The Spectrum of Doubt

The Spectrum of Doubt

Frank Fuentes Current Primary Thesis Advisor | Tim Stenson Former Primary Thesis Advisor | Bruce Abbey Committee Member | Lawrence Davis Committee Member | Elizabeth Kamell

2

TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S 4-9:

CONTENTION

10-17:

ARGUMENT

18-47:

DESIGN PROPOSITION

48-99: DOCUMENTATION: IDENTIFYING THE ESSENCE OF SPIRITUALITY : AN ARCHITECTURAL CATALOGUE VILLAS + PALAZZOS CATHOLIC CHURCHES / RELIGIOUSLY PROGRAMMED BUILDINGS INSTITUTIONS / IRRELIGIOUSLY PROGRAMMED ARCHITECTURE SPIRITUAL ARCHITECTURAL DEVICES : CASE STUDY ANALYSIS SERIES CHAPPELLE NOTRE-DAME-DU-HAUT CHURCH SAINTE-PIERRE CHIESA DI SAN GIOVANNI BATTISTA PANTHEON HAGIA SOPHIA 100-105: BIBLIOGRAPHY

3

Divine Comedy Dante Alighieri Inferno : Canto I Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita mi ritrovai per una selva oscura, ché la diritta via era smarrita.

Ahi quanto a dir qual era è cosa dura esta selva selvaggia e aspra e forte che nel pensier rinova la paura!

Ta n t ’ è a m a r a c h e p o c o è p i ù m o r t e ; ma per trattar del ben ch’i’ vi trovai, dirò de l’altre cose ch’i’ v’ho scorte.

Io non so ben ridir com’ i’ v’intrai, tant’ era pien di sonno a quel punto che la verace via abbandonai.

4

Divine Comedy Dante Alighieri Inferno : Canto I Midway upon the journey of our life I found myself within a forest dark, For the straightforward pathway had been lost.

Ah me! how hard a thing it is to say What was this forest savage, rough, and ster n, W h i c h i n t h e v e r y t h o u g h t r e n e w s t h e f e a r.

So bitter is it, death is little more; But of the good to treat, which there I found, Speak will I of the other things I saw there.

I cannot well repeat how there I entered, So full was I of slumber at the moment I n w h i c h I h a d a b a n d o n e d t h e t r u e w a y.

5

I n t h e m a n n e r o f P o p e S i x t u s V, m y t h e s i s r e o rg a n i z e s a s e c u l a r p r o c e s s i o n f o r A g n o s t i c s i n R o m e . T h i s Agnostic pilgrimage serves as an urban design redevelopment poetically symbolizing the alter native path that Dante could have taken. My thesis project recognizes the connection between the Pincian Hill, the Piazza del Popolo and the Piazza della Liberta as a triptych offering a garden, space, and place. The garden represents awe, the Piazza del Popolo space symbolizes contemplation, and the place serves mysticism.

P R O J E C T I N I T I AT I O N I n C a n t o I o f I n f e r n o i n t h e p o e m , “ C o m e d y, ” i n t h e m i d d l e o f D a n t e ’s j o u r n e y i n l i f e , h e f i n d s h i m s e l f l o s t i n a dark forest, and he cannot find the straight path. He does not remember how he wandered away from his t r u e p a t h t h a t h e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n f o l l o w i n g , b u t n o w i s i n a f e a r f u l p l a c e . H e l o o k s u p f r o m t h e v a l l e y, s e e s the sun shining on the hilltop and proceeds to climb towards the light. But confrontation with a leopard, l i o n , a n d “ s h e - w o l f ” d r i v e s D a n t e b a c k d o w n i n t o t h e d a r k n e s s o f t h e v a l l e y.

As Dante begins to feel hopeless in his unfortunate situation, a strange figure approaches him. Dante then moves forward, seeking help from it, and the figure shows himself to be the poet, his master of inspiration, V i rg i l . V i rg i l i n s t r u c t s D a n t e t o g o a n o t h e r w a y b e c a u s e o f t h e s h e - w o l f a n d c o n f e s s e s t h a t s o m e d a y, “ a marvelous greyhound, whose food is wisdom, love, and courage, will come from the nation between “Feltro a n d F e l t r o , ” a n d s a v e I t a l y, c h a s i n g t h e s h e - w o l f b a c k t o H e l l . ” H e t h e n c o m m a n d s D a n t e t o f o l l o w h i m a n d s e e t h e h o r r i b l e s i g h t s o f t h e d a m n e d i n H e l l , t h e h o p e o f t h o s e d o i n g p e n a n c e i n P u rg a t o r y, a n d i f h e s o d e s i r e s , t h e r e a l m o f t h e b l e s s e d i n P a r a d i s e . D a n t e r e a d i l y a g r e e s , a n d t h e t w o p o e t s b e g i n t h e i r l o n g j o u r n e y.

U l t i m a t e l y, i t w a s D a n t e ’s c o n s c i o u s d e c i s i o n t o s e e k s a l v a t i o n . T h r o u g h o u t t h e p o e m , D a n t e i s a d v o c a t i n g a s t r i c t a d h e r e n c e t o a m e d i e v a l C a t h o l i c t h e o l o g y. T h e t h e o l o g y i n s i s t s t h a t m a n m u s t s t r i v e f o r r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d m o r a l i t y. I n s h o r t , t h e c y c l e a n d t h e d a i l y a f f a i r s f r o m s i m p l y l i v i n g w o u l d g r a d u a l l y c h a n g e a m a n t o w a r d s l e t h a rg y, s t r a y i n g h i m f r o m t h e s t r i c t p a t h s o f m o r a l i t y, a c c o r d i n g t o C a t h o l i c i s m . A m a n c a n f i n d h i m s e l f i n t h e d a r k w o o d s , i f e a c h o f h i s t h o u g h t s a r e n o t d e v o t e d t o m o r a l i t y.

Dante was spiritually lost and had only two options to choose from, seek salvation, or seek doubt. His, “Comedy” leads him to seek salvation, but this thesis supposes the alternative pathway - the path of doubt. Instead of seeking salvation, this thesis supposes Dante to continue his journey in the dark wood.

O n e w h o f o l l o w s D a n t e ’s a l t e r n a t e c o u r s e w o u n d s u p j o i n i n g t h e S o c i e t y o f t h e P r e s e r v a t i o n o f D o u b t .

