January 2022" and that the "performance of various clean energy related themes has been challenging this year.

The outlook is still very positive, but the market is developing a little more slowly.

Although there were significant governmental commitments made in 2022 to promote the use of clean hydrogen through support programs, many of these subsidies have not yet been implemented, which has caused developers to postpone making final investment decisions (FIDs).

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For instance, it is unlikely that the seven selected applicants for the US Regional Hydrogen Hubs initiative, which was authorized by the 2021 Bipartisan Infrastructure Act, will receive funding until the following year.

Furthermore, even though the US Inflation Reduction Act offers profitable production tax credits of up to $3/kg, businesses are unable to claim these until the Treasury Department has made the eligibility requirements clear.

The information about lifecycle emissions calculations, which may include additionality/temporal/geographic correlation rules similar to the EU's Delegated Acts was supposed to be released in August.

It ought to be released shortly. However, it was only announced three months prior, and a significant portion of the industry is moving forward but isn't ready to make the final investment decision"(FID) until it is certain that their project would qualify for the highest tax credit rate.

When you are in a situation where the interpretation really changes the economics of your project, you are naturally in a holding pattern."

For Plug, this implies that in addition to its problems with fuel supply, many the electrolysers in its order backlog have not yet been delivered, meaning that not a lot of money has been exchanged.

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The company that develops green hydrogen technology only brought in $26 million from its electrolyser division in Q3.

Given that 15 of the 17 businesses in the S&P Kensho index are based in the US, the absence of guidance in that nation is probably what has affected it the most.

But many European project developers have also complained about the incredibly cumbersome and delayed support schemes that have been implemented thus far.

Especially when it comes to actually getting the large state-level grants that are made available under the Important Projects of Common European Interest Past one-time awards, Europe's subsidies for hydrogen production costs are typically auction-based, not available to every producer who applies; the first winners of Denmark's pilot auction were only revealed at the end of the previous month.

The first €900m H2Global auction in Germany (for imported green hydrogen derivatives) is scheduled to take place on November 23. The results of this auction could be revealed as early as January.

The pilot €800m ($868m) European Hydrogen Bank auction is scheduled to start on November 23.

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The first tranches in Europe and the US will most likely be given in the first half of 2024, despite the fact that significant subsidies have not been provided as rapidly as anticipated.

This will prompt final investment decisions and a rapid turnaround in the clean hydrogen sector, which has been mainly stagnant.

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AN OFF-RAMP CONVENIENCE FOR BIG OIL Hydrogen frequently shines as a ray of light in the broad narrative around the switch to greener energy sources.

Underneath this sustainable exterior, though, lies a more cynical story, one in which the fossil fuel industry seems to be exploiting hydrogen as an easy 'off ramp' to greenwash their environmental credentials.

Major oil and gas businesses have been associated with the exploitation of fossil fuels and the ensuing environmental deterioration for many years.

Now as the public, legislators, and environmental activists are putting increasing pressure on these industrial titans, it appears that they have an ally in hydrogen energy.

These firms present an enticing argument: hydrogen may help create a cleaner future, especially when combined with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies.

This story, however, conveniently ignores a crucial fact: most hydrogen production still depends on fossil fuels, mainly on the environmentally unfriendly process of steam methane reforming.

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capturing part of the carbon emissions, these firms deftly avoid making a complete commitment to renewable energy. This strategy enables them to continue using fossil fuels while outwardly supporting the worldwide movement towards sustainability. This is a calculated move to maintain the value and profitability of their current infrastructure—from pipelines to wells—in a time when opposition to fossil fuels is growing.

Furthermore, big oil's drive for hydrogen might be viewed as a master class in public relations. These firms enhance their public image by investing in hydrogen projects and vocally supporting its role in the energy transition.

This allows them to present an image of being proactive and leading the charge against climate change. By using this 'greenwashing' ploy, they hope to deflect criticism away from their ongoing reliance on and profit from fossil fuels.

In this context, the oil industry's enthusiasm for hydrogen appears to be more about protecting their business model in a world that is steadily but slowly moving away from fossil fuels than it does about real environmental concern.

Given its current technological and industrial condition, hydrogen presents an ideal "middle ground" that allows these businesses to seem progressive without

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having to make significant adjustments to their basic business practices.

According to the most recent findings from the WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM's NET-ZERO INDUSTRY tracker 2023 edition, which was published on November 25, switching to H2 will require significant capital expenditures and a premium for sustainability that most industries, except for oil and gas, cannot afford.

The authors emphasize that, with the exception of guess who—big oil—nearly all of the industries covered in the report will not be able to absorb the additional costs and earn enough returns from making these netzero investments on their balance sheets alone, based on current margins and weighted average cost of capital (WACC).

They are the main anomaly in this pattern.It is anticipated that the oil and gas sector will primarily cut emissions by doing away with flaring, stopping methane leaks, electrifying some processes, and utilizing CCS in downstream processing.

Many oil and gas industries have already made the commitment to switch to clean hydrogen from grey hydrogen generated in their refineries from natural gas. According to the paper, this would require eight million tonnes of yearly production capacity, which could come at a cost of $30-90 billion.

The report states that the additional $880 billion needed to reduce oil and gas emissions to reach net Page | 186

zero by 2050 will only account for 3-6% of the industry's total annual capital expenditure (Capex).

Given the industry's average profitability of 20% and weighted average cost of capital (WACC) of 9%, the industry is well-positioned to fund its additional CapEx through self-generated cash flows, meaning it won't need to rely heavily on government grants.

Furthermore, "historically, the market has shown limited price elasticity of demand, indicating that it can absorb the required green premiums" in reference to a possible increase in the price of oil and gas.

Will Big Oil, the usual suspect, turn out to be the rescuer?

In any case, they want to demonstrate that they are not just adept at "greenwashing," but also that we will soon "beg" them to make significant investments in H2.

This is why they are more visible at every COP annual meeting.

Their finance boys and strategists are prepared as well; all we must do is ask "nicely," and they will invest generously while grinning sardonically and sheepishly!

A convenient “detour” or an “off ramp” your choice of words will depend of your personal mood on the day of your read!

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Part 4

INNOVATIONS

Inventions – Breakthrough –RESEARCH

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A race to patent hydrogen IS led by Europe.

The majority of patents submitted worldwide between 2011 and 2020 are related to this promising energy source in the fight against global warming. America and Japan have been surpassed by the European Union. Germany is in a particularly good position, the "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung" exclaims.

The "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung" is jubilant at Germany's exceptional position.at its commissioning on July 2, 2021, the first green hydrogen electrolyzer in Europe is in the Shell energy complex in Rhineland, Germany.

Regarding energy sources, hydrogen is one that shows promise in the fight against global warming.

Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung states that with 28% of all invention submissions worldwide from 2011 to 2020, Europe leads the world in the hunt for patents on this energy with environment case.

As per the German daily, over 50% of global patents between 2011 and 2020 were related to technologies that enabled the production of hydrogen.

This information is a preview of a study that will be released this Tuesday, January 10, by the European Patent Office in partnership with the International Energy Agency.

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According to the Frankfurt daily, these patent families address "automobile transport, aviation, heating or steel production" and encompass all "low-emission methods, such as electrolysis, which can in particular transform solar energy into hydrogen."

Therefore, "80% of inventions relate to low-emission means of production" among the patents filed in 2020.With more than one invention in ten pertaining to hydrogen, or 11% of all patents worldwide (compared to 3% for France), Germany is in a particularly advantageous position. In this race for hydrogen, the United States is "the only" leading nation to have slowed down.

"Since 2014, their output has decreased by roughly half in terms of innovation." This is unexpected "because America is normally present in all areas," says research author and European Patent Office economist Ilja Rudyk.

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milestone for liquid h2 fuel cell aircraft The first-ever on-ground coupling test has been successfully completed (October 2023), The HY4 aircraft's powertrain system was matched with its recently developed liquid H2 storage system.

The goal of the project is to design, develop, and integrate a fuel cell and high-power cryogenic powertrain for use in commercial aircraft. Professor Josef Kallo, the founder and CEO of H2FLY (Stuttgart, Germany), stated, "We have learned that it will be possible to scale up our technology for a 40-seater aircraft with the successful passing of the on-ground coupling tests." As we work to make sustainable medium- and long-haul flight a reality, we are excited to be making this significant progress”.

Six businesses are collaborating on liquid hydrogen fuel cell technology under the Project Heaven umbrellAir Liquide developed and provided the new liquid H2 system based on H2FLY's specifications.

The ground-based hydrogen fuel cell system has now been successfully connected to that system.

The Air Liquide Campus Technologies Grenoble near Sassenage , France, served as the test site.

The coupling test has been successfully finished, which means the corporation has cleared a further obstacle on the way to more ground and flight testing.

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The HY4 will probably become the first passenger aircraft to successfully fly on both liquid hydrogen and fuel cells when those campaigns take place.

With the completion of the successful testing, H2FLY became the first firm to demonstrate the viability of its revolutionary hydrogen fuel cell system, storage systems, and designs for CS-23 and CS-25 aircraft standard (European aviation safety agency regulations) through on-ground coupling experiments with aircraftintegrated LH2 tanks and fuel cell systems.

Furthermore, H2FLY has developed a degree of specialized understanding in the management of liquid H2 by collaborating with Air Liquide to create innovative safety concepts in advance of the coupling tests.

The company has achieved several milestones in testing the integrated liquid H2 tank, and gained media attention in recent months for the testing it has been conducting on hydrogen fuel cells and liquid H2 storage.

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H2 combustion engine first flight The first flight of an airplane powered by hydrogen was conducted by Airbus over Nevada, in the United State (No ember 8 2023)s, As part of its ZERO-e project plans to launch its first hydrogen-powered aircraft in 2035, Airbus is now on all fronts . The aircraft maker managed to test a hydrogen combustion engine in flight as the first option for the first time, in addition to researching the second option with fuel cells.

This demonstration, named “Blue Condor”, is primarily intended to investigate the condensation trails left behind by burning hydrogen.

It is built on a modified Arcus-J glider and has a small hydrogen combustion engine that was put together by Aero Design Works, a German entity.