6

C L I E N T : S O C I E T Y O F P R E S E R VAT I O N O F D O U B T The Society of Preservation of Doubt is an informal, yet collective group of individuals who have fallen into the peculiar route of straying away from salvation. Their desire to intentionally not seek Catholicism, nor s a l v a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r a c c e p t a n i h i l i s t i c - l i k e v i e w o f t h e w o r l d ’s s t a t u s l e a d s t h e m t o a d i f f e r e n t u l t i m a t u m an opportunity to rediscover their own senses. The rediscovery of experiencing their senses in a new light, a l l o w s f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l t o s e e k t h e i r o w n p a t h w a y, a n d i n d o i n g s o - e a c h a l l o w h i m s e l f t o r e a c h a s t a t e of transcendence.

T h e S o c i e t y o f P r e s e r v a t i o n o f D o u b t p e r f o r m s i n a m a n n e r u n l i k e f o u n d e r o f t h e S a l v a t i o n A r m y, W i l l i a m B o o t h . M e m b e r s o f t h e S o c i e t y o f P r e s e r v a t i o n o f D o u b t d o n o t p r e a c h a g o s p e l o f J e s u s C h r i s t t o t h e p o o r, t h e h o m e l e s s , t h e h u n g r y, a n d t h e d e s t i t u t e . A s t h e S o c i e t y o f P r e s e r v a t i o n o f D o u b t r e f r a i n s f r o m p r e a c h i n g , a d v e r t i s i n g , a n d c o n v i n c i n g o t h e r s i n t o t h e i r o rg a n i z a t i o n a s t h e S a l v a t i o n A r m y h a s h i s t o r i c a l l y d o n e , t h e r e i s n o f o r m a l d i s a g r e e m e n t i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d o u b t a m o n g s t m e m b e r s o f t h e o rg a n i z a t i o n a n d M e m b e r s o f t h e S o c i e t y o f P r e s e r v a t i o n o f D o u b t , i n s t e a d , c h o o s e t o f o c u s t h e i r e n e rg y i n r e a c h i n g a s t a t e of private transcendence. Thus, there is no conventional ritual to achieve transcendence, unlike in the Abrah a m i c r e l i g i o n s , C h r i s t i a n i t y, J u d a i s m , a n d I s l a m . A n d s o , t o r e a c h a s t a t e o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e , e v e n a s a n agnostic, or one who may identify as irreligious, nonreligious, or nihilistic, a conventional manner has not yet been established.

7

SITE ROME’S URBAN PLANNING: P o p e S i x t u s V w a s b o r n a p e a s a n t o n D e c e m b e r 1 3 , 1 5 2 1 . I n h i s y o u t h , h e j o i n e d a F r a n c i s c a n o r d e r, w h e r e h e d i s p l a y e d h i s t a l e n t s a s a s c h o l a r a n d p r e a c h e r. P o p e P i u s V m a d e h i m c a r d i n a l a n d u l t i m a t e l y s e r v e d a s Pope. Pope Sixtus rooted out corruption and lawlessness across Rome, and is known for as a significant figure of the Counter Reformation. He had a farsighted urban vision for Rome, transforming Rome as capitol from a medieval hodgepodge into a Baroque showplace.

Pope Sixtus laid out a new street plan for Rome, uniting the seven pilgrim churches and other major sites.

These major sites would be punctuated by Egyptian obelisks, that had been brought to Rome by past emperors and He rehabilitated Roman aqueducts and water courses and dotted the city with fountains that l a rg e l y s u r v i v e . T h e r e s u l t w a s t o i m p r o v e l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s , e n c o u r a g e g r o w t h a n d b r e a t h e n e w l i f e i n t o t h e c i t y. I n p a r t , t h e b u i l d i n g c r a z e w a s d r i v e n b y h i s d e s i r e t o r e a s s e r t t h e p o w e r o f t h e P o p e a n d t h e m a j e s t y o f Rome as symbols of church strength in face of the threat of the Reformationists. His urban planning actions invoked a sequential pathway for the pilgrims of the Christian faith.

ENTERING ROME: As one enters through the main gate, the Porto Flaminio; one has all of Rome spread before him. One arrives at the Piazza del Popolo and encounters the tridente. on the left for the Quirinale and Santa Maria Maggiore.

On center down the Strada del Corso to the Capitoline Hill (where the monument of Victor Emmanuel III lies) a n d c i t y c e n t e r. To t h e r i g h t l i e s t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s a n d Va t i c a n . T h e P i a z z a d e l P o p o l o i s m a r k e d b y o n e o f thirteen Egyptian Obelisks in Rome, the Flaminio Obelisk. The seemingly identical churches of Santa Maria in Montesanto and Santa Maria dei Miracoli flank the center road to the Capitoline.

T h e P i a z z a d e l P o p o l o i s a l a rg e u r b a n s q u a r e . I t ’s n a m e m e a n s “ P e o p l e ’s S q u a r e ” b u t h i s t o r i c a l l y d e r i v e s f r o m t h e p o p l a r s p l a n t g e n u s . T h e p i a z z a l i e s i n s i d e o f t h e n o r t h e r n g a t e i n t h e A u r e l i a n Wa l l s , n o w r e f e r r e d to as the Porta del Popolo.

PIAZZA DEL POPOLO: B e t w e e n 1 8 1 1 , a n d 1 8 2 2 a r c h i t e c t G i u s e p p e Va l a d i e r d e s i g n e d t h e l a y o u t o f t h e P i a z z a d e l P o p o l o t o d a y. H e removed a fountain by Giacomo Della Porta, demolished some insignificant buildings to form (2) semicircles, r e m i n i s c e n t o f B e r n i n i ’s p l a n f o r S t . P e t e r ’s S q u a r e . U n l i k e B e r n i n i , Va l a d i e r ’s P i a z z a d e l P o p o l o , i n c o r p o rated trees as a critical element, leading one up to an overlook from the Pincio Gardens.

PINCIO GARDEN DESIGN: Va l a d i e r a l s o d e s i g n e d t h e P i n c i o G a r d e n s f o r m i n g a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e P i a z z a d e l P o p o l o . T h e P i n c i a n H i l l o f A n c i e n t R o m e , o v e r l o o k s t h e s p a c e f r o m t h e e a s t , o f f e r i n g a v i e w t o w a r d s S t . P e t e r ’s B a s i l i c a .

Va l a d i e r e l i m i n a t e d i n f o r m a l l y t e r r a c e d g a r d e n s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e A u g u s t i n i a n m o n a s t e r y. I n i t s p l a c e , Va l a dier designed a series of formal terraces leading up to a triple-arched grotto and ultimately a balustraded lookout at its summit. The layout of the bosquets and trees flank the open space forcing the main perspect i v e w e s t t o w a r d t h e Va t i c a n . T h e P i n c i o ( P i n c i a n H i l l ) s e r v e s a s a l i n k t o t h e V i l l a B o rg h e s e g a r d e n s .

P I A Z Z A D E L L A L I B E R TA : Piazza della Liberta is a square in the rione, Prati in Rome. It is located on the right bank of Tiber river facing the Piazza del Popolo. From it launches the Via Cola di Rienzo, that crosses the rione Prati ending i n P i a z z a R i s o rg i m e n t o . T h e s q u a r e i s a r e c t a n g u l a r l o t , c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o g r e e n a r e a s w i t h f l o w e r b e d s . I t i s surrounded by century old trees, eclectic-style buildings. Nearby monuments include the sacred aedicula ( s m a l l s h r i n e ) p o r t r a y i n g t h e V i rg i n w i t h t h e C h i l e , a m o n u m e n t t o t h e d r a m a t i s t P i e t r o C o s s a a n d C a s a D e ’ Salvi, as well as an apartment house built by Pietro Aschieri in 1930.

8

PROJECT - COMPLEX - DESCRIPTION The home bred Italians residing in Rome spend their days working in cafes, and their nights at restaurants enjoying aperitivi. The international tourists visit Rome for its richness in historic monuments, museums, art pieces, and romantic landscapes. The religiously subscribed and affiliated individuals visit Rome for its Catholic religious power and the architecture that represents it, such as (but not limited to) the seven p i l g r i m a g e c h u r c h e s o f R o m e , m o s t n o t a b l y t h e B a s i l i c a o f S a i n t P e t e r ’s i n t h e Va t i c a n . B u t w h a t a b o u t t h e irreligious? The agnostics in Rome? Where do they go? Given a secular understanding of sacred space, how does one go about designing a place for this unique group in a city dominated by 900 churches, most of w h i c h r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n ? R e c o g n i z i n g a g n o s t i c i s m a s a r e l i g i o n , g i v e n t h e a g n o s t i c ’s g e n eral lack of religious ritual, what type of ritual would best serve their interests?

This project considers a few key figures on-site. The site is located on the Piazza della Liberta, along the T i b e r r i v e r f r o n t a n d i s s u r r o u n d e d i m m e d i a t e l y b y r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s . T h e P o n t e R e g i n a M a rg h e r i t a B r i d g e c u t s d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h t h e s i t e o f f e r i n g a n e n t r y i n t o We s t e r n R o m e .

S e q u e n t i a l l y, a n e x - p r i e s t e n t e r s f r o m t h e w e s t , t h r o u g h t h e h o t e l l o b b y a n d i s e n g a g e d b y t h e a d j a c e n t c o u r t . T h e n e w l y d i s p l a c e d e m b a n k m e n t w a l l f r a m e s t h e T i b e r r i v e r, s i g n a l i n g t h e p r i e s t i n t o t h e p r o j e c t .

The ex-priest may wander to privately contemplate within a viewing pod within the wall. One may continue down under the bridge, confront the wall on the south and enter the second court. Once in the chapel, only t h e e x - p r i e s t s m a y e n t e r t h e t u n n e l t o u l t i m a t e l y a r r i v e a t t h e o s s u a r y. T h e p u b l i c , m a y i n s t e a d e n t e r f r o m the bridge into the north court, and continue down the ramp, concluding with the sub-court.

The displacement of the embankment wall supplements the project. The wall serves to include, expose, neglect, shun, isolate, and celebrate moments within the greater complex: the spectrum of doubt. The wall formally and simultaneously suggests a relationship of unity and of segregation. The wall performs to allow for programmatic spaces within the mass, as well as accessibility into the site. It creates a border between t h e w o r l d i n t h e s h a d o w, a n d t h e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y u s e .

A n E x - p r i e s t m a y p e r u s e t h e i r c o n t e m p l a t i v e t h o u g h t s i n t h e c h a p e l , g a l l e r y o r l i b r a r y. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e conventionally assumed items contained within each of the programmatic components, the gallery contains e p i s o d i c m o m e n t s o f p r a y e r r o o m s a n d r e a d i n g p o d s . W i t h i n t h e l i b r a r y, o n e c o u l d e x p l o r e s m a l l e r s p a c e s for praying and rooms to view artwork. Even the chapel offers false prayer rooms specifically for reading and v i e w i n g a r t w o r k . T h i s r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d m o n a s t e r y c h a l l e n g e s t h e n o t i o n s o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n a n d s p i r i t u a l i t y, d e l i n e a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e p r o j e c t ’s a r c h i t e c t u r e . D o u b t , a s i t s e e m s , i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l v a r y i n g h u e s w i t h i n t h e spectrum. What it means to be within a reading room within the chapel suggests entirely a different meani n g t h a n w h a t i t m a y m e a n t o b e w i t h i n a p r a y e r r o o m w i t h i n a g a l l e r y. I t ’s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n i n t e n s e reading and casual praying in a public space versus intense praying and casual reading in a private and transcendent space.

9

10

THESIS ARGUMENT

11

SPECTRUM OF DOUBT Through the eyes of a sacred man, a man who associates himself to the profane would believe that our world is populated with unseen spiritual being(s). When members of a group that share similar ideals or at the very l e a s t i n t e r e s t s r e g a r d i n g a t y p e o f t h e i s m m e e t - t h a t i s w h e n a r e l i g i o n t r u l y l i v e s u p t o i t ’s f u l l p o t e n t i a l .

I f t h e A b r a h a m i c r e l i g i o n s : C h r i s t i a n i t y, J u d a i s m , a n d I s l a m c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a n d c a t e g o r i z e d e a c h a s types of religion since they believe in the existence of a monotheism, that being God - then the same should a p p l y t o a g n o s t i c i s m a n d i g t h e i s m a s r e l i g i o n s , s o l o n g a s m e m b e r s o f t h a t o rg a n i z a t i o n c o m e t o g e t h e r t o share their ideals. But one must also ask a fundamental question regarding a meeting for agnostics and igtheists - why would agnostics and igtheists congregate and/or assemble together in the first place?