The little plane will be utilized up to 30,000 feet under the scheme. Its emissions will be contrasted with those of an identically sized kerosene engine operating on a different aircraft.

The aircraft maker points out that there are significant differences between hydrogen trails and ordinary jet fuel. The group states in a press release that "they do Page | 193

not contain soot or sulfur oxides, but rather nitrogen oxides and a lot of water vapor: up to 2.5 times more than kerosene trails."

Taking place in Nevada, the Blue Condor's maiden flight lasted almost half an hour.

The objective was to raise the hydrogen engine's thrust to 7,000 feet while maintaining the aircraft's stability at various speeds. Two more flights, one of which included an engine start at 10,000 feet, have since occurred.

Over the upcoming months, testing will continue. In early 2024, during the cold phase, the Blue Condor team members are organizing a new analytical phase.

To evaluate the tiny device's behavior at higher altitudes, it will then be "towed.

The instrumentation of the prototype will include a series of sensors targeted at analyzing data connected to condensation in real time.

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A Counterintuitive BRILLIANT MOVE Toyota, a pioneering force in the automotive industry, is charting a new course in vehicle technology that might seem counterintuitive at first glance.

They are revitalizing the traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) by pairing it with hydrogen fuel technology.

This innovative approach seeks to enhance the efficiency and environmental friendliness of ICE vehicles, while simultaneously leveraging the existing automotive infrastructure.

The core of Toyota's strategy lies in adapting ICEs to run on hydrogen and synthetic fuels. Unlike electric vehicles (EVs), which require a complete overhaul of the vehicle's propulsion system, Toyota's approach allows for the modification of existing ICEs to utilize hydrogen as a fuel source. This could significantly reduce the carbon footprint of these vehicles, as hydrogen combustion produces water vapor instead of carbon dioxide.

One of the major advantages of this strategy is its potential to extend the life of current ICE vehicles.

Rather than relegating them to the scrap heap in favor of EVs, these vehicles could be retrofitted or adapted to use hydrogen fuel.

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This not only reduces waste but also provides a more accessible and potentially cost-effective path to cleaner transportation for millions of vehicle owners.

However, the success of this approach hinges on several factors. The production and distribution of hydrogen fuel must become more widespread and efficient.

Currently, most of the hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, but for Toyota's this brilliant strategy is genuinely sustainable, it would need to rely on green hydrogen, produced using renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the development of a reliable and accessible hydrogen refueling infrastructure is crucial to support these adapted vehicles.

Toyota's initiative could be a game-changer in the automotive industry. It challenges the current narrative that EVs are the only path forward for green transportation.

By offering an alternative that upgrades existing technology rather than replacing it entirely, Toyota might slow the progression of EVs, presenting a more gradual and extremely more practical transition to sustainable transportation.

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world's first h2 mix nat-gas turbine On October 23, 2023, a paper packaging plan in Saillatsur-Vienne in France hosted the project's first testing.

The turbine can be powered by H2 or natural gas, or by a mix of the two.

The EU Horizon 2020 program provides money to the European collaboration working on the HYFLEXPOWER project.

Its objective is to show how renewable hydrogen gas may be used as a dependable, clean energy source for producing heat or power, as well as how many applications it can serve.

The paper packaging plant located in Saillat-sur-Vienne, which is owned by a leading corrugated packaging, containerboard, and "bag in a box" company in Europe, served as the test site.

An SGT-400 industrial gas turbine from Siemens Energy, modified to run on up to 100% H2, is housed in that factory.

In 2022, a mixture of natural and hydrogen gas was utilized in the initial test.

Natural gas made up the remaining portion at that point, with H2 making up 30%. In the most recent test, low emissions technology was used in conjunction with Page | 197

100 percent H2. The test proved that existing power plants can be converted to use H2 without sacrificing performance or efficiency, and it was declared successful.

The HYFLEXPOWER initiative is making significant progress toward an H2 economy, according to Karim Amin, an executive board member of Siemens Energy.

Amin continued, "The test shows how businesses can use their current fleets of turbines in their transition toward using H2 to reduce carbon emissions."

Amin also emphasized the efficiency with which electrolysis, storage, and hydrogen gas conversion can be combined at one site, indicating that they can advance in expanding the results.

Siemens Energy, Centrax, ENGIE Solutions, Arttic, the German Aerospace Center (DLR), and four European universities make up the cooperation.

By expanding the project's scope, the project partners hope to concentrate on industrial heat production and explore opportunities for scaling up the technology's commercialization.

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h2 fuel cells new catalyst goes mainstream.

Researchers at Cornell University have discovered a family of nonprecious metal compounds that have the potential to catalyze fuel cell reactions almost as effectively as platinum, but at a tenth of the cost.

This research increases the likelihood that hydrogen fuel cells may be used to efficiently and with minimal greenhouse gas emissions power cars, generators, and even spacecraft.

These less priced metals will enable wider deployment of hydrogen fuel cells, according to Héctor D. Abruña, Professor in the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology at Cornell College of Arts and Sciences.

"They will push us away from fossil fuels and toward renewable energy sources."

As long as combustion engines rule the streets and fill the sky with pollution, it is difficult to imagine a sustainable future for transportation Hydrogen fuel cells, which convert hydrogen straight into electricity using only water and a small quantity of heat as byproducts, are a promising alternative to fossil fuels.

The oxygen reduction process (ORR), dubbed " is a crucial part of the fuel cell despite its infamously poor Page | 199

speed. Typically, to expedite this process, platinum and other precious metals are utilized.

Because it can readily catalyze even the most temperamental processes, transport electricity, and endure the harsh, acidic conditions inherent in fuel cells, platinum is a model catalyst. However, the price can be prohibitive.

However, the current rise in popularity of more tolerant alkaline fuel cells raises the possibility that platinum could be replaced in these gentler, nextgeneration fuel cells by less expensive metals that were previously overlooked because of their sensitivity to acidic environments.

Abruña and his team wanted to develop a cheap material that could be used in an alkaline fuel cell that could conduct electricity and catalyze the ORR reaction just as well as platinum could.

Transition metal nitrides (TMNs) are an obvious substitute, Cobalt, manganese, iron, and other transition metals combine to form a class of materials known as transition metal oxides (TMNs).

In addition to being electrically conductive, TMNs create an outer shell made mostly of oxygen when they come into contact with air, making them perfect for catalyzing chemical processes.

Following the creation of a family of TMNs including conductive nitride cores and reactive oxide shells, the Page | 200

team tested each possible catalyst in a model hydrogen fuel cell.Applicants having prior experience with manganese and iron did well.

But Abruña claimed that the cobalt nitride catalyst was "the clear winner," with nearly the same efficiency as platinum at a 475-times cheaper cost.

These financial reductions could ultimately be the difference between hydrogen fuel cells becoming practicable and widely deployed.

If fuel cells were inexpensive, they could replace car batteries and internal combustion engines with a sustainable alternative that requires as little as 10% of the energy to run and doesn't require recharging as long as it is supplied a steady supply of hydrogen.

On the other hand, a typical car engine wastes over 75% of its energy.

"Hydrogen fuel cells are enormously powerful, enabling you to run at an efficiency that simply does not exist for more traditional engines," he stated. "The best solution is fuel cells, as the general public knows.

The key lies in developing catalysts that are robust enough and affordable enough to make all of this possible.

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Norway SOLID HYDROGEN BREAKTHROUGH Solid hydrogen, essentially the hydrogen element in its solid state, forms under extremely cold conditions, specifically below -259.14 °C. The first successful collection of solid hydrogen was achieved by James Dewar in 1899.

Notably light with a density of 0.086 g/cm3, solid hydrogen stands as one of the lightest solids known.

Under varying conditions of low temperatures and high pressures, hydrogen exhibits several solid phases, each characterized by the behavior and arrangement of H2 molecules.

These phases include Phase I with freely moving H2 molecules at low pressures, Phase II where movement is more restricted, Phase III emerging around 160 GPa of pressure, and Phase IV appearing at temperatures of a few hundred Kelvin and pressures over 220 GPa. Each phase reflects a unique molecular arrangement of hydrogen, demonstrating its complex behavior under different environmental conditions.

All this being clarified what is the end usage?

A Norwegian business called “Photoncycle” is working on interseason solar energy storage, which might allow the surplus solar energy produced in the summer to be stored and used for electricity and heating in the winter.

According to the business, solid hydrogen holds the key to bringing the solution to market in a few of years.

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They created a revolutionary solar energy storage device.

Today the apparatus is a thick piece of Styrofoam encased in a copper cylinder.

The cylinder's proprietary solid hydrogen solution is said to be more effective at storing energy than liquid hydrogen without leaks or explosion risks.

Currently housed in in the Oslo Science Park, the copper cylinder energy storage device is barely bigger than a chair.

A larger model of the cylinder, measuring about three cubic meters, is supposed to be installed by the corporation in the ground a short distance from residential properties.

The system will receive electricity from nearby buildings' rooftop solar panels, which will be stored in the prototype.

The electricity grid will purchase any extra energy.

Bjørn Brandtzaeg, the founder of Photoncycle, notes that only approximately half of the solar energy produced in the summer is used due to a lack of storage.

The value of the remaining 50% is decreasing because, once manufactured, it will essentially be discarded or reduced.

You really have a chance to make an impact if you can store that excess and release it in the winter or during times when there is a significant need for energy, To create solid hydrogen, they are specifically locking up the H2 molecules.

In order to develop a nonflammable solution that minimizes excessive energy loss during the conversion process, they are essentially locking up the hydrogen molecules in a solid .And supporting a fuel cell that can produce hydrogen and electricity in the same cell by using a reversible, highPage | 203

temperature fuel cell.Since there is no need to cool the hydrogen due to its solid state, it is non-flammable and has a higher density than a lithium-ion battery However solar energy storage device loses heat as a result of cycling hydrogen in and out of the fuel cell become one of its main problem.

One solution will be to collect it and utilize it to heat houses.

Since approximately 70% of a family's energy needs are related to heating, it is thought that the excess heat might efficiently give energy to a household..

Photoncycle claims that the system, which incorporates solar panels is installed in 48 hours can replace natural gas in a combined heat and power system with sustainable energy when it is connected directly to the existing infrastructure.

First live test of its solid hydrogen solar energy storage device is planned in Denmark.

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FLASH JOULE HEATING FOR GRAPHENE The promise of graphene, a material consisting of carbon atoms packed in a honeycomb lattice and only one atom thick, has been highlighted in recent studies.

This has raised hopes for the creation of an effective solid-state hydrogen storage device .

Higher specific surface area, more active microbeelectrode-electrolyte interaction, and improved electron transfer efficiency are some of the ways that graphene-based anodes can improve the performance of microbial fuel cells 2.

Scientists devised a unique, scalable method to create graphene, which they then used to develop hydrogen fuel cell catalysts, according to a paper published in the journal Nanoscale.

The new graphene-based catalyst that the research team developed matched the performance of commercially available catalysts while being more durable .

Another study claims that the minute ripples on the surface of graphene allow it to split hydrogen 100 times more effectively than any other known chemical catalyst.

It might be applied to improve numerous industrial processes and create hydrogen fuel cells with greater efficiency.

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The creation of graphene from different carbon-based materials, such as carbon black and plastic waste, is one of the most notable uses of FLASH Joule heating.

These materials are heated to extremely high temperatures during the process, which causes graphene flakes to form.

This process is thought to be more ecologically friendly and efficient than the conventional techniques for producing graphene.

Beyond the creation of graphene, the possibility of FLASH Joule heating in hydrogen applications is being investigated.

This entails applying the method to speed up the disintegration of organic compounds or water molecules in order to produce hydrogen gas.

This method's high temperatures can effectively propel chemical reactions that yield hydrogen, potentially opening up a new avenue for the production of hydrogen.

There are numerous benefits of FLASH Joule heating.

It's a procedure that uses less energy than conventional heating methods since it can quickly and efficiently transfer a significant amount of energy to a substance.

In industrial applications where time efficiency is critical, this fast processing capabilities is essential.

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Furthermore, because the process is fast and regulated, materials may be treated more consistently, which helps to achieve homogenous material qualities.

Scientists are investigating the potential uses of Joule heating in a variety of sectors. This method offers a fascinating prospect in the context of producing hydrogen. Its potential to transform hydrogen generation The method's capacity to quickly and effectively process materials may open the door to more economical and environmentally friendly ways of producing hydrogen, which would greatly advance the field of green energy technologies.

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Waste plastic into H2 A dual hydrogen-sourced fuel cell system is being pioneered by the Tokyo Institute of Technology's , Research and Education Consortium in partnership with the Tokyo Tech Academy of Energy and Informatics.

This 100 kW system is designed to combine green hydrogen produced from photovoltaic energy with hydrogen made from recycled plastic waste.

It is presently in the trial phase and will supply thermal energy to industrial infrastructures through the Tokyo Tech Environmental Energy Innovation (EEI) building.

The group created a prototype fuel cell that uses two different sources of hydrogen to generate energy. While waste plastic hydrogen is produced by pyrolyzing plastic trash, green hydrogen is obtained from photovoltaic (PV) arrays.

This dual-source strategy is distinct and demonstrates the system's ability to produce hydrogen by combining recyclable materials and renewable energy sources.

With a 100 kW output, this innovative system is not only designed for commercial and industrial use but also sets a global standard for combining hydrogen from wastederived and renewable sources.

Combining this mixed hydrogen supply into a fuel cell and then connecting it to an air specific conduit is an example Page | 208

of a sophisticated use of combined thermal and electrical power generation.

The ultimate goal of the effort is to solidify a citywide hydrogen energy model that balances localized hydrogen consumption with more expansive energy matrix.

Toshiba uses its own H2Rex platform, power the fuel cell technology. A solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell stack that forms the basis of the invention eliminates the need for additional humidification equipment.

This solid polymer fuel cell, which is highly regarded for its ability to produce energy, is distinguished by its agility in load tracking and quick power output modulation.

Toshiba boasts a five-minute starting time, signaling the system's rapid operational readiness.

The successful integration of green hydrogen and waste plastic hydrogen in the demonstration to run a fuel cell system might potentially revolutionize sustainable energy applications, especially given the possibility of replication and scalability in various metropolitan environments.

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STORAGE IN DISK INNOVATION A breakthrough in hydrogen storage technology has been achieved by a French research group, promising to revolutionize the industry with enhanced safety and efficiency.

The team has introduced an innovative solid storage solution that simplifies the transportation of hydrogen, a critical element in the transition towards sustainable energy sources.

The group's collective expertise in physics and engineering has culminated in the creation of a novel hydrogen storage process.

This process involves a compact disc form, which is not only safer but also more energy-efficient compared to conventional gas or liquid storage methods.

The disc's resilience against pressure-related hazards marks a significant advancement in hydrogen storage safety protocols.

Daniel Fruchart, a prominent member of the research team, highlights the system's security, noting its operation at low pressures that mitigate the risks of explosive reactions.

"The disc's stability in atmospheric conditions—being inert when placed on a table in contact with air— underscores its safety," he explains.

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This stability is crucial for long-term storage applications, as the researchers have ascertained that the disc retains its integrity over possibly 20 years without any loss of performance.

The core of this project lies in its pioneering approach to hydrogen storage. Safety is paramount, considering the anticipated lifespan of the device extends beyond two decades.

The research not only paves the way for safer hydrogen storage but also contributes to the longevity and reliability of hydrogen-based systems.

At the heart of the storage disc is magnesium hydride (MgH2), a compound known for its high hydrogen content and potential for reversible storage.

The team enhances the compound with expanded graphite, an addition that plays a crucial role in thermal management during the release of hydrogen.

The admixture is then subjected to mechanical compression, forming a dense, transportable disc that stands as a testament to the innovative strides made in the field.

The practical applications of such a storage medium are extensive.

By reducing the energy input required for hydrogen storage and ensuring the safety of transportation, the French group's invention has the potential to become a cornerstone in the infrastructure of hydrogen fuel.

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It could significantly impact various industries, including automotive and aerospace, where the demand for efficient and safe energy carriers is everincreasing.

In essence, the French research team's work represents a remarkable leap forward in hydrogen storage solutions.

Their novel disc-shaped storage system not only addresses safety concerns but also offers a more energy-efficient and durable alternative to traditional methods, cementing their role as forerunners in the evolution of hydrogen energy utilization.

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Atmospheric air harvesting Scientists at EPFL (the Federal Polytechnic School of Lausanne) have created a solar-powered apparatus that collects water from the surrounding air and transforms it into hydrogen.

Research from EPFL outlines a novel strategy for developing materials that could effectively create hydrogen gas from sunlight and water.

Making a transparent and porous substrate (TPCS) is at the heart of it all. A layer of FTO (fluoride tin oxide), which aids in electrical conductivity, is applied to the fused SiO2 wool fibers after they have been heated to a high temperature (1350 °C).

A material that is semi-transparent, conductive, and extremely porous (with a porosity of 90%) is produced by this technique.

Effectiveness of the substrate depends on its porosity.

Poor connection caused by improper fusion of these fibers has a negative impact on the performance of the substrate.

Additionally, because of the substrate's porosity, semiconductors like Cu SC (Copper Thiocyanate) a substance commonly employed in optoelectronic devicescan be deposited uniformly.

Chemical bath deposition, electrodeposition, and dip coating were some of the techniques used to accomplish this operation.

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They measured the creation of hydrogen with different efficiency under diverse conditions, including "in the dark" and under illumination.

The fact that hydrogen gas was still created in the "dark" scenario—where there was no sunlight—shows that the device is functional.

But in the presence of light, the rate of hydrogen synthesis was much higher.

Because of greater resistance, the researchers found that the gas phase produced hydrogen at a slower rate than the liquid phase. Poor proton transport was blamed for this increased resistance.

Proton transport and overall performance may be enhanced by pre-coating an ionomer layer on the TPCS surface, according to the team.

Even with increased resistance, the research revealed that employing TPCS substrates in the gas phase produced encouraging outcomes, and the continuous production of hydrogen solidified TPCS as a suitable substrate for further study and development of gasphase PEC conversions.

This approach could be developed further as an idea for PEC conversions thanks to the TPCS. The translucent, porous, and conductive gas diffusion electrodes are the invention, to sum up.

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An encouraging start is this solar technology that converts atmospheric water into hydrogen.

With its current performance still "modest," the scientists now plan to optimize their prototype. In doing so, the best materials to use will be chosen, along with the optimal size of the fibers and pores from gaseous state to hydrogen.

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Burning H2 to Produce Heat at 700°C. Star Scientific (Australia) discovers a novel way to burn hydrogen and turn it into heat. The method can be immediately used to heavy industry or transformed into electricity to be used in nearly any kind of electrical application.

They discovered a catalyst that promotes the formation of water from the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen gases, which generates a lot of heat.

It is possible to heat houses and offices to any desired temperature up to 700C. However, it can also turn water into steam to power electricity-generating turbines.

Similar steps take place as in a coal-fired power plant, with the exception that substantial carbon emissions are released when the coal combusts. According to Star Scientific, replacing a coal-fired boiler in an existing power station with a HERO process would reduce emissions in this instance.

There won't be any carbon emissions during the process if the incoming hydrogen is green hydrogen.

However, the inefficient process of electrolyzing water into hydrogen and oxygen will have required a significant amount of energy.

Since blue hydrogen is produced together with CO2, which must be removed from the system through Page | 216

carbon capture and storage (CCS), the full-life benefit of HERO is unclear if the inflow is blue hydrogen.

How do HERO and a hydrogen fuel cell compare?

Although heat is rarely used, fuel cells may generate both electricity and heat. Furthermore, hard-to-abate sectors—where HERO should have an advantage— generally have too little electrical power (around 9%).

According to Rystad Energy, electrification using batteries can address the remaining 15% of industry, known as industry combustion. This should present prospects for fuel cells and HERO. However, a fuel cell's efficiency—65%—is comparatively higher than that of a coal-fired power station, which is 34%.

For its uses, HERO's efficiency will be essential. Once HERO's functionality, affordability, and longevity are proven,it ought to be able to supply electricity or heat for a variety of applications, including transportation, home and business building heating, and potentially reversible grid systems.