Igtheists acknowledge that the existence of God is meaningless, since the term, “God” has no unambiguous d e f i n i t i o n . B e f o r e a n i g t h e i s t c o u l d c o n s i d e r a rg u i n g o n G o d ’s e x i s t e n c e , a n o n - c o n t r o v e r s i a l u n i v e r s a l l y a c cepted definition of god must be accepted. Conventionally the term, “agnosticism” lies in the lack of belief of anything super natural. The very nature of the term, “agnosticism” lies in the specific belief that the truth values certain claims - particularly metaphysical and religious claims such as whether or not God, or the s u p e r n a t u r a l e x i s t - a r e u n k n o w n a n d p e r h a p s u n k n o w a b l e . T h e b e l i e f r e s u l t s i n n o t p o s i n g f o r, n o r a g a i n s t theism, nor atheism. There seems to be no reason to meet since the rules of the religion are blank. As Igtheists can’t acknowledge the term, God to connote its various connotations according to Christians, that being : self-existent, transcendent, immanent, immutable, eter nal, omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient, incorporeal, and one all simultaneously - the term loses its fundamental value and meaning in the countless i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t o t h e i n i t i a l u n i f o r m m e a n i n g . G o d c o u l d b e a n y t h i n g f r o m a d i v i n e p o w e r u rg i n g f o r A b r a h a m t o k i l l h i s s o n i n G o d ’s n a m e t o p r o v e h i s b e l i e f i n h i m ( G e n e s i s 2 2 : 1 4 ) , t o a b u r n i n g b u s h d e m o n s t r a t i n g his being through unconventional manners to Moses (Exodus 3:6).

The very lack of an architectural religious presence for those who subscribe themselves to igtheism and agnosticism in the contemporary urban religious landscape today poses the need for their representation in ways other than non-denominational and secular spaces. Architecture has served since the Paleolithic times, and continues to serve as a medium to express a relationship between religion, or the search of a higher super natural power with a group of individuals in mind.

I contend it is vital to understand the role of architecture that scripts spiritual experiences, in order to anticipate what the implications of such changes will be for those who consider themselves to be irrespective of religion (agnostics). Furthermore, it is my contention that this movement must be realized through an architectural sanctuary that is composed of a spatial manifestation in which it produces a universal setting for contemplation.

12

This thesis contends that architecture has the potential to script a hyper specific spiritual experience catered toward both the individual and the collective. Architecture can invoke an essence of spiritua l i t y r e g a r d l e s s o f o n e ’s o w n a f f i l i a t i o n t o w a r d s r e l i g i o n . I t i s m y c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s p o t e n t i a l f o r design in architecture within agency to perform the thesis, a contemplative space for individuals with o r w i t h o u t a r e l i g i o u s i d e n t i t y. A r c h i t e c t u r e c a n p e r f o r m a s a d e v i c e t o i n v o k e a s e n s e o f s p i r i t u a l i t y in individuals that would not consider themselves neither religious, nor spiritual - by providing a place of awe, contemplation, and mysticism.

The symbolic agendas propelling the architecture will inevitably produce a space that is the consequence o f a d e e p l y l a y e r e d , a n d r i c h c o n t e x t . T h i s s p a c e w i l l s e r v e a s a s a c r e d m a r k e r, b a s e d e x c l u s i v e l y o n t h e b e l i e f t h a t , “ o u r i d e n t i t i e s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g t o a p l a c e ( M a r s h , B e l o n g i n g ) . ” To u n d e rs t a n d o n e ’s o w n i d e n t i t y, o n e m u s t r e c o g n i z e a n d c h a l l e n g e t h e i r o w n a s s u m p t i o n s o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e i n a s a c r e d s p a c e . T h u s , t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e w i l l u l t i m a t e l y s e r v e a s a h i e r o p h a n y, a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e s a c r e d (Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane). It will be a tabula rasa, a clean slate - one that is consecrated through the ritual of the sacred and performs to reach a transcendent state of being.

The challenge then becomes, how does one go about identifying an appropriate secular understanding o f t h e s a c r e d ? A n d u l t i m a t e l y, h o w d o e s o n e g o a b o u t d e s i g n i n g a n a r c h i t e c t u r e t h a t i n v o k e s a n e s sence of spirituality for individuals who don’t affiliate themselves with religion?

For the purpose of this thesis, I will only seek to consider the perspective of the terms: religion, agnost i c i s m , a n d i g t h e i s m f r o m t h e We s t e r n w o r l d a n d i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e s a c r e d , s p i r i t u a l , a n d p r o f a n e .

The architectural catalogue and case studies series contained within this thesis document were carefully selected on a basis of specific elements that when synchronized together in the form of architecture - prod u c e s p a c e s t h a t i n c i t e a n e s s e n c e o f s p i r i t u a l i t y. T h e f o l l o w i n g a r c h i t e c t u r a l s u b j e c t s r e f e r e n c e d i n c l u d e a variety of the following elements. This criteria for objective analysis includes the following elements: p r o p o r t i o n , g e o m e t r y, s y m m e t r y / a s y m m e t r y, a x i a l i t y, c e n t e r i n g / r e c e n t e r i n g , s e q u e n c e / m o v e m e n t , l i g h t , sound, theatrical presentation / stage-setting, structure, rhythm, and subjective / personal observation. The t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s p r o d u c e a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e v i c e s u n i q u e t o e a c h p r o j e c t w i t h r e s p e c t t o h i s t o r y, context, form, and performance on the individual experiencing the architecture. This thesis believes that the synchronization of the elements listed above total to and scripts a spiritual experience provided solely by the spatial manifestation of the architecture alone.

13

ROME Today, Rome is a city composed of over 900 churches, a city synonymous with transcendence, and a city understood as primordially reverent. But, during the Late Hellenistic / Greco-Roman period of 214 BCE, Rome invaded Greece and dissolved the Achaean league. This successful invasion commenced the rise and triumph of the historic Roman empire which would lead it and its associated uniform religion of Christianity to seal the fate for the architecture of the city, ultimately serving as a global sacred marker. One might suppose the evolution of churches in Rome to consist of three significant periods. Each period resulted in architecture that was designed to reflect the ideals of that respective period. These periods include the Romanesque, the Renaissance, and the Baroque period which range from the mid 10th century to the mid 18th century.

ROMANESQUE In the midst of the 10th and 11th century, the First Romanesque period was born. The ideals of this period was characterized in the basilicas of its time. A basilica is a large oblong hall or building with double colonnades and a semicircular apse on the center and end of the axis programmed as a church. The characteristics of these basilicas included large, thick structural walls and a facade which lacked sculptures or any elements of iconography. The interior spaces were profusely painted with frescoes. This treatment to the architecture disallowed any opportunity to showcase a hierophany, a sculpture that signifies a manifestation of the sacred. The “editing-out� of ornament, or architectural decoration on the facade in this period, further demonstrated a connection between the architecture and the ideals of the period, particularly in that to be a part of the Christian religion, one must adhere to choosing a modest, simplistic life - one that does not favor an extravagant lifestyle, for at the end of one’s life, they will ultimately experience the lavish lifestyle they so deserve. In short, indulgence was considered to be a sin and the architecture of the time would have to omit ornament as it too was seen as an delicacy in architecture. One must prove to God that one is willing to humbly accept their life and use it primarily for prayer.

In Rome, the Santa Maria in Cosmedin basilica embodies the ideals of the Romanesque period and functions as a minor basilica. The four major basilicas that serve as the Papal churches were designed during the Romanesque period and they include: San Giovanni in Laterano, San Pietro in Vaticano, San Paolo fuori le Mura, and Santa Maria Maggiore.

14

RENAISSANCE During the 14th, a period referred to as, the Renaissance or, “the re-birth of the arts� was born.

While the period consisted of hyper realistic artistic renderings of iconic and notable leaders in Italy through drawing, painting, and sculpture, the period also gave birth to architecture that reflected the ideals of the period. These Roman churches of the time took an opposition to the attitude of the Romanesque. In place of a modest, naked architectural aesthetic, this period became understood as the rebirth of ancient greek elements. These include the use of peripteral columns, pediments, tympanums, stereobates, stylobates and the capital orders. Some notable examples of these Roman churches include Santa Maria della Pace and San Pietro in Montorio (Tempietto) by architect, Donato Bramante. The use of these elements begin to reinforce the connection between the Christian religion and architecture. By including ornament, and sculptural elements in the facade, the architecture celebrates the religion. Choosing to spend an exorbitant amount of money on the architecture emphasizes the importance of the religion. The architecture thus makes a clear statement, one that chooses to celebrate the architecture and equalize it with the prominence of the religion.

BAROQUE The High Renaissance period in the 17th century served as a transition from the reign of the Renaissance period to the Baroque period. The Baroque period lasted between 1600 and 1700 and is often noted for its exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, and architecture. The Catholic church popularized the movement as a response to the Protestant Reformation. In social economic classes, the aristocracy observed the dramatic style of Baroque architecture as a means of impressing visitors and expressing triumph. Similarly, power and control were other means of expression. The Baroque architectural period had a mission to convince and convert others into Catholicism. The interior spaces of the churches by Francesco Borromini and Gian Lorenzo di Bernini in San Alle Quattro Fontane and Sant’ Andrea al Quirinale respectively performed as architectural propaganda. Their use of light, ornament, proportion, all were choreographed and synchronized to produce a stage-set like architecture, one that would serve its role in convincing the irreligious to join Catholic religion. Baroque palaces were designed around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms that increased in opulence. In short, the Baroque period used extreme drama as a means of affecting the individual to join the Catholic religion.

15

As an opposition to the historic power and contemporary prominence of the Catholic religion in Rome, this thesis supposes an architectural sanctuary, one composed of a spatial manifestation that produces a universal setting for contemplation must be created for those who are irrespective of religion, namely, agnostics.

Historically, Catholics have always had a place to meet, to congregate, and to assemble in the name of religion - but what about agnostics in Rome today? Where should they meet? Why would they meet at all, and in today’s Roman society - what type of architecture could be necessary and respective of the ideals of agnosticism?

16

This thesis incites an an architectural intervention within the urban fabric of Rome.

Architecture has the potential to script a hyper specific spiritual experience catered toward both the individual and the collective. It can produce an essence of spirituality regardless of one’s own affiliation towards religion. It is my contention that, within agency, there is potential for design to perform the thesis, a contemplative space for individuals with or without a religious identity, in a city primarily acknowledged for its religious global prominence.

17

18

DESIGN PROPOSITION

19

20

21

22

PARTI: WALL DISPOSITION

PARTI BUILDING FOOTPRINT

23

24

COMPOSITE DIAGRAM: WALL + BUILDING PARTI

OSSUARY RESTAURANT + BAR HOTEL GALLERY LIBRARY CHAPEL LOOKOUT TOWER GALLERY WITHIN WALL SEQUENCE TO RIVER PROGRAM DIAGRAM

PUBLIC COURTS

25

26

PRIMARY SEQUENCE: (EX-PRIESTS)

SECONDARY SEQUENCE: (PUBLIC)