Star Scientific is optimistic about HERO. "A cement plant, for example, might be fired using hydrogen due to its high heat-generating capacity. It can also be used in other difficult-to-decarbonize industries, such as long-haul transportation or other heavy industrial operations that require immense heat or electricity that today generally come from fossil fuels.

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semiconductors PROCESS for H2 batteries Utilizing semiconductor manufacturing technologies, researchers at the Korea Institute of Science and technologies (KIST) have discovered a way to enhance the efficiency of hydrogen fuel cells.

Basics: The process of oxygen in the air reacting with electrons and hydrogen ions produces electrical energy in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC).

The use of a catalyst is o based on rare and costly elements like platinum. Logically the quest for less expensive alternatives is necessary to democratize hydrogen-powered technology.

Spraying of nanoparticles The scientists at KIST have discovered a workable solutions suggesting to utilize technology for semiconductor fabrication.

In practical terms, this means creating metal nanoparticles by the use of a physical spraying technique.. T raditional methods are very costly and add to the overall cost of fuel cells over their lifespan. In part because developing methods to handle them has detrimental effects on both humans and the environment.

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Plasma and glucose The creation of a substrate known as "glucose" is the foundation of the technology proposed by Kist researchers. Using an ionized gas plasma, nanoparticles derived from the desired materials will be applied to this support.

Within the fuel cells, the vaporized metal particles condense into an extremely thin layer that acts as a catalyst.

A technique that would allow researchers to surpass the limitations of the present chemical synthesis methods, and which they believe is far easier.

Potential mixtures of materials Not only can a wider range of materials be used, but this new technique also offers up the option of blending different elements together.

The researchers mixed platinum with cobalt and vanadium nanoparticles to develop a catalyst that combined three elements.

This made it possible for them to realize that hydrogen fuel cells may function considerably better when using such alloys.

The novel catalyst's activity was three times better than that of a platinum-cobalt mixture and seven times higher than that of a platinum base.

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Their research also showed that by employing computer support to optimize the platinum-oxygen bond energy, vanadium might enhance the catalyst's performance in every scenario.

By utilizing alloy nanoparticles with novel architectures, they want to create advance carbon-neutral technologies. which has proven challenging to apply thus far.

This development will contribute to the development of hydrogen fuel cells under a new format using semiconductors manufacturing contribution.

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NEW LIQUID ORGANIC HYDROGEN CARRIER

The collaboration between Schaeffler, a German automotive and industrial supplier, and the Helmholtz Institute Erlangen-Nuremberg for Renewable Energies (HIERN) is charting a new path in hydrogen energy applications combined with Hydrogenious company LOHC Technologies The partnership focuses on the development of a pioneering hydrogen fuel cell technology that leverages Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHCs).

This innovative approach seeks to redefine the traditional methods of hydrogen utilization in fuel cells for generating power, specifically targeting the pain points associated with gaseous hydrogen handling.

Daniel Teichmann, CEO of Hydrogenious, has remarked on the transformative potential of this technology.

By employing LOHC in fuel cells, it becomes feasible to bypass the complexities and safety concerns of gasphase hydrogen.

This advancement is particularly advantageous for mobile and stationary energy consumers who seek a more cost-effective and secure energy supply solution.

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Hydrogenious' unique process involves the utilization of benzyltoluene as the main LOHC. Benzyltoluene is an oil-like organic substance that has the capacity to chemically bind hydrogen.

This binding enables hydrogen to be transported safely and efficiently at ambient conditions, without the need for high-pressure storage or cryogenic temperatures.

This method eliminates the presence of molecular hydrogen within the fuel cell or the supply chain, significantly enhancing safety and efficiency.

LOHC technology's most compelling feature is its sustainability. The liquid carrier used in this process is not a single-use entity but can be recycled and reused multiple times.

This attribute aligns with global sustainability goals and offers an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional energy resources.

Schaeffler's role in this venture is particularly crucial as they spearhead the development of the specialized fuel cell technology necessary for the direct use of LOHC-bound hydrogen.

To achieve this, Schaeffler, in collaboration with HIERN, is pioneering modifications in fuel cell designs to accommodate the unique properties of LOHCs. This strategic alliance is not just about creating a novel product; it represents a shift towards a more sustainable and safe hydrogen economy.

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The implications of such a development are farreaching, offering a glimpse into a future where hydrogen could become the cornerstone of clean energy systems, with applications ranging from powering vehicles to supplying grid energy.

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MOFs: for solid electrolyte materials.

By using new ionic metal-organic framework (MOF) materials to increase the efficiency of hydrogen fuel cells, a group of researchers connected to UNIST (ULSAN national university south korea) has made a significant advancement in the field of hydrogen research.

What are Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) with Ionic Ions?

A subclass of metal-organic frameworks known as ionic MOFs has ionic bonding as a structural component.

They consist of organic ligands joined to metal ions or clusters to form a one-, two-, or three-dimensional structure.

Why are MOFs employed?

MOFs' high porosity and ability to modify their chemical activity allow for a wide range of applications.

Drug delivery, separation and catalysis, gas storage, and sensor applications are a few of the main applications.

Which products include molecular oxygen fragments?

MOFs are employed in certain industrial processes and research environments rather than in common things.

For instance, they are present in some carbon capture Page | 224

or hydrogen storage systems. In the creation of several cutting-edge medical procedures, they are also employed.

What goes into making MOFs? Metal ions react with organic ligands in an appropriate solvent to create MOFs. This creates a regularstructured crystalline substance. The final MOF's characteristics can be controlled by selecting different metal ions and ligands.

The novel method dramatically improves conductivity.

The UNIST Department of Chemistry's Professor Myoung Soo Lah headed the research team that used MOFs to create solid electrolyte materials. This particular accomplishment in hydrogen research is noteworthy because the new ionic MOF materials greatly increase the conductivity of hydrogen ions in the solid electrolyte used in hydrogen fuel cells.

As a Nafion substitute, MOFs were the main focus of the hydrogen research.

Nafion is currently primarily used by proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells as an electrolyte material.

High hydrogen ion conductivity is combined with thermal, mechanical, and chemical stability in nafion.

On the other hand, PEM fuel cells that use Nafion face difficulties with restricted temperature range operation and unclear performance augmentation processes.

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With this in mind, the hydrogen research team concentrated on MOFs as possible substitutes for Nafion. Ionic metal-organic frameworks are composed of organic ligands connecting metal clusters to generate a porous structure. MOFs exhibit remarkable qualities in terms of chemical and thermal stability.

Additionally, MOFs feature pores that vary in size when they are produced. By adding guest molecules via these channels, materials with high hydrogen ion conductivity can be developed.

The researchers created two different forms of MOFs, MOF-808 and MIL-101, by adding guest molecules of zwitterionic sulfamic acid, an amphoteric ionic chemical with low acidity and both positive and negative charges.

A useful medium for transporting hydrogen ions is sulphamic acid, which has good hydrogen bonding capacity in a variety of forms.

Through increasing the concentration of sulfamic acid in the MOFs pores, the research team was able to create materials with high hydrogen ion conductivity (up to 10-1 Scm-1).

Furthermore, the materials demonstrated outstanding endurance over the course of the long time that they retained hydrogen ion conductivity.

This discovery has the potential to speed up worldwide decarbonization efforts.

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MOFS are ionic materials with various benefits, and their use in fuel cell applications is becoming more and more popular.

The results of hydrogen researcj have the potential to significantly improve the efficiency and performance of hydrogen fuel cells by utilizing MOFs. The advancement of sustainable energy solutions in line with international efforts to decarbonize is accelerated by this scientific discovery.

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HUC: ENZYME MIRACLE An enzyme that takes hydrogen from the atmosphere and turns it into electricity has been created and studied by researchers at the Monash University Biomedicine Discovery Institute in Melbourne, Australia.

A hydrogen-consuming enzyme present in the common soil “bacterium Mycobacterium smegmatis” makes it possible to harvest hydrogen directly from the atmosphere, despite the fact that it may sound miraculous.

The enzyme known as HUC can take atmospheric H2 and converting it into sustainable energy.

The Australian scientists' hydrogen research explained how the bacteria were able to use atmospheric hydrogen as a power source, even though they were aware that many bacteria could do so even in the absence of nutrients.

It has long been understood that bacteria, particularly those that inhabit Antarctic soils, volcanic craters, and the deep ocean, may use trace hydrogen in the atmosphere as an energy source to support their growth and survival.

But up until recently, we had no idea how they did it.

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In more technical terms Bacteria use atmospheric hydrogen (H2) as a source of energy for growth and survival.

They accomplish this by oxidizing atmospheric H2, a process that is mostly managed by unidentified members of the [NiFe] hydrogenase superfamily.

This oxidation process is highly difficult catalytically because it entails oxidizing very small amounts of H2 in the presence of oxygen (O2), a known catalytic toxin.

Mycobacterium smegmatis contains the bacterial enzyme huc, which is able to help with this issue.

The extremely efficient, oxygen-insensitive enzyme huc is linked to the hydrogenation of the respiratory electron transporter menaquinone by the oxidation of ambient H2.

This is achieved by selectively attaching atmospheric H2 through tiny, hydrophobic gas channels while screening out O2. Furthermore, it contains three [3Fe– 4S] clusters that alter the properties of the enzyme and enable the energetic oxidation of ambient H2.

An octameric 833 kDa complex composed of the Huc enzyme's catalytic subunits around a membraneassociated stalk transports and reduces menaquinone.

Between this chemical and the membrane, there are 94 Å.

Besides providing a way for bacteria to get energy from ambient H2, this technique reveals a kind of energy Page | 229

coupling that is dependent on long-range quinone transport.

This method is interesting because it provides information on how to make catalysts that can oxidize H2 in ambient air and because it has ecological and biogeochemical relevance.

Huc is capable of converting minute amounts of hydrogen into electric currents and, once purified, storing it for extraordinarily extended periods of time Researchers focusing on issues connected to hydrogen.

Doctoral candidate Ashleigh Kropp notes, "It is remarkably stable." It is possible to freeze or heat the enzyme to 80 degrees Celsius without affecting its ability to generate energy.

This demonstrates how this enzyme helps bacteria survive in the most unfavorable environments.