27

28

MAIN AXIS: GROTTO-POND-CHAPEL-OSSUARY

29

30

SCALE: 1/32”=1’0” ABOVE GRADE SITE PLAN

VIA DEI GRACCHI

UNIT

UNIT

UNIT

UNIT

UNIT

UNIT

MASTER UNIT

UNIT UNIT UNIT

UNIT

PIAZZA DELLA LIBERTA

UNIT UNIT

UNIT

UNIT UNIT

OSSUARY UNIT

UNIT UNIT

UNIT

PUBLIC COURT

UNIT

TIBER RIVER

COLLECTIVE DISCUSSION ROOM

UNIT UNIT

LOOKOUT BRIDGE TOWER

PONTE REGINA MARGHERITA BRIDGE

CHAPEL

LIBRARY

PIAZZA DELLA LIBERTA

SUB - COURT

VIA FEDERICO CESI SCALE: 1/16”=1’0” ABOVE GRADE FLOOR PLAN

31

32

SCALE: 1/32”=1’0” BRIDGE LEVEL SITE PLAN

VIA DEI GRACCHI

BAR / CAFE

GRAND KITCHEN

KITCHEN STORAGE

PIAZZA DELLA LIBERTA

HOTEL LOBBY

GALLERY

OSSUARY

PUBLIC COURT TIBER RIVER

PUBLIC ENTRY INTO PROJECT

PONTE REGINA MARGHERITA BRIDGE

PIAZZA DELLA LIBERTA

SUB - COURT

VIA FEDERICO CESI SCALE: 1/16”=1’0” BRIDGE LEVEL FLOOR PLAN

33

34

SCALE: 1/32”=1’0” BELOW BRIDGE SITE PLAN

PRIVATE VIEWING POD PUBLIC FRAME PRIVATE VIEWING POD PUBLIC FRAME

TIBER RIVER

PRIVATE VIEWING POD PUBLIC FRAME VIEWING POD

SEQUENCE TO SUB-COURT

CHAPEL

LIBRARY

SUB-COURT FOYER

PUBLIC OPEN GALLERY

FORMAL RIVER ENTRY

SCALE: 1/16”=1’0” BELOW BRIDGE FLOOR PLAN

35

EXISTING BRIDGE HOTEL

BAR/CAFE

SUB COURT

CHAPEL

TUNNEL

OSSUARY

SCALE: 1/16”=1’0” COMPLEX SITE SECTION A GROTTO-COURT-CHAPEL-TUNNELOSSUARY

A B

HOTEL LOBBY

HOTEL

BAR/CAFE

SUB COURT

SCALE: 1/16”=1’0” COMPLEX SITE SECTION B SEQUENCE TO SUB-COURT

36

LIBRARY

BRIDGE UNDERWAY

HOTEL LOBBY

OSSUARY

SEQUENCE TO SUB COURT

SCALE: 1/16”=1’0” COMPLEX SITE SECTION C HOTEL-COURT-OSSUARY-ACCESS TO RIVER

C

D

HOTEL LOBBY WALL FRAMING TIBER RIVER

SCALE: 1/16”=1’0” COMPLEX SITE SECTION D PRIEST SEQUENCE TO SUB-COURT

37

N.E. / S.W. SITE SECTION PINCIO - PIAZZA DE POPOLO - SPECTRUM OF DOUBT SCALE: 1/16”=1’0”

38

39

AXONOMETRIC OF COMPLEX

40

AXONOMETRIC OF COMPLEX

41

AXONOMETRIC OF COMPLEX

42

AXONOMETRIC OF COMPLEX

43

44

EX-PREIST SEQUENCE

PUBLIC ENTRY INTO COURT VIEW OF OSSUARY ON CENTER

EX-PREIST SEQUENCE

PUBLIC ENTRY INTO COURT VIEW OF OSSUARY ON CENTER

EX-PREIST SEQUENCE

PUBLIC ENTRY INTO COURT VIEW OF OSSUARY ON CENTER

TRANSCENDENCE TO ULTIMATE SUB-COURT

TIBER RIBER VIEWING POD FOR THE PUBLIC

TRANSCENDENCE TO ULTIMATE SUB-COURT

TIBER RIBER VIEWING POD FOR THE PUBLIC

TRANSCENDENCE TO ULTIMATE SUB-COURT

TIBER RIBER VIEWING POD FOR THE PUBLIC

VIEW OF SUB-COURT FROM BRIDGE GROUND PLANE

VIEW OF SUB-COURT FROM BRIDGE GROUND PLANE

45

46

47

48

IDENTIFYING THE ESSENCE OF SPIRITUALITY : AN ARCHITECTURAL CATALOGUE

49

Villa D’ Este / Alberto Galvani / Tivoli, Italia / (1565)

50

51

Villa Farnese / Antonio da Sangallo / Caprarola, Italia / (1530)

52

53

Villa Lante / Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola, Giacomo del Duca / Viterbo, Italia / (1656)

54

55

Villa Guilia / Giorgio Vasari, Barozzi da Vignola, Bartolomeo Ammannati / Roma, Italia / (1553)

56

57

Palazzo del Lavoro / Pier Luigi Nervi / Turino, Italia / (1961)

58

59

Palazzo Farnese / Giacomo Barozza da Vignola / Roma, Italia / (1541)

60

61

Church of the Gesu / Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, Giacomo della Porta / Roma, Italia / (1584 )

62

63

Jubilee Church / Richard Meier / Roma, Italia / (1996)

64

65

Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore / Ferdinando Fuga / Roma, Italia / (435 AD)

66

67

Basilica of St.John Laterano / Francesco Borromini / Roma, Italia / (325 AD)

68

69

Water - Moon Monastery / Kris Yao / Taipei, Taiwan / (2012)

70

71

Asia Museum of Modern Art / Tadao Ando / Taipei, Taiwan / (2003)

72

73

Salk Institute / Louis I. Kahn / San Diego, CA / (1960)

74

75

76

SPIRITUAL ARCHITECTURAL DEVICES : CASE STUDY ANALYSIS SERIES

77

Chappelle Notre-Dame-du-Haut Ronchamp, France Le Corbusier (1953)

The architectural devices Le Corbusier implemented in the design primarily include the south façade wall in the way in which natural light enters the interior space. The varying treatment of the glazing in form, seen best in plan, in tur n effect the architecture as it funnels the light into the space and affects the individuals using the space. Secondary architectural devices include the roof shell structure and the light tower s e r v i n g a s a r c h i t e c t u r a l m e t a p h o r s t o a n a i r p l a n e ’s w i n g s a n d t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e b i b l i c a l c h a r a c t e r, Jesus of Nazareth. The roof literally imposes itself onto the individual implying compression onto the individual affecting their spiritual experience. The light tower uses clerestory windows to filter light down the vertical chamber and into the chapel, while making an a l l u s i o n t o t h e b i b l e b y a f o r m o f i c o n o g r a p h y.

78

79

80

81

Church Sainte-Pierre F i r m i n y, F r a n c e Le Corbusier (1953)

The architectural devices Le Corbusier implemented in this design primarily include the architectural treatment to the filtering natural daylight into the space.

O n e o f L e C o r b u s i e r ’s a i m s w a s t o u l t i m a t e l y c r e a t e a setting that established a place for spiritual enrichment on a modest scale. Le Corbusier stated that the space must be, “vast so that the heart may feel at ease, and high so that prayers may breathe in it.� He executed this by the design of the form, but used the light that penetrated the space to reference the cosmos and universe by depicting the constellation of Orion through the many small voids in the wall. This design feature also specifically functioned to cater the light into an undulating pattern which would occur o n E a s t e r a n d G o o d F r i d a y o f e a c h y e a r. L e C o r b u s i e r designs the ceiling skylight to reference oculus of the Pantheon in Rome.