The hydrogen study findings are all the more surprising in light of the fact that the bacteria that makes the enzyme can be cultured in large quantities.

As such, it is an extremely sustainable resource.

Finding a natural source of electricity that doesn't need burning fossil fuels or adding to the already excessive air pollution that is aggravating the climate crisis is hopeful, even though study on this topic is still in its early phases.

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Sun to H2: from Lab to 1 m2 panel From a lab to a 1 m2 panel, Sun Hydrogen's green hydrogen technology reach first scale. Sun Hydrogen Inc., a developer of cutting-edge green hydrogen technology that cr eates renewable H2 from solar and water, is well-positioned to scale its technology from lab-scale to a 1m² Panel.

The Sun Hydrogen panel consists of several energyproducing cells encased in a water-immersed housing for numerous hydrogen generators.

The company has made headway with the hydrogen generator and device housing for the hydrogen panel, according to Dr. Syed Mubeen, Chief Scientific Officer.

The primary component of the company's technology is the hydrogen generator included in the green hydrogen panel. Each of the generator's component parts has made the following progress: Substrate including ion-transport channels and protective layers: SunHydrogen has proven that its substrates can be manufactured at both the 25 cm² and 100 cm² scales. Based on their success, the business is working to scale up production even further in order to fulfill the substrate needs for a 1 m2 SunHydrogen Panel.

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The company plans to introduce and exhibit its technology in a number of pilot projects, and reaching this scale is crucial since it represents the commercially important dimension.

Nanoparticle-based semiconducting layers: A dual junction configuration of two semiconductors is found in the center of the green hydrogen generator. At the 100 cm² scale, They continuously achieved photovoltaics of 1.8 volts, 1.5 times higher than the required photovoltaics for water-splitting. "Even with possible voltage losses, this achievement guarantees optimal performance and efficiency," adds Mubeen.

We have also shown single-junction photocurrent densities of eighteen milliamperes per square centimeter.

They aim to evaluate and optimize possible catalysts for the evolution of hydrogen and oxygen, specifically for oxidation and reduction processes.

A group from the University of Michigan, under the direction of Dr. Nirala Singh, is essential to these initiatives.

In addition to working on enhancing stability, the team created an effective catalyst for the synthesis of hydrogen.

The University team and the company's cooperation has "yielded exciting progress in the exploration of Page | 232

potential membranelles operation" of the technology.

The advancement in question holds promise for significant cost savings on panels, potentially reaching 8–10%.

According to Mubeen, "we plan to complete these designs by early 2024, opening the door for the implementation of pilot-scale projects that demonstrate the first wireless green hydrogen production using affordable semiconductors in the world."

Going forward, the team is committed to determining the most effective way to commercially develop its green hydrogen technology based on nanoparticles.

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Chicken Feathers FOR Better H2 Fuel Cells How to transform one of the main waste products from agriculture into a renewable energy source.The most common vertebrate to have ever walked the Earth is the chicken, with a population of well over 30 billion.

Feathers from chickens are one of the most significant byproducts of the poultry industry, as 9 billion of these birds are killed annually in the United States for their meat.

An estimated 40 billion tons of feathers are burned annually in various parts of the world, further exacerbating the climate emergency.

Fortunately, a group of scientists from Nanyang Technological University Singapore (NTU) and ETH Zurich discovered a revolutionary concept.

Because of their high volume, low cost, renewability, biodegradability, and inherent material qualities, biobased industrial byproducts present an alluring option with significant potential for value addition.

The recycling of discarded industrial chicken feathers into proton-conductive membranes for watersplitting, fuel cell, and protonic transistor applications with a rapid and cost-effective method used to separate keratin from chicken feathers.

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Amyloid fibrils were then created by heat treatment, and membranes with an added proton conductivity of 6.3 mS cm–1by a straightforward oxidative process.

By putting the membranes together it create a hydrogen fuel cell that can provide 25 mW cm–2 of power density to run a variety of devices utilizing hydrogen and air as fuel, the membranes' functioning is shown.

Furthermore, these membranes were employed in protonic field-effect transistors as thin-film modulators of protonic conductivity via the electrostatic gating effect and in the production of hydrogen through water splitting.

The novel procedure turns the natural keratin—the material that makes also your hair and nails—found in chicken feathers into incredibly thin strands called "amyloid fibrils."

Hydrogen fuel cells operate fundamentally by dividing the protons and electrons of hydrogen molecules, a process made feasible by the amyloid membrane.

Positively charged protons are forced to move through these fibrils while negatively charged electrons are forced to go from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, creating an electric current (as well as excess heat).

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There are significant cost advantages to using featherderived keratin as opposed to conventional "forever chemicals. " One square meter of membrane, or around the thickness of a human hair, is estimated by scientists to require 100 grams of feathers; this alone makes the cost of these keratin-infused membranes three times lower than that of traditional procedures.

The environmental cost of electrolysis—the process of splitting water to produce hydrogen fuel—can also be decreased with the use of these membranes. This is crucial since we need to reduce the initial cost and environmental impact.

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H2 FROM SEA WATER Researchers from Nanjing Tech University in China have made a significant breakthrough in the field of hydrogen production, developing an innovative electrolyzer that efficiently extracts hydrogen from seawater.

This technology addresses the major challenge of freshwater scarcity by utilizing the abundant seawater resource.

Unlike traditional methods that required energyintensive desalination, this new process uses a compact 11-cell electrolyzer box to separate seawater from a concentrated potassium hydroxide electrolyte with PTFE-based membranes.

These membranes prevent liquid water but allow water vapor to pass through, leading to spontaneous evaporation of seawater.

The electrolyzer operated effectively for over 3,200 hours (approximately 133 days) without showing signs of corrosion or a decrease in performance, which are common issues in existing seawater electrolysis technologies.

This efficiency is attributed to the vapor pressure difference created by the system, allowing pure water to evaporate from the seawater, cross the membrane,

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and absorb into the electrolyte as a liquid, while blocking harmful ions.

In terms of output, the test unit produced about 386 liters of hydrogen gas per hour, demonstrating its potential for scalability and practical application.

The electrolyzer operated with about 71% efficiency, a rate comparable to current technologies.

Furthermore, this system shows promise for lithium extraction from seawater, a vital resource for battery technology.

After several hours of operation, the team observed a significant increase in the concentration of lithium, indicating the potential for dual-purpose use of the technology.

This development not only offers a sustainable approach to hydrogen production but also opens avenues for lithium recovery and environmental conservation, marking a significant stride in renewable energy technology.

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PHOTO-ELECTRODES NEW ADVANCE FOR H2 Under the direction of University Professor Charles Cornet, a CNRS team is leading the development of a photo-electrode at the Optical Functions Institute for Information Technologies (FOTON Institute, CNRS/INSA Rennes) with the goal of using solar energy to electrolyze hydrogen.

Their work represents a major advancement in photoelectrochemical technology, and they closely collaborate with the Institute of Chemical Sciences of Rennes (ISCR-CNRS).

By using solar energy directly for hydrogen synthesis, the team's creative method gets beyond the traditional solar panel and electrolyzer configuration.

The exorbitant cost of conventional electrodes, which are frequently dependent on pricey materials like platinum, is the driving force behind this change.

Rather than using solar panels, the researchers are concentrating on developing photoelectrodes that can be submerged in water and directly harness sun radiation to produce electrical charges. In the aquatic environment, these charges help water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen.

The streamlining of the hydrogen production pathway is one of the main advantages of this direct procedure.

The tiny layer of III-V semiconductor, which is wellPage | 239

known for its exceptional light absorption capabilities, has been cleverly combined by the researchers with a thick layer of silicon, which is widely available and reasonably priced.

Early findings show that silicon-based photoelectrodes function exceptionally well, which is an important sign of the process's scalability.

Thanks to the cheap cost of materials, the investigation of single photoelectrodes, such as photoanodes or photocathodes, has produced encouraging results thus far.

Under the France 2030 investment plan for Priority Research Programs and Equipment (PEPR) centered on decarbonized hydrogen, the next phase is building a demonstrator with money from the NAUTILUS project.

The development of this demonstrator, which is scheduled to begin in January 2023, will combine photoanodes and photocathodes into a single cell that can produce hydrogen when exposed to sunlight.

The technology's commercial potential will be determined mostly by the demonstrator's effectiveness.

The process of developing photo-electro-chemical solar cells is not without its difficulties; one major issue is corrosion from submersion in water.

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In order to address this, the research includes techniques to lessen these hazards, such as covering the cells with a thin layer of protection, albeit this could lead to decreased efficiency.

In order to strike a balance between performance and durability, the team is now optimizing.

The product's lifetime, performance, and costeffectiveness will ultimately determine how successful this project is.

In order to enable the industrial use of their photoelectrodes, the ultimate objective is to reach an efficiency level that justifies the cost of hydrogen.

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GERMANS: Back to the caverns!

The KRUH2 German project, headed by the energy corporation Uniper, aims to test a full chain of green hydrogen generation, storage, and usage in an actual environment by taking advantage of cavern storage.

Uniper Energy Storage specializes in salt caverns. In Germany, Austria, and the UK, the energy company's affiliate has more than 7.5 billion cubic meters of usable gas storage capacity.

They claims that the KRUH2 pilot project is a first for the world: it is the first industrial testing of hydrogen storage in salt cavities.

The goal of this demonstrator is to gather informative data on the whole value chain, but it's also important to advance knowledge about how to store gas and how materials and equipment that come into contact with it react. .

The pressure that will be maintained at Krummhoern, in northern Germany, to keep the gas contained in salt caverns is presently unknown. It generally doesn't go over 200 bars in this kind of situation, a figure that represent electrolyzer’s output.

An entire ecosystem ought to be developed around a former natural gas storage facility, which the energy firm hasn't utilized for business purposes since 2017.

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There is talk of using green hydrogen produced by an electrolyser to power a mobile refueling station, generate heat and energy when needed, inject some of it into the gas network, and transport it by truck to businesses to meet their demands.

The project's ability to rely on an existing salt cavern storage location is one of its strong aspects. Other than the fact that natural gas is currently a good fit. For hydrogen, it must therefore be transformed. We'll build a new cavity based on an existing well.