82

83

84

85

Chiesa Di San Giovanni Battista F i r m i n y, F r a n c e Le Corbusier (1953)

M a r i o B o t t a ’s d e s i g n o f t h e c h u r c h o f S t . J o h n t h e Baptist used was composed of total design approach l i k e t h a t o f F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t ’s U n i t y Te m p l e a n d R o b i e H o u s e . B o t t a ’s d e s i g n f e a t u r e s a c y l i n d r i c a l b a s e d plan symbolizing the anxiety of man. As the church elevates and meets with a perfect circular roof, symbolizing the perfection of the heavens, and cosmos - he references a similar design tactic by Le Corbusier in F i r m i n y, a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a s q u a r e b a s e t o a c i r c u l a r roof alluding to the act of transcendence in man in a r e l i g i o u s s p a c e . B o t t a ’s a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e v i c e s i n c l u d e t h e u s e o f g e o m e t r y, p r o p o r t i o n , s c a l e , a n d i n t e r n a l landscapes portraying the infinite. The synthesis of these elements, and their sum total to a spiritual exp e r i e n c e c r e a t e d b y t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e . T h e a r c h i t e c t u ral, spatial manifestation creates a far more spiritual experience for those irreligious than the effect of the s i m p l e I c o n o g r a p h y.

86

87

88

89

Pantheon

F i r m i n y, F r a n c e Le Corbusier (1953) The architectural elements used in the Pantheon inc l u d e s c a l e , d a y l i g h t , p r o p o r t i o n , a n d g e o m e t r y. T h e most notable architectural device used in the Pantheon is the oculus. The twenty six foot wide oculus allows for an explicit relationship with the earth, as it allows rain into the interior space, and daylight into t h e s p a c e . T h e o c u l u s p e r f o r m s l i k e a c l o c k , m e a s u ring time throughout the day by the strong ray of light as it highlights the interior space. The design of the temple indefinitely poses a relationship of scale between the individual and the architecture, while architecturally matching the prominence of the Gods when initially designed. While this historic example continues to live up to the prominence today as of when it was completed, it serves as a canonical architectural monument within the urban fabric of Rome.

90

91

92

93

Hagia Sophia F i r m i n y, F r a n c e Le Corbusier (1953)

The architectural elements used in the Hagia Sophia i n c l u d e s c a l e , d a y l i g h t , p r o p o r t i o n , a n d g e o m e t r y. T h e most notable architectural device used in Hagia Sophia is the clerestory window beneath the dome alluding to the heavens. This is made structurally possible by the pendentives supporting the dome, allowing for a figural void right before it. The void allows for the clerestory windows to light the colossal interior space. The center dome is 108 feet wide, more than f i v e t i m e s l a rg e r t h a n t h e P a n t h e o n ’s o c u l u s . S i m i l a r l y t o t h e P a n t h e o n i n R o m e , t h i s p r o j e c t ’s r e l a t i o n s h i p between scale and the individuals that occupy it empowers the architecture. The initial church, and later mosque contains two floors centered on a giant nave with the great dome ceiling above it. Smaller domes tower above it as well. The church dominates it urban setting based on its sheer size and the dramatic diff e r e n c e i n w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e u r b a n f a b r i c o f t h e c i t y.

94

95

96

97 Hagia Sophia Istanbul, Turkey

ARCHITECTURE DEVICES EXPLORED

Chappelle-Notre-Dame-du-Haut

Sainte Marie de La Tourette

Chiesa di San Giovanni Battista

Eglise Saint Pierre

PantĂŠon

Hagia Sophia

Church of Light

Thorncrown Chapel

Unity Temple

First Unitarian Church of Rochester

98

Proportion

Geometry

Symmetry / Asymmetry

Sequence / Movement

Structure

Rhythm

Light Source

Spatial Zoning

ARCHITECTURE DEVICES EXPLORED

Plan

Geometry

Sequence / Movement

Proportion

Rhythm

Other

Asia Musuem of Modern Art

Salk Institute

San Carlo Alle Quattro Fontane

Basilica St. John Laterano

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore

Church of the Gesu

Palazzo del Lavoro

Villa D’Este

Villa Lante

Villa Guilia

99

WORKS CITED (in progress) 1. Barrie, Thomas, Spiritual Path, Sacred Place: Myth, Ritual, and Meaning in Architecture, Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications, Inc. 1996.

2. Barrie, Thomas. The Sacred In-between: the Mediating Roles of Architecture. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2010. Print.

3. Becker, Nancy and Leonard, eds., 2004, Sacred Sites International: A Compendium 1990-2003, Berkeley, CA: Sacred Sites International.

4. Bender, Thomas, 1992, “Making Places Sacred,” The Power of Place: Sacred Ground in Natural and Human Environments, James A. Swan, ed., Wheaton, IL: Quest Books, Ch. 23, pp. 321-333.

5. Blain, Jenny, and Robert J. Wallis, 2004, “Sacred Sites, Contested Rites/Rights,” Journal of Material Culture 9(3):237-262.

6. Britton, Karla. Constructing the Ineffable: Contemporary Sacred Architecture. New Haven, CT: Yale School of Architecture, 2010. 207. Print.

7. Brockman, Norbert C., ed., 1997, Encyclopedia of Sacred Places, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc. Ref. BL580 .B76 1997 Carmichael, David L., et al., eds., 1994, Sacred Sites, Sacred Places, New York, NY: Routledge.

8. Eliade, Mircea, and Willard R. Trask. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1959. Print 9. Dawkins, Richard. The God Delusion. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006. Print.

10. Deloria, Vine, Jr., 1994, “Sacred Places and Moral Responsibility,” God is Red: A Native View of Religion, Golden, CO: Fulcrum, pp. 267-282.

11. Deloria, Vine, Jr., 2005, “The Sacred and the Modern World,” ERN 2:1446-1448.

12. Dennett, D. C. Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon. New York: Viking, 2006. Print.

13. Eade, John, and Michael J. Sallnow, eds., 1990, Contesting the Sacred: The Anthropology of Christian Pilgrimage, New York, NY: Routledge.

100

14. Flood, Gavin, ed., 1999, Beyond Phenomenology: Rethinking the Study of Religion, New York, NY: Cassell.

15. Fraser, Nancy. “Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy.” Social Text 25/26 (1990): 56-80. JSTOR. Web. 10 Aug. 2015. <http://www.jstor.org> 16. Geertz, Clifford, 1966, “Religion as a Cultural System,” Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion, London, UK: Tavistock, pp. 1-46.

17. Gilliat-Ray, Sophie, 2005, “Sacralizing’ Sacred Space in Public Institutions: A Case Study of the Prayer Space at the Millennium Dome,” Journal of Contemporary Religion 20(3):357-372.

18. Grabar, Oleg, 1988, “A Sense of the Sacred: The Values Enshrined in Holy Places,” UNESCO Courier 41:27, 31.

19. Graves, Michael. The Inspiration and Interpretation of Scripture: What the Early Church Can Teach Us. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print.