Testing this reservoir and monitoring the behavior of each component will be the first phase of this project.

Prior to implementing this approach more widely and going into pilot operation in a real-world setting, they have to show that they are compatible with hydrogen.

It's also anticipated that liquid hydrogen with a local origin but an external source might be added to the loop.

All of this calls for a variety of auxiliary infrastructure especially for the liquefaction and purification of hydrogen. The site is expected to be commissioned in 2024

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SOUND WAVES INCREASE EFFICIENCY 14 TIMES

Australian Researchers (RMIT University) have developed a groundbreaking method that significantly boosts green hydrogen production using highfrequency hybrid sound waves.

This innovative approach, operating at 10 MHz, enhances hydrogen evolution reactions (HER) in neutral electrolytes, which have historically been challenging mediums for efficient hydrogen production.

This method addresses several limitations of current electrolyzer technologies, such as the requirement for highly corrosive electrolytes and the reliance on expensive electrocatalysts.

The key to this advancement lies in the use of intense local electromechanical coupling caused by acousticforcing.

This interaction disrupts the tetrahedrally-coordinated hydrogen bond network of water molecules at the electrode–electrolyte interface.

This disruption results in a higher concentration of "free" water molecules, which can more readily interact with catalytic sites on unmodified polycrystalline electrodes.

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The presence of these free water molecules enhances the HER process.

Additionally, the sound waves introduce several synergistic effects, including the generation of hydronium ions, easing of diffusion mass transfer limitations through convective relaxation, and the prevention and removal of bubble build-up on the electrode.

These effects collectively contribute to a significant overpotential reduction of 1.4 V at a current density of −100 mA cm−2.

This corresponds to a remarkable 14-fold increase in current density and a net-positive energy saving of 27.3%.

The breakthrough, achieved by researchers at RMIT University in Australia, presents a scalable platform for improving the efficiency of green hydrogen production.

One of the most notable advantages of this technology is its ability to eliminate the need for corrosive electrolytes and expensive electrocatalysts like platinum or iridium.

Since water is non-corrosive, cheaper electrode materials like silver can be used, significantly reducing production costs.

The electrical output of the electrolysis process with sound waves is approximately 14 times greater than that of traditional electrolysis for a given input voltage.

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However, integrating this sound-wave innovation with current electrolyzer systems to upscale the technology remains a challenge that the team is actively working to address.

This integration is crucial for translating this laboratory-scale success into a viable, large-scale green hydrogen production solution.

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Part 5

OPINION

reality check – facts & FIGURES – realism

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EU Needs Billions for H2 AVIATION, Between 2025 and 2050, Europe would need to invest €299 billion ($320 billion) in building the hydrogen supply chain required for the continent to shift to green hydrogen aircraft.

The majority of the costs will go into producing, liquefying, and distributing green hydrogen. The study calculated that in 2035, the high cost of the H2 conversion would make hydrogen planes 8% more expensive than conventional jet-fueled aircraft, unless kerosene was taxed.

Nevertheless, the analysis discovered that running hydrogen-fueled aircraft may be 2% less expensive if jet fuel was taxed in addition to the imposition of a price on carbon emissions.

The price of carbon is currently just about €85 per tonne. By 2035, the study projected a carbon price of €127 per ton of carbon dioxide.

The Transport & Environment group based its calculations for a tax on the current ideas put forth by the European Commission, even though kerosene taxes have not yet been established. According to the findings, a liter would cost about €0.37 in taxes. The cost of a liter of jet fuel is currently about €0.55.

Taxation, in Airbus's opinion, is not the best way to commercialize hydrogen aircraft. By 2035, the world's Page | 248

biggest aircraft manufacturer hopes to have hydrogenpowered aircraft in the air.

Airbus, however, stated that "taxation is not the solution to get there," despite its commitment to launching the first H2 commercial aircraft by 2035, according to a Financial Times report.

According to Airbus, "market-based measures, carbon pricing, and incentives that encourage infrastructure and technology investment provide a more costefficient way to deliver the necessary reduction in aviation emissions."

But according to Carlos López de la Osa, aviation technical manager at Transport & Environment, in order for Airbus to "walk the talk," a market for zeroemission aircraft must be established "by taxing fossil jet fuel and mandating zero-emission planes in the future."

Aviation is one of the hardest industry to decarbonize due to issues like battery technology not being developed sufficiently to power airplanes beyond short distances and the difficulties and expenses involved in developing and integrating hydrogen technologies in aircrafts.

In summary, the analysis of the study indicates that in order to replace conventional fossil fuel-powered aircrafts in Europe in the future with hydrogen jets, a tax on traditional jet fuels and an investment of €299 billion will be required.

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H2 EUROPE POLICY REALITY CHECK It's time to face facts about how difficult the hydrogen sector is in Europe. The EU's target of producing and importing 20 million tonnes of clean hydrogen by 2030 is now mostly regarded as utterly impossible. However, with a good dose of realism, we can truly get the H2 sector off the ground.

The EU must drastically scale back its goals if it hopes to see hydrogen become widely used. The generation of renewable hydrogen would need to expand eighty times in order to meet even the more realistic four million tonne target.

Politicians don't seem to care about the gap between hype and reality. Hydrogen was the topic of choice for Ursula von der Leyen and Maros Šefčovič, her new Green Deal chief, in their first significant industry interaction.

It is minuscule in comparison to the steel, automobile, wind, or chemical industries. But the hydrogen lobby is the best at selling visions of all industries.

The problem is, if we don't make a shift in direction, the hydrogen dream will turn into a costly nightmare.Over one terawatt of electrolyser capacity is theoretically available in a vast worldwide "project pipeline.

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" But financing for hydrogen initiatives is a mere 4%.

This occurs as a result of the lack of a viable market for clean hydrogen.

Just 4% of projects involving hydrogen are funded. This is a result of the lack of a viable market for clean hydrogen.

An excellent example are trucks. In 2030, European trucks might receive renewable hydrogen delivery for €7/kg, according to the International Council on Clean Transportation.

In comparison to diesel trucks, which cost €0.31 and electric trucks, which cost €0.18, this comes into energy expenses of €0.45 per km.

Europe may see a slight decrease in the price of hydrogen, which is currently at least €12/kg. The Boston Consulting Group raised its earlier estimates of €3/kg to €5-8/kg for 2030.

It would be necessary to manufacture truly inexpensive hydrogen outside of Europe, in locations like Namibia where it may cost up to €2/kg.

Namibia must convert hydrogen into a fuel that can be shipped by ship, like ammonia, before it can be exported.

The economic viability of converting green ammonia back into hydrogen and pipe it throughout Europe is questionable. However, green ammonia can be used in place of grey ammonia (for fertiliser, for example) or Page | 251

power ships, as the massive Belgian maritime companies CMB and Exmar intend.

In any case, the cost of green hydrogen will not decrease relative to that of fossil fuels or direct electrification. True for trucks, but it also holds true for other things like steel, chemicals, and airplanes.

Therefore, using a combination of requirements and incentives is the only way to get renewable hydrogen onto the market.It's shockingly easy to move forward.

Our priorities should be low-infrastructure, no-regrets hydrogen applications.

The RED III requirements for ammonia fertilizer and refining, the e-kerosene mandate for aviation (ReFuelEU), and the ammonia and methanol targets for shipping (FuelEU and RED III) are precisely the sectors where EU lawmakers have established the most significant regulated lead markets in the world.

In 2030, four million tons of renewable hydrogen will be required by these key markets combined.

That would necessitate an eighty-fold increase in green hydrogen generation (as opposed to the extremely low amounts that exist now). If the hydrogen business is to expand after 2030, it must succeed in these markets.

Additionally, there is no need for extra infrastructure in these markets. Derivatives like methanol, e-kerosene, and ammonia are easier to carry, in contrast to compressed or liquid hydrogen.

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More help is warranted because an 80-fold growth in six years is a significant task. Nowadays, few consumers of hydrogen (such as airlines and ship owners) are prepared to enter into long-term agreements with manufacturers, even in the face of EU directives.

Producers cannot build the electrolysis and synthesis units without bank loans in the absence of offtake agreements. This obstacle may be removed with the use of low-interest loans, government guarantees, and other assistance.

It is not appropriate for us to relax the sustainability standards for hydrogen produced from natural gas.

The climatic impact of blue hydrogen has the potential to be as severe as that of fossil fuels, thus stringent regulations on methane slip and carbon capture rates will be necessary to guarantee that blue hydrogen achieves the EU's 70–80% reduction threshold in practical applications.

The public should have a reasonable expectation if a significant amount of public and private funding is allocated towards hydrogen.

Another thing we should avoid doing is getting carried away with hydrogen utopias.

In the meantime, heavy industry finds it difficult to justify the use of hydrogen.Thus, for the time being, there is no reason to spend between €80 and €140

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billion on a "hydrogen" backbone that will mostly carry fossil gas.

Less is more in the case of hydrogen. There is a potential that Europe's lawmakers can decarbonize challenging industries like shipping and aviation if they resist the urge to believe in the hydrogen miracle for everything. We can truly launch the hydrogen sector with a sobering reality check.

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REALITY CHECK ON PROJECTS This decade, hydrogen developers backed off from ambitious plans. Numerous issues prevent final investment decisions on H2 at scale from being made.

Large-scale green hydrogen projects, ranging from 100 megawatts to gigawatts, are frequently hailed as crucial for reducing emissions and, because to economies of scale, bringing down the molecule's overall cost.

This month, the International Energy Agency (IEA) predicted that to maintain emissions reductions consistent with net zero emissions by 2050, H2 use would need to reach 150 million tons annually by 2030, with 40% coming from new industries including steel, shipping, and aviation.

However, the firms behind gigawatt-scale projects point out that given the costs and schedules associated with development, it will be impossible to reach even a portion of this aim with green hydrogen.

"I have hope for the future and the efforts being made.

We could achieve our goal, but it would require a time travel," remarked CWP CEO Alex Hewitt during a panel discussion on a rather more modest goal of producing 100 million tons of hydrogen annually. "To be at this exact point, we would have to travel back ten years."

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He cited as an example the 25GW Australian Renewable Energy Hub of his company, in which BP acquired a 40% share last yeaIt would be the biggest power project on Earth if it were constructed now.

When fully constructed, it [will] produce 1.8 million tons annually, according to Hewitt. "It's a $40 billion project, so it will take about $2.5 trillion to reach 100 [million tons] by 2030."

He continued by saying that 1.5–1.8TW of upstream renewable energy will also be needed. We have just six years, and the size is simply astounding. That's the reason I say it's not possible; it's not that we shouldn't try, but these large projects have ten-year lead times, which include four years of building and six years of development.

Ames Henry, chief commercial officer for power-to-X at Ørsted in Denmark, contended that the industry was being held back by the abundance of project announcements, many of which had hazy business cases and overly optimistic claims of inexpensive hydrogen.

"We've actually taken the unconventional approach at Ørsted in the last six months, really looking to slim down our pipeline," he said.

The developer is currently moving forward with "what we believe to be truly the strongest projects," he said.

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of the opportunity that we see in this market, it can actually be quite distracting, quite overwhelming, when prioritizing allocation of capital and human resource," he said.

Ames Henry, chief commercial officer for power-to-X at Ørsted in Denmark, contended that the industry was being held back by the abundance of project announcements, many of which had hazy business cases and overly optimistic claims of inexpensive hydrogen. «We’ve actually taken the unconventional approach at Ørsted in the last six months, really looking to slim down our pipeline," he said.

The developer is currently moving forward with "what we believe to be truly the strongest projects," he said.

"We have been developing projects across products and across markets, and frankly, because of the scale of the opportunity that we see in this market, it can actually be quite distracting, quite overwhelming, when prioritizing allocation of capital and human resource," he said.

"We went from a pipeline of hundreds of projects, to call it 'natural selection' in the current environment of projects that we think right now are bankable for us," stated Pierre-Germain Marlier, investment director of hydrogen-focused fund Hy24, in agreement.

Henry pointed out that without looking for loans, Ørsted had already made the final investment decision (FID) on a 50,000-ton-per-year e-methanol facility in Page | 257

Denmark. "We believe it is our duty to demonstrate the viability of this idea before we approach the banks to intervene and share that risk with us."

"The cacophony is ineffective," he went on. We have a lot of initiatives vying for the attention of investors, regulators, and off takers, and we effectively cannibalize one another, according to my cautious estimate that just 5% of projects that are announced will ever be carried out.

"I would advise [banks] to keep simply saying no." And the reason for that, in my opinion, is that the sector need discipline.

We spoke to a lot of very serious developers, wellknown companies, and reputable organizations, and they make what we believe to be very bold claims about the availability and cost. I honestly think that an actual reality check would be beneficial in clearing up some of the industry's noise, since projects are being pushed to clients and creating inflated expectations about cost. This vicious cycle is further exacerbated by that The fact that projects require long-term offtake agreements to reassure banks about their ability to make money during debt repayment is one aspect of the issue, but due to the high cost of low-carbon H2, customers have been hesitant to sign contracts for Felipe Arbelaez, senior vice president for hydrogen and carbon capture and storage (CCS) at oil firm BP, stated Page | 258

on a panel at the conference that "there are starting to be use cases where it's viable to use low-carbon hydrogen... refining, for example." With the correct legal structure and mandates in place "However, those are not universally applicable, and it is evident that the end uses of hydrogen that we currently believe to exist are not economically viable."

Senior vice president for low-carbon solutions at Equinor, a Norwegian energy business, Grete Tveit, urged developers to broaden the range of potential clients they serve.

She stated, "[Large] projects need to find a different hydrogen market than what we have had for the past 10, 20, and 50 years," pointing out that hard-to-abate industries like shipping and steel might emerge as new sources of demand for significant amounts of H2.

She issued a warning, saying that the sector "is not there yet to enter into long-term contracts for clean hydrogen" and that this is because "they need to retrofit their processes and they need to take really heavy investments" in new industries.

But Marlier also pointed out that if project developers incorporate more of the value chain into their operations, green steel is a simpler way for them to get paid. He used H2 Green Steel as an example, where earlier this month Hy24 led an equity investment

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"Banks have shown them a lot of interest and have committed to helping them acquire project finance. He added, "It's not only a hydrogen project, it's a hydrogen project with green iron and green steel. The way they did this is by integrating pieces of the value chain," noting that these are "easier to sell to end-customers."

He went on, "Maybe tomorrow, when we have pipelines and hydrogen is a globally traded commodity, it will be different, but today, in fact, they've been able to de-risk the project even though they increased the capex. They've integrated and turned the hydrogen into something more tradeable."

However, Henry also brought up the point that when it comes to getting supplies to customers, there is no space for the initial ventures to fail.

"It better show up if you own a shipping firm and need that gasoline to power your ship. These initial projects must be successful because if they aren't, you won't put your trust in bigger orders from the larger projects," he stated.

Regulations, which bind end users to legally reducing their emissions, were also mentioned as a major motivator for them to commit to amounts of clean H2.

Aminta Hall, the team lead for hydrogen project partnerships at Uniper, a German energy firm, cautioned that there is still some uncertainty around the legal requirements surrounding the RED III

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standards, which include 42.5% of industrial H2 use being renewable.

"The customer won't proceed unless he has to, regardless of the incentive or the law," the speaker stated. "So the legislation needs to be stronger and clear, I think, no room for interpretation."

Developers present at the conference contended that the Delegated Acts, which restrict the renewable power sources that an electrolyser can use, are partially to blame for the high cost of manufacturing green hydrogen in the EU or to fulfill European demand. This implies that up until 2030, hydrogen production must occur in the same month as the corresponding amount of renewable electricity is produced. It is planned to transition to hourly matching after 2030, which some in the industry believe may raise the H2's ultimate cost.

According to Arbelaez, this telegraphed transition makes it more difficult for projects to be planned so that businesses may accept FID on behalf of themselves and their investors.

He stated, "It won't help your final investment decision if you're creating a business model, and you have a project that by definition will have a long payback if you have to completely restructure how you set up the energy system around it in the middle of that project."

The idea that you might need to redraw the business plan in years five or seven of the project—when you

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haven't recouped your entire investment—terrifies all of the company boards.

The initiatives that we are considering are large-scale, involving hundreds of millions of dollars each. We're going to require more than 100MW, not 5MW or 10MW, he continued, adding that it is challenging to "write the cheque" when commercial arrangements must be changed toward the end of a project's lifespan

By July 1st, 2028, the European Commission is scheduled to report to the rest of the EU on the effects of the Delegated Acts. This report may lead to a reconsideration of regulations such hourly matching of hydrogen production and renewable power generation, before they take effect in 2030.

However, the sector also points out that even though Europe provides substantial subsidies, grant giving delays and some conditions are actively preventing projects from proceeding.

As Benjamin Haycraft, executive vice president for EMEA at US-based green hydrogen technology company Plug Power, put it, "What we see is that initially the subsidies — because of the huge amounts of capital that were announced available for subsidies — attracted a lot of initial capital, project development, initiatives and things like that, so initially it was actually very virtuous and very positive."

These days, we see some fully engineered projects where the investment decision has already been made.

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However, in order to receive subsidies, you have to demonstrate to the EU, the member state, or any other relevant party that you essentially have a funding gap.

He stated, "You don't get a subsidy if there isn't a funding shortfall.

This leaves projects in limbo that would otherwise be prepared to take FID except for the announcement that they will get a subsidy It wouldn't be too big of a concern if gaining access took two or three months, but more frequently than not, it takes one or more years. The majority of developers will be aware, if you applied for the Innovation Fund, that your chances of being accepted are significantly higher the second time around than they are the first, Haycraft continued.

"I do believe that there are a lot of inefficiencies in the way the subsidies are currently structured since it is so complicated and twisted. Hundreds of megawatts are in my advanced pipeline, but if they receive confirmation of subsidies tomorrow, they could become backlogged.

And after seeing the apartment for a few months, almost a year, I realize that something is definitely off.

The European Hydrogen Bank pilot auction, which gives fixed premiums of up to €4.5/kg to bridge the difference between green and grey H2 prices, is scheduled to begin by the European Commission.

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Nevertheless, several developers complain that a restriction against requesting capital expenditure help will make many of their projects ineligible.

"It's great that the European Hydrogen Bank is finally coming, but if you read the terms, it says you can't apply if you've applied for or are applying for other subsidies," Hall added.

Projects now need "a large amount of funding at the moment because the price is very high," she continued, therefore the business must piece together various subsidies to cover a portion of the development or capital expenditures. "The only way to bring these projects to life is to gather funding."

Hall argued that rather than absolute restrictions on subsidies, there should be percentage ceilings. "We cannot have those kinds of conditions on that kind of funding, that you cannot apply if you have applied to other," Hall said.

Speakers concurred that projects still run the risk of experiencing significant equipment delays even in the event that subsidies, rules, offtakers, and financing align.According to Chris Gill, a senior vice president for global hydrogen at Worley, "the supply chain is already significantly challenged today."

He continued by saying that this is true not only for electrolysers but for every piece of equipment used in a green hydrogen facility, including downstream

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processing, electrical equipment, and upstream renewable energy sources.

According to Gill, ordering a high-voltage transformer will likely need an 18-month wait.

He clarified that this might necessitate adopting innovative approaches to project development, such as eschewing the conventional design-then-bid process in favor of early supplier engagement to identify possible bottlenecks.

Beyond this, though, it remains unclear which kinds of equipment will win out in the end. Henry stated, "There will need to be a race to determine which technology is the optimal technology that we as an industry are going to support and manufacture at scale."

It was also important to note that projects must ultimately function as intended and be able to be managed in a way that facilitates cost savings. "In the end, you can only reach the scale that the customer requires with those cost reductions.

It is considered that China have already 30 % of Electrolyser market share. How fast will they grow to try -as usual- to dominate the market?

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Headwinds and Tailwinds Hydrogen, the very latest game-changer in the clean energy sector, faces a blend of significant challenges and promising opportunities.

3 Headwinds Production Challenges: The majority of hydrogen is currently produced using steam methane reforming, a process dependent on fossil fuels, thereby generating significant carbon emissions. Shifting to greener methods like water electrolysis requires substantial energy, often sourced from non-renewable power.