20. Grayling, A. C. The God Argument: The Case against Religion and for Humanism. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print.

21. Goodstein, Laurie. “Pitzker College in California Adds Major in Secularism.” The New York Times 10 May 2015, New York ed., U.S. sec.: A15 <http://nytimes.com> 22. Harpur, James. The Atlas of Sacred Places : Meeting Points of Heaven and Earth. New York.

23. Harris, Sam. The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason. New York: W.W. Norton, 2004.

Print.

24. Harris, Sam. Waking Up: A Guide to Spirituality without Religion. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print.

25. Hayden, Robert M., 2002, “Antagonistic Tolerance: Competitive Sharing of Religious Sites in South Asia and the Balkans,” Current Anthropology 43(2):205-231.

27. Hiebert, Theodore. “The Tower of Babel and the Origin of the World’s Cultures.” Journal of Biblical Literature 126.1 (2007): 29-58. <http://jstor.org> 28. James, W.C., 1999, “Sacred Places, Sacred Spaces: The Geography of Pilgrimage,” Studies in Religion 28 (4):828-529.

29. Jones, Lindsay, Editor-in-Chief, 2005, The Encyclopedia of Religion, Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference 101 USA. Ref. BL 31 .E46 2005

30. Johnson, Norris Brock, 1991, “Garden as Sacred Space: Transformation of Consciousness at Tenryuji Temple,” The Power of Place and Human Environments, James A. Swan, ed., Wheaton, IL: Quest Books, pp.

167-187.

31. Kosmin, Barry A., and Seymour Lachman. One Nation Under God: Religion in Contemporary American Society. New York: Harmony, 1993. Print.

32. Laski, Marghanita, 1961, Ecstasy: A Study of Some Secular and Religious Experiences, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

33. Kunin, Seth D., 1998, God’s Place in the World: Sacred Space and Sacred Place in Judaism, New York, NY: Cassell.

34. MacDonald, William Lloyd. The Pantheon: Design, Meaning, and Progeny. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1976. Print.

35. Matlins, Stuart M., and Arthur J. Magida, eds., 2003, How to Be a Perfect Stranger: The Essential Religious Etiquette Handbook, Woodstock, VT: Skylight Paths Publishing.

36. Marsh, Dr. Peter, Simon Bradley, Carol Love, Patrick Alexander, and Roger Norham. “Belonging.” The Social Issues Research Centre (1998): n. pag. Web. 37. Mazumdar S., 2004, “Religion and Place Attachment: A Study of Sacred Places,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 24(3):385-397.

38. Mooney, Chris, and Barry A. Kosmin. “The Future of Irreligion, Part 1: A Conversation with Barry A. Kosmin.” Council for Secular Humanism. Web. 21 Aug. 2015. <http://www.secularhumanism.org> 39. Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Intentions in Architecture. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T., 1965. Print.

40. Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture. New York: Rizzoli, 1979. Print.

41. Otto, Rudolph, 1950, The Idea of the Holy, London, UK: Oxford University Press.

42. Paden, William E., 1992, Interpreting the Sacred: Ways of Viewing Religion, Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Patterson, Webster T., 2004, Sacred Sites: Christian Perspectives on the Holy Land, New York.

43. Pérouse, De Montclos, Jean-Marie. Etienne-Louis Boullée (1728-1799): Theoretician of Revolutionary Architecture. New York: Braziller, 1974. Print.

102

44. Prufer, Keith M., 2006, “Cosmology and Sacred Landscapes,” Encyclopedia of Anthropology, H. James Birx, editor, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications 2:573-575.

45. Rosenberg, Stuart E., 1971, Great Religions of the Holy Land: An Historical Guide to Sacred Places and Sites, Toronto, Ontario, Canada: McClelland Stewart.

46. Saint-Laurent, George E., 2000, Spirituality and World Religions: A Comparative Introduction, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co. 47. Scott, J., and Housley P. Simpson, eds., 1991, Sacred Places and Profane Spaces: Essays in the Geographics of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, New York, NY: Greenwood Press.

48. Sheldrake, Philip, 2001, Spaces for the Sacred: Place, Memory, and Identity, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

49. Skolimowski, Henryk, 1993, A Sacred Place to Dwell: Living with Reverence upon the Earth, Rockport, MA: Element Books, Ltd. 50. Smart, Ninian, 1996, Dimensions of the Sacred: An Anatomy of the World’s Beliefs, Berkeley, CA; University of California Press.

51. Smith, Huston, 2001, Why Religion Matters: The Fate of the Human Spirit in an Age of Disbelief, San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco.

52. Stackelberg, Katherine T. Von. The Roman Garden: Space, Sense, and Society. New York, NY: Routledge, 2009. Print.

53. Sponsel, Leslie E., compiler, 2007, Sacred Places: Sanctuaries of Nature, Culture, and Spirit Honolulu, HI 54. Taylor, Bron, Editor-in-Chief, 2005, The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature [ERN], New York, NY: Continuum Press. (See topical index on instructor’s home page). Ref. BL 65 .N35 E53 2005 55. Tuan, Yi-Fu, 1977, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

56. Wallis, Robert J., and Jenny B. Lain, 2003, “Sites, Sacredness, and Stories: Interactions of Archaeology and Contemporary Paganism,” Folklore 114(3):307-322.

57. Weightman, Barbara A., 1996, “Sacred Landscapes and the Phenomenon of Light,” The Geographical Review 86(1):59-71.

103

58. Westwood, Jennifer, 1987, The Atlas of Mysterious Places: Unexplained Sacred Sites, Symbolic Landscapes, Ancient Cities and Lost Lands, London, UK: Widenfeld and Nicolson. CC 175 .A85 1987 59. Whittaker, Elvi, 1994, “Public Discourse on Sacredness: The Transfer of Ayres Rock to Aboriginal Ownership,” American Ethnologist 21(2):310-334.

60. Wilson, Colin, 1996, The Atlas of Holy Places and Sacred Sites, New York, NY: DK Publishing, Inc. 61. Wind, James P., 1997, Places of Worship: Exploring their History, Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.

62. Wuthnow, Robert. Producing the Sacred: An Essay on Public Religion. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1994. Print.

63. York, Michael, 2001, “New Age Commodification and Appropriation of Spirituality,” Journal of Contemporary Religion 16(3):361-372.

64. Young, Cathy. “The Attack on Secularism.” The Boston Globe 26 Apr. 2004, Opinion sec. <http://boston. com>

104

105