Storage and Distribution Complexities: Hydrogen's low energy density necessitates high-pressure compression or cryogenic liquefaction for efficient storage and transport. These methods are energyintensive, raising costs and environmental concerns.

Additionally, the absence of a comprehensive hydrogen distribution infrastructure hinders its widespread use.

Economic Viability: The cost of hydrogen production, storage, and transportation remains a significant barrier. While technological advancements are driving costs down, hydrogen still struggles to compete economically with established fossil fuels and other renewable energy sources, impeding its market penetration.

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3 Tailwinds Fuel Cell Technology Advancements: Hydrogen fuel cells, offering a clean and efficient way to convert hydrogen into electricity, are gaining traction in both transportation and stationary power applications. They emit only water vapor, making them environmentally friendly.

Integration with Renewable Energy: Hydrogen is an excellent medium for storing excess energy from renewable sources like solar and wind. It can serve as a buffer to balance supply and demand in the energy grid, facilitating the transition to renewable energy systems.

Decarbonizing Industrial Processes: Hydrogen has the potential to revolutionize industries by replacing fossil fuels in processes such as steel manufacturing and chemical production. This shift can significantly reduce industrial carbon emissions, aiding global decarbonization efforts.

Hydrogen energy, at the crossroads of technological innovation and environmental imperatives, faces significant headwinds in terms of production, storage, and economic viability.

Nonetheless, the tailwinds propelled by advancements in technology and the urgent need for sustainable energy solutions paint a promising future for hydrogen's role in the global energy landscape.

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Accelerationism VS REACTIONARY FUTURISM A dispute rages in the center of Silicon Valley, the tech region renowned for its inventive spirit. The philosophy that will shape our technological future is the subject of this discussion, not any technology. Accelerationism and Reactionary Futurism are two prominent philosophies that offer different perspectives on the place of technology in society.

Accelerationism is an ideology that promotes rapid advancements in technology and changes in society. It urges accepting and accelerating technological innovation to bring about major societal evolution.

It comes from a complex blend of tech culture and philosophy. Prominent members of the IT community have espoused this philosophy, seeing quick innovation as a driving force behind advancement.

Accelerationism promotes a "move fast and break things" mentality in Silicon Valley and has an impact on investment tactics, business structures, and general cultural attitude.

Nonetheless, it is criticized for possibly ignoring societal effects and moral issues in the haste to advance.

Reactionary Futurism conversely promotes a more circumspect or traditional strategy. This philosophy encourages consideration of the effects of technical Page | 268

breakthroughs in response to the perceived irresponsibility of unbridled technological expansion.

Though less common in Silicon Valley, reactionary futurism has its supporters, including tech executives and intellectuals who support a more restrained, moral approach to innovation.

They stress the importance of taking into account the long-term social effects and moral ramifications of technology.

This concept influences innovative tactics and decisionmaking in the tech industry, encouraging a more socially conscious and sustainable path forward. Its detractors contend that it might stifle creativity and postpone important technical advancements.

There is a clear difference between these two beliefs.

While Reactionary Futurism warns against the possible dangers of this rapid change and advocates for a more measured course, Accelerationism pushes for a future in which technology swiftly transforms our reality. Both have the same objective—a better future through technology—despite their basic differences. However, they have different ideas about how to get there and what part technology should play in our daily lives.

Silicon Valley's future is significantly affected by these divergent ideologies. Their impact extends to how

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investors finance startups, how businesses innovate, and how the general public views technology.

The argument between Reactionary Futurism and Accelerationism highlights more general issues about innovation, morality, the influence on society, and economic expansion in the technological period.

The choices made in Silicon Valley at this juncture of conflicting ideologies will influence not only the direction of technology but also the future of society at large.

In summary, the argument in Silicon Valley between Reactionary Futurism and Accelerationism transcends beyond scholarly discourse. It's a critical analysis of how technology affects us and how it will shape the future. The stances taken by both ideologies will continue to shape our understanding of this intricate and dynamic field and how technology develops and affects society.

The theories of Accelerationism and Reactionary Futurism present opposing strategies for development and application in the field of hydrogen technology as we are going to discuss now.

Hydrogen Technologies and Accelerationism: Hydrogen technologies are seen by proponents of accelerator capitalism in Silicon Valley and elsewhere as a game-changing invention that is essential for addressing pressing issues like climate change.

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This viewpoint fuels a fervent push for these technologies' quick development and implementation.

Advocates favoring a rapid integration of hydrogen into a variety of industries, including transportation, energy, and manufacturing, would probably back vigorous investment in research and development.

The accelerationist approach emphasizes the need for speed and creativity, frequently placing potential and development ahead of caution.

According to them, adopting hydrogen technology quickly is not only advantageous but also essential for a sustainable future. This haste, nevertheless, can occasionally result in the neglect of slower, more deliberate methods that guarantee all possible dangers and effects are carefully taken into account.

Hydrogen Technologies and Reactionary Futurism: Conversely, Reactionary Futurism takes a more controlled and circumspect approach to hydrogen technologies. Scholars espousing this ideology would underscore the significance of conducting extensive research to gain a complete understanding of the safety, economic feasibility, and environmental effects of hydrogen as a fuel source.

They support a methodical, phased approach to implementation, guaranteeing morally sound, sustainable, and responsible integration into industry and society. Reactionary futurists may advocate for moderation and caution against leaping to conclusions Page | 271

without sufficient knowledge or planning, which could result in missing important details or upsetting established systems.

Regarding the development of hydrogen technology, both reactionism and accelerationism offer insightful viewpoints. In industries that are changing quickly and when addressing global concerns, the former fosters a push for innovation and rapid acceptance.

The latter ensures that the integration of such technologies is done in a way that is long-term safe, morally sound, and sustainable by providing a cautious and risk-aware approach.

In the end, a well-rounded approach may be the most successful one for developing hydrogen technology.

This would entail combining the analytical thought, exhaustive investigation, and risk assessment that characterize Reactionary Futurism with the inventive spirit and urgency promoted by Accelerationism.

This Tech “philosophy” guarantees that hydrogen technology may be created and applied in a way that is efficient, ethical, and sustainable, meeting society's short- and long-term objectives.

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PART 6

CONCLUSION

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As we draw this exploration of hydrogen's role in our sustainable future to a close, it's an opportune moment to pause and reflect.

Throughout this edition, we've navigated the complex terrain of hydrogen technology, from its groundbreaking applications in transportation to its potential in reshaping our energy landscape.

Our journey has been one of discovery and discernment, seeking to unravel the intricate tapestry of facts, potentials, and misconceptions surrounding this promising yet often misunderstood element.

Now, I turn to you, our readers. Have you found the answers to your questions within these pages?

Did our reality check narrative equip you with a clearer lens to distinguish fact from fiction in the realm of hydrogen technology?

It is my hope that this edition has not only enlightened but also provoked thought, challenging preconceived notions and sparking curiosity.

In our quest to present a balanced and comprehensive view, we've delved into both Page | 274

the bright prospects and the daunting challenges of hydrogen.

We've seen how hydrogen, in its purest form, offers a tantalizing vision of an emission-free future, yet we've also confronted the hurdles in its production, storage, and distribution.

The path to a hydrogen-driven future is not straightforward or without obstacles. It demands innovation, investment, and a collective commitment to navigating its complexities.

The narrative is more than a mere compilation of facts; it's a tapestry of possibilities and responsibilities. As we stand at this crossroads, the decisions we make today will shape the sustainability of our tomorrow.

Hydrogen, with all its potential, is not a silver bullet but a significant piece of a larger puzzle in our quest for a greener future.

In conclusion, this book is an invitation to continue the conversation, to engage in the discourse, and to be active participants in the unfolding story of hydrogen.

Whether we've dispelled myths, reinforced truths, or opened new avenues of inquiry, our Page | 275

goal has been to empower you with knowledge and perspective.

As you turn the final page, remember that the journey doesn't end here. Let the insights gained fuel your conversations, inform your decisions, and inspire your actions.

Together, let's embrace the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead in our collective pursuit of a more sustainable, hydrogenfueled world.

In light of the sobering reality check, pragmatic financial discussions, potential explosion, and terrifying atmospheric leaks.

I continue to believe that thousands of researchers working diligently on H2 will give us the hedge against the “usual suspect competitor” eager to devour all of our opportunities to create new, ground-breaking products.

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SOURCES H2 Specialized newsletters h2-international.com h2-mobile.fr hydrogenfuelnews.com mission-hydrogen.com hydrogenwire.com hydrogeninsight.com hydrogeneuroperesearch.eu h2bulletin.com hydrogennewsletter.com h2-view.com modernhydrogen.com ……………………………………………………………………………………

Phys.org scientificamerican.com Theconversation.com nature.com Spectra.mhi.com oilprice.com neozone.org usinenouvelle.com rechargenews.com jpt.spe.org reneweconomy.com bloomberg.com interestingengineering.com euronews.com iaea.org asia.nikkei.com bnef.com

greencarreports.com fuellcellsworks.com women-in-green-hydrogen.net

Qz.com wsj.com

hydrogen.com pv-tech.org newatlas.com techniques-ingenieur.fr courier-international.org wired.com pv-magazine.com air-cosmos.com visualcapitalist.com nationalgrid.com arstechnica.com

eurekalert.com transitionsenergies.com

techcrunch.com ieahydrogen.org globenewswire.com gb.news.com fchea.org

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Books Published by the Author NON FICTION – GEOPOLITICS -La Monnaie Europeenne- Enjeux & reflexions (in 1995) -Histoire de la Construction Europeenne (in 1997) -Afrique du Sud – Le Pari – (in 1997) -Astropolitics – Reality check (For 2024) NON FICTION – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY -Earth Polycrisis – Reality Check (in 2023) -AI 2.0 – Reality Check (in 2023) -Hydrogen 3.0- Reality check (in 2024) -Nuclear Fusion 2.0- Reality check (for 2025) FICTION NOVELS -Resistance – War-Passion-Greece- 1941(in 2022) -Silicon- War Games (in 2023) -First Crime – Mars- Colonies- 2044 (For 2024)

